Democracy in America Summary

Democracy in America SummaryThe project Tocqueville undertook in writing Democracy in America was a highly ambitious one. Having seen the failed attempts at democratic government in his native France, he wanted to study a stable and prosperous democracy to gain insights into how it worked. His studies had led him to conclude that the movement toward democracy and equality of conditions while it had progressed the farthest in America was a universal phenomenon and a permanent historical tendency that could not be stopped. Since this democratic trend was inevitable, Tocqueville wanted to analyze it in order to determine its strengths and dangers so that governments could be formed to reinforce democracy's strengths while counteracting its weaknesses. Therefore, while Democracy in America may at times seem to be a rather disorganized collection of observations and thoughts on American democracy, it is possible to gain a coherent sense of the work as a whole by looking at all of Tocqueville's various and sundry remarks through the lens of one paramount theme: the preservation of liberty in the midst of a growing equality of conditions. Volume One, the more optimistic half of the book, focuses mostly on the structure of government and the institutions that help to maintain freedom in American society. Volume Two focuses much more on individuals and the effects of the democratic mentality on the thoughts and mores prevalent in society. Taking the work as a whole, one finds that main problems of a democracy are the following: a disproportionately high portion of power in the legislative branch, an abuse of or lack of love for freedom, an excessive drive for equality, individualism, and materialism. The elements that Tocqueville believes can most successfully combat these dangerous democratic tendencies are: an independent and influential judiciary, a strong executive branch, local selfgovernment, administrative de-centralization, religion, well-educated women, freedom of association, and freedom of the press. First, let us examine the dangers that Tocqueville sees facing American democracy. Most of the problems lie in societal attitudes and tendencies, but there are a few institutional difficulties as well. The first of these is the preponderance of legislative power. Because the legislature is most directly representative of the will of the people, democracies tend to give it the most power of all the governmental branches. Yet if there are not sufficient checks on this power, it can easily become tyrannical. A related constitutional issue that weakens the independence of the executive and therefore indirectly increases the power of the legislature is the ability of the president to be re-elected. At first glance it is not obvious why this feature of American government weakens the president's power. It would seem, in fact, to increase his influence by allowing him to remain in office longer. The problem is that if the President has hopes of being re-elected, he will lose much of his ability to make independent decisions based on his judgments. Instead, he will have to bow to the whims of the people, constantly trying to make them happy although they may not have the knowledge to judge what the best action for the country as a whole might be. Indirectly, therefore, allowing the President to run for re-election increases the danger of the tyranny of the majority. Another problem with the constitutional organization of American democracy is the direct election of representatives and the short duration of their time in office. These provisions result in the selection of a mediocre body of representatives as well as in the inability of representatives to act according to their best judgment, since they must constantly be worrying about public opinion. By contrast, the Senate, whose members are elected indirectly and serve longer terms in office, is composed of intelligent and well-educated citizens. Perhaps it will be necessary to switch to a system of indirect election for representatives as well. Otherwise, the laws will continue to be mediocre and often contradictory. If the state of affairs continues, people may tire of the ineptitude of the system and abandon democracy all together. The overriding but more intangible danger facing democracies is simply their excessive love for equality. In fact, even the institutional problems are really only symptoms of this deeper mindset which all democratic peoples tend to have. The doctrine of the sovereignty of the people and the power of public opinion are corollaries to the idea of equality. If all are equal, then no one person has any basis to claim the right to rule over another. The only just way to run a society, therefore, is to base decisions on the will of the majority. Yet the problem with this idea is that it can quite easily lead to despotism. Despotism can come at the hands of a single person or a multitude. In the case of a democracy, there is a grave danger that the majority will become despotic. If there are no checks on the power of the majority to influence the government, then it will have absolute power and those in the minority will be helpless to resist. Perhaps even more insidious is the sheer moral force that that the opinion of the majority has on society. As it has already been noted, if all are equal then no one 1 | Page opinion has greater weight than another. The logical conclusion is that the opinion held by the majority must be the best one. As a result, there is a tendency to abandon freedom of thought in democratic societies. Going against the opinion of the majority is seen as an indirect claim to the superiority of one's own opinion, which is directly contradictory to the principle of equality. This form of tyranny, therefore, can be seen as even worse than past tyrannies which involved great physical coercion and brutality. In a powerful passage in Chapter 7, Tocqueville states, "Formerly tyranny used the clumsy weapons of chains and hangmen; nowadays even despotism, though it seemed to have nothing to learn, has been perfected by civilization. . . . Under the absolute government of a single man, despotism, to reach the soul, clumsily struck at the body, and the soul, escaping from such glows, rose gloriously above it; but in democratic republics that is not at all how tyranny behaves; it leaves the body alone and goes straight for the soul." Two other side-effects of equality‹both of which also increase the likelihood of despotism‹are individualism and materialism. As Tocqueville points out, "individualism is of democratic origin, and threatens to grow as conditions get more equal." The reason for this phenomenon is that equality tends to make people's interests focus in on themselves. There are no societal bonds or duties as there are in an aristocracy which link people together and force them to realize their dependence on one another. Individualism can contribute to the growth of despotism because if citizens become too individualistic they will not bother to fulfill their civic duties or exercise their freedom. Materialism results from a passion for equality because people think that they ought to be able to have as much wealth as everyone else. Indirectly, materialism also comes from the philosophical tendency fostered by democracies to disdain lofty ideas or thoughts of eternity. The effect of materialism is that people may be so absorbed in their personal pursuit of wealth that they neglect to use their political freedom. Further, people may actually willingly abandon their freedom in order to have a benevolent despotism, which can provide an orderly society and ensure material prosperity. Fortunately, however, Tocqueville does recognize the existence of institutions, which can help to preserve liberty even in the midst of these despotic tendencies. Constitutionally, the independent judiciary, with the power of judicial review, is extremely important. Because it can proclaim certain laws unconstitutional, the Supreme Court provides practically the only check on the tyranny of the majority. Judges are appointed, not elected, and they serve life terms, giving them a great deal of independence to make the decisions that they think best without needing to worry excessively about public opinion. A related beneficial institution in the American system is the jury. While juries may not always be the best means of attaining justice, they serve a very positive political function of forcing the citizens to think about other people's affairs and educating them in the use of their freedom. For these reasons, Tocqueville believes that the jury system is "one of the most effective means of popular education" (Chapter 8). Much like the jury system, the administrative decentralization, which allows for local self-government is absolutely crucial as a means to keep liberty alive by allowing the citizens to exercise it frequently. The existence of local liberties is one of the most significant differences between America and France. Tocqueville attributes the failure of the French Revolution mainly to the overwhelming administrative centralization, which took away the citizens' ability to exercise their freedom, making them lose a taste for it and forget how to exercise it. Non-institutional factors, which help to maintain freedom in the United States are the right of association, the freedom of the press, and most importantly religion. Associations are an excellent tool to combat individualism and to allow people to exercise their freedom by taking a part in politics. The press is intimately connected to associations in that associations need a means of communicating with their members and also a means of spreading their message to the public as a whole. In America, religion is much more than another type of association and is highly beneficial both politically and societally. Religion teaches people how to use their freedom well. Since the government provides no absolute standards, it is necessary that religion provide some moral boundaries. As Tocqueville remarks, "Despotism may be able to do without faith, but freedom cannot. . . . How could a society escape destruction if, when political ties are relaxed, moral ties are not tightened? And what can be done with a people master of itself if it is not subject to God?" (Chapter 9). By bringing people together in a community of common belief, religion also combats individualism. Furthermore, religion is practically the only means of counteracting the materialistic tendencies of democratic peoples. Religion turns peoples minds beyond the physical, material aspects of life to the immortal 2 | Page and eternal. So strongly does Tocqueville see the necessity for such a force in democratic society that he warns society's leaders not to try to disturb the people's faith, for fear that "the soul may for a moment be found empty of faith and love of physical pleasures come and spread and fill all." One can clearly see that most, if not all, of the divergent strands of Democracy in America come together when examining the relationship between freedom and equality in society. Above all, Tocqueville has a passionate love for liberty and is concerned to point out the dangerous trends that threaten to destroy it as well as the means by which it can be preserved. In the last few lines of the book, Tocqueville writes, "The nations of our day cannot prevent conditions of equality from spreading in their midst. But it depends upon themselves whether equality is to lead to servitude or freedom, knowledge or barbarism, prosperity or wretchedness." Tocqueville's hope is that through the insights he has communicated in this work, humanity will be better able direct themselves toward freedom, knowledge and prosperity. Democracy in America Summary and Analysis of Vol. I, Part 1, Chapters 1-5 Chapter 1: Physical Configuration of North America Tocqueville begins within almost poetic description of the geographical layout of North America. There are two regions, bordered on the north by the pole and on the south by the equator, and separated in the middle by the Great Lakes. The region more suitable for human habitation is the southern one because it has more natural divisions. The Mississippi River valley, still a largely uninhabited wilderness, "is the most magnificent habitation ever prepared by God for man." The areas east of the Alleghenies where the population is concentrated are much less suitable for agriculture. When settlers first went to America, it was not completely uninhabited. The native tribes had a unique social organization, which was rudimentary and coarse in comparison to Europe, but which had a particular dignity as well. Though they were ignorant, they were not servile like many of the poor in aristocratic countries. Remains of previous civilizations have been found, but no one knows anything about them. Because the Indians were hunters, they did not actually possess the land. One gains possession of land through agriculture. The area around the Mississippi and in the plains is so wellsuited for trade and industry that civilized man was destined to build a society there. Analysis Although it is straightforward and mostly descriptive, this first chapter still provides a few insights into key themes of Tocqueville's philosophy. First of all, the notion of a divine plan guiding history‹a crucial underlying assumption of Tocqueville's thought‹is evident. Tocqueville speaks of the Mississippi valley as "prepared by God for man" and asserts that the European conquest of Indian territory was destined by Providence. Some of Tocqueville's ideas about inequality and aristocracy also begin to surface when Tocqueville speaks about the Indians. He contrasts their simple dignity with the "coarseness of the common people" in civilized countries, explaining that this coarseness is exacerbated by contact with the upper classes. The reason for this phenomenon is that "where there are such rich and powerful men, the poor and weak feel themselves weighed down by their inferiority; seeing no prospect of gaining equality, they quite give up hope for themselves and allow themselves to fall below the proper dignity of mankind." On the other hand, though the Indians may be "poor and ignorant," they are also "equal and free." These comments point to Tocqueville's later, more developed analysis of the continual growth in equality of conditions, its benefits and drawbacks, and in particular its often problematic relation to freedom. These ideas are discussed at length in Volume II, Part II, but are constantly alluded to and almost taken for granted throughout the book. Chapter 2: Concerning Their Point of Departure and its Importance for the Future of the Anglo-Americans One needs to understand the origin of a nation in order to understand its social conditions and laws. America is the only great nation for which we can see the origins. This chapter is important because it "provides the germ of all that is to follow." Immigrants to America all shared a common language. In addition, their English heritage provided them with the knowledge and experience of local self-government, and the idea of the sovereignty of the people was deeply rooted in the Tudor monarchy. Because of religious influences, the people had chaste mores. 3 | Page Religion is better off if it gains support without state coercion. and political freedom is strengthened by religion because it helps to create and maintain good mores. There was almost perfect equality of wealth and intellect among the citizens. which is not just a religious doctrine but also contains the most absolute democratic theories." the most perfect democracy that ever existed. 4 | Page . The laws demonstrated great knowledge of advanced social and political theory. The reason that freedom and equality have been able to coexist in America is the existence of deeply rooted local self-government. the companion of its struggles and triumphs. but which are simply a result of English influence. Religion is considered the guardian of mores. The South began with Virginian settlers who were in search of gold and profit.The land in America is not suitable for aristocracy because it is too difficult to handle and not fertile enough to provide enough support for both a landlord and tenant. these were self-imposed and freely agreed upon. and included such features as participation of the people in public affairs. As a result. trial by jury. and the divine source of its rights. the cradle of its infancy. Tocqueville believes that history progresses with the inevitable growth of equality of conditions. The colonies enjoyed great internal freedom. etc. and mores are regarded as the guarantee of the laws and pledge for the maintenance of freedom itself. a large middle class formed. However. "Freedom sees religion as the companion of its struggles and triumphs. Tocqueville recognizes that in almost every situation. The people's mores were even more austere than their laws. Volume 1. but they did not take their internal ruling power from England. Good mores‹or the habits. Yet at the same time. The extraordinary level of equality can be both a help and a hindrance to freedom. In the North. and he sees America as the furthest progression of this growth. These factors explain the mores and social conditions in the South." Tocqueville speaks at length about this idea in Chapter 9. which provides the citizens with a means for exercising their freedom. and the colony grew rapidly because of continued immigration. Religion is the best means of preserving wholesome mores and teaching people how to use their freedom well. and almost immediately established slavery. As Tocqueville writes. Part II. The Pilgrims established an orderly society immediately upon landing in 1620. religion and political freedom mutually supported one another. local independence flourished. They left the comforts of home because of their belief in Puritanism. one cannot have complete equality without complete freedom (see Volume II. which are necessary for the responsible use of freedom. Such laws provide a slight aristocratic element. Volume 1. In the sphere of morality everything was absolute. There are two branches of colonies: the South and the North. The political laws were well ahead of their time. and each township was organized as a republic. While the state was officially a monarchy. The settlers did not deny England's rule. The English government encouraged the colonists and was actually glad that they left England because they were seen as potential revolutionaries. These settlers had generally low moral standards. On the one hand. customs and values of a society‹are crucial especially in a democracy precisely because there is so much freedom and people tend to adopt a relativistic attitude. Reasons for Some Peculiarities in the Laws and Customs of the Anglo-Americans One needs to distinguish between elements of Puritan origin and elements of English origin. In this way. Another key factor that has allowed America to maintain freedom is the influence of religion. and the importance of religion for the maintenance of freedom. They included provisions for the poor and public education (on the grounds that ignorance is an ally of the Devil). the spirit of religion and the spirit of freedom were combined. but in the sphere of politics everything was open to debate. the cradle of its infancy. The laws were extremely strict and invasive. Criminal law in New England was based on Biblical moral codes. The crucial importance of these local liberties is discussed in detail in Chapter 5. There are some laws in America which do not seem to fit their ideology. all the immigrants came from educated classes. freedom is endangered by an overly ardent passion for equality. They organized themselves independently. Chapter II). As result. It was "a society homogeneous in all its parts. Analysis This chapter provides an introduction to two of the central themes of the work: the extreme equality of conditions and its relation to political freedom. individual freedom. largely as a result of their strong passion for equality. the country. If inheritance law requires equal sharing of property among the children. Volume 2: Part II. the state government and the federal government. In America. either every citizen or no citizen can have rights. With the advent of the Revolution. which he elaborates in The Old Regime and the French Revolution. and in America the social state is "eminently democratic. Chapter 5: The Need to Study What Happens in the States Before Discussing the Government of the Union The American System of Townships There are really two separate governments in America. in that it may lead to a tyranny of the majority. but also equality in education. This separation is mutually beneficial for both the church and state. Tocqueville will speak later on in the book about the specific dangers of the tyranny of the majority and democratic despotism. Analysis Recognizing the sovereignty of the people is essential for a democratic government. the dogma of the sovereignty of the people took possession of the government and was coded into law.Tocqueville also briefly addresses the topic of separation of church and state. and the state. There is not only equality in wealth. and few are highly educated. Chapter 6) Chapter 4: The Principle of the Sovereignty of the People in America The sovereignty of the people is recognized by both mores and laws in America. While Tocqueville is saddened by this loss. As a result. Chapter 1. Voting qualifications were progressively eradicated. even to the extent that there almost seem to be twenty-four little sovereign nations." There is no aristocratic element in the society. In Tocqueville's view. This state of affairs creates a "middling standard. however. and people are respected on the basis of intellect and virtue. but is not quite an aristocracy because there are no aristocratic privileges. Political Consequences of the Social State of the Anglo-Americans For equality in the political sphere. Chapter 3: Social State of the Anglo-Americans The Striking Feature in the Social Condition of the Anglo-Americans is that it is Essentially Democratic The social state is the primary cause of most laws. The South has rich landowners and slaves. The second. Analysis This chapter essentially continues to explain the equality that exists in America and the tension between equality and freedom. There is no class with both the taste and leisure for intellectual pleasures. the people really do rule. the reason for the struggles between the church and state in France was precisely the unnatural combination of the two before the French Revolution. Part IV. the land will be continually broken up and great landed fortunes will be nearly impossible to sustain. the state government is the normal authority. The connection between the land and the family name which exists when there are laws of primogeniture is eradicated. But local freedom is rare. (See Volume 1: Chapter 7. The passion for equality often overrides the desire for freedom. The township is rooted in nature and in man's natural sociability. more serious danger of the democratic passion for equality is its tendency to be pursued at the cost of liberty. bringing down those who would. hard to establish and highly 5 | Page . Because of the limited and specific scope of action of the federal government. in a more aristocratic society. consequently people often surrender freedom for the sake of equality. become outstanding individuals. he sees it as inevitable. wealth circulates in America with great rapidity. this principle spread secretly within the provincial assemblies. A negative element of equality which Tocqueville mentions briefly is its tendency to act as a leveler. This principle can become dangerous. The upper classes acquiesced to this principle in order to gain the goodwill of the people and enacted legislation which strengthened it. None are totally ignorant. There are three centers of power in the state: the township. The laws of inheritance in America yielded the final advance of equality. The Americans have done this and followed this principle to its logical conclusions to an extraordinary degree." There was a high degree of equality among immigrants. In the colonies. The states were the original center of power and the place where American political principles were formed. and the use of judicial weapons to control secondary authorities are the chief characteristics of American administration from Maine to the Floridas". Powers of the New England Township The township is the place where the people most directly exercise power to rule. authority is kept in check without diminishing its effectiveness. Yet this freedom is absolutely essential and is the people's strength. and the sheriff makes sure the township obeys laws of state. For example. In the townships the government really emanates from the governed. each with limited sphere of authority The Americans solve the problem of making the elected officials obey the central government by making the official subject to the courts. absence of administrative hierarchy. General Ideas Concerning Administration in the United States As one goes farther from New England one sees the diminishing power of the township and the increasing power of the county. The main governing principle that underlies the organization of the township and county is that each is the best judge of his own interest and is best able to provide for his own needs. The most striking feature of the government is its decentralization. since practical service is necessary to maintain patriotism. To change anything they need summon all the voters by calling a town meeting Many other municipal officials are elected to perform the various town duties. To survive. few are willing to try for high government offices which are hard to get and which are out of direct sphere of personal interests. Therefore. so people are proud of and respect it. no one person has extreme power. Justices of the peace serve an administrative function.vulnerable to being lost. Administration in New England The administration is almost invisible in America. freedom needs to be entrenched in mores. This practice of governing in the township acts as civic education. giving citizen clear ideas of duties and rights. and must rely on reports of misconduct or negligence. called "selectmen. the revolution was guided by mature desire for freedom. he is tried in ordinary court. and all citizens are bound to accept these positions if elected. If an official commits a crime. Selectmen generally act on already established principles agreed upon by the majority. This type of freedom is very elusive. 6 | Page . No one in Europe understands it. In the United States. Taking away this local self-governance will give a country docile subjects but not citizens. Life in the Township In America the principles of sovereignty and equality of the people are supreme. Administrative duties are in the hands of a few men. a township is sovereign in all matters only affecting the township. As a result. in a small township there are nineteen officials. New England is an excellent example because it has local liberties which are deeply rooted in tradition. The problem is that in some cases no one may be so directly effected as to want to complain. Because of its power and strength it wins the affection of its inhabitants. While the law has much force. An American obeys society because union with others is useful and he recognizes that authority is necessary for this union. but in America. The reasoning for this is that in America legislators appeal to private interest to ensure the execution of laws. People are unwilling generally to work for matters that do not affect their private interest. Spirit of the Township in New England The township has independence and power over its own sphere. through the division of power. The only means for a nation to have true freedom is through local institutions. Municipality liberty derives from principle of sovereignty of the people. law and mores. The weakness in the system is that the administrative tribunal doesn't have the right to supervise officials. Tocqueville summarizes his description municipal government in America by stating: "Election of administrative officers. There are nineteen main officials." elected on a yearly basis. Just as a person is sovereign in all private matter. irremovability from office. Europeans think that weakening authority by taking away rights of society is the way to achieve liberty. giving people the responsibility to govern in areas directly related to their interest is necessary for the fostering of a sense of civic duty. But in personal matters a person does what he wants. there is his relatively straightforward characterization of liberty as the ability to govern oneself as much as possible through the administration of local affairs. The two things that can provide such a consensus are religion and patriotism." He goes on to say that freedom is "something one must feel and logic has no part in it. because it makes people care personally about the country's interests. The Executive Power of the State The governor is the representative of executive power in the state.Of the State Tocqueville will speak only briefly on this subject because the constitution is based on familiar. Political Effects of Administrative Decentralization in the United States There are two types of centralization: governmental (dealing with nation-wide interests) and administrative (dealing with more specialized concerns). Americans are convinced that the division of powers is of utmost necessity. The Senate exists to strengthen authority and the House to ensure representation of interests. amid a 7 | Page . Analysis This chapter is one of the most essential parts of the book for understanding Tocqueville's views on the nature of liberty and how to preserve it. In contrast with France. but rather springs up of its own accord. He is head of the military. Tocqueville admires the political effects of decentralization. Tocqueville writes about freedom's "intrinsic glamour. but administrative centralization diminishes civic spirit. The French Revolution had two tendencies. The problem in Europe is that people have no control over or no interest in management of local affairs." and calls it a "lofty aspiration which . and is responsible for keeping order and for seeing that laws are executed. as in France under Louis XIV. Government centralization is necessary for the country. While Americans disagree on almost everything. the people do not obey men. The lack of these small liberties was a key factor in the failure of the French Revolution." Keeping this passage in mind is helpful in understanding what Tocqueville really means when he states at the beginning of this chapter in Democracy in America that communal freedom "is seldom created. since the central power can not see all the small details of daily life. The only solid and lasting foundation for a state's power is the free agreement of citizens. they obey justice or law. because people see crime as a public offense and all try to contribute to catching the criminal. On the one hand. going forward toward the same goal. and it inspires them with a generous fervor. But to meaner souls. they are unanimous in their love of provincial freedom. Tocqueville's definition of liberty is highly ambivalent. In a striking passage of The Old Regime. In the United States there is no administrative centralization but high government centralization. Crime is almost always punished in America although power to investigate and to arrest is small. it may well seem incomprehensible. Legislative Power of the State There are two legislative bodies. they are subjects but not citizens. almost in secret. Its centralizing tendencies made falling into tyranny easy. uniform rules are absent but this absence is good because it allows for freedom. the Senate and the House of Representatives. simple. rational theory which most constitutional governments have in common. This idea is brought to the forefront in The Old Regime and the French Revolution. A country and its citizens need liberty in small matters in order to be able to exercise it in larger ones. Administrative decentralization is beneficial because the citizens are better able to handle their own affairs than the government. and how only a few noble souls can really appreciate freedom enough to make the sacrifices necessary to preserve it. In the United States. one toward freedom and the other toward despotism. defies analysis. Combining the two results in extremely strong government. . Because his term in office is short. . as opposed to Europe. untouched by the sacred flame. It is a privilege of noble minds which God has fitted to receive it. As a result they become dependent on the government to come to their aid for everything. It grows. Yet along this political definition of liberty there is always a mention of how mysterious and elusive freedom is. The advantages deriving from a bicameral legislature are slowing down the movement of assemblies and providing a means for revision of laws. a work which is thematically complementary toDemocracy in America. The strength of government centralization can be a danger because it can lead to a tyranny of the majority. he is highly dependent on his constituents. but the judges there have an unusual amount of political power. American's do hold to these principles. The reason is that the courts can base decisions of the constitution. neither privileges. the courts hold public officials accountable for their actions. nor personal influence. . for it represents the majority. is the danger that a democracy will degenerate into a tyranny of the majority or a "democratic despotism. but it is "the fount of all authority." The court power is checked by legislative ability to amend the constitution. In America. particularly in the statement that "until communal freedom has come to form part of mores. Analysis The courts are a great safeguard of that menace to freedom which Tocqueville at least alludes to in nearly every chapter: the tyranny of the majority. Indeed." When speaking in this chapter about governmental centralization. but it has not got the spirit of liberty. In this chapter. in Tocqueville's view. which claims to be the unique organ of reason. This action reduces a law's moral force. Additionally. and particularly about the importance of certain legal institutions and of religion as the basis of these mores. Also. The power of judicial review is one of the best barriers against tyranny of political assemblies. he admires the decentralized American system because of its political effects in allowing the people to exercise their freedom. nor even the authority of reason." This freedom is difficult to establish and even more difficult to sustain over time. it would not be too much to say that trying to resolve this problem was the primary goal of his life's work. it can easily be destroyed. nor local immunities. 8 | Page . but only the legislature can repeal the law. He speaks at length about this idea.semi-barbarous society. that I will demonstrate later. The key to this success. . . Tocqueville even tells the reader directly that he will elaborate on this subject in later chapters when he states that "far from being inadequately centralized. both intellectual and political. Nothing can check its progress. Tocqueville also speaks more specifically (and more pessimistically) about the tension between liberty and equality in Volume II. Tocqueville observes that "In America the legislature of each state is faced by no power capable of resisting it. and it can only act when called upon. particularly in Parts II and IV. allowing them to override some laws. and it seems to act almost as a warning of the ease with which the government could become tyrannical." This passage has an ominous sense to it." Another idea that is only briefly addressed in this chapter but developed more fully in Chapter Seven and in Part IV of Volume II. The reason is that the courts are in some ways apolitical (the judges are appointed and have very long terms in office) and do not have to bow constantly to the whims of the electorate as politicians do. the constitution is changeable. But in this chapter one begins to see the emergence of this theme in several places. not its weakness that it [the social power] is threatened with destruction one day. where Tocqueville blames the loss of liberty and in particular the failure of the French Revolution to gradual erosion of local self-government in France throughout the nation's history since the Middle Ages. Tocqueville also mentions the need for the cultivation of proper mores in order to maintain freedom in a democracy. one can assert that the American governments carry it much too far. is the administrative decentralization which allows people to exercise their liberty through self-government in the townships: "Without local institutions a nation may give itself a free government. There is an implicit contrast here with France. It is because of its very strength." Chapter 6: Judicial Power in the United States and its Effect on Political Society There are three general characteristics of judicial power: its role is to act as arbitrator. His motivation for traveling to America was to study how this fledgling democracy maintained freedom although it had a high degree of equality. This idea is Tocqueville's main thesis in The Old Regime. judges can only attack the law by refusing to apply. in Chapter Nine. it rules on particular cases rather than general principles. The problem of maintaining freedom amidst the growing equality of conditions both in the United States and Europe is Tocqueville's central concern in Democracy in America." For this reason. because all officials are responsible before the courts. although Tocqueville recognizes that administrative centralization may greatly increase the efficiency and uniformity of the government. Chapter 7: Political Jurisdiction in the United States Sometimes it is necessary for the political representatives to have judicial power. the Articles of Confederation. Treaties must be ratified by the Senate. the postal service. Analysis In this chapter one finds that. The Union is also responsible for the regulation of currency. because there is less hesitancy to use the power. a minority of the nation dominant in the Senate could block the will of the majority represented in the House. the thirteen colonies were torn by common interests which made them desire both unity and state autonomy. making it rather mild. but makes mild legislative tyranny more likely. He sees that in the American system. not to punish under criminal law. this does not happen. and senators serve six-year terms. Summary of the Federal Constitution To resolve the problem of dividing powers between the federal government and states. while senators are elected by the state legislatures." Because of the system's design. and these were men of great intelligence and character. The reason is that in the United States. In Europe the political judgment is more of a judicial act. the main aim of political jurisdiction is to take power away from those who abuse it. The American system guards against a high degree of legislative tyranny. Representatives serve two-year terms. communication services and taxation. In the United States. For the most part. In some respects the United States federal government has more power than European monarchies. Chapter 8: The Federal Constitution History of the Federal Constitution After the Revolution. makes political jurisdiction easier to use and thus more influential. the lawgivers carefully defined the federal powers and gave all other power to the state. In the United States. The House must initiate the proceedings. In Europe political jurisdiction is used only in extreme situations. this mildness can itself be a danger. Prerogatives of the Federal Government The federal government has the exclusive right of making war and peace. however. The federal government can intervene in the internal affairs of states in certain rare cases where the state's conduct is endangering the Union. In order to arbitrate disputes about this authority. Another Difference Between the Senate and the House of Representative Members of the House are elected directly. and only public officials can be judged in this sort of trial The United States differs from Europe in that political courts only have the power to remove from office. but makes soft tyranny of the legislative branch‹which is most closely tied to the majority‹much more likely. the power of political jurisdiction does not extend to imposing penalties. Legislative Powers The creation of the House of Representatives and the Senate was a compromise between large and small states. The first constitution. it is less of a danger to the division of power. the legislatures cannot act directly to counter executive power. as well as between the principle of state independence and the principle of the sovereignty of the people. because it clearly violates the division of power. but in the United States it is more of an administrative measure. once again. In 9 | Page . "The principle of state independence prevailed in the shaping of the Senate. The Senate has to approve of presidential appointments and treaties with foreign powers. they created a federal Supreme Court to ensure the maintenance of the proper division of power. combined with the mildness of the Senate's power to punish. The system guards against harsh tyranny. but they can supervise the President's actions in many ways. However. concluding commercial treaties. One of the great advantages the Americans had was that the leaders of the Revolution were still alive to draft the new constitution. the dogma of national sovereignty in the composition of the House of Representatives. condemned the federal government to weakness. Tocqueville's main concern is the tyranny of the majority. This vagueness. and raising armies. It is extraordinary that no bloodshed was necessary to remedy the problem. the House of Representatives has the right to prosecute and the Senate has the right to punish. The laws regarding political crimes are extremely vague in America. The Executive Power In order to make the President powerful enough to be effective yet not too powerful. and is used more frequently. by simple majority. The President has veto power. the desire for reelection dominates the 10 | P a g e . Crisis of Election The time of Presidential election can be considered a time of national crisis. the government still functions when there is division between the President and the Legislature. Mode of Election The aim of American lawgivers was to find a mode of election which expressed the will of the people. to elect the President. but the legislature can still overturn a veto with a two-thirds majority. The President cannot choose the members of the legislative body and he cannot dissolve it. power of the executive is limited. as a monarch does. but only executes the law. Congress could enact laws that would encroach on presidential power. As a result. it is relatively isolated from the rest of the world and is not threatened externally. and there is little the he does independently. and the more dangerous the elective system becomes to the national security. the real directing power is public opinion. but the President of the United States has less power than the legislature. The President's executive actions are under supervision and he is answerable to the Congress for his actions. the outgoing President has no incentive to do anything new. This system can be a hardship for ministers. this difficulty is not so bad because it is fairly easy for former ministers to find other positions. increasing the chance of getting a majority and easing the tabulation. Accidental Causes That May Increase the Influence of the Executive Power Circumstances have kept the exercise of the executive power weak. The King of France is equal in power to the legislature. If none of the candidates obtained a majority in the election. because all are completely focused on the election. Because the government in the United States is federal‹divided between the Union and the States‹not national. Fortunately for America. How the Position of the President of the United States Differs From That of a Constitutional King in France External signs of power are unimportant and deceptive. the practice is dangerous because the President may then make reelection. The President has complete freedom to choose his ministers. and the whole nation is focused only on the election. In the United States. equal to the number of members it sent to Congress. of a Majority in the Two Houses The reason that the executive power can act without the support of the legislature is that he is obliged to execute the laws in spite of his disagreement. and factions tend to flare up and become even more passionate than usual in lobbying for their causes." and all is calm once again. However. The dangers are greater in proportion to the amount of power the executive has. the electoral powers were delegated. "the river which momentarily overflowed its banks falls back to its bed. however. The policy was that each state would nominate a certain number of electors. the House would elect the President from among the three candidates who had received the most votes. The executive power shows itself mainly in foreign relations and especially in times of international crises. not caring for the government of the country. Yet since the powers of the executive are relatively small. in Order to Direct Affairs. not actually on present governance. Concerning the Reelection of the President While at first consideration it seems natural that Presidential reelection ought to be allowed. The President has no real legislative power. In the United States. since power changes hands every four years. Election of the President The elective system for executive power is always dangerous because of the tendency for people to want to gain power at all costs. and the term of power is relatively short. Why the President of the United States Has No Need. In both the United States and France. After the decision has been made. his primary consideration.addition. the more necessary it is to have a stable executive power. One of the problems of the system in elective states is that when an election is approaching. this problem is not fatal. there is little danger because the executive power is so weak. For this reason. When a new President is elected there is always a period of instability. without fear of delays in tabulating the votes or in gaining a simple majority. The more perilous a nation's position in foreign affairs. The United States has only needed to resort to this last measure twice: for the elecion of Jefferson in 1801 and Quincy Adams in 1825. with the supervision of the Senate. It is uniquely responsible for the interpretation of laws and treaties and for questions dealing with international law. The courts are generally the vehicles through which laws are given moral force. The judicial power of the union was concentrated in the Supreme Court. but in practice it really does not. undermines this independence. but other lower federal courts were added to handle issues of lesser importance. unlike courts in Europe.President's thought. as do cases in which the parties are from different states. Democracies have a tendency to concentrate power in the legislative branch. they do so indirectly. This power seems to threaten the sovereignty of the states. But. Therefore the principle of reelection increases the corrupting influence of elective governments. If the Supreme Court acts rashly. The judiciary needs to be separate from the other powers. The states also fail to give the judiciary its proper independence The two main dangers that threaten the existence of democracies are (1) "the subjection of the legislative power to the will of the electoral body. Some of the cases which automatically fall under federal jurisdiction because of their subject matter are cases dealing with foreign trade or with the constitutionality of a law. regarding disputes over whether the case was one of federal or state jurisdiction. the Constitution arranged matters so that courts deal directly with individual. but in the federal government it has enough power to be effective. while allowing the states independence in their own sphere. Means of Determining the Competence of the Federal Courts The Supreme Court was given the power to decide all questions of competence. The Federal Courts To gain the obedience of the governed. the Federal Constitution did not. because it requires a strong judicial authority. with great wisdom. however. The Supreme Court can also judge disputes between states. giving the central government enough power to be effective and maintain national unity." and (2) "concentration of all other powers of 11 | P a g e . The Superiority of the Federal Constitution Over That of the States The main cause of the Federal Constitution's superiority is the character of its writers. not state. the whole country is threatened. all of whom were remarkably enlightened and patriotic. governments can either use physical force or moral force. High Standing of the Supreme Court Among the Great Authorities in the State The Supreme Court has higher standing than any court in any country." While the states' constitutions succumbed to this tendency. The judges therefore need to understand the spirit of the age and the limits of what popular opinion will accept. Different Cases of Jurisdiction The subject matter and the party involved were the two bases of federal competence. This danger is inherent in the nature of federal government. It may be difficult. When the federal courts want to overturn a state law. Their foremost concern was the preservation of liberty. Procedure of the Federal Courts Justice is weaker in federal states because sovereignty is divided. while still subject to the general will of the majority. without the intermediary of the states. Through the representative. through suits brought on by individuals who are harmed by the new law. however. In addition. cases in which one of the parties is an ambassador automotically fall under federal jurisdiction. The rules determining which courts have jurisdiction in which cases are simply an extension of the principles of federalism in general. The members of the Supreme Court were appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. but it is still necessary that federal laws be under the jurisdiction of federal. since the states are often in opposition to the federal government. The principle of reelection. Thus the President of the United States is completely under control of the people's whims. For example. they helped to guard against the tyranny of the majority. The executive in the states has almost no power. The lawgivers of American were wise in making the President independent of the whims of factions and caprices of the people. but such action yields the "despotism of the majority. and they were irremovable to make them independent. bicameral legislative system and especially through the formation of the Senate. the Supreme Court can try states as well as individuals. to make an entity as powerful as a state submit to the ruling. courts. The court's power is immense so long as people respect the law and obey it. the state will refuse to obey. at least so far. as in the War of 1812. For the confederation to last." The United States has succeeded in protecting itself. Yet Tocqueville recognizes that the legislature is definitely more powerful than the President alone. allowing it to act without needing to worry about re-election. have advantages. the militia refuses to obey the President. and there is less ability for public resistance. Tocqueville argues that if the President were not reeligible. He fears this provision because it "makes the corrupting influence of elective governments spread wider and more dangerous. giving him some ability to check the power of the legislature. Avoiding the second form involves both the executive and judicial branches. but the states have more support from the people. from the tyranny of the majority mostly through the checks and balances of the system. There is no large nation in history which has remained a republic. The President has veto power and control of the military." or (2) "concentration of all other powers of government into the hands of the legislative power. This was the problem the United States had under the Articles and remedying that problem was what allowed the country to survive. Advantages of the Federal System in General and Its Special Usefulness in America Small nations are often a cradle of liberty because they offer little attraction for ambition and despotism. while still responsible to the people. The limitation of federal sovereignty also mitigates the ambition for power. When they become larger such nations tend to lose that liberty. Local liberties provide a perfect education in republican government which can then be applied to the whole nation. a bicameral legislature was formed in which the Senate. however. people must have a fairly homogeneous civilization and common needs. The Union has the power of military and economic force. There tends to be a greater flow of ideas and more intellectual centers. The judiciary. Tocqueville is looking specifically for the ways in which the United States has guarded itself against the ever-present danger of the tyranny of the majority." The states have succumbed to these dangers. The federal system is an attempt to combine the advantages of small and large states. when. Large states do. however. It is a danger that in a clash between the federal government and a state or between the Supreme Court and a state. but the federal government has not. has great ability to prevent Congressional tyranny through its ability to declare certain laws unconstitutional.government into the hands of the legislative power. Analysis In examining the United States Constitution. One specific provision of the Constitution. has much more independence from popular whims. The second defect is the weakness of the federal government. The weakness of a confederation is shown in war. his 12 | P a g e ." Allowing the President to be re-elected diminishes his independence from the caprices of the majority. because the United States Constitution made the federal government in charge of not only dictating but also executing the laws. which can take two forms: (1) "the subjection of the legislative power to the will of the electoral body. The judiciary is also extremely independent of popular opinion." Why the Federal System is Not Within Reach of All Nations and Why the Anglo-American's Have Been Able to Adopt It One of the defects of a federal system is its complication and the tension between state and federal sovereignty. In large nations there is more ambition to take power. which worries Tocqueville is the ability for Presidential reelection. It tends to degrade the political morality of the nation and to substitute craft for patriotism. Small nations may be happier but they are too weak to be secure. The government of America is only sustainable with a population well-educated in political science. The problem in other countries is the confusion of a federal government and an incomplete national government. To avoid the first form of tyranny. What Distinguishes the Federal Constitution of the United States of America from All Other Federal Constitutions The United States Federal Government is much more powerful than that of European countries with similar constitutions. They are more secure in a war. glorious and strong like a great one. America has not dissolved because it has no great wars to fear. "The Union is free and happy like a small nation. censorship would be inherently contradictory to the overriding societal principles." Analysis The key point in this chapter once again revolves around the dangerous democratic tendency to fall into tyranny of the majority. Decentralization has particularly strong effects. The decentralization of the American press. but it no longer does. Analysis The press can clearly be a means both of keeping liberty alive and of fostering the tyranny of the majority. Chapter 3: Freedom of the Press in the United States Freedom of the press is necessary because the only real alternative to it is complete despotism. and when the Republicans gained power they adopted many of the Federalist's ideas. Still. Chapter 1: Why It Can Strictly Be Said That the People Govern in the United States The people both make and execute the laws in the United States. and as a result they began a tradition which acted as a moderating influence on the demands of the majority. which is relatively stable and safeguards liberty. America used to have great parties. beneath the petty differences of the parties there is the underlying battle between restricting and extending public power. After the Revolution. however. It can. People in America tend to stubbornly stick to their own opinions. The press has less power in the United States than it does in France. embedded local liberties. It maintains liberty by keeping the people informed of politics and thereby encouraging political activity and the exercise of freedom. simply because they chose them. Remains of the Aristocratic Party in the United States The rich are somewhat excluded from government. the people superficially adopt an opinion and cling to it not because they are convinced it is true but 13 | P a g e . the power of the press is immense simply because it allows all people to remain informed about politics. and accidental factors such as geography and the composition of the populace. and their action can often cause a revolution. Especially in a society where the people are sovereign. Recognizing the lack of journalistic competence. because attacking existing laws in the United States is not revolutionary. In addition. They act as if they support republican government. by electing their representatives and serving on juries. and the people tend not to react passionately to anything that does not affect their material interests. The Federalist party's ability to gain power was crucial precisely because the Federalists wanted to restrict public power. Small parties are pettier and only agitate and corrupt society. "but the people's favor would not have been so necessary to him that he must in everything bend to its will. The force of the press is also lessened because freedom of the press is not a novelty in the United States.responsibility toward the people would not diminish. and their can often even be a disadvantage in trying to gain political power. material interests. The Federalists had power only until Jefferson was elected. Tocqueville believes that through a combination of Constitutional wisdom." Great parties are those which are attached to lofty principles rather than private interest. one of which‹the Federalists‹wanted to restrict popular power and the other of which‹the Republicans‹wanted to extend it. the people generally do not take the journalists' opinions seriously. Toqueville notices that people are concerned primarily about their material interests. and end up focusing mostly on tangible. Two other democratic tendencies are also brought out in this brief chapter: materialism and relativism. As a result. So many opinions are floating about that people tend to distrust all of them. it is decentralized. but it also tends to result in poor journalism because there is an excessive number of papers and not enough talented journalists. foster the tyranny of the majority by influencing vast numbers of people at once. "The majority rules in the name of the people. there are no longer any great political parties in the United States. the United States has done a remarkable job in creating a democratic government. makes this unifying and all-encompassing influence unlikely. Still. they close in on themselves and go about pursuing their own private interests." Chapter 2: Parties in the United States "Parties are an evil inherent in free government. in fact it is perfectly acceptable. but simply focus on the facts. but in reality they "have a great distaste for their country's democratic institutions. however. there were two great parties." All things considered. It prevents people from being unified by a single current of opinion. As a result. but this period was extremely important for America because during that time they worked against the negative tendencies of democracy. Association is natural to human beings. Mores are also an important means of correcting democracy's negative tendencies. Americans have chosen the latter danger over the former. Influence of American Democracy Upon Electoral Laws Rare elections expose the state to the danger of violent crisis. at least in this case. because. and thus their moral force is diminished. with their dominant passion for equality. Perhaps the Americans will need to modify their system to use indirect election more frequently. great virtue is often brought to the fore in people. where liberty and morality are well-established in the habits of the people. not many desire it because it is an inherently unstable and unpredictable occupation. Volume 2 addresses these issues in more detail. The Americans do not hate the higher classes." In a sense." while the Senate is filled with eloquent and well-educated statesmen." Chapter 5: Government By Democracy In America Universal Suffrage All the states in the Union have universal suffrage (as defined by the times). Public Officers Under the Rule of American Democracy Public officials have no external signs of their power. however. and as a result their laws are often highly unstable and incoherent. the people may not always want to elect the person with the highest merit. Yet in spite of the danger. Political associations can become extremely powerful. Because the lower classes have little leisure they often lack the education to discern who will be the best person to rule in their interests. such as uniforms. Thus. The reason for this dichotomy is that Representative are directly elected while Senators are indirectly elected. unlimited freedom of association is good in the United States because it is a guarantee against the tyranny of the majority. precisely because they know that such means can indeed have an effect. but frequent elections result in a state of inconstancy and agitation. The House of Representative is filled with people of "vulgar demeanor. In America. In New England. and consider most opinions to be generally equal. great leaders rose up. Universal suffrage is perhaps the best guarantee against the violence of political associations in the United States. those who run for office do so 14 | P a g e . because no association can claim to represent a majority. Its danger has been seen already. While freedom of the press is "the constitutive element in freedom" and therefore cannot be limited. but simply keep them from power. Yet while all citizens are eligible for office. and all officials receive salaries so that the lower classes have access to all positions. superiority annoys them. Chapter 4: Political Association in the United States Americans use the right of assembly more frequently and effectively than anywhere else in the world. In other areas the situation is much worse. Analysis While they can be dangerous in some situations and political climates. Ambitious men generally avoid public office to pursue private wealth. Thus. Elements Which May Provide a Partial Corrective to These Instincts of Democracy In times of great distress. however. even dangerously so. "extreme democracy forestalls the dangers of democracy. in the time of the American Revolution and immediately following it. men of distinction of repelled from political power because they feel cheapened by being up for election. The level of intelligence of a society as a whole is limited by the amount of leisure that the people have. because they guard against the tyranny of the majority and are not inclined to violence or revolution. and is therefore an inalienable right. associations are primarily peaceful and use legal means. Tocqueville writes that "the omnipotence of the majority seems to me such a danger to the American republics that the dangerous expedient used to curb it is actually something good. because it demonstrates how. It is obvious that association represent only a minority.because they do not think they can discover what is true. there are no limitations. In addition. but associations are more powerful than the press. the citizens tend to make better choices in electing their leaders. The right of association is related to the freedom to write. in the nullification crisis South Carolina. At the same time. In the United States. as opposed to Europe. associations are highly beneficial in the United States. this dynamic is quite ironic. The People's Choice and the Instincts of American Democracy in Such Choices In the United States the common people generally have more good qualities than the rulers. the freedom of association may have to be limited. In spite of the fact that taxes are lower in America. There is less glamour to warfare in a democratic country than in an aristocracy. rulers are much more likely to attempt to use their influence and wealth to bribe the governed. the case is the opposite. a good but expensive practice. A nation's wealth is composed of real property and personal property. Corruption and Vices of the Rulers in a Democracy and Consequent Effect on Public Morality In aristocracies. In that war. are relatively well paid because the people consider them more on their level. Therefore the government of America is not an inexpensive one. legislators are afraid to impose a tax on alcohol 15 | P a g e . the laws will be the most economical. However. Yet even judging the amount of taxation is not an easy task. This tendency can be dangerous because it gives people the example that immorality may result in success and honor. Its expenditures can also be unproductive because people change their minds often and projects may remain uncompleted. in countries with universal suffrage. Democracies are not well-suited for waging wars. In addition. Every society will different economic classes ranging from the rich to the poor. "Democracy gives little to the rulers and much to the ruled. although most crimes are the result of drunkenness. France." In aristocracies. If the middle class rules. needs more money because it needs maintain a large army. This problem is another cause responsible for the "large number of vulgar men holding public positions. because each individual township has its own separate expenses. because the people are more inclined to quick bursts of enthusiasm than sustained effort. American Democracy's Power of Self-Control Democracy is endangered by the people's shortsightedness and their tendency to choose momentary pleasures over long-term gain. They only obey laws of which they see the utility. of unworthiness and success. Public Expenses Under the Rule of American Democracy Expenses in free states are always greater than in despotic ones. however. because there has not been a great war in America since the War of Independence. Therefore one cannot really compare either the expenditure or the wealth of the United State and France. Democracies also tend to spend a lot because they have a constant and feverish desire for improvement and innovation. it is still possible that the country is not economical. The administrations are unstable. It is clear that America has much lower taxes than France. but in democracies the rulers themselves are much more corruptible." The Arbitrary Power of Magistrates Under the Sway of American Democracy In democracy the people are confident of their ability to take power away from the magistrates. both of which are costly. because it seems that a lot of money is wasted. the only source is newspapers. The Instincts of American Democracy in Fixing the Salaries of Officials High officials generally are given low salaries. generally the poor make the laws. Administrative Instability in the United States Few historical records exist in the United States. Can the Public Expenditure of the United States Be Compared with That of France? To judge the extent of public expenditure one needs to know both the national wealth and the proportion of it which is used for state expenses. because very few taxes fall upon them. There is no conscription in America. Secondary officials. because they are in the majority. In addition. Yet by observing other external factors one can get a sense of which country taxes a larger proportion of its citizens' income. The value of property is extremely difficult to judge.because they do not think they can manage their own private affairs successfully. and of profit and dishonor. "There comes about an odious mingling of the conceptions of baseness and power. and consequently are not concerned about allowing to have a great amount of arbitrary power. however. and are more sympathetic to them. and do not bother to keep records or look to past records to decide how to act. An example is that. people made great sacrifices at the beginning but toward the end stopped giving money and volunteering for the army. because those who vote to fix the salaries have little chance of ever receiving that position. a democracy cannot pull together its resources as quickly as an aristocracy." The Efforts of Which Democracy is Capable It is difficult to tell how much sacrifice a democracy can impose on itself. and the poor will have a tendency to spend too much. The economic laws depend on which class is in power. a lot of money is spent to help the lower classes. New England is exemplary in this regard. Chapter 6: The Real Advantages Derived by American Society From Democratic Government The General Tendency of Laws Under the Sway of American Democracy and the Instincts of Those Who Apply Them The defects of democracy are obvious. Laws in America "are often defective or incomplete. Aristocracies are excellent in directing foreign affairs. Washington directed the country to steer clear of foreign alliances and never to get involved in the internal quarrels of Europe. being in the majority. however." Democracy's laws tend toward the good of the greatest number. In addition. Democracies tend to waste a lot of money because the people. reason. the people keep watch on the actions of their legislators and make sure that they are not deviating from the public interest. In general. be an ever more profound danger lurking in this democratic tendency to follow the passions rather than reason. because they cannot come to the truth merely intellectually. they need to experience it. One type stems from an instinctive love. Public Spirit in the United States There are two types of patriotism. Tocqueville brings out a lot of the weaknesses of democracies. embark on a wide range of projects and explore every possible innovation. good mores. however. "engendered by enlightenment. but in democracies "the people feel more strongly than they reason. American foreign policy is more a matter of abstention than action. They cannot come to the truth without a long experience of trial and error which brings them eventually to find the best course of action. and the lack of skill in conducting foreign affairs. and it almost always the case that in such matters the interests of the aristocrats are the same as the interests of the people. but they will never pursue aims hostile to the majority. This weakness is due for the most part to the tendency of democratic peoples to be swayed more by whims and passions than by reason. democracies have a double problem: the people tend to choose poorly because their passion for equality makes them dislike those who are superior. and many nations may perish for lack of the time to discover their mistakes. As a result. In choosing government officials. most of which are impractical and many of which are never even finished because people tire of an idea when it ceases to become a novelty. Democracy's lack of skill is not fatal. well-thought out plans in favor of momentary passions and sympathies. for the most part. formed especially by good education in virtue and the experience of local liberties. At the root of these weaknesses is the inability of democratic peoples to make well-reasoned. dispassionate choices. It takes democracies a long time to see reason. the citizens tend have little capacity for sustained self-sacrifice. Tocqueville writes that "a democracy cannot get at the truth without experience. taxes tend to be high because the poor are exempt from them and receive the greatest benefit from government services." America was fortunate to have time to fix its mistakes because there was no immediate danger threatening it. Institutionally. and if present ills are great. Legislators may not be highly skilled. The passions and whims of the people cloud their ability to see the truth and realize which laws would actually be in their best interests. The means of counteracting this problem is. a necessary requirement for winning a war." On a personal level. Analysis In this chapter. The results of the people's whimsical nature is evident in several areas: the election of government officials. governed more by impulse than by reason. Yet this inability to see the truth may be a problem hurts society internally in the long run. Conducting foreign affairs well requires patience." The best way to promote this more steady 16 | P a g e . it is to be feared that they will forget the greater evils that perhaps await them in case of defeat. are the ones who can have the largest influence on laws. The other is a more rational and lasting patriotism. There may. Democracies have little patience to plan out and sustain a great undertaking as is necessary in foreign affairs. the problem can be solved by using indirect election. How American Democracy Conducts the External Affairs of the State Washington and Jefferson have set the course for American foreign policy. and fortitude. democratic governments are inferior in their control of foreign affairs. and is often ephemeral. The poor. the inefficient use of money. but the advantages can only be seen in the long run. but an aristocracy is much more skilled in legislation. based on feeling rather than reason." and "mingled with personal interest.for fear of a revolt. and those who have the capacity to rule do not want the position it is unstable and has few rewards. Democracies tend to abandon long-term. because mistakes are retrievable. and founder of order. the strong public spirit and practice in freedom which such activity provides. In America people have a personal interest in obeying the laws. their discontent is not dangerous because their wealth makes breaking the law too risky. but many things are accomplished because of the extraordinary amount of political energy and activity. Despotism often presents itself as the repairer of all the ills suffered. and so may be willing to surrender their 17 | P a g e . There are always people calling for reform. He states: "It cannot be repeated too often: nothing is more fertile in marvels than the art of being free. Furthermore. growing with difficulty amid civil discords.patriotism is to make people take a personal interest in their country's fate by giving them a share in government. and even prosperity to the country. This is what the United States has done. especially in regard to his desire to improve the political situation in France. they are at least not positively dangerous or aimed against the well-being of the majority. Activity Prevailing in All Parts of the Political Body in the United States. and when they do wake up. One advantage is that while the laws in a democracy may not be crafted with the utmost skill. Tocqueville realizes that the French lack the "apprenticeship" in liberty which the Americans have had. because they know that at some point they will share the opinion of the majority and will want the minority to follow the law as well. In America. But liberty is generally born in stormy weather. but it also lessens the number of great crimes and increases general well-being. The American's greatest pleasure comes from talking about and taking a hand in the government of society. lobbying for a cause. people will see that despotism can bring great stability. the democratic government "makes the idea of political rights penetrate right down to the last citizen. Respect for Laws in the United States Giving the people a part in lawmaking can result in a lower quality of legislation but also can give the laws greater moral strength. order. and the result is that Americans are extremely patriotic. Democracy does not engender great virtue or nobility. Likewise. While the rich may often be in the minority. the habits of freedom are deeply entrenched. Peoples are lulled to sleep by the temporary prosperity it engenders. The most important effect of the people's ability to take part in making the laws. Tocqueville writes that "if despotism ever came to be established in the United States it would find it even more difficult to overcome the habits that have sprung from freedom than to conquer the love of freedom itself. it is good for society anyway because taking responsibility for government broadens people's concerns beyond their own interests and makes them care for society at large. In addition. therefore it is absolutely essential to link the idea of rights to personal interest. the popular origin of laws gives them greater moral force. Things may not be done well. America has been able to do this by giving people political rights from the beginning. or expressing some concern. even laws which they disagree with. the Influence Thereby Exerted on Society The rush of political activity always present in the United States is remarkable. Tocqueville makes a very significant comment in relation to the nature of freedom and the difficulty of acquiring and maintaining it. and that it is very difficult to make people appreciate freedom enough to make the sacrifices necessary to attain it. the people may use them unwisely. These habits of freedom are a great guard against despotism. having been deprived of rights for so long. and only when it is already old does one see the blessings it has brought." This statement is crucial in that it reveals one of the most pressing dilemma's which Tocqueville faces. but nothing is harder than freedom's apprenticeship. but also point out many of the advantages of the democratic method. but in other countries it may be difficult to extend political rights because. as they very well might be in an aristocracy. however. Tending to be short-sighted. allowing people to have a role in the government of the nation makes them see the nation's interests as their and be more patriotic. While the people may not manage public affairs well. all recognize the right of property in principle. they are wretched. The same is not true of despotism." A moral and religious conception of rights seems to be disappearing. the support of just rights. defender of the oppressed. Because the people have had political rights from the beginning in America. Analysis This chapter expands on some of the previous chapters ideas about the generally poor quality of American legislation. The Idea of Rights in the United States Rights are absolutely essential for a cohesive and prosperous society. because everyone has some sort of property." In discussing the benefits of America's deep-rooted habits of political freedom. but that power is dangerous when there is no obstacle to restrain and moderate it. ." The Power Exercised by the Majority in America over Thought Control of public thought is the most complete form of tyranny. once the majority's opinion has been pronounced.freedom. There is extremely little independence of mind and freedom of discussion. tyranny "leaves the body alone and goes straight for the soul. Tocqueville notes that whatever a person may think is best actually does not matter. The legislature is also the most powerful branch of the government. In some states. Chapter 7: The Omnipotence of the Majority in the United States and Its Effects The essence of democratic government is the sovereignty of the majority's will. Tyranny of the Majority Justice places boundaries on the will of the majority. The biggest problem with the democratic government of the United States is not its weakness but its overwhelming strength. The fact that America has not yet fallen into this tyranny of the majority is due not to its governmental institutions or laws but to its mores. There may be no official restrictions on writing. however. . they quickly give up." There is no one to whom a person can turn if has suffered injustice. in Volume II. Tocqueville had mentioned this tendency briefly earlier in the book. The only way to react is simply to make the best of the situations. even the judges are elected by majority vote. if you would rather contemplate vices than crimes. because everything is controlled by the majority. The moral authority of the majority stems from "the theory of equality applied to brains"‹that is. but if a person challenges the opinion of the majority all doors‹professionally and socially‹are shut to him. . Tocqueville elaborates on this idea. American laws have an extremely short duration. How in America the Omnipotence of the Majority Increases the Legislative and Administrative Instability Natural to Democracies The vices of democracy increase with the growing power of the majority." This tyranny of 18 | P a g e . The Americans want their legislators to be elected directly and to serve short terms in office so that the people have more chances to exert their influence. a majority can do the same against a minority. "It treats them as a master treats his servants if. especially with regard to the tension between liberty and equality. but here he speaks about it more at length. because the legislative power‹the power most influenced by the will of the majority‹is sovereign. The public easily becomes impassioned to fight for certain causes. and execution of the laws is unstable as well. Effect of the Omnipotence of the Majority on the Arbitrary Power of the American Public Officials The majority allows the magistrates to have a large amount of arbitrary power because it knows that they are constantly under its supervision. average characters. "If you think it profitable to turn man's intellectual and moral activity toward the necessities of physical life and use them to produce well-being. but when achieving goals require patience and tenacity. trying to enhance democracy's strengths and minimize its weaknesses. The idea that democracy has a "middling effect" on the people is also explained more fully in this chapter. As a result. These ideas have not created class antagonisms in the United States because most colonial settlers were already relatively equal in status. In democratic republics. it is necessary to have some social power superior to all others. the best opinion must be the opinion of the majority. but rather mild." Significantly. he could direct or correct them at any moment. Chapter 1. legislative instability plagues the United States. since everyone's opinion is of equal worth. if your object is not to create heroic virtues but rather tranquil habits. wealth and education. because forces beyond human control are naturally leading to an ever-increasing equality of conditions. and "the shortage of guarantees against tyranny. because the majority is the sole authority and source of strength. In America. The majority's authority is further strengthened by the idea that the interest of the greater number should take precedence over that of the lesser number. For a society to function. If a single person can abuse authority against his adversaries. if you think that reason is more use to men than genius. He observes that democracies do not tend to produce men of great heroism or virtue. no one contradicts it. then it is good to make conditions equal and to establish democratic government. People who disagree with the majority have no other power to whom they can resort for help. Part II. For instance. This control extends over writing as well as speech. In addition. always seeing them under his eyes. most people support the rights of the majority because the hope one day to profit from them. who writes that it is necessary "Œto guard one part of society against the injustice of the other part. America thus has to fear tyranny much more than anarchy. but it is extremely strong. Tocqueville quotes Jefferson. and the result is that standards of conduct in general are lowered. In the United States. and if anarchy comes about it will be the result of tyranny driving the minority to desperation. In democracies the temptation to live off of one's passions is much greater than in monarchies or aristocracies. While. The Temper of the American Legal Profession and How it Serves to Counterbalance Democracy Lawyers act as an aristocratic class." Lawyers love order above all." write Tocqueville. the Courtier Spirit in the United States The rareness of outstanding politicians in America is due to the despotism of the majority. and consequently the tyranny of the majority is limited to that small sphere as well. in principle and by law. Lawyers' knowledge also makes them a somewhat privileged class. where the principle of the sovereignty of the people reigns supreme. While so far the omnipotence of the majority has only resulted in small inconveniences such as legislative incompleteness. Politicians in the United States are of such poor quality because they are the flatterers of the majority and have submitted themselves to its tyranny in order to gain power. and a strong judiciary‹but they will be systematically discussed in the following chapter. an independent executive. tempering the negative effects of democracy. thus hardly anyone is able to recognize and no one reacts against it. because great writers need freedom of spirit. "only God can be omnipotent without danger. "Formerly. The ways to combat this fatal tendency have been touched upon in previous chapters‹for instance. nowadays even despotism. everyone can say. "the majority. "Hidden at the bottom of a lawyer's soul one finds the tastes and habits of an aristocracy. the majority does not have the administrative ability to enforce its will everywhere. because mores are good. because His wisdom and justice are always equal to His power. From their studies.'" Analysis Always concerned with the maintenance of freedom in a nation." Tyranny in democracies goes straight to the soul. its administration is very decentralized. has been perfected by civilization. though it often has a despot's tastes and instincts. though it seemed to have nothing more to learn. and a dislike for the whims and passions of democracy. still lacks the most improved instruments of tyranny." The rule of the majority in America is living proof that majority's power is well out of proportion with its wisdom and justice.the majority is the reason for the lack of literary genius in America." The central government operates only within a limited sphere. a majority of the people are benefiting from it. a tyranny no less real and no less terrible than an autocratic tyranny. Tocqueville is especially troubled by the tendency of democracies to succumb to the tyranny of the majority. The Greatest Danger to the American Republics Comes from the Omnipotence of the Majority The power directing society in a democracy may be unstable. "tyranny used the clumsy weapons of chains and hangmen. good mores. lawyers derive a taste for order and formalities. The dangerous effects of the omnipotence of the majority are already evident in the lack of free thought in America. Besides. and their common profession provides a common link among them." Omnipotence in human hands is always dangerous.'" and that "Œthe tyranny of the legislature is the most formidable dread at present. 19 | P a g e . local liberties. As a result. Therefore the tyranny of the majority is a great danger to all nations in which the ideals of equality and sovereignty of the people are paramount. Effects of the Majority's Tyranny on American National Character. think or write whatever he likes. in reality the opinion of the majority becomes an unquestionable dogma. In addition. Right now the power of the majority is well-used. It is all the more dangerous precisely because it is hidden and exercises no external physical constraints. but in public everyone seems to be of one mind. Chapter 8: What Tempers the Tyranny of the Majority in the United States Absence of Administrative Centralization While America is highly centralized governmentally. but it may not always be so. "the consequences of this state of affairs are fate-laden and dangerous for the future. When speaking to people in private one finds that their opinions differ and that they may criticize the government. the force of the majority is overpowering. and consequently will not want to oppose it. and as a result they are conservative and supportive of authority. Because laws are often founded on precedent. since the members of juries often lack the expertise necessary to make good decisions." Analysis After last chapter's dismal predictions." This counterbalance comes in just where democracy needs it. because it places control of society directly into the hands of the people. liberty would still find some shelter from the way the law is carried into execution. as in France. The influence of lawyers can be seen in that while political laws are constantly changing." which are necessary for the proper use of freedom. particularly in teaching people how to use their freedom responsibly." Lawyers and the judiciary branch of the government in general also provide a necessary aristocratic force which tempers the despotic tendencies of democracy. . In chapters six and seven Tocqueville describes the judiciary and hints at its importance. the effectiveness of the jury system is contestable. The aristocrat element in lawyers is due not only to their knowledge but also to the type of laws that exist in the United States. the more one feels convinced that the legal body forms the most powerful and. Tocqueville writes that "it is at the bar or the bench that the American aristocracy is found.In a democracy lawyers' are especially able to gain political power. there would be no obstacles to the tyranny of the majority. it is difficult for the common people to follow them on their own. For the most part. but in America." Tocqueville also has a unique and highly insightful view on the importance of the jury system. Legal language is often used. Laws diminishing judicial power. an attribute of American democracy which Tocqueville discusses in more detail in chapter five. The people do not dislike lawyers because they come from among their own ranks. The more one reflects on what happens in the United States. this chapter provides a few rays of hope. Juries are excellent for inculcating good mores into the minds of the people. till in the end it has molded it to its desire. and they teach people to be equitable and to take responsibility for their own actions. They instill "habits of the judicial mind. The first mitigating factor is the lack of administrative centralization. especially making judges elected officials and subjecting them to frequent reelection. where the administration is highly centralized. because they step into the place that the rich and the nobles would occupy in an aristocracy. are extremely harmful to a democracy. ." The Jury in the United States Considered as a Political Institution Judicially speaking. Yet its principle importance and its benefits can be seen in considering the jury as a political institution. because it is a powerful tool for public education. The power of lawyers is inconspicuous yet highly effective. civil laws‹over which lawyers have great influence‹have changed so little that they are practically outdated. The jury system is a direct consequence of the sovereignty of the people. lawyers and judges influence democracy through the courts. and the majority would not know how to enter into . lawyers are not needed as much and are not respected as highly. Tocqueville observes that "when the American people get intoxicated by their passions or carried away by their ideas. penetrating each component class and constantly working in secret upon its unconscious patient. Yet the jury system is highly beneficent in the political sphere. the puerilities of administrative tyranny. the only counterbalance to democracy in the country. Tocqueville thinks that a judge with more legal expertise would do a much better job. so today. Even beyond its official powers. the lawyers apply an almost invisible brake which slows them down and halts them. the laws influence spreads out into all areas of political life. Juries are therefore "the most effective means of popular education. even "if the laws were oppressive. The idea of a jury is an eminently republican one. a lesson which is extremely crucial for the well-being of a democracy. thereby combating individualism. to provide a healthy sense of order and rationality when the people tend to be easily swayed by their whims. Its benefit does not lie at all in its ability to render just judgments. the jury system "should be regarded as a free school which is 20 | P a g e . and explains why the tyranny of the majority is not absolutely overwhelming in America. Where laws are all simply written out. but here he shows clearly how it counteracts some of democracy's defects. They therefore have a unique capability to mingle an aristocratic element into a democracy. In fact. and most public officials are or have been lawyers and retain their legal habits. In a place like France. it enwraps the whole of society. juries force citizens to pay attention to the affairs of others. Furthermore. As Tocqueville remarks. Therefore all religious ideas in the United States are quite to conducive to democratic and republican institutions. political ideas are believed to be open to debate. and women also have a very important role in shaping mores through their domestic work. and is given practical lessons in the law. The main reason for religion's strength in America is the separation of church and state. driving them to action and exerting a strong influence over their opinions. While the Catholics are very obedient on articles of faith. Religion Considered as a Political Institution and How it Powerfully Contributes to the Maintenance of a Democratic Republic Among the Americans Religion and politics go hand in hand in America. America is one of the most religious countries. The restless spirit which drives people to move west is very good for the country. and consequently they are very independent citizens. and thus if religion wants to have lasting influence it is best for it to remain independent of politics. and also the very passions of the litigants bring within his mental grasp. Political power is by nature ephemeral. and provided the means for general prosperity which aids government stability. and widespread irreligiousity only comes about in unnatural circumstances. it is actually stronger. lessons which the advocate's efforts. In America the clergy never hold public office and are not politically active. the communal institutions which moderate the despotism of the majority. but there are three main factors in these laws that help to maintain a democratic republic in the United States: the federal form of government. and the organization of judicial power. because the Christianity of the settlers was highly democratic and republican in character. comes into daily contact with the best-educated and most-enlightened members of the upper classes. In addition. Influence of the Laws upon the Maintenance of a Democratic Republic in the United States It is not necessary to repeat all the details about American laws found in other chapters. The Main Causes That Make Religion Powerful in America Eighteenth-century philosophers were incorrect when they said that enlightenment would replace religion. In morality. Chapter 9: Causes Tending to Maintain a Democratic Republic in the United States Accidental or Providential Causes Helping to Maintain a Democratic Republic in the United States America has no powerful nations and consequently no great wars. The western migration is an extraordinary phenomenon. because in America one finds that the most free and enlightened people are also the most religious. everything in America is certain and absolute. 21 | P a g e . There is no great capital in the country that has an influence over the whole land." Mores are one of the great causes helping to maintain American democracy. because it prevents the population from being concentrated in only a few places. in a democratic country it is extremely important that religion remain apolitical because the political sphere is constantly in a state of flux and is always changing according to public opinion. Even those who are not very religious realize religion's importance for the maintenance of republican institutions. because it provides a common morality. because the same standards and ideas apply to everyone. the judge's advice. The land itself has helped America to remain strong because it gave the people the ability to remain equal and free.always open and in which each juror learns his rights. While the power of religion seems diminished without an alliance with political power. Women tend to be more influenced by religion than men. Material concerns are what really move the American people. Religion is natural for the human person. I think that the main reason for the practical intelligence and the political good sense of the Americans is their long experience with juries in civil cases. Religion is thus the primary political institution in that it teaches people how to use their freedom wisely. and religious beliefs have a powerful influence in directing mores. but in politics everything is up for debate. in which people band together in search of fortune. and this situation helps to maintain the local liberties which are so important for freedom. Influence of Mores upon the Maintenance of a Democratic Republic in the United States Tocqueville uses the word mores to mean "the whole moral and intellectual states of a people. Catholicism is actually very favorable to equality of condition. Indirect Influence of Religious Beliefs upon Political Society in the United States It is very important for society that its members should profess some religion. There have also been many Catholic immigrants that came to America." Juries thus provide a way both to allow the people to exercise their freedom and to teach them how to use it well. They are few highly learned people. In the case of schism. beliefs are modified but do not die. When church and state are separate. opposing "the idea of rights to feelings of envy" and balancing "the stability of religious morality to the constant changes in the world of politics. to Europe in its present state. although tensions do exist between the two. In such a situation. In comparing and contrasting the general political and social situations in America and France. materialism. Tocqueville believes that the discarding of religion was one of the main reasons for the French Revolution's failure and for the huge social and political turmoil which ensued. Public education is a great contribution to the maintenance of a democratic republic. Americans have many of the same negative democratic passions as Europeans. In Democracy in America. Would Laws and Mores Be Enough to Maintain Democratic Institutions? If one just transplanted the Anglo-Americans. unbelievers still consider religion useful and often do not proclaim their unbelief. and the tendency to misuse or undervalue liberty‹while the separation of church and state helps religion to maintain and even increase its influence in society.The two dangers which religion faces are schism and indifference. Americans have gained most of their knowledge of government from experience‹from taking a share in legislation. Religion is therefore still honored publicly. How the Enlightenment. Tocqueville's observations led him to argue in both Democracy in America and The Old Regime and the French Revolution that religion is one of the main factors necessary for the maintenance of democratic society. The barriers holding tyranny back in most of Europe are gone. such as a uniquely democratic envy expressed toward anyone who seemed to place himself above the level of others. The gradual development of good mores and democratic institutions is therefore the only way to remain free. Education in the United States is directed toward political life. while believers are not afraid to manifest their beliefs. This situation is not due only to geography. the one all-important factor that Tocqueville sees as creating a salutary religious situation in America as opposed to France is the separation of church and state. Tocqueville argues that religion corrects many of the prominent flaws of democracy‹individualism. In France this analysis does not apply because the close union of religion and politics has created an unnatural state of vehement unbelief. as a whole. especially when education also teaches proper mores. Habits and Practical Experience of the Americans Contribute to the Success of Democratic Institutions The American spirit is highly pragmatic. it is preferable to despotism. particularly the loss of religion and the degeneration of mores. because in South America the people have not even been to maintain any sort of stable government. Tocqueville found two highly disparate configurations of the church-state relationship and was able to observe the ramifications of those configurations in society as a whole. The Laws Contribute More the Maintenance of the Democratic Republic in the United States Than Do the Physical Circumstances of the Country. American legislation." The Importance of the Foregoing in Relation to Europe The reason so much time has been spent discussing these matters is that they are relevant to the whole world. and Mores Do More Than the Laws The United States is the only democracy which has been able to maintain itself without violence. but also extremely few uneducated people. people lose their belief without even being completely aware of it. Alexis de Tocqueville was confronted first-hand with the problem of how religion and the state should relate. But Americans have combated some of democracy's weaknesses. The revolutionaries did not realize that Christian beliefs were actually in line with their principles and could have aided 22 | P a g e . democracy and religion complement each almost perfectly. they would to modify their laws to live there. with their particular ideas and mores. But the greatest factor allowing the United States to maintain a democracy is mores. Analysis Living in the wake of the French Revolution and witnessing the turmoil and instability of his nation. In contrasting America and France. But when religion is slowly undermined by doctrines that assert its falseness without offering another belief in its place. Elsewhere Than in America. has also contributed to the success of democracy. But perhaps in Europe one could have a democratic society with more centralized national strength. European nations will soon either become tyrannies or democracies. lack of stability. While democracy has its faults and imperfections. but now the question is whether society itself fares better as a result of religion's influence. he found that "the main reason for the quiet sway of religion over their country was the complete separation of church and state. "when the American returns from the turmoil of politics 23 | P a g e ." To an eighteenth-century Frenchman. Therefore it is particularly important that America has kept religion completely separate from the political sphere. As Tocqueville points out. religion for the moment has become entangled with those institutions which democracy overthrows." As a result of this natural religious inclination in man. and it is as natural to the human heart as hope itself. had not placed religion beyond their reach. what could it hold on to in the ebb and flow of human opinions?" While religion in America may not have the same powerful. Tocqueville observes that "of all countries in the world America is the one in which the marriage tie is most respected. and if the Americans. "If the Americans. unstable. elect new legislators every two years and replace provincial administrators every year. While with the many temptations prompted by ambition and greed "religion is often powerless to restrain men. "its influence is more lasting" because it has not tied itself to the transitory earthly regime. If it connects itself to earthly powers." What he came to understand was that religion is not an accidental phenomenon which must be forced upon a people by the power of the government. accustomed to the political interference of the Church. but in this chapter Tocqueville focuses on how religion fulfills the essential role of teaching people to use their liberty well." "it reigns supreme in the souls of women. where the sway of opinion can so easily change the social and legal arrangements. these tendencies carry over into political life as well. it follows their fortunes and often falls together with the passions of a day sustaining them. Incredulity is an accident." Religion." and that "they were careful to keep clear of all parties. Religion is among the most effective and important counters to these maleficent tendencies of democratic nations. who change the head of state every four years. on the other hand. whereas by taking it by the hand it could sanctify its striving" (Introduction) During Tocqueville's travels in America. These tendencies are discussed much more in Volume Two. . Tocqueville remarks: "By a strange concatenation of events.their cause. the attitudes of the clergy in America must have indeed seemed strange. . On the other hand. external force that it does in nations where the church is connected to the state. and even despotic societies. "The powers of society are all more or less transitory. Tocqueville was surprised to find that priests "held no public appointments. materialistic. is only one particular form of hope. is a timeless and eternal force in the heart of man. and so is it is often brought to rebuff the equality which it loves and to abuse freedom as its adversary. It is by a sort of intellectual aberration. [a religion] may hope for immortality. "In Europe all the disorders of society are born around the domestic hearth and not far from the nuptial bed. an invincible alienation draws them back. One of the most important ways in which religion performs this task is through its influence on women. As Tocqueville asserts." This idea is especially true in democratic nations. "and there has never been a government supported by some invariable disposition of the human heart or one founded upon some interest that is immortal. disorderly and unstable. democracies are in danger of degenerating into individualistic. "Religion ." Women's vehicle for shaping mores is their influence in domestic life. Yet what was even more striking to Tocqueville was that "by diminishing the apparent power of religion one increased its real strength." posits Tocqueville." The problem is that when domestic life is unsettled. that men detach themselves from religious beliefs. separating the church from the state does not in any way reduce religion's force but actually tends to increase its strength in society." The societal significance of strong and happy marriages is not to be underestimated. faith is the only permanent state of mankind. On the contrary. and in a way by doing violence to their own nature. Political power is by nature transient and ephemeral. who had handed over the world of politics to the experiments of innovators. Tocqueville's experiences clearly demonstrate that religion will fare much better in a society where church and state are separate. especially for democratic republics." that "most of [the clergy] seemed voluntarily to steer clear of power. linked to ephemeral powers. even the most permanent and stable governments are not immune to changes in laws or even complete revolutions. In fact. and it is women who shape mores. religion is one of the most powerful forces working for the maintenance of democratic society." Upon investigating the situation. The answer from Tocqueville is a resounding yes. As a result of their excessive love for equality and their misunderstanding of and lack of appreciation for liberty. religion will suffer the misfortune of being dragged down by the vicissitudes of politics: "Alone. there are things which religion prevents them from imagining and forbids them to dare. and helping individuals within society to leader happier and more fulfilling lives. To solve the problem the southerners need either to free the slaves and accept them as equal members of society or to keep them in slavery as long as possible. Both the states and the Union treat the Indians cruelly and pitilessly. As Tocqueville asserts. Slavery was abolished in the North only because it was not profitable there. "While the law allows the American people to do everything. The situation has led to great misery and hardship for the Indian peoples. Even in areas where legal barriers are coming down." It is for the reason that Tocqueville makes the rather bold claim that religion "should therefore be considered as the first of their political institutions. moral ties are not tightened? And what can be done with a people master of itself if it is not subject to God?" What Tocqueville's analysis‹both in this chapter and in Volume Two‹demonstrates is that religion is one of the key forces that tends to the preservation of democratic societies. for it can lead to the enactment of laws which may ostensibly be for the benefit of society but which in fact can lead to tyranny. The first possibility seems nearly impossible. it is not too much to claim that in Tocqueville's opinion religion is the important and most necessary element in any democracy. and in democratic republics most of all. This leniency can be dangerous. Situation of the Black Race in the United States. Even if they wanted to. The Indian race seems doomed to perish because they do not want to assimilate themselves and are not strong enough to prevent the European's takeover. and there are few restrictions on the types of new legislation that can be enacted. Dangers Entailed for the Whites by Its Presence The presence of blacks is the greatest danger threatening the United States. . helping society to run more smoothly in both political and private matters." The laws in democratic societies are relatively lenient. "no one in the United States has dared to profess the maxim that everything is allowed in the interests of society. . Religion is much more needed in the republic they advocate than in the monarchy they attack. Chapter 10: Some Considerations Concerning the Present State and Probably Future of the Three Races That Inhabit the Territory of the United States In the United States. however. for although it did not give them the taste for liberty. It buoys up and corrects democratic societies at their weakest points. The situation in the South is terrible but is the 24 | P a g e . And as the regularity of life brings him happiness. Thanks to the prominence of Christian moral principles. Abolishing slavery will be extremely difficult because they will not be able to blend easily with the rest of the population. He writes that "despotism may be able to do without faith. when political ties are relaxed.to the bosom of the family. prejudices seem immovable. but freedom cannot. an impious maxim apparently invented in an age of freedom in order to legitimize every future tyrant. considering his lengthy and detailed treatment of it and his constant praise for its benefits. domestic life provides the American with "that love of order which he carries over into the affairs of the state. How could society escape destruction if. but the project has been unsuccessful. the European. but simply have a different social state and way of life incompatible with European civilization. it singularly facilitates their use thereof. the southerners would have difficulty abolishing slavery because they are afraid of the high proportion of blacks in the South. Some whites have tried to bring the blacks back to Africa by establishing the country of Liberia. The situation of the negroes has led them to a state of submission and demoralization. the Negro and Indian coexist uneasily. The Present State and the Probably Future of the Indian Tribes Inhabiting the Territory of the Union The Indian tribes are gradually disappearing from America as a result of pressure from the white man and encroachment on their land by settlers." Tocqueville's warning to the French revolutionaries who would like to eradicate religion from their country is particularly relevant in this context." Even beyond helping to temper his passions. with the Europeans dominating the other races tyrannically. while the Indians have remained independent but their civilization has split up and has consequently degenerated. Indeed. . The only possibility for the future is that blacks and whites must completely mingle or completely separate." Religion therefore acts as a powerful force to prevent Americans from abusing their freedom in order to gain power at the cost of their countrymen's liberty. he immediately finds a perfect picture of order and peace. he easily forms the habit of regulating his opinions as well as his tastes. The Indians are equally intelligent. but at the same time now that America has become stable and prosperous the people do not feel the need for a strong union to provide stability and security. however. They could easily separate if they wanted to. which are timeless in their relevance. however. this chapter does not provide many insights into the book's main themes. the instability of laws and administrative procedures does endanger the future of republican government because it may be seen as ineffective. the people in general want to remain united because of similar feelings and opinions. it conceded to South Carolina the tariff reductions that it had asked for. Perhaps the greatest danger threatening the Union is its prosperity. especially the South may be envious and distrustful of the growing power of the North. While their government and national character are extremely diverse. Chapters 1-21 25 | P a g e . and commercial interdependence. but the consequences for the whites do not look promising. An example of the weakness of the Union is the attempt nullification in South Carolina in 1832. but it does create a strong difference in mores. the American people are destined to expand throughout the whole continent. particularly local liberties. II. that in this pre-Civil War era Tocqueville recognizes the danger of the Union's breaking up as a result of a conflict over state's rights. are taking the upper hand in international trade. Some Considerations Concerning the Causes of the Commercial Greatness of the United States America has the best and most secure ports of any nation in the world. he does predict that resolving the issue will be highly problematic for the southerners. mingling of the population. Analysis As much of its ideas and observations are now basically obsolete. but they ought to fear the opposite. the present trend is toward ever-increasing democracy. there is no foreseeable time when equality of conditions will cease to exist in America. the states actually have a larger portion of sovereignty. The Union has been strengthened by increased communication. Conclusion The Union is bound to expand beyond its current boundaries to take over the land currently in Spanish control. The Americans' biggest fear is against too much centralization of power. the states so far have always gotten their way. and agree about the general principles of government and morality. Although the Union held together. One day America will probably be the leading naval power of the globe. The federal government is thus rather feeble in its powers and requires the free support of the governed to be effective. Currently the Union is useful for the states but not necessary for them. America will never become a monarchy or an aristocracy because the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people is paramount. In the end the blacks will either e freed or seize freedom themselves. Even if the Union were to dissolve or the republic were to degenerate into a tyranny. What Are the Chances That the American Union Will Last? What Dangers Threaten It? Will it may seem that the government of the Union is stronger than that of the states because of its powers to handle exclusively national concerns such as foreign relations. powerful and lasting influence of republican institutions. Slavery does not create conflicting interests between the North and South.natural consequence of slavery." Democracy in America Summary and Analysis of Vol. on the America people. It is interesting to see. In this chapter we also find a brief reiteration of the deep-seated. Concerning the Republican Institutions of the United States and Their Chances of Survival The republican nature of America is deeply rooted and will survive even if the Union doesn't. Still. In battles between states and the federal government. Though he does not see slavery as a key factor in the conflict. because certain areas are growing rich more rapidly and others. "each seems called by some secret design of Providence one day to hold in its hands the destinies of half the world. Local and state governments carry out the activities which have a much more direct effect on citizens and the citizens tend to have more attachment to it. All sharing in a common English ancestry. Furthermore. There are two great nations currently in existence: America and Russia. In order to destroy the republican institutions in America it would be necessary to destroy all the laws and substantially change the people's mores at the same time. Yet for economic and security it is much better for the states to remain united. American sailors. Part 1. with their innovative and adventurous nature. In general. much less prosper. This method can only take root in a society where there is a high degree of equality. When a people's religion is destroyed people despair of finding the answers to the ultimate questions of human existence. it is important for religion to confine itself to its proper sphere. Chapter 2: Concerning the Principal Source of Beliefs Among Democratic Peoples Societies needs at least some dogmatic beliefs‹that is. The second reason is that there was no democratic revolution in America. and they think that everything can be explained by human intelligence. people assume that truth must lie with the majority. allowing all traditional ideas to be open for attack. Religion is especially important to combat the negative results of egalitarianism. Why is it that the French apply the Cartesian method more strictly than the Americans although the Americans have more liberty? The first reason is the peculiar power of religion in America. Even individually. Chapter 4: Why the Americans Have Never Been as Eager as the French for General Ideas About Political Affairs The Americans have much more practical experience in political affairs than the French. Religion is believed without discussion. completely bound by the will of the greatest number. but are very willing to trust public opinion. Even if the religion is not true. and without common action society cannot exist. In democracies. and consequently no anarchy extreme social animosities to upset all traditional ideas. and consequently a religion which attempts to completely detach people from the goods of this world would be doomed 26 | P a g e . Most people rely on individual effort and judgment for their decisions. There is a distaste for accepting anything on the basis of authority. Religion provides the answers to the necessary questions of life. Basically. the Americans are following Descartes's method perfectly. Chapter 3: Why the Americans Show More Aptitude and Taste for General Ideas Than Their English Forefathers In aristocratic societies where there is much inequality. however. people are so different that there is little incentive to make generalizations about humanity. however. Even the strength of religion is based mostly on public opinion. it greatly contributes to man's happiness and dignity. The taste for well-being is the most dominant passion of democratic peoples. because it has set its own limits so that laws and politics can change without affecting beliefs. As a result they have an aversion to the supernatural. In times of equality people tend to generalize because there is little time to think and generalizing saves them the time needed to analyze particular cases. otherwise the antipathy to dogmatic beliefs will lead to complete loss of faith. Equality tends to give make men overestimate the power of human reason. people often lack the time to think these matters over seriously. Anyone who refused to accept anything without proving it himself would never be firmly convinced of anything. Since all are considered to be equally capable of knowing the truth. preoccupied by the daily duties. Equality can have two results: inducing men to think innovatively. people tend to think that truths applicable to one person are applicable to all. Chapter 5: How Religion in the United States Makes Use of Democratic Instincts Almost every human action results from some general conception of God and the duties one owes to one's fellow man. opinions taken on trust without discussion‹because without common ideas common action is impossible. Until the coming of Jesus Christ. These ideas are therefore extremely important. Since religion is so crucial in democracies. man needs dogmatic beliefs because there is simply not enough time in life to examine and prove all the truths which he makes use of in daily life. In a sense. People are very unlikely to believe in the ideas of any one man or class. Therefore authority also plays a part in intellectual and moral life. and generally look to themselves or those around them for the truth. This state debilitates the soul and prepares a people to hand over their freedom in search of some sort of stability. The democratic institutions which force each citizen to take a hand in the practical realities of government force them to look at particular cases rather than general political theories. the idea that all people are equal was unheard of.Part I: Influence of Democracy on the Intellectual Movements in the United States Chapter I: Concerning the Philosophical Approach of the Americans The American people pay little attention to philosophy. yet they all think according to the same method. such as materialism and egoism. or leading him to stop thinking entirely. Yet. democracy can be helpful to Christian beliefs because people naturally accept the unity of God and the moral law because such ideas are consistent with equality. Chapter 15: Why the Study of Greek and Latin Literature is Useful in Democratic Societies Greek and Latin literature is excellent for democracies because it emphasizes precisely those qualities which democratic literature tends to lack and provides an antidote to its defects. As a result. Chapter 7: What Causes Democratic Nations to Incline Toward Pantheism The concept of unity is very attractive to the democratic mentality. or the Arts There were special circumstances which gave the Americans a distaste for the arts. however. The true American writings are in journalism. Democratic people are always concerned primarily with bettering their lot. but the state which represents them all is very strong. Chapter 9: Why the Example of the Americans Does Not Prove That a Democratic People Can Have No Aptitude or Taste for Science. Chapter 10: Why the Americans Are More Concerned With the Applications Than With the Theory of Science Americans concern themselves only with the practical side of science. they always read English works. Chapter 12: Why the Americans Erect Some Petty Monuments and Others That Are Very Grand Individuals are very divided and weak in a democracy. the only source of disparity in fortunes will be natural talents and intellect. all matters that are not essential articles of faith religion needs to acquiesce with the majority's opinion. laws and ideas are always changing. In democracy people will tend to pursue literature only as a form of relaxation or entertainment. quality goes down. "Quantity increases. has been growing in popularity. it could lead to a dwindling away of civilization if people become so preoccupied with the material and practical that they forget the basic principles altogether. Chapter 13: Literary Characteristics of Democratic Centuries Americans have no real literature of their own. People in democratic nations tend to be involved in continual activity. In addition. As a result. Chapter 14: The Industry of Literature In democracies. they are willing to sacrifice the quality of those goods in order to be able to afford them. religion needs moderate the excessive taste for well-being and encourage the use of honest means for its pursuit. Chapter 6: Concerning the Progress of Roman Catholicism in the United States In America Roman Catholicism seems to be growing in popularity. literature tends to take on an industrial spirit and writers look at it as a trade by which to earn a living. their ambitious drive for wealth. people tend to think that there is an unlimited capability for progress and human perfectibility. they will not tend to produce works of great depth or erudition. because the people are attracted by Catholicism's discipline and unity. for which democratic society is not conducive. public monuments are conceived on a grand scale. The American clergy are aware of these needs and act accordingly. In general. and new truths are constantly discovered.to fail. because theoretical. In addition. Chapter 8: How Equality Suggests to the Americans the Idea of the Indefinite Perfectibility of Man In democratic nations where all are equal. Chapter 11: In What Spirit the Americans Cultivate the Arts Democratic peoples tend to have a taste for the useful more than a love of beauty. rather than as a passionate intellectual endeavor. As a result. and consequently are only interested in practical methods and innovations which will allow to increase their material prosperity. which does not allow time to reflect deeply on the basis of their ideas before acting upon them. Therefore people will begin to appreciate the value of knowledge since they see that it yields prosperity. because the opinion of the majority rules. religion is very strong in America both from its own power and from the support of public opinion. Rather. abstract knowledge requires deep thought and meditation. such as their religion. While the danger of this attitude is not immediately apparent. 27 | P a g e . which includes God and the universe in one great whole. democracy ought to favor the increase of enlightenment in its own way. they were able to simply to take theoretical knowledge from Europe rather than having to think of it themselves. and thus pantheism. Since all people want access to as many goods as possible." People are concerned more with appearances than with reality. Literature. Since all legal inequalities are abolished. equality preceded liberty. it is not nearly so great a harm or danger of the tendency toward democratic despotism. They would only have succeeded in the difficult task of giving slavery a new face. I am no better inclined to pass my head under the yoke because a million men hold it for me. As Tocqueville writes. Dramatic and literary conventions are entirely ignored. "If democratic peoples substituted the absolute power of a majority for all the various powers that used excessively to impede or hold back the upsurge of individual thought. Chapter 18: Why American Writers and Speakers are Often Bombastic Since most of the time democratic people are thinking of petty individual concerns. . Conversely. the combined influence of equality. making them doubt free will entirely and question the ability of individual actions to have any impact on the course of events. . As a result. Political liberty. Equality is so deeply ingrained in laws. with its passions. seems to condemn the Americans to a future of intellectual and literary mediocrity. doubts. . . leads to the establishment of public opinion as the absolute arbiter of truth. habits and opinions that destroying it would be extremely difficult. especially for purposes of industry or politics. As a result. They will also focus mostly on humanity. when they think of grander subjects they tend to take them entirely out of proportion. but the future can be a great source of poetic inspiration for them." Democracy. because of the Puritan abhorrence for it. and human faculties are too limited [to prove all truths for oneself]. ." Therefore. 28 | P a g e . This philosophical tendency only amplifies the political tendency leading toward tyranny of the majority. it is clear that "since life is too short . and it is a more deep-seated passion. on the other hand. man has to accept as certain a whole heap of facts and opinions which he has neither leisure nor power to examine and verify for himself. Part II: Influence of Democracy on the Sentiments of the Americans Chapter 1: Why Democratic Nations Show a More Ardent and Enduring Love for Equality Than for Liberty People in democratic nations love equality much more than liberty. the exaltation of human reason. Volume II. The Americans' sense of equality leads them to doubt any sort of authoritative claims and at the same time to confidently assert that "everything in the world can be explained and that nothing passes beyond the limits of intelligence. The theater is still not very popular. The most perfect form of equality requires complete freedom. Analysis The philosophical tendencies of the Americas may be a great danger to their liberty. While this lack of intellectualism may not be good for the society. Chapter 19: Some Observations on the Theater Among Democratic Peoples Drama is the most natural of all literary tastes for democratic peoples because it requires the least study and effort. democratic peoples want equality even if it means losing liberty. Chapter 20: Some Characteristics Peculiar to Historians in Democratic Centuries Democratic historians tend to downplay the influence of individuals and relate everything to great general causes. . mores. and fortunes. . In most modern nations.Chapter 16: How American Democracy Modified the English Language The restlessness and constant change prevalent in democracies affects language as all else. while the advantages of equality are felt immediately and easy to obtain. and the need accept some truths on authority. the evil itself would only have changed its form. is easily lost. Rules of style and formalities of expression tend to vanish. Chapter 21: Of Parliamentary Eloquence in the United States Democratic representatives think more about their constituents than about their party." placing extreme faith in the abilities of human reason. the dangers of liberty are immediate and easy to see. combined with the historical situation of America. Many new words are created. For myself. At the same time. They also tend to exhibit a certain fatalism. Yet imperfect equality can allow for great despotism. Chapter 17: On Some Sources of Poetic Inspiration in Democracies Democracies are not concerned about the past. congressmen tend to speak often simply to prove to their constituents that they are fighting for their interests. I am little concerned to know who it is that oppresses me. however. . if I feel the hand of power heavy on my brow. the benefits of liberty can only be seen over time and exercising liberty requires sacrifice. but the dangers of equality are subtle and visible only in the long run. and drama generally appeals to the emotions. social conditions. In addition. while politics engenders a taste for association and teaches the art of association. While self-interest is not the only driving force behind religious people. Thus they care for nobody but themselves. the more newspapers there will be. they need to form associations in order to have some influence. Politics also draws together people of different social circles. the less centralized the governmental administration is. which "sterilizes the seed of every virtue. and vice versa. because it combats individualism and circulates new thoughts and ideas. Chapter 6: On the Connection Between Associations and Newspapers Newspapers enable the cooperation of a large number of people by allowing thousands of readers to see the same thoughts and ideas. it does establish virtuous habits. Because this doctrine is not always entirely self-evident. because all either think that they can attain more comforts or are afraid of losing the comforts they have. it is necessary to educate people about it.Chapter 2: Of Individualism in Democracies In times of equality people tend to be individualistic. the individualism resulting from equality makes despotism a great danger to democracy. Chapter 8: How the Americans Combat Individualism by the Doctrine of Self-Interest Properly Understood While Americans generally do not speak of the abstract beauty of virtue. disposing each citizen to isolate himself and limit his interests to a small circle of relatives and friends. There is a reciprocal relationship between newspapers and associations: newspapers aid the formation of associations. it is the main way in which religions gain popularity. The reason is that local administrators need to be informed about the state of public affairs. Therefore this doctrine in no way opposes religion but actually supports it. Chapter 4: How the Americans Combat the Effects of Individualism by Free Institutions Because despots have every interest in keeping people isolated. Exercising freedom through participation in public affairs is therefore extremely important. and associations produce newspapers as a means of communication." Chapter 11: Particular Effects of the Love of Physical Pleasures in Democratic Times In democratic countries the love of pleasures never leads to great excesses as it does in aristocratic ones. they recognize its usefulness and realize that "by serving his fellows man serves himself and that doing good is to his private advantage. Chapter 10: The Taste for Physical Comfort in America Everyone in America is preoccupied with physical well-being and comfort." While the doctrine of self-interest properly understood does not lead to great virtue." While the unlimited right of political association can be very dangerous. People do not allow themselves to go after greatly disordered pleasures because their sense of 29 | P a g e . Chapter 5: On the Use Which the Americans Make of Associations in Civil Life Americans are continually forming associations of every type. because people are generally concerned with petty aims and the indulgence of small wants. associations also are highly beneficial and limiting them‹though it may be necessary‹will cause harm to society. Local self-government forces the people to act together and feel their dependence on one another. as stated in Volume One. Since citizens in democratic societies are independent and weak. In addition. This individualism is dangerous to society because it eventually merges into egoism. Associations take the place of powerful individuals whom equality of conditions have eliminated. It is extremely salutary to democratic life that citizens need to form numerous associations. Chapter 7: Relationships Between Civil and Political Assocations Political and civil associations are strongly related in that civil associations prepare the way for political ones. because it gives people a personal interest in thinking about others in society. Chapter 9: How the Americans Apply the Doctrine of Self-Interest Properly Understood to Religion Religions teach men that being good is in their self-interest because they will be rewarded in the afterlife. "Love of comfort has become the dominant national taste. and political associations act "as great free schools to which all citizens come to be taught the general theory of association." Chapter 3: How Individualism is More Pronounced at the End of a Democratic Revolution Than at Any Other Time When people have just attained independence they have "a presumptuous confidence in their strength" and do not think they will ever need the help of others. continually expand and exercise their intelligence. Yet the more equal conditions become. Because in democracies people's natural instincts are for material prosperity. Chapter 13: Why the Americans Are Often So Restless in the Midst of Their Prosperity Americans cleave to their material prosperity with a feverish anxiousness. there is a danger that they may forget about the more sublime aspects of existence. one may lose the ability to enjoy or acquire physical pleasures. Chapter 18: Why Americans Consider All Honest Callings Honorable Because in democratic societies there is no hereditary wealth. A result of this insatiable drive for comfort is that Americans are generally unable to sustain an enduring effort towards one goal. and therefore democratic people prefer industrial callings. because materialism strengthens the already excessive drive for material pleasures. Chapter 20: How an Aristocracy May Be Created by Industry With the increase of the division of labor. If one complete ignores the soul. Equality is another cause of this restlessness. people may disdain the exercise of their political rights. Chapter 16: How Excessive Love of Prosperity Can Do Harm to It Whatever elevates the soul also enables it to succeed in physical or practical endeavors. Materialism is dangerous for all nations. Yet because the greed for pleasure can also make people forget about the connection between private wealth and general prosperity. Religion is a great antidote to materialism because it teaches people that soul is immortal. the more noticeable and irritating the slightest inequalities become. Chapter 12: Why Some Americans Display Enthusiastic Forms of Spirituality The soul has a natural desire for the infinite and immortal. The only possible way seems to be for government leaders to teach religious morality through their own example. the state somehow needs to support religion. but particularly for democracies. there are occasions of great religious fervor when they break out of the confines of searching for material pleasures. The masters. the situation is very 30 | P a g e . Chapter 17: Why in Ages of Equality and Skepticism It Is Important to Set Distant Goals for Human Endeavor The social instability inherent in democracy combined with a skeptical outlook on life which questions the possibility of great lasting achievements can lead people to limit their endeavors to ephemeral and petty aims. In this way an aristocracy is formed. strive to help people look more to the future and establish long-term goals. Chapter 19: What Gives Almost All Americans a Preference for Industrial Callings Agriculture requires persevering effort before yielding a profit. form associations and exercise their political freedom.morality restrains them. on the other hand. and the more insatiable the longing for equality becomes as well. However. One should therefore guard religion carefully in a democratic society. in such a case. Chapter 14: How in America the Taste for Physical Pleasures is Combined With Love for Freedom and Attention to Public Affairs The taste for physical pleasures can lead people to be industrious. This insatiable longing is the cause of general anxiousness and uneasiness. but they allow themselves to be completely dominated by love of permitted comforts. Americans have not fallen into this state because they regard freedom "as the best tool and the firmest guarantee for their prosperity. because they are so accustomed to instant gratification. a despot or a small faction could easily come to power as long as he guarantees good order and material prosperity." Chapter 15: How Religious Beliefs Turn the Thoughts of Americans Toward Spiritual Things Religion is a great aid to Americans because it leads them from time to time to forget about their petty passions and think about the eternal. While it would not be good for religious ministers to take part in politics or for the state to mandate a religion. It is therefore extremely important to cultivate a taste for the infinite and a love of spiritual pleasures. workmen's abilities become much more limited because the simple and repetitive nature of their work. In such a climate of political indifference. As a result. and the pleasures of the senses can never completely numb or pacify it. everyone needs to work for a living and therefore every honest profession is seen as honorable. Philosophers and legislators must. Equality can never be complete. making them restless in their desire to enjoy as many pleasures as possible in a limited time. because there are always inequalities of talent and intelligence. equality and freedom are not inherently contradictory‹in fact they are complementary. . therefore. and they will be perfectly equal because they are entirely free. Tocqueville is afraid that it will be overcome by the desire for equality. In America." but "the ills which liberty brings may be immediate. Tocqueville believes that the formation of institutions that work to foster people's sense of liberty is crucial in any society. They want equality in freedom. and nobody can wield tyrannical power. and breathe freely. At the same time." Tocqueville argues that local liberties are much more important than political rights in deciding the general affairs of the whole country. in which there are equal liberties because there are no liberties at all. Perhaps the problem is precisely that most people fail to make this distinction.different from traditional aristocracies because the rich do not have a strong bond linking them together. In the negative sense." In this way. it is equality of rights. Then." Therefore. For only in countries where it reigns can a man speak. For the negative aspect of equality is most often found where there is no liberty." Among democratic peoples especially. eternal. insatiable. The problem with freedom is that precisely because it is so lofty and its benefits so intangible. because a person "has little understanding of the way in which the fate of the state can influence his own lot. a desire for equal liberties can also be satisfied under a despotic government. which is both more easily attained and more visible. and invincible. Tocqueville imagines a somewhat utopian political scenario where equality and freedom would blend perfectly: "Let us suppose that all the citizens take a part in the government and that each of them has an equal right to do so. and if they cannot have that. comes back to maintaining the desire for liberty for its own sake. they still want it in slavery. In the end." while minor questions of local interest have an obvious visible effect on his everyday life (511). . equality and freedom are perfectly compatible. the lawgivers gave "each part of the land its own political life so that there should be an infinite number of occasions for the citizens to act together and so that every day they should feel that they depended on one another. nor is there a reciprocal bond of duty between the master and workmen as there was between the aristocrat and peasant. yet one can infer it by his use of the word equality in both a negative and positive sense. He expresses this concern most explicitly when he states that "only perceptive and clearsighted men see the dangers with which equality threatens us. Another means of combating the individualism and political apathy born of equality is through local liberties. Tocqueville lauds the propensity of Americans to form associations and write newspapers because he realizes that they help people to realize their dependence on their fellow citizens and take an interest in public affairs. Most importantly. equality seems to be synonymous with uniformity. and they have won." while "the advantages of equality are felt immediately. Tocqueville considers freedom to be a noble desire that has an almost mystical character about it and which is very difficult to sustain. while in the positive it means equal liberties. live. As a result. men will be perfectly free because they are entirely equal. on the other hand. owing obedience to no authority save God and the laws of the land. "the Americans have used liberty to combat the individualism born of equality. Analysis In this part of the book Tocqueville provides a more in-depth philosophical analysis of the precarious balance between equality and freedom. Considering the tendencies of democratic peoples to become individualistic. or do not appreciate its importance." 31 | P a g e . there is a great danger of losing liberty. The man who asks of freedom any more than itself is born to be a slave" (The Old Regime and the French Revolution). Yet the equality Tocqueville describes is not sameness. Tocqueville himself does not make this distinction explicitly in his writings. such as under a despotic government. however. a fascination it has in itself. Tocqueville asserts that "man cannot be absolutely equal without being entirely free. Tocqueville writes that "their passion for equality is ardent." Because it is so easy to lose sight of the benefits of liberty. The challenge." To better illustrate this point. one can see how crucial it is to have institutions and civic duties which force people to look beyond their own interests and think about the problems of the community. ." Conversely. rather. "the good things that freedom brings are seen only as time passes. no man is different from his fellows. people will be much more effectively drawn together and more likely to exercise their liberty if they are given control of minor local affairs. Ideally. "free institutions and the political rights enjoyed there provide a thousand continual reminders to every citizen that he lives in society. which is the central concern of his work. Tocqueville believes that freedom attracts men because of "its intrinsic glamour. Chapter 4: Consequences Deriving From the Three Preceding Chapters Because they sympathize with the sufferings of their fellows. In a country like France in the nineteenth century. Part III: Influence of Democracy on Mores Properly So Called Chapter 1: How Mores Become More Gentle as Social Conditions Become More Equal In times of equality. Young men. For such a situation. however. On the one hand. can lead people even to accept despotism. Chapter 6: How Democratic Institutions and Mores Tend to Raise Rent and Shorten the Terms of Leases Because everything is a democracy seems unstable." Yet this dynamic between equality and liberty could be problematic.Here one can see yet another feature of the complementarity between liberty and equality. Yet with increasing equality as the prevailing and‹in Tocqueville's view‹inevitable force in history. While a certain amount of equality is necessary for genuine liberty. Tocqueville's conception of the relationship between freedom and equality is far from simple. and it seems that in the long run the workers will prevail because their already relatively high wages lessen their dependence on their employer. "there is only one effective remedy against the evils which equality may cause. The passion for equality. In America. The father has less authority and there are almost no formalities governing relations between fathers and children. so they tend to lend mutual help when needed. On the other hand. especially unequal rights. As Tocqueville asserts. which deserves primary focus is that of fostering and preserving liberty. upon reaching the age of adolescence. Yet in some parts of industry an aristocracy of industrialists has grown up. Overall. those negative effects themselves act as obstacles to liberty. Equality also makes Americans see that they are all weak and subject to similar dangers. This state of affairs increases the natural bond of affection and trust by lowering the barriers between parents and children. In foreign countries. Tocqueville seems to offer little hope. is a detriment to freedom. however. liberty is necessary to guard against the negative side-effects of equality. Americans are highly sensitive to criticism because of the high opinion they have of themselves and their country. Chapter 8: Influence of Democracy on the Family The family in the aristocratic sense does not exist in America. Chapter 5: How Democracy Modifies the Relations Between Master and Servant The relations between servant and master are very different in a democracy than in an aristocracy because the only difference between them is based on a temporary and freely made contract. people relate to each easily in a natural. people are more sensitive to the sufferings of others because they can imagine themselves in the same position. Americans treat one anther with a great degree of mutual tolerance and are not easily offended. landlords feel the need to charge higher rents and both landlords and tenants shy away from long terms of leases. For while only liberty can mitigate the negative effects of equality. Volume II. The only possible course of action may be an attempt to demonstrate the dangers of equality and the benefits of liberty to the people and particularly the leaders of the country. lack of equality. and that is political liberty. freedom is dependent on equality and vice versa. The bonds between master and servant are also looser in democracies than in aristocracies. the problem is much more serious. it is clear that Tocqueville sees the growing equality of conditions as a danger to liberty. frank and open manner. there is no difficulty and the only action necessary is to ensure the security and prominence of them. 32 | P a g e . the difficulty. as Tocqueville himself is trying to do in his writings. and ardent than the desire for liberty. Chapter 7: Influence of Democracy on Wages There is a constant struggle between workers and employers for the level of wages. persuading them to enact reforms. Chapter 2: How Democracy Leads to Ease and Simplicity in the Ordinary Relations Between Americans Because there are no prejudices or class barriers to prevent people from socializing with one another in a democracy. are basically given complete freedom. Chapter 3: Why the Americans Are So Hard to Offend in Their Own Country and So Easily Offended in Ours As a result of equality. longstanding. more deeply-rooted. and in such situations the workers are forced to work for very low wages and have little bargaining power. Americans are quick to give assistance. where the institutions that safeguard freedom are already in place. Also. Chapter 13: How Equality Naturally Divides the Americans into a Multitude of Small Private Circles While Americans mix easily in the political sphere. Chapter 20: Concerning Place-Hunting in Some Democratic Societies There is a tendency for people in democracy's to want public appointments in order to have a comfortable and prosperous life. As a result there are fewer ephemeral and clandestine relationships. Chapter 17: How the Aspect of Society in the United States is At Once Agitated and Monotonous In democracies things are constantly changing. Having thus been prepared for married life and having entered into it freely.Chapter 9: Education of Girls in the United States Because women primarily shape the mores of a society. young women are cautious before entering marriage and enter into it with full knowledge of the sacrifices it demands. they attach great importance to the slightest advantages in order to feed their pride. In America women are esteemed and deeply respected. Chapter 16: Why American National Pride Has Become a More Restless and Quarrelsome Character Than That of the English When there are few differences between people. but marriage imposes many demands on women. many people are ambitious. in which societal order increases prosperity. Women in America are not brought up in naïve ignorance of vices of society. The Americans recognize the equality of men and women but see that they are different and are better are different things. it is difficult for a man to persuade a woman that he loves her if he is unwilling to marry her. Chapter 18: Concerning Honor in the United States and Democratic Societies The notion of honor is derived from people's dissimilarities and inequalities. Chapter 10: The Young Woman as Wife America takes the institution of marriage very seriously both because of its Puritan roots and because it is an industrial society. Americans think that men and women have different duties in life. the idea of honor will progressively fade away. rather they are taught how to deal with them and they allow them to develop good judgment. At the same time their actions are often ill-considered because they spend little time reflecting on things before doing them. This tendency for place-hunting is a great social evil because it tends 33 | P a g e . because when there are no class barriers to prevent a couple from getting married. there is little sympathy for divorce. but they are much more casual than in aristocracies and there are many small individual variations. While European men tend to flatter women. As a result. and achieving great fortune is extremely rare. in private life they break up into very small groups according to different tastes. but all the changes are alike and the people's passions are generally the same in that they mostly derive from love of wealth. Chapter 12: How the American Views the Equality of the Sexes Some Europeans considers men and women to be not only equal but actually the same. Chapter 19: Why There Are So Many Men of Ambition in the United States But So Few of Lofty Ambitions When everyone has some education and opportunity for fortune. Yet because of equality people are habituated to constrain their desire within narrow limits. The main reason for Americans' gravity is that in free countries all have to be concerned with both with national affairs and with the increase of their own wealth. because people enter into marriage by their free choice. The chief cause of the extraordinary prosperity of America is the superiority of American women. American women show great strength in adversity and great resilience of courage. As equality of conditions grows. Chapter 11: How Equality Helps to Maintain Good Morals in America Equality helps to make mores stricter. they consider them more as seductive objects than as equals. but the role of each is equally important and dignified. Paternal discipline is very lax in America. Chapter 14: Some Reflections on American Manners People's manners are very similar in democracies because of the general state of equality. Chapter 15: On the Gravity of the Americans and Why it Often Does Not Prevent Their Doing Ill-Considered Things Americans tend to be very serious and not take part in many coarse entertainments. Democratic societies have much more to fear from lack of high ambitions than from over-ambitiousness. the education of women is of great importance. Women in American Society "And now that I come near the end of this book in which I have recorded so many considerable achievements of the Americans. In Tocqueville's estimation. Civil wars will thus become much rarer. Democracy's should limit the number of public appointments. ideas and mores to remain prevalent and never bother to work for progress. When conditions are equally people are generally not likely to be persuaded by others' opinions because they do not think anyone is intellectually superior. Chapter 25: Of Discipline in Democratic Armies The discipline in democratic armies is based not on habit but on will and reason. In addition. In a prolonged war.to make people lose their independence and become servile to the state." With the term mores. Public opinion is extremely strong. the army is generally inferior to the nation in general after a long period of peace." Tocqueville's belief that women play a crucial role in shaping society is inseparable from his emphasis on the need for proper values and mores to achieve and maintain social stability and prosperity. and they have a natural dislike for revolution but it will upset the comforts they have gained. General political. But those in the military desire promotion and consequently long for war so that they can attain a higher post. they want war or revolution when the rest of the nation wants peace. 34 | P a g e . because in times of war government gains many extra powers. It is extremely difficult to change the opinion of the majority. As a result the government will need to fall back on conscription. The only possible cause for a revolution in America is the presence of blacks and the inequality between the races. I should answer that it is due to the superiority of their women. Chapter 22: Why Democratic Peoples Naturally Want Peace But Democratic Armies War Men of property. to the extent that people tend to assume their wrong if their view is not held by the majority. Most are in the middle. yet at the same time certain principles are extraordinarily stable. There is a danger in democracies that people will become so engrossed in pursuit of private comfort that they simply allow the same institutions. philosophical and moral doctrine almost never change. Chapter 26: Some Considerations Concerning War in Democratic Societies War becomes much rarer in general because societies are interdependent as a result of trade and have few ideological differences. which are in the majority. Therefore. mores are "one of the great general causes responsible for the maintenance of a democratic republic in the United States. "if anyone asks me what I think the chief cause of the extraordinary prosperity and growing power of this nation. The army in a democracy tends be composed of those who have little to lose from a war. A war is the easiest way in which freedom can be destroyed in a democracy. Yet in times of war people become attracted to the army and the elite see a military career as a way of gaining honor. especially in a democracy. therefore. the majority are generally opposed to war because it is against their material interests. Though society is constantly changing. there is little danger of revolution. In democratic societies there are few people who are either very rich or very poor." writes Tocqueville. Chapter 23: Which is the Most Warlike and Revolutionary Class in Democratic Armies Democratic people rarely choose to enter the military. people in democracies are extremely pragmatic and are simply not interested in ideas which do not have a direct bearing on practical affairs. Chapter 21: Why Great Revolutions Will Become Rare Most revolutions are caused by a desire either to maintain or destroy inequality. It is very dangerous to have a warloving army in a peace-loving country. the army will improve greatly over time. tend to want peace. though they may be few. In addition. Chapter 24: What Makes Democratic Armies Weaker Than Others At the Beginning of a Campaign But More Formidable in Prolonged Warfare Since the elite of the nation are drawn away from the military. Those that decide to stay after the required term will be few. and it tends to become somewhat of a separate nation with its own habits and mores. Analysis I. People are also so absorbed in trying to increase their fortune and comfort that they have no interest in abstract revolutionary ideas. In America human behavior seems extremely open to change. and those with military careers break all ties to civilian life. and as the regularity of life brings him happiness. Tocqueville argues that the respect given to the institution of marriage in a society has a powerful impact on the order and well-being of that society as a whole. Through his studies. and . however." America in Tocqueville's day combined both of these attributes. salutary role of women is the American view of equality between the sexes. a young woman is allowed to become familiar with "the vices and dangers of society" so that. and society. "when the American returns from the turmoil of politics to the bosom of the family. . From his observations. "almost all the disorders of society are born around the domestic hearth and not far from the nuptial bed." Another effect of 35 | P a g e . "however credulous passion may make us. Therefore everything which has a bearing on the status of women. The latter see in it the surest safeguard of the order and prosperity of the house. As Tocqueville remarks. "seeing them clearly. and insatiability of desires." The principle way in which women shape mores is through their role as wives and mothers. There all his pleasures are simple and natural and his joys innocent and quiet. in my view. but also as a great service to society. What was it in particular about American society in the nineteenth century that had fostered such a strong respect for marriage and such exemplary strength of character in American women? Tocqueville attributes the situation partially to the style of a girl's upbringing and education. the various opinions current among them. aware of this situation and aware of the sacrifices that marriage demands. he easily forms the habit of regulating his opinions as well as his tastes. and the sum of ideas that shape mental habits. In an aristocratic society the relations between men and women tend to be more problematic. Tocqueville notes that rather than being sheltered and shielded from reality. combined with the strong influence of religious values and the discipline provided by industrial habits. . Tocqueville found that the United States was the country where marriage was most respected. he immediately finds a perfect picture of order and peace. Tocqueville found that "religious peoples and industrial nations take a particularly serious view of marriage. restlessness of spirit. These forces shaped cultural expectations of women and created a strong public opinion in favor of respecting the permanence of marriage and particularly the specifically domestic role of women." Mores are especially crucial and influential in democratic societies because of the freedom that the people enjoy. The former consider the regularity of a woman's life the best guarantee and the surest sign of the purity of her morals.Tocqueville is referring to "the different notions possessed by men." In a democratic society. their habits and their thoughts is." By contrast. at least in the north. The women themselves." He adds that "her morals are pure rather than her mind chaste. it is women who shape these mores. Of course." Such an approach leads to the formation of women who are not naïve but who have the prudence and fortitude necessary to carry out their duties and live upright lives. Puritanism still had a very strong influence. where "equality of conditions has swept down all the real or imaginary barriers separating man and woman. Another attribute of American society that contributes to the strength of marriage and the strong." Tocqueville sees the effort of a wife to create an orderly. entered into marriage with full knowledge of what is expected of them and were cautious before entering into a marriage commitment." The result for society at large is that "whereas the European tries to escape his sorrows at home by troubling society. In America. the strong role of public opinion and the general weakness of authority. Women have a particularly important responsibility in democratic society precisely because of their ability to shape its mores. loving and pleasant home environment therefore as not only a matter affecting the well-being of individual families. there is hardly a way of persuading a girl that you love her when you are perfectly free to marry her but will not do so. passions and affections cannot be bound by those barriers. "In Europe. and he attributed the stability of American society‹as opposed to the general disorder of many European societies. with immense social and even political repercussions. particularly France‹to the strength of this institution. As Tocqueville points out. she judges them without illusion and faces them without fear." asserts Tocqueville. was becoming highly industrialized. because people often have little choice of whom they are going to marry and even if they can choose. "there have never been free societies without mores. Tocqueville also provides some possible explanations for the respect given to the institution of marriage in American society." women are empowered to test the true level of a man's love and commitment to her. It is there that men come to feel scorn for natural ties and legitimate pleasures and develop a taste for disorder. and consequently there are "a great number of ephemeral and clandestine connections. their choice is limited by class barriers. of great political importance. the American derives from his home the love of order which he carries over into affairs of the state. must have a head. there are few widespread ideas contrary to public opinion that would spur a revolution. to be effective. an aristocrat himself. are best suited to work in the domestic sphere. Tocqueville. which created such great differences between men and women. clearly intended to give their diverse faculties a diverse employment. II. but Tocqueville warns that it ought not to be fostered because the apathy and self-interest of the majority could be taken advantage of by a minority with an interest in revolution." While Tocqueville's opinions about a woman's role are clearly marked by the conventions of his era. he believes." This tendency will indeed make revolution more unlikely. General ideas about life and government are fixed by the opinion of the majority and almost never change. had a deep sense of the dignity of women. and mores. gaining popularity among the European philosophers of his time. but actually similar. Tocqueville fears that democratic societies "will end up by being too unalterably fixed with the same institutions. on the other hand. regarding them "as beings of equal worth" and considering their work to be as important as men's. Of course. There are a few anomalies. but also that they lack extraordinary virtue. and he praises the Americans for respecting that authority in spite of their democratic mentality. Tocqueville disagrees with the notion. 36 | P a g e . political affairs. "In Europe. so that mankind will stop progressing and will dig itself in. one feels that he never sincerely thinks her his equal." III. Tocqueville places importance on the need for strong paternal authority in the family. they treated them with respect and esteem. although a European may often make himself a woman's slave.equality in nineteenth-century America is that. both because of their ideology and also because of economic self-interest. as Tocqueville often describes it. there is nothing to be done except make the best of the situation and be glad that there are no terrible vices. for other reasons. "one has often noted that a certain contempt lurks in the flattery men lavish on women." This means that people in general do not have terrible vices. recognizing that "every association." Tocqueville believes that the view of equality which treats men and women as the same "degrades them both. and that since great personalities simply do not tend to form in democratic societies. to make them much "gentler. while men are better equipped for business. Middling effect A more general influence of democracy on mores is. "every man tends to live apart. and managing the external relations of the family. but in general this problem does not seem to have great potential to cause any real danger." and "most inhabitants of a democracy have property. honor." in America men "[had] such respect for their moral freedom that in their presence every man [was] careful to keep a watch on his tongue for fear that they should be forced to listen to language which offends them. The tendencies toward the omnipotence of the majority and overwhelming acceptance of public opinion also work against revolution. while holding to the idea that men and women are destined to pursue different occupations in life." In America." While in Europe men regarded women as "seductive but incomplete beings. prejudices. public opinion very harshly condemned infidelity and divorce." There is a more philosophic and even. centered in himself and forgetful of the public. this unchangeability of general ideas is also a great danger for democracies. Likewise. Even aside from the problem of tyranny of the majority." Women. intelligence. he shows a much greater respect for women than the prevailing European views at the time." asserts Tocqueville. laments this loss of great heroism. that men and women "are not equal only. thereby strengthening the institution of marriage. Democracy and War Tocqueville in general follows the classical liberal characterization of democracies as un-warlike. and the natural head of the conjugal association is the husband. As a result. displaying complete confidence in their spouse's judgment and deep respect for their freedom. precisely because there was freedom in the choice of one's spouse. and virtue. quite disturbing element of democratic societies that disincline them to revolution: their individualism." By contrast. Tocqueville argues that great revolutions will become rare because "any revolution is more or less a threat to property. "When social conditions are equal. in America Tocqueville found that while men did not often flatter or compliment women. and that so coarse a jumble of nature's works could produce nothing but feeble men and unseemly women. Tocqueville was pleased to find the prevailing view that "nature. The Americans' particular view of equality between the sexes also strengthened the position of women in society." remarks Tocqueville. Yet he seems to think that the growth of equality is fated." Clearly the Americans. such as the soldiers who tend to have an interest in war. Although the Sovereigns are Less Stable All the revolutions and movements in Europe over the past fifty years have been alike in that they have decreased or abolished secondary powers and increased the centralization of government. As long as the ruler makes the people believe he loves equality. In addition. protective power giving them securing and ensuring their happiness. Education also helps men to maintain their independence. he will be able to succeed in centralizing power. The greatest accidental cause that would lead to centralization of power in a democracy is the emergence of a ruler whom the people believe truly represents their interests and instincts. Once that equality was established it made freedom more difficult to attain and maintain. Chapter 7: Continuation of the Preceding Chapters Times of equality are most conducive to despotism. This sort of subjection is mostly concentrated in petty affairs and details of daily life. whereas in Europe it is the opposite." Maintaining a powerful and independent judiciary is absolutely essential for the protection of private rights. the instincts of freedom combat the inclinations of liberty. This is the case in America. Democracies are therefore tending in that direction. It seems less severe. Chapter 2: Why the Ideas of Democratic Peoples About Government Naturally Favor the Concentration of Political Power When all are equal the individual loses importance in relation to the whole society. This type of despotism would "degrade men rather than torment them.Democracy in America Summary and Analysis of Vol. there is a huge." The most effective ways of doing this seem to be to give secondary bodies of private citizens some of the administrative power. Chapter 5: How the Sovereign Power is Increasing Among the European Nations of Our Time. Safeguarding freedom of the press is also extremely important because the individual's only means of appeal is to the nation as a whole. The independence and power of the judiciary are also being undermined. par excellence. but it can also lead them to servitude. Democratic peoples are also attracted by simple. Chapter 3: How Both the Feelings and the Thoughts of Democratic Nations Are in Accord in Concentrating Political Power Individualism makes democratic peoples inclined to allow the state to look after common needs. because systems which maintain liberty are more complex than those with a uniform central power. but greatly erodes the ability of people to exercise their free will and even their ability to think for themselves. Democratic peoples tend to give 37 | P a g e . Many stable dynasties have been overthrown and their power seems to be weakening. yet at the same time the central administration is growing ever more powerful. They allow this to happen because the people are sovereign so they think the government's policies represent their own choices. "The press is. completely apathetic to the rest of society. Central government is perfect for making things equal and uniform. There is no possibility of reconstructing aristocracy. the people desired freedom in order to make themselves equal. II. Chapter 4: Concerning Peculiar and Accidental Causes Which Either Lead a Democratic People to Complete the Centralization of Government or Divert Them From It If people have lived freedom for a long time before becoming equal. Part 4. The only possible remedy is "to make freedom spring from that democratic society in which God has placed us. because the more equal conditions become. in which leaders are not tyrants but more like schoolmasters. In democratic revolutions. materialism makes them afraid of economic disturbances. Chapter 6: What Sort of Despotism Democratic Nations Have to Fear Democracies are in danger of a milder despotism in times past." The scenario would look something like this: There are a multitude of equal citizens. the democratic weapon of freedom. Free choice becomes narrower and narrower. the more shocking the slightest dissimilarity is. Chapters 1-8 Chapter 1: Equality Naturally Gives Men the Taste for Free Institutions Equality makes people love independence. general ideas and the uniformity of central power. Above them. Love of equality breeds itself. Even religion is in danger of falling under government control. democratic peoples see no need to limit it. completely absorbed in looking after their own comforts and material well-being. As nations become industrialized the power of the government also increases because it needs to provide a suitable infrastructure. Since the power of the state comes from the people. The state has also increased its economic power through government-controlled central banks. it is much easier to fall into democratic despotism than authoritarian despotism." 38 | P a g e . protective power which is alone responsible for securing their enjoyment and watching over their fate. because democracy is a term indicating who rules. religion." Precisely because of its mildness. proper mores. Still. and despotism is a term indicating how much power the ruler has. Each individual lets them put the collar on. The doctrine of judging things based on social utility is especially dangerous. They console themselves for being under schoolmasters by thinking that they have chosen them themselves. the materialism and individualism of democratic peoples tend to prepare the way for despotic government. is almost unaware of the fate of the rest. precisely because it is not so obvious as despotism by a single ruler and because it is perfectly compatible with rule by the majority. That gives them a chance to relax. and because the American people have a natural and deep-rooted taste for liberty." Such a government is far from cruel. Chapter 8: General Survey of the Subject The general influence of growing equality on mankind is remarkable. but people do have the power to shape the effects of that equality for better or worse. Furthermore. freedom of association. Over this kind of men stands an immense. for he sees that it is not a person. alike and equal. Analysis In this last section of the book. Because American society contains these elements which help to preserve liberty. Tocqueville. it is therefore extremely important to guard against this tendency. "I see an innumerable multitude of men. "looking forward to the future with that salutary fear which makes them keep watch and ward for freedom. it would degrade men rather than torment them. It is favorable to equality and to material comfort.little importance to individual rights. Democratic despotism is a great danger. predisposing them to endure it and often even regard it as beneficial. For these reasons. Everything tends toward the middle. or a class of persons. local self-government and a strong independent judiciary. Democratic despotism is not a contradiction in terms. but society itself which holds the end of the chain. Tocqueville conjectures that "it would be more widespread and milder." The reason that people would allow themselves to live in such conditions is that though they value freedom. withdrawn into himself." The ways to combat this tendency are all of those which Tocqueville has recommended throughout the book: a free press. . constantly circling around in pursuit of the petty and banal pleasures with which they glut their souls. there is a democratic despotism. it is necessary always to guard freedom and to ensure the maintenance of those institutions and mores which help to preserve it. In order to achieve these things. There must be clear and fixed limits of social power. . This sort of despotism is very different in character from traditional types of despotism. states. There are fewer grand and heroic virtues or individuals. yet it gently usurps the sphere of free action and continually narrows the realm in which human beings can exercise their free will. . Each one of them. Tocqueville brings the focus once again on his main theme of the challenges to maintaining liberty in the midst of a growing equality of conditions. but life in general is more comfortable and mores are more humane and gentle. The growth of equality is inevitable. Therefore when the people rule and the majority has absolute power. imagining a society ripe for despotism. equality and guidance. Never in the past have conditions been more equal. they also want uniformity. it is possible to prevent the degeneration of American democracy into despotism. Tocqueville remarks that "equality has prepared men for all this. "centralization is combined with the sovereignty of the people.