DesalinationFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about removing salt from water. For soil desalination, see Soil salinity control. Water desalination Desalination, desalinization, and desalinisation refer to any of several processes that remove some amount of salt and other minerals from saline water. More generally, desalination may also refer to the removal of salts and minerals,[1] as in soil desalination.[2] Salt water is desalinated to produce fresh water suitable for human consumption or irrigation. One potential byproduct of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on developing cost-effective ways of providing fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, this is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.[3] Methods Due to relatively high energy consumption, the costs of desalinating sea water are generally higher than the alternatives (fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water conservation), but alternatives are not always available. Desalination is particularly relevant to dry countries such as Australia, which traditionally have relied on collecting rainfall behind dams to provide their drinking water supplies. According to the International Desalination Association, in June 2011, 15,988 desalination plants operated worldwide, producing 66.5 million cubic meters per day, providing water for 300 million people.[4] The world's largest desalination plant, producing 640,000 m3 per day, is the Jebel Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Emirates.[5] The largest percent of desalinated water used in any country is in Israel, which produces 40% of its domestic water use from seawater desalination[6] Schematic of a multistage flash desalinator A – steam in B – seawater in C – potable water out D – waste out Distillation Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) Multiple-effect distillation (MED|ME) Vapor-compression (VC) Ion exchange Membrane processes Electrodialysis reversal (EDR) Reverse osmosis (RO) Nanofiltration (NF) Membrane distillation (MD) Forward osmosis (FO) Freezing desalination Geothermal desalination Solar desalination Solar humidificationDehumidification (HDH) Multiple-effect humidification (MEH) Methane hydrate crystallization High grade water recycling Seawater greenhouse E – steam out F – heat exchange G – condensation collection H – brine heater Plan of a typical reverse osmosis desalination plant Contents [hide] 1 Methods 2 Considerations and criticism o 2.1 Energy consumption o 2.2 Cogeneration o 2.3 Economics o 2.4 Environmental 3 Experimental techniques and other developments o 3.1 Desalination powered by waste heat o 3.2 Low-temperature thermal desalination o 3.3 Thermoionic process o 3.4 Desalination through evaporation and condensation for crops o 3.5 Other approaches 4 Existing facilities and facilities under construction o 4.1 Algeria o 4.2 Aruba o 4.3 Australia o 4.4 Bahrain o 4.5 Chile o 4.6 China o 4.7 Cyprus o 4.8 Egypt o 4.9 Germany o 4.10 Gibraltar o 4.11 Grand Cayman o 4.12 Hong Kong o 4.13 India 17 Maldives o 4.22 United Arab Emirates o 4. Thus. Spain The principal competing processes use membranes to desalinate. principally applying reverse osmosis technology.20 Spain o 4.18 Oman o 4. lowtemperature "waste" heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be used.19 Saudi Arabia o 4.24 United States o 4.14 Iran o 4.1 Further reading o 7. because of the reduced temperature. Reverse osmosis plant membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal distillation.2 Articles 8 External links Methods[edit] The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillation—essentially the boiling of water at less than atmospheric pressure and thus a much lower temperature than normal.16 Malta o 4.23 United Kingdom o 4. o 4.15 Israel o 4. This is because the boiling of a liquid occurs when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature.25 Trinidad and Tobago 5 In nature 6 See also 7 References o 7.21 South Africa o 4. which has led to a reduction in overall desalination costs over the past decade.[7] Membrane processes use semipermeable membranes and pressure to separate salts from water. Reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona. . and theoretically any form of energy production could be used.5–19.5–25. Cogeneration[edit] Cogeneration is the process of using excess heat from electricity generation for another task: in this case the production of potable water from seawater or brackish groundwater in an integrated.5 7–12 3–5. Most plants are located in the Middle East or North Africa.[9] but much higher than local fresh water supplies which use 0.5 5–8. or "dual-purpose".5 Note: "Electrical equivalent" refers to the amount of electrical energy which could be generated using a given quantity of thermal energy and appropriate turbine generator. leaving limited scope for further energy reductions.[15] Desalination Method >> Multi-stage Flash MSF Multi-Effect Distillation MED Mechanical Vapor Compression MVC Reverse Osmosis RO Electrical energy (kWh/m3) 4–6 1.5 6. Considerations and criticism[edit] Energy consumption[edit] Energy consumption of sea water desalination can be as low as 3 kWh/m3. facility where a power plant provides the energy for desalination.Desalination remains energy intensive.5 None None Total equivalent electrical energy (kWh/m3) 13. However.[11][12] excluding pre-filtering and intake/outfall pumping. the facility's energy production may be dedicated to the production of potable water (a stand-alone facility).5 Thermal energy (kWh/m3) 50–110 60–110 None None Electrical equivalent of thermal energy (kWh/m3) 9.[10] The laws of physics determine a minimum energy consumption for sea water desalination around 1 kWh/m3. about the amount of energy used by domestic refrigerators[14] Energy Consumption of Sea Water Desalination Methods. similar to the energy consumption of existing fresh water supplies transported over large distances. the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy. Under 2 kWh/m3[13] has been achieved with existing reverse osmosis membrane technology..5–11 7–12 3–5.. Supplying all domestic water by sea water desalination would increase US Domestic energy consumption by around 10%. or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid (a true cogeneration facility). Cogeneration takes various forms.[8] including pre-filtering and ancillaries. and future costs will continue to depend on the price of both energy and desalination technology. which use their petroleum resources to offset limited water . Alternatively.5–2.2 kWh/m3 or less. however. 45 to 1 US$/cubic metre (2 to 4 US$/kgal). The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more efficient in energy consumption. energy and maintenance) are generally higher than the alternatives (fresh water from rivers or groundwater. Eight nuclear reactors coupled to desalination plants are operating in Japan alone. 2007.. a professor of nuclear and radiological engineering at Georgia Tech.000 l. nuclear desalination plants could be a source of large amounts of potable water transported by pipelines hundreds of miles inland.. a nuclear-heated desalination unit In a December 26.14 ..[20] Economics[edit] Costs of desalinating sea water (infrastructure.. opinion column in The Atlanta Journal-Constitution.500.[16][17] The Shevchenko BN350."[18] Additionally. but alternatives are not always available. from India to Japan and Russia. Nolan Hertel. to produce large amounts of potable water.000 imp gal) of water per day... ". The process is already in use in a number of places around the world. water recycling and water conservation). Basically.[21] Average water consumption and cost of supply by sea water desalination (±50%) Consumption USgal/person/day Area Consumption litre/person/day Desalinated Water Cost US$/person/day USA 100 378 0. Such facilities have already been implemented in Saudi Arabia at Jeddah and Yanbu. thus making desalination a more viable option for drinking water.29 Europe 50 189 0. wrote. the current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations. two or more desalination processes are combined along with power production. Achievable costs in 2013 range from 0.[19] A typical aircraft carrier in the US military uses nuclear power to desalinate 400.000 US gallons (1. nuclear reactors can be used . 330.resources. in which the permeate from a reverse osmosis desalination component is mixed with distillate from thermal desalination. The cost of untreated fresh water in the developing world can reach 5 US$/cubic metre. In places far from the sea. enough to supply about 100.000 homes . article in the Wall Street Journal stated.[30] A wind farm at Bungendore in New South Wales was purpose-built to generate enough renewable energy to offset the Sydney plant's energy use. Bangkok. and concentrate disposal. Poseidon plans to sell the water for about $950 per acre-foot [1. or transport it over more than 1. like Mexico City. 42."[35] In June 2012. like New Delhi. the South Australian government announced it would build a seawater desalination plant for the city of Adelaide.". Desalination stills now control pressure.. desalinating water costs US$ 0.600 ft). the process would therefore be relatively less expensive in places like Beijing. In December 2007. Victoria. Thus. making it more competitive . Improved technology has cut the cost of desalination in half in the past decade. temperature and brine concentrations to optimize efficiency. Connecticut-based Poseidon Resources Corp.000 cu ft)].000 metres (6.000 US gallons (190. In Israel as of 2005. The facility would produce 50. north of San Diego."[24] After being desalinated at Jubail.[25] For coastal cities.05 UN recommended minimum 13 49 0. the dominant cost is desalination. "In November.[28] A desalination plant is now operating in Australia's largest city. or in high places. Australia. Zaragoza.000 imp gal) of drinking water per day.[27] The city of Perth began operating a reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant in 2006. new estimates were released that showed the cost to .000 l. a common argument used against seawater desalination. coastal cities like Tripoli.600 kilometres (990 mi) to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs. location. won a key regulatory approval to build the $300 million waterdesalination plant in Carlsbad.[26][dead link] As of 2006. Sydney.[29] and the Wonthaggi desalination plant was under construction in Wonthaggi.00053¢ per liter). of course. Saudi Arabia.000. financing. but not for places that are poor.. Singapore was desalinating water for US$0. located at Port Stanvac. Unfortunately.. and. feed water. deep in the interior of a continent. "Desalinated water may be a solution for some waterstress regions. Phoenix. Desalinated water is also expensive in places that are both somewhat far from the sea and somewhat high.49 per cubic meter. or at high elevation. The Perth desalination plant is powered partially by renewable energy from the Emu Downs Wind Farm. desalination is increasingly viewed as an untapped and unlimited water source.04 Factors that determine the costs for desalination include capacity and type of facility. and the Western Australian government announced a second plant will be built to serve the city's needs. 2008. that includes some of the places with biggest water problems. That compares with an average [of] $700 an acre-foot [1200 m³] that local agencies now pay for water. high transport costs would add to the high desalination costs.[31]mitigating concerns about harmful greenhouse gas emissions.Nuclear-powered desalination might be economical on a large scale.. and generally positive about the technology for affluent areas in proximity to oceans. unscientific poll showed nearly 60% of votes cast were in favor of raising water rates to pay for desalination. such as Riyadh and Harare. a 2004 study argued.000. labor. In many places.[34] A January 17.[32][33]An online. The desalination plant was to be funded by raising water rates to achieve full cost recovery.53 per cubic meter (0. water is pumped 200 miles (320 km) inland through a pipeline to the capital city of Riyadh. it may be more economical to transport fresh water from somewhere else than to desalinate it.[22][23] While noting costs are falling.000. not transport.200 cubic meters (42. one needs to lift the water by 2.Africa 15 57 0. energy. and. "Indeed. each releasing brine gradually through small holes along its length. which may be increased in temperature.the water authority had risen to $2. With medium to large power plant and desalination plant. and against biofouling.[37] While this regulatory hurdle was met. water intake structures cause adverse environmental impact by pulling large numbers of fish and shellfish or their eggs into an industrial system. Water there and at Queensland's Gold Coast Desalination Plant and Sydney's Kurnell Desalination Plant is withdrawn at only 0.[41] Alternative intake types which avoid this environmental impact include beach wells.800 l. which typically includes the treatment against biofouling. Poseidon Resources is not able to break ground until the final approval of a mitigation project for the damage done to marine life through the intake pipe is received.[39] While desalinating 1.000 cubic meters (4. Tampa Bay Water faced five years of engineering problems and operation at 20% capacity to protect marine life. which is slow enough to let fish escape. For example. such as the outfall of a wastewater treatment or power plant.000 per acre-foot works out to $3. . 830 imp gal) of water can cost as much as $3.900.[36] Each $1. it can be diluted with another stream of water entering the ocean.81 per cubic meter.000 US gallons (3. their reaction byproducts. the same amount of bottled water costs $7.46 per cubic meter.) was desalinating water for $0. while limiting output.[38] In 2008.[45] To limit the environmental impact of returning the brine to the ocean.945.329 per acre-foot. in 2001.33 ft/s). The plant provides nearly 140. as required by California law. scaling. but these require more energy and higher costs. (January 2012) All desalination processes produce large quantities of a concentrate. physical stress. FL.[43] Outflow[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Poseidon Resources has made progress in Carlsbad. a San Leandro. or chemicals. once the pipeline containing the brine reaches the sea floor. The Board of Directors of Tampa Bay Water was forced to buy Tampa Bay Desal from Poseidon Resources in 2001 to prevent a third failure of the project. despite an unsuccessful attempt to complete construction of Tampa Bay Desal. Mixing can be combined with power plant or wastewater plant dilution. California company (Energy Recovery Inc. a desalination plant in Tampa Bay.000 gallons. the power plant's cooling water flow is likely to be at least several times larger than that of the desalination plant. so stuck to reverse osmosis filters prior to fully using this facility in 2007. While seawater power plant cooling water outfalls are not as fresh as wastewater treatment plant outfalls. There.[44] Chemical pretreatment and cleaning are a necessity in most desalination plants. the organisms may be killed or injured by heat. water intake structures are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act. foaming and corrosion in thermal plants. suspended solids and scale deposits in membrane plants. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.[40] Environmental[edit] Intake[edit] In the United States.06 for 1. Larger organisms may be killed or injured when they are trapped against screens at the front of an intake structure. and contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals.[42] The Kwinana Desalination Plant opened in Perth in 2007. salinity is reduced. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. and heavy metals due to corrosion. According to the EPA. Another method to reduce the increase in salinity is to mix the brine via a diffuser in a mixing zone. or $.1 meters per second (0. it can split into many branches.000 cu ft) of clean water per day. the membrane distillation system actively cools the diesel generator. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. or via pipelines.[49] A proposed alternative to desalination in the American Southwest is the commercial importation of bulk water from water-rich areas either by very large crude carriers converted to water carriers. This results .Brine is denser than seawater due to higher solute concentration. restoring and recharging groundwater. They typically produce about 40%-50% of the energy as low-grade heat which leaves the engine via the exhaust. thus do not cause toxic waste (and high maintenance). where governments imposed trade barriers to bulk water exports as a result of a claim filed in 1999 under Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) by Sun Belt Water Inc.[citation needed] Alternatives to desalination[edit] Increased water conservation and efficiency remain the most cost-effective priorities in areas of the world where there is a large potential to improve the efficiency of water use practices. 50% of the world's sea salt production still relies on fossil energy sources. such that it will be indistinguishable beyond between 50 and 75 meters (164 and 246 ft) from the outlets. Furthermore. The idea is politically unpopular in Canada. particularly in combination with evaporation ponds. do not discharge brine. and condensation trap (solar desalination). for the desalination plant and ocean outlet structures to be built in Sydney from late 2007. (June 2014) Some methods of desalination. to address pressing local needs due to a severe drought in that area. but on the scale of industrial evaporation ponds is the integrated biotectural system. By connecting a membrane distillation system to the diesel engine exhaust it is possible to use this lowgrade heat which is currently wasted. They do not use chemicals in their processes nor the burning of fossil fuels. Standard advantages also include no air pollution from desalination power plants and no temperature increase of endangered natural water bodies from power plant cooling-water discharge.[46] It can be considered "full desalination" because it converts the entire amount of saltwater intake into distilled water. For example. Another important advantage is the production of sea salt for industrial and other uses. They do not work with membranes or other critical parts. such as components that include heavy metals.[48] Urban runoff and storm water capture also provide benefits in treating. improving its efficiency and hence increasing its electricity output. Careful reintroduction can minimize this problem.[50] Experimental techniques and other developments[edit] Many desalination techniques have been researched. Typical oceanographic conditions off the coast allow for rapid dilution of the concentrated byproduct. The ocean bottom is most at risk because the brine sinks and remains there long enough to damage the ecosystem. California. the water authority stated the ocean outlets would be placed in locations at the seabed that will maximize the dispersal of the concentrated seawater..[47] Wastewater reclamation for irrigation and industrial use provides multiple benefits over desalination. Currently. Alternatives without pollution[edit] The neutrality of this section is disputed. with varying degrees of success. a company established in 1990 in Santa Barbara. thereby minimizing harm to the environment. Desalination powered by waste heat[edit] Diesel generators are commonly used to provide electricity in remote areas. solar stills. A new approach that works like a solar still. One of the unique advantages of this type of solar-powered desalination is the feasibility for inland operation. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. the National Energy Laboratory tested an open-cycle OTEC plant with fresh water and power production using a temperature difference of 20 C° between surface water and water at a depth of around 500 m (1. Water vapor condenses on the outside of the tubes as product water. reducing the energy input needed to create a temperature gradient. LTTD may also take advantage of the temperature gradient available at power plants. The compression of the vapor causes its temperature to increase. vapor compression. with a number of plants reported to be in operation. floating LTTD plant off the coast of Chennai.[51][52] Low-temperature thermal desalination[edit] Originally stemming from ocean thermal energy conversion research.000. a spray-flash evaporation system was tested by Saga University. low-temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) takes advantage of water boiling at low pressures. An example of such a desalination plant was commissioned by Dutch company Aquaver in March 2014 in the island of Gulhi. announced a process that uses solar or other thermal heat to drive an ionic current that removes all sodium and chlorine ions from the water using ion-exchange membranes. Passarell enables most of the system's energy to be recycled through its subprocesses. The pure water vapor generated by distillation is then compressed and condensed using an advanced compressor. at a capital cost of INR 50 million (€922. Maldives. potentially even at ambient temperature. with a capacity of 1. Cooling ocean water is supplied from depths of up to 600 m (2.[59][60][61] The US government is working to develop practical solar desalination.[55] In 2007. The heat generated is transferred to the input water falling in the tubes.000 US gal)/day. The plant uses deep water at a temperature of 7 to 15 °C (45 to 59 °F).000). The compressor centrifuges the pure water vapor after it is drawn through a demister (removing residual impurities) causing it to compress against tubes in the collection chamber. Their first LTTD plant opened in 2005 at Kavaratti in theLakshadweep islands.[54] In Hawaii. The compression process improves distillation efficiency by creating the reduced pressure in the evaporation chamber.000 US gal)/day. By combining several physical processes. Saltworks Technologies. LTTD was studied by India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) from 2004. namely evaporation.[62] .000 L (22. a Canadian firm. A smaller plant was established in 2009 at the North Chennai Thermal Power Station to prove the LTTD application where power plant cooling water is available. 260. 26.000 imp gal.000 ft).[53] Experiments were conducted in the US and Japan to test the approach. Other approaches[edit] One such process was commercialized by Modern Water PLC using forward osmosis. In Japan. The system uses vacuum pumps to create a low-pressure. The resulting condensate is purified water. where large quantities of warm wastewater are discharged from the plant.000 imp gal.[citation needed] The Passarell process uses reduced atmospheric pressure rather than heat to drive evaporative desalination. and water movement within the system. causing the water in the tubes to vaporize.000 L (220. demisting. The plant's capacity is 100.600 ft).in an energy-neutral desalination solution. condensation.[58] Desalination through evaporation and condensation for crops [edit] The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation processes inside a greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid coastal land. low-temperature environment in which water boils at a temperature gradient of 8–10 °C (46–50 °F) between two volumes of water.[53][56][57] Thermoionic process[edit] In October 2009. NIOT opened an experimental. This cold water is pumped through coils to condense the water vapor. [63] Hermetic. Lux Research estimated the worldwide desalinated water supply will triple between 2008 and 2020.000 m3/d[72] Tlemcen Souk Tleta 200. Siemens Water Technologies announced technology based on applying electric fields that purports to desalinate one cubic meter of water while using only 1.000 m3/day Tenes 200. Membraneless desalination at ambient temperature and pressure using electrokinetic shocks waves has been demonstrated.[67] On June 23.000 m3/day Fouka 120. Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form calcium carbonate.[70] In this technique anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using electrokinetic shockwaves.[68] Currently. have little or no susceptibility to high salt concentration levels. Researchers at the university of Texas at Austin and the University of Marburg are developing more efficient methods of electrochemically mediated seawater desalination.000-20.000 m3/day. Theoretical energy efficiency of this method is on par with electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. These nano-materials. Algeria[edit] Believed to have at least 15 desalination plants in operation Arzew IWPP Power & Desalination Plant. this process would consume only one-half the energy of other processes.000 m3/day Skikda 100. which developed the technology.[64][65][66] Biomimetic membranes are another approach.000 m3/day . 2008.000 desalination plants producing more than 20. environmentally and economically. In most locations. still uses three times that much energy. sulphonated nano-composite membranes have shown to be capable of cleaning most all forms of contaminated water to the 'parts per billion' level. Oasis Water. geothermal desalination beats using scarce groundwater or surface water.5 kWh of energy.[69] Freeze-thaw desalination uses freezing to remove fresh water from frozen seawater. using a nonreverse osmosis process.Geothermal energy can drive desalination.000 m3/day Beni Saf 200. which then precipitates leaving behind fresh water.[71] Existing facilities and facilities under construction[edit] Estimates vary widely between 15. In 2009. Arzew Cap Djinet Seawater Reverse Osmosis(SWRO) 100.000 m3/day Tlemcen Hounaine 200.[citation needed] Nanotube membranes may prove to be effective for water filtration and desalination processes that would require substantially less energy than reverse osmosis. If accurate. Micro desalination plants are in operation nearly every where there is a natural gas or fracking facility in the United States. by mining companies to supply slurry pipelines for the transport of ore and on offshore islands to supply tourists and residents. it has never operated at more than one-quarter capacity due to difficulties with local utility companies and an inadequate local infrastructure. Muharraq.000 cu ft) per day. Hoora.1 million US gallons (42. Sydney.[86] .[81] The Bahrain-based utility company.[84] Cyprus[edit] A plant operates in Cyprus near the town of Larnaca. a combination desalination and coal-fired power plant designed to alleviate Tianjin's critical water shortage.[85] The Dhekelia Desalination Plant uses the reverse osmosis system. the Al Hidd Desalination Plant on Muharraq island employed a multistage flash process. Budiya and Saar. build and operate the plant. A combination of increased water usage and lower rainfall/drought in Australia caused state governments to turn to desalination. Energy Central Co contracted to design. Algeria Aruba[edit] The island of Aruba has a large (world's largest at the time of its inauguration) desalination plant. Oran. Hamma Seawater Desalination Plant 200. As a result several large-scale desalination plants were constructed (see list).[76][77][78] A growing number of smaller scale SWRO plants are used by the oil and gas industry (both on and offshore). the Durrat Al Bahrain seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant was planned to have a capacity of 36.000 m3) per day.[75] Australia[edit] Main article: Seawater desalination in Australia The Millenium Drought (1997–2009) led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. and Seef blending stations. once considered the largest in Africa[74] Magtaa Reverse Osmosis (RO) Desalination Plant.760 m3 (9. and produces 272. and which has an option for gravity supply for low flows to blending pumps and pumps which forward to Janusan. with a total installed capacity of 11. it is energy intensive (≈$140/ML) and has a high carbon footprint due to Australia's coal-based energy supply.000 cubic meters of potable water per day.632. While desalination helped secure water supplies. Melbourne. Perth and the Gold Coast.000 cubic meters of potable water per day to serve the irrigation needs of the Durrat Al Bahrain development.[80] Upon completion of the third construction phase. Sanabis. a Seawater Greenhouse went into operation in Port Augusta.[citation needed] In 2010. Bahrain[edit] Completed in 2000. Large-scale seawater reverse osmosis plants (SWRO) now contribute to the domestic water supplies of several major Australian cities including Adelaide.[82] Chile[edit] Copiapó Desalination Plant[83] China[edit] China operates the Beijing Desalination Plant in Tianjin.000 m3/day built by GE[73] Mostaganem.[79] The Al Hidd distillate forwarding station provides 410 million liters of distillate water storage in a series of 45-million-liter steel tanks. A 135-million-liters/day forwarding pumping station sends flows to the Hidd. Though the facility has the capacity to produce 200. Grand Cayman[92] Hong Kong[edit] The HK Water Supplies Department had pilot desalination plants in Tuen Mun and Ap Lei Chau using reverse osmosis technology. Governor's Harbour.a.[96] India[edit] The largest desalination plant in South Asia is the Minjur Desalination Plant near Chennai in India.000 m³ of potable water per hour (2.[101] Once unthinkable.4 /m3. West Bay.[100] Israel[edit] Israel Desalination Enterprises' Sorek Desalination Plant in Palmachim provides up to 26. Chennai is expected to reach full capacity of 100 million litres of seawater per day in March 2013. Iran's existing desalination plants use a mix of thermal processes and RO.[103][104] The project was developed as a build–operate–transfer by a consortium of two Israeli companies: Shikun and Binui. Seven Mile Beach. MSF is the most widely used thermal technology although MED and vapour compression (VC) also feature. with desalination. The production cost was at HK$7.[95] Hong Kong used to have a desalination plant in Lok On Pai.Egypt[edit] Dahab RO Desalination Plants Dahab 3.[100] In terms of technology. which produces 36.8 to HK$8. it is the largest desalination plant of its kind in the world. Israel can now actually produce a surplus of fresh water[102] The Hadera seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant in Israel is the largest of its kind in the world. the government announced a feasibility study whether to build a desalination plant in Tseung Kwan O. Israel's desalination programs provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 40% by 2015 and 70% by 2050.).000 m3/d of historic and newly installed capacity is operational in Iran. given Israel's history of drought and lack of available fresh water resource.[88] A demonstration forward osmosis desalination plant also operates there.[97][98] A second plant at Nemmeli. and IDE Technologies.[87] Gibraltar[edit] Fresh water in Gibraltar is supplied by a number of reverse osmosis and multistage flash desalination plants. At full capacity.[93][94] In 2011.600 m3/day completed 1999 Hurgada and Sharm El-Sheikh Power and Desalination Plants Oyoun Moussa Power and Desalination Zaafarana Power and Desalination Germany[edit] Fresh water on the island of Helgoland is supplied by two reverse osmosis desalination plants.[99] Iran[edit] An assumption is that around 400. Grand Cayman[91] Britannia. Grand Cayman[90] Abel Castillo Water Works.5 million cubic meters of water per year.300 m³ p.[105] By 2014.[89] Grand Cayman[edit] West Bay.[106] . 60 [110] Hadera December 2009 127 Sorek[111] 2013 150 (expansion up to 300 approved) NIS 2.01 – 2.[citation needed] Oman[edit] A pilot seawater greenhouse was built in 2004 near Muscat.O. Some depend on desalination as a source of water. Muscat Sohar Power & Desalination Plant.[115] Ghubrah Power & Desalination Plant.000 m3/day 2009[116] Qarn Alam 1.Existing Israeli water desalination facilities[107] Location Opened Ashkelon August 2005 Palmachim May 2007 Capacity (million m3/year) Cost of water (per m3) Notes 120 (as of 2010) NIS 2. Sohar Sur R. Desalination Plant 80.000 m3/day There are at least two forward osmosis plants operating in Oman .19 [112] Israeli water desalination facilities under construction Location Ashdod Opening Capacity (million m3/year) Cost of water (per m3) September 2014 100 (expansion up to 150 possible) NIS 2.000 m3/day Wilayat Diba 2.90 [109] NIS 2. in collaboration with Sultan Qaboos University.40 Notes [113] Malta[edit] Ghar Lapsi II 50.60 [108] 45 NIS 2. providing a sustainable horticultural sector on the Batinah coast.000 m3/day[114] Maldives[edit] Maldives is a nation of small islands. 000 m3/day[122] North Obhor Plant (operated by SAWACO) Rabigh 7. the venture was injected with investments from local and municipal governments and a larger infrastructure was put in place. especially during the periodic severe droughts that put the available amounts of drinking water under serious stress. This served the whole island and enabled the tourism industry. A prototype seawater greenhouse was constructed in Tenerife in 1992. In 1989. the Lanzarote Island Waters Consortium (INALSA)[124] was formed.190 m3/day Spain[edit] Lanzarote is the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands.000 m3/day (operator Inima) Tordera 60. In 1974.Portmany) . Oropesa 50.[120] one example at Shoaiba cost $1. operates a number of desalination plants.000 m3/day (operated by wetico) planned for completion 2018 Rabigh II 600. They currently operate 32 plants in the Kingdom.000 m3/day (operator Degremont) Torrevieja 240.[121] Corniche RO Plant (Crop) (operated by SAWACO) Jubail 800.000 m3/day (operator COBRA | TEDAGUA) Edam Ibiza + Edam San Antonio 25. a desalination plant completed in 2009 was meant to provide water to the Barcelona metropolitan area.000 m3/day (under construction Saline Water Conversion Corporation)[123] Shuaibah III 150. Saudi Arabia 68.[125] Alicante II 65.000 m3/day (operator Degremont) El Prat.892 billion[119] to a Japanese-South Korean consortium to build a new facility capable of producing a billion liters per day. and has contracted $1.000 m3/day (operator TECNICAS REUNIDAS) Moncofa 60.000 m3/day (operated by Doosan) South Jeddah Corniche Plant (SOJECO) (operated by SAWACO) Yanbu Multi Effect Distillation (MED). Al Najdah 200 m3/day (built by Modern Water)[117] Al Khaluf[118] Saudi Arabia[edit] The Saline Water Conversion Corporation of Saudi Arabia provides 50% of the municipal water in the Kingdom. near Barcelona.Mutxamel 50.000 m3/day Barcelona 200. A private.06 billion and produces 450 million liters per day. It is the driest of the islands.000 m3/day (operator Inima) Marina Baja .000 m3/day (operator ACCIONA) Cartagena Escombreras 63. of volcanic origin and has limited water supplies.000 m3/day (operator Ibiza . opening at the end of 2013. commercial desalination plant was installed in 1964. uses multistage flash distillation and is capable of producing 300 million cubic meters of water per year.000 m3/day[129] Bushman's River Mouth 1.000 m3/day[126] Transnet Saldanha 2.000 imp gal.000. evaporated and condensed into a freshwater distillate. Jersey.000 cubic meters per day. it was the first in the British Isles.000. Mazarron 36. a dual-purpose facility.500 m3/day (operator CH2MHill) Emayil & Saydiat Island ≈20.000 L (85. Its maximum power demand is 1. Abu Dhabi.400 m3/day[127] Knysna 2. Corbiere. east London for Thames Water by Acciona Agua.000.000 L (87. whereby seawater was boiled under vacuum.[citation needed] Kalba 15.800 m3/day[130] Lambert's Bay 1.000 US gal) per day of clean water.000.000.000 imp gal. Al Yasat Al Soghrih Island 2M gallons per day (GPD) or 9. United Kingdom[edit] The first large-scale plant in the United Kingdom. United Arab Emirates in 2000. Built in 1970 in an abandoned quarry.000 imp gal. The original plant used a multistage flash (MSF) distillation process. 102. In 1997. Al Zawrah 27.000 m3/day (operator AQUATECH) Hamriyah 90.000 m3/day built for Sharjah Electricity and Water Authority completed 2010(operator CH2MHill)[133] Khor Fakkan 22.000 m3/day Fujairah F2 is to be completed by July 2010 will have a water production capacity of 492.750 kW. 104. the Thames Water Desalination Plant.[135] Jersey[edit] The desalination plant located near La Rosière.000 US gal) per day.000 m3/day (operator AQUA Engineering) Taweelah A1 Power and Desalination Plant has an output 385. Specific energy consumption is 6.000 L (108.700 m3/day[131] Cannon Rocks 750 m3/day[132] United Arab Emirates[edit] The Jebel Ali desalination plant in Dubai.000 m3/day[128] Plettenberg Bay 2.000 US gal)/day. the MSF plant reached the end of its operational life and was replaced with a modern reverse osmosis plant.000.000 m3/day (operator Aqua Engineering) Layyah I 22.000.8 kWh/m3. and the output capacity is 6. 130.500 m3/day (operator CH2MHill) Ghalilah RAK 68. is operated by Jersey Water.000. was built in Beckton.000 m3/day South Africa[edit] Mossel Bay 15.000 m3/day (operator Aqua EPC) Umm Al Nar Desalination Plant has an output of 394.000.[134] A seawater greenhouse was constructed on Al-Aryam Island.[136] United States[edit] Texas[edit] .000 m3/day (operator TEDAGUA) Bajo Almanzora 65. 000.000 l. both for desalinating groundwater and desalinating seawater from the Gulf of Mexico. Southwest Florida WMD[148] South Florida WMD[149] Serves Orlando. Stone & Webster. On average. Covanta and Hydranautics joined in 2001. seven in the Santa Cruz / Monterey Bay. and then the Tampa Bay Water agency purchased the project on May 15. Concord: Planned to open in 2020. The brackish and seawater desalination plants have the capacity to produce 245 million gallons of potable water per day.[150] As of 2012. the facility only needs to operate infrequently. Oceaneo. Carlsbad: The United States' largest desalination plant is being constructed by Poseidon Resources and is expected to go online 2016. The St. Monterey County: Sand City. Redwood City.[142] It is expected to produce 50 million gallons a day to 110.1 times higher than ordinary groundwater production. Tampa Bay Water then contracted with Covanta Tampa . Stone & Webster declared bankruptcy June 2000. Cambria. plant since around 2004. either partially constructed or through exploration and planning phases. is the only city in California completely supplied with water from a desalination plant.000 imp gal) of fresh water daily (about 25% of total freshwater deliveries) by reverse osmosis.[137][138] El Paso: Brackish groundwater has been treated at the El Paso.[141] The list of locations includes Bay Point. but Covanta failed to complete the construction bonding. It produces 27. was originally a private venture led by Poseidon Resources. Florida.[139] The plant's water cost— largely representing the cost of energy—is about 2.000 customers in San Diego County at an estimated cost of $1b. two miles north of Monterey. Redondo Beach.000 US gallons (104. 22. then Covanta (formerly Ogden) and its principal subcontractor.500. Oceanside and Carlsbad. Dana Point. California. Florida[edit] Florida has five water management districts. but it was delayed by the bankruptcy of Poseidon Resources' successive partners in the venture. Huntington Beach. Camp Pendleton.[151] Tampa Bay: The Tampa Bay Water desalination project near Tampa. Serves Jacksonville to Vero Beach.There are a dozen different desalination projects in the State of Texas. the plant produces 3.900. in 1991–92 as a temporary emergency water supply in response to severe drought. in the Delta. These are (north to south):[144] Northwest Florida WMD[145] Suwannee River WMD[146] Saint Johns WMD[147] Provides map of districts.[140] California[edit] California has 17 desalination plants in the works. with a population of 334. 2002. allowing Santa Barbara to use its other supplies more extensively. Texas. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) provides a presentation (PDF) of the desalanation process. Santa Barbara: The Charles Meyer Desalination Facility[143] was constructed in Santa Barbara. Hydranautics. While it has a high operating cost. underwriting the project. producing 20 million gallons a day.5 million gallons per day (about 11 acre-feet) at an average production cost of $489 per acre-foot. South Florida has 33 brackish and two seawater desalination plants operating with seven brackish water plants under construction. After its parent went bankrupt. Arizona and Nevada. thereby keeping a like amount of freshwater in Lake Mead. Tampa Bay Water hired a renovation team. and the U. some seabirds. is considered to be the first of its kind.000 US gallons (3. The plant has been maintained.[38] and is designed to run at a maximum capacity of 25 million US gallons (95. In 2004.8 m3). The bird then "sneezes" the brine out. but largely not operated due to sufficient freshwater supplies from the upper Colorado River. As freshwater is not available in their environments.800. It was the largest desalination facility in the Americas.000 US gallons (109. and it processes 28. Bureau of Reclamation to underwrite the cost of running the plant in a year-long pilot project. The country's desalination plant.[154] An agreement was reached in April 2010 between the Southern Nevada Water Authority. Arizona.[152] The plant can now produce up to 25 million US gallons (95. Covanta also filed for bankruptcy prior to performing renovations that would have satisfied contractual agreements. American Water/Acciona Aqua. such .[155] Trinidad and Tobago[edit] The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago uses desalination to open up more of the island's water supply for drinking purposes.[157] In nature[edit] Mangrove leaf with salt crystals Evaporation of water over the oceans in the water cycle is a natural desalination process. Construction of the plant was completed in 1992.Construction. opened in March 2003. the overall salinity of sea ice is much lower than seawater. The plant was deemed fully operational in 2007. Although some brine is trapped. the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California. the Central Arizona Project. was constructed under authority of the Federal Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act of 1974 to treat saline agricultural return flows from the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation and Drainage District into the Colorado River. The formation of sea ice is also a process of desalination.[153] Arizona[edit] Yuma: The desalination plant in Yuma. anticipated design. a park of more than 12 companies in various manufacturing and processing functions.000 m3) of water a day at the price of $2.000 m3) per day when needed. and it will allow for easy access to water for both factories and residents in the country. which produced a project that failed performance tests.S.[156] This plant will be located at Trinidad's Point Lisas Industrial Estate. The treated water is intended for inclusion in water deliveries to Mexico. to bring the plant to its original. Salt is expelled from seawater when it freezes. This resulted in nearly six months of litigation.000 m3) per day. Seabirds distill seawater using countercurrent exchange in a gland with a rete mirabile.67 per 1. and it has operated on two occasions since then. The gland secretes highly concentrated brine stored near the nostrils above the beak. This is used in artificial constructed wetlands. suffering 77 likes like “Thunderously.16 average rating. the Sermon on the Mount proves that before God we all stand on level ground: murderers and temper-throwers. but extremely elusive for people who live in comfort. God renounced the one for the sake of the other. we have nowhere to land but in the safety net of absolute grace. which allows them to drink the salty water from their environments while they are hundreds miles away from land. cooperation. which work in a similar way to the seabird desalination gland. Additional salt removal is done by storing it in leaves which then fall off. being vulnerable.429 ratings. jesus. 4. The Jesus I Never Knew tags: christianity. the Bible from Genesis 3 to Revelation 22 tells the story of a God reckless with desire to get his family back.[158][159] Mangrove trees grow in seawater. absorbs it. adulterers and lusters. petrels.” ― Philip Yancey.” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew tags: grace. 359 reviews The Jesus I Never Knew Quotes (showing 1-16 of 16) “Power. Some types of mangroves have glands on their leaves. Having fallen from the absolute Ideal. gulls and terns. tends to cause suffering. Willow trees and reeds are known to absorb salt and other contaminants. The Jesus I Never Knew 15 likes like “Dependence. In a point of convergence on a hill called Calvary. love. sin 32 likes like “In a nutshell. no matter how well-intentioned. and a sense of abandon are qualities greatly prized in the spiritual life. simplicity. Salt is extracted to the leaf exterior as small crystals. and that is in fact the only state appropriate to a human being who wants to know God. for treating sewage The Jesus I Never Knew Quotes Want to Read Rate this book 1 of 5 stars2 of 5 stars3 of 5 stars4 of 5 stars5 of 5 stars The Jesus I Never Knew by Philip Yancey 11. inarguably. thieves and coveters. possess this gland.” ― Philip Yancey. they secrete salt by trapping it into parts of the root.” ― Philip Yancey. We are all desperate. albatrosses. The Jesus I Never Knew 10 likes like . humility. effectively desalinating the water. which are then eaten by animals (usually crabs).as pelicans. which then fall off the leaf. Love. I returned to Jesus and found that it suffuses his teaching throughout the Gospels and especially in the Sermon on the Mount. the kingdom of God is decidedly not a call to violent revolution. The Jesus I Never Knew 5 likes like “[Jesus] invoked a different kind of power: love. miracles are the early glimpses of restoration.” ― Philip Yancey.” ― Philip Yancey. and sometimes behaved like churlish schoolchildren.” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew 1 likes like .” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew 5 likes like “Absolute ideals and absolute grace: after learning that dual message from Russian novelists. entropy. a birth defect he could not reverse.” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew 3 likes like “Jesus never met a disease he could not cure. failed to exercise much spiritual power. but it never solves human problems. not coercion. When they do. one based solely on God's grace and forgiveness. The Jesus I Never Knew 8 likes like “When he lived on earth. [Jesus] surrounded himself with ordinary people who misunderstood him. what I think about him and how I respond will determine my destiny for all eternity.“Human beings do not readily admit desperation. But he did meet skeptics he could not convince and sinners he could not convert. and some who heard Jesus' strongest words about grace and forgiveness turned away unrepentant.” ― Philip Yancey. to dam up evil. and destruction are the true suspensions of God's laws. the kingdom of heaven draws near. decay. The Jesus I Never Knew 3 likes like “We dare not invest so much in the kingdom of this world that we neglect our main task of introducing people to a different kind of kingdom. Passing laws to enforce morality serves a necessary function. The Jesus I Never Knew 2 likes like “According to Jesus. The Jesus I Never Knew 7 likes like “Whatever else it is. The Jesus I Never Knew 7 likes like “Death. a demon he could not exorcise.” ― Philip Yancey. Forgiveness of sins requires an act of will on the receiver's part.” ― Philip Yancey.” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew 1 likes like “sinners.” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew .” ― Philip Yancey. The Jesus I Never Knew 0 likes like “Goodness cannot be imposed externally.” ― Philip Yancey. it must grow internally. from the bottom up. from the top down. so should we.“I can worry myself into a state of spiritual ennui over questions like "What good does it do to pray if God already knows everything?" Jesus silences such questions: he prayed.