Corrosion problems during oil and gas production and its mitigation

Popoola et al.International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013, 4:35 http://www.industchem.com/content/4/1/35 REVIEW Open Access Corrosion problems during oil and gas production and its mitigation Lekan Taofeek Popoola1*, Alhaji Shehu Grema2†, Ganiyu Kayode Latinwo3†, Babagana Gutti2† and Adebori Saheed Balogun4† Abstract In order to ensure smooth and uninterrupted flow of oil and gas to the end users, it is imperative for the field operators, pipeline engineers, and designers to be corrosion conscious as the lines and their component fittings would undergo material degradations due to corrosion. This paper gives a comprehensive review of corrosion problems during oil and gas production and its mitigation. The chemistry of corrosion mechanism had been examined with the various types of corrosion and associated corroding agents in the oil and gas industry. Factors affecting each of the various forms of corrosion were also presented. Ways of mitigating this menace with current technology of low costs had been discussed. It was noticed that the principles of corrosion must be understood in order to effectively select materials and to design, fabricate, and utilize metal structures for the optimum economic life of facilities and safety in oil and gas operations. Also, oil and gas materials last longer when both inhibitors and protective coatings are used together than when only batch inhibition was used. However, it is recommended that consultations with process, operations, materials, and corrosion engineers are necessary in the fitness of things to save billions of dollars wasted on corrosion in the oil and gas industries. Keywords: Oil and gas; Alloys; Production; Corrosion; Industry; Corroding agents; Materials; Inhibitors; Test; Mitigation Review and gas wells and pipelines, such highly corrosive media Introduction are carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and Corrosion is the destructive attack of a material by reac- free water [5]. Continual extraction of CO2, H2S, and tion with its environment [1] and a natural potential free water through oil and gas components can over hazard associated with oil and gas production and trans- time make the internal surfaces of these components to portation facilities [2]. Almost any aqueous environment suffer from corrosion effects. The lines and the component can promote corrosion, which occurs under numerous fittings of the lines would undergo material degradations complex conditions in oil and gas production, process- with the varying conditions of the well due to changes in ing, and pipeline systems [3]. This process is composed fluid compositions, souring of wells over the period, and of three elements: an anode, a cathode, and an electro- changes in operating conditions of the pressures and lyte. The anode is the site of the corroding metal, the temperatures. This material degradation results in the loss electrolyte is the corrosive medium that enables the of mechanical properties like strength, ductility, impact transfer of electrons from the anode to the cathode, and strength, and so on. This leads to loss of materials, reduc- the cathode forms the electrical conductor in the cell tion in thickness, and at times ultimate failure. A point will that is not consumed in the corrosion process [4]. Crude be reached where the component may completely break oil and natural gas can carry various high-impurity prod- down and the assembly will need to be replaced while ucts which are inherently corrosive. In the case of oil production is stopped. The serious consequences of the corrosion process have become a problem of worldwide * Correspondence: [email protected] † Equal contributors significance [1]. 1 Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering, Afe Babalola Corrosion in the modern society is one of the out- University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State +234, Nigeria standing challenging problems in the industry. Most Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © 2013 Popoola; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. and these elec- the New York harbor had undergone severe galvanic trons are then absorbed by other metal atoms at the corrosion after which remedial measures were taken. on Bedloe's Island. Reports around the world have treatment costs every year [3]. $463 million annually in downhole tubing expen- consideration the effect of corrosion on the life span of ses. When metal is ex- injuries. but one flight industry occurs when steel comes in contact with an attendant died and several passengers sustained serious aqueous environment and rusts [4]. Miraculously.000 ft [7. The cathode.500 people.com/content/4/1/35 industrial designs can never be made without taking into costs. Also cited were three representatives of the ðoxygen reduction in neutral or basic solutionÞ regional sewer system and the city's mayor. orga- a chosen process. the Statue of Liberty which was officially posed to a corrosive solution (the electrolyte). the series of blasts damaged 1. It is now known Currently. The subsequent corrosion of the gasoline pipeline. Corrosion costs US in- confirmed that some oil companies had their pipeline dustries alone an estimated $170 billion a year in which ruptured due to corrosion and that oil spillages are expe. broken ðhydrogen evolution from neutral waterÞ: down into $589 million in surface pipeline and facility ð5Þ . Internal corrosion in wells and pipelines is tion. The sewer Fe →Fe2þ þ 2e− : ð1Þ explosion was traced to the installation of a water pipe After the metal atoms at the anode site release elec- by a contractor several years before the explosion that trons. operated by Aloha. much greater benefits such as reduced maintenance costs.600 charged. The 2H2 O þ 2e− →H2 þ 2OH− total annual cost of corrosion in the oil and gas produc- tion industry is estimated to be $1. and surface condition of the steel damage resulted from corrosion effects [6]. CO2 and H2S content. Having a greatly reduced corrosion rate (mm/year) ity of occurrence of corrosion in an industrial plant has can dramatically increase component life. costs [13]. a 19-year-old Boeing 737 aircraft. On 28 April 1988. the oil and gas industry takes more than half of these rienced which no doubt created environmental pollu. chemical. in full flight at industry 24. the government-owned 1 =2 O2 þ H2 O þ 2e− →2OH− oil company. many components used for oil and gas extrac- that corrosion can have some effects on the chemistry of tion are made from carbon steel-based alloys. 4:35 Page 2 of 15 http://www. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. in turn. bonding with other groups of atoms that are negatively Besides the fatalities.8]. The problem of corrosion is a challenge to the whole failure had been historically recorded. and mechanical engineers and chemists. The Mexican ð2Þ attorney general sought negligent homicide charges against four officials of Pemex. and finally. cathode site. Hawaii. lost a major portion of the upper fuselage near the front Corrosion types and associated agents in the oil and gas of the plane due to corrosion damage.Popoola et al. Also.372 billion. and another $320 million in capital expenditures the equipment. Recent industrial catastrophes have it related to corrosion [12]. corro- ð3Þ sion should be given attention and adequate measures should be taken to curb it as our lives are being endan- gered in this serious problem. Another example of corrosion damage with shared balance their positive and negative charges. in contact with the anode via The design of the statue rises more than 91 m into the the electrolyte. the pilot managed to land The most common form of corrosion in the oil and gas the plane on the island of Maui. [14]. Mexico in April 1992 [9]. Corrosion costs the oil and gas that many industries have lost several billions of dollars industry tens of billions of dollars in lost income and as a result of corrosion. Positively responsibilities was the sewer explosion that killed over charged ions are released into the electrolyte capable of 200 people in Guadalajara. O2 þ 4 Hþ þ 4e− →2H2 O ðoxygen reduction in acidic solutionÞ caused leakage of gasoline into the sewers. which leads to been posing a lot of concern to petroleum. the metal inaugurated on 28 October 1866. Thus. conducts this exchange in an attempt to air. flow velocity.industchem. Now. there are four common cathode reactions [15]: leaked water on a gasoline line laying underneath. large-scale ecological chemistry. 2Hþ þ 2e− → H2 ðhydrogen evolution from acidic solutionÞ The costs attributed to corrosion damages of all kinds ð4Þ have been estimated to be of the order of 3% to 5% of industrialized countries' gross national product [11]. This anodic reaction for iron and steel is buildings and injured 1. and the product of corrosion can nizations are looking to move away from these types of affect reaction and purity of the reaction products. The possibil. Damage costs were estimated at 75 million US dollars [10]. resources are lost in cleaning up this influenced by temperature. water environmental mess. in addition. in atoms at the anode site lose electrons. world and must be greatly tackled. alloys to a more corrosion-resistant alloy at a much higher Many catastrophic incidences resulting from corrosion cost. It is a great challenge to classify the types of corrosion Various mechanisms have been postulated for the CO2 in the oil and gas industry in a uniform way. flow condition. The best known mechanism was postulated by de preventive methods. CO2 þ H2 O þ Fe→FeCO3 ðIron carbonateÞ þ H2 : Sweet corrosion (CO2 corrosion) ð11Þ CO2 corrosion has been a recognized problem in oil and gas production and transportation facilities for many years [19]. iron carbide scale is formed on ð7Þ the oil and gas pipe as a protective scale.18] sweet corrosion. 4:35 Page 3 of 15 http://www. When water combines contacting aqueous phase [21]. and water. In all 2H → H2 ð9Þ cases of corrosion. CO2 is one of the main corroding agents in the oil and gas production systems [20]. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. sion and mesa attack. crevice corrosion. and overall sion cracking. mechanism of attack. Figure 2 Pitting corrosion. carbon dioxide (CO2) and dissolved in an aqueous phase through which it can pro- hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are commonly present. microbiologically induced corrosion. form of localized CO2 corrosion under medium-flow Figure 1 is the diagrammatic representation of the corro. . temperature.industchem.Popoola et al. Fe →Fe2þ þ 2e− ð10Þ vanic corrosion. gal. the electrolyte must be present for the reaction to occur. the bicarbonate ion formed on dissolution of CO2 in sion damage. and metal char- ð6Þ acteristics [20. Figures 2 and 3 represent pitting corro- sion process. These resulting molecules attack that results in rapid penetration and removal of either attach themselves to the cathode or are released metal at a small discrete area) [23] and mesa attack (a into the electrolyte and the corrosion process continues. the environments form the following water. and stress corro. the major forms of corrosion include [17. reactions [16]: CO2 corrosion is influenced by temperature. conditions) [24]. There are many types and causes of Waard et al. Dry CO2 gas is not itself corrosive at the temperatures encountered within oil and gas production systems but is so when Figure 1 Corrosion process. composition of the aqueous stream. erosion corrosion. [25] and was given as corrosion. and the metal starts to corrode under these conditions. presence H2 CO3 Reaction : Fe þ H2 CO3 →FeCO3 þ H2 of non-aqueous phases. increase in pH value. At H2 S Reaction : Fe þ H2 S þ H2 O →FeS þ 2H: elevated temperatures. respectively. and water mote an electrochemical reaction between steel and the is their catalyst for corrosion.com/content/4/1/35 In the oil and gas industry. service H2 CO3 þ e− →H þ HCO3 − ð8Þ location. sour corrosion. The mechanism present in a given piping system varies according to the fluid composition. In the oil and gas production with the steel reacting industries. CO2 corrosion There may be a combination of the above two reac. forming carbonic acid making the fluid acidic. One can corrosion process but all involve either carbonic acid or divide the corrosion on the basis of appearance of corro. industry section. geometry. CO2 will mix with the with CO2 and H2S. oxygen corrosion. can appear in two principal forms: pitting (localized tions if both gases are present. and so forth.22] and is by far the most prevalent form of attack encountered in oil and gas production [2]. The high-velocity flow of drilling fluids over the surfaces of a drill pipe continues to supply oxygen to the metal Figure 3 Mesa attack.industchem. it becomes a severely corrosive corrosion and pitting-type corrosion. Oxygen dissolved in drilling fluids is a major cause of drill pipe corrosion. Hydrogen sulfide when dissolved in water is a weak acid. In such situation. The anode loses metal ions to balance The general equation of sour corrosion can be expressed electron flow. The inhibition of cor- The deterioration of metal due to contact with hydrogen rosion promoted by oxygen is difficult to achieve and is sulfide (H2S) and moisture is called sour corrosion not practical in the drilling fluid system. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. The forms of sour corrosion are onment. and is destructive at concentrations as low as 5 ppb [30]. it is a source of Galvanic corrosion hydrogen ions and is corrosive. and process vents and open hatches. is shown in Figure 5. casing. Oxygen corrosion Oxygen is a strong oxidant and reacts with the metal very quickly. Figure 6 shows the agent in the presence of water [26]. Oxygen ingress takes place in the well fluids through leaking pump seals. solutions containing H2S. and therefore. the metal with less or the uniform. [28]. Problems are most acute when the ratio of H2 S þ Fe þ H2 O →FeSx þ 2H þ H2 O: ð12Þ the cathode-to-anode area is large [18]. oxygen accelerates the anodic destruction of metal [29]. Iron sulfide forms rials with different nobilities (electrochemical potential) a scale that at low temperature can act as a barrier to are in contact and are exposed to an electrolytic envir- slow corrosion [18]. 4:35 Page 4 of 15 http://www. corroding [20.com/content/4/1/35 of a mackinawite film. . Although H2S corrosion associated with oxygen are mainly uniform is not corrosive by itself. as follows [27]: many of such cells are set up. as proposed by Sun et al. pitting. embrittlement [20]. The forms of which is the most damaging to drill pipe. The presence of oxygen magnifies the corrosive effects Sour corrosion (H2S corrosion) of the acid gases (H2S and CO2). leading to pipeline diagrammatic representation of oxygen corrosion. Figure 7 is the diagrammatic representation of the galvanic corrosion Another probable mechanism for iron dissolution in aqueous solutions containing H2S based on the formation Figure 5 Probable mechanism for iron dissolution in aqueous Figure 4 Oil and gas pipeline under sour corrosion.31]. Figure 4 is the most negative potential becomes the anode and starts diagram of an oil and gas pipeline under sour corrosion. The corrosion products This type of corrosion occurs when two metallic mate- are iron sulfides (FeSx) and hydrogen. Because metals are made up of crystals.Popoola et al. causing intergranular corrosion. As a de- polarizer and electron acceptor in cathodic reactions. and stepwise cracking. result in selective crevice or pitting corrosion attack. The and is the common cause of washouts and destruction passive layer is a thin film of corrosion product that under rubber pipe protectors [32].Popoola et al. Oxygen dissolved in drilling fluid promotes crevice and pitting attack of metal in the shielded areas of drill string of corrosion products from the wall of the pipe. Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion is normally a localized corrosion tak- ing place in the narrow clearances or crevices in the metal and the fluid getting stagnant in the gap. Electrochemical potential differences sea strainer on an aluminum hose barb. process. 4:35 Page 5 of 15 http://www. . while Figure 8 is the galvanic corrosion resul- ting from placing a bronze sea strainer on an aluminum hose barb as part of the equipment used during oil and gas production. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013.com/content/4/1/35 Figure 6 Oxygen corrosion. This is caused by concentration differences of corrodents over a Figure 8 Galvanic corrosion resulting from placing a bronze metal surface [1]. Figure 9 Oil and gas pipeline under crevice corrosion. it down. this passive layer can be removed. Figure 9 depicts an actually serves to stabilize the corrosion reaction and slow oil and gas pipeline under crevice corrosion.industchem. As a result of the turbulence and high shear stress in the line. Erosion corrosion The erosion corrosion mechanism increases corrosion reaction rate by continuously removing the passive layer Figure 7 Galvanic corrosion process. Corrosion mitigation in the oil and gas industry terium. which included species of Bacillus. appearance of patches. Figure 12 presence of microbes in reservoirs had been published shows an oil and gas pipeline after being attacked by stress [37-39].. organic acids that corrode the pipes by increasing the toxicity of the flowing fluid in the pipeline [36]. and to each other. and Figure 10 SEM photograph of D. Bacteria that form slime control and prevention in the oil and gas industry. causing severe plugging problems widely recognized within the oil and gas industry that at injection wells [39]. 4:35 Page 6 of 15 http://www. Micrococcus. mitigation programs [3]. The acteristic of SCC in a pipeline is high pH of the surround- formation of these colonies is promoted by neutral water ing environment. The bacteria produce waste products like CO2. forming a large mass. or colonies of especially when stagnant [20]. Within the sphere of corrosion ings and pipes in the oil field [40]. Numerous reports of the parallel cracks on the external of the pipe [43]. and Escherichia. there (some form of polysaccharides). SCC is the cracking induced from the combined influence of tensile stress and a corrosive medium. The impact of SCC on a material seems to fall between dry cracking and the fatigue threshold of that material [42]. Microbiologically induced corrosion This type of corrosion is caused by bacterial activities. It is the walls of the pores. caused by various factors combined with the environment . Lazar et al. High velocities and presence of abrasive suspended material and the corrodents in drilling and produced fluids contribute to this destructive process.industchem. and inspection pitting of the pipe wall underneath these deposits. indigenous in oil field formation waters. Escherichia is repor. The most obvious identifying char- and allow enhanced corrosion under the colony. ted to contain hydrogenase. Clostridium. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. costs [44]. resulting in sys- molecular hydrogen and may be associated with cathodic tems becoming less responsive to established corrosion hydrogen depolarization. and Desulfuricans sp. such as Achromobacter are technical options such as cathodic and anodic sp. Microbiologically induced corrosion effective management of corrosion will contribute to- (MIC) is recognized by the appearance of a black slimy wards the maintenance of asset integrity and achieve waste material or nodules on the pipe surface as well as optimization of mitigation. This is because the crack is Figure 11 Pipeline affected by MIC corrosion. They also adhere to the application of internal and external coatings. will adhere protection. The mi- crobes tend to form colonies in a hospitable environment surrounding the pipe. an enzyme that utilizes Fluid characteristics change over time. Flavobacterium sp. respectively [41].com/content/4/1/35 causing the corrosion rate to increase [33]. [38] found abundant microbial flora corrosion cracking. monitoring. Pseudomonas.Popoola et al. material selection. SCC in pipeline is a type of environ- mentally associated cracking. The erosion corrosion is always experienced where there is high turbulence flow regime with significantly higher rate of corrosion [34] and is dependent on fluid flow rate and the density and morphology of solids present in the fluid [20]. Oil field corrosion challenges are not static phenomena. While many methods have been advised to Figures 10 and 11 represent the scanning electron micros- copy (SEM) photograph of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans and a pipeline affected by MIC corrosion.. chemical dosing. Stress corrosion cracking Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a form of localized corrosion which produces cracks in metals by simultan- eous action of a corrodent and tensile stress. causing corrosion of steel cas. This form of corrosion is often overlooked or recognized as being caused by wear [35]. desulfuricans. H2S. Mycobac. It propa- gates over a range of velocities from 10−3 to 10 mm/h depending upon the combination of alloy and environ- ment involved.. Cu 56 Austentic 430 750 40 >90 >bp 60 ASTM American Society for Testing Materials. Alternatively. Craig [48] presented some select alternate materials to suit the specific need [20]. 25Cr duplex. 1 bar pH2S) for 720 h is presented in Table 2 [46].20 Cu 43 Austentic 300 650 40 87 65 35 654 SMO 24 22 7. 774 22 Avesta. 01) (5% NaCl. Bergsnasgatan 11.01 0. of the metal surface so that the metal enters the passiv- pany. A further 820 01). 2550 nickel alloy. bp boiling point. Mannan et al.Popoola et al.2 Rm A3 CPT CPT CCT ASTM ASTM ASTM Cr Ni Mo C N Other (MPa) (MPa) (%) G150 G48 F G48 F LDX 2101 21. +46 226 820 corrosion cracking. and results of various tests conducted for the recommended stainless steels for use in the oil and gas industries are summarized in Table 1 [25]. and  Use of inhibitors the expected life of a material is important before selec-  Use of protective coatings ting a specific metal for the application. 28Cr stainless steel. [47]  Adequate corrosion monitoring and inspection in their paper developed a new high-strength corrosion-  Cathodic protection technique resistant alloy 945 for oil and gas applications whose nominal composition was Fe-47Ni-20. alloys (shown in Table 4) whose applications in the oil Stainless steels cover a wide range of alloys.03 0. it is normally mum yield strength and an excellent combination of decided to change the materials of construction and ductility and impact strength. A cor- 625 nickel alloy.5 0. pH 3. Sweeden. it may act by increasing the potential 654 SMO (Outokumpu Stainless Steel and Alloys Com. .industchem.50 Mn. +46 226 ation region where a natural oxide film forms. The resistance to localized corrosion of the mode of action of some inhibitors is that the inhibiting Table 1 Chemical composition and mechanical properties of recommended stainless steels Grade Typical chemical composition (wt. corrosion mechanisms involved.01 0.1 0. In oil and gas applications.com/content/4/1/35 stainless steels was estimated from the composition using the pitting resistance equivalent (PRE): PRE ¼ ð%CrÞ þ ð3:3  %MoÞ þ ð16  %NÞ: ð13Þ The chemical composition. They protect the surface of metals either by proposed by Smith [45] include 13Cr. depending on the Inhibitors are chemicals that are used to protect the sur- demands of the particular service environment. and C276 nickel alloy. The result of the drop evaporation test (DET) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC) testing of the stainless steels recommended by Johansson et al. particular combination of corrosion resistance and mech- anical properties. Nalli [20] presented some of the commonly used arrest these events. rosion inhibitor may act in a number of ways: It may Johansson et al. The alloy was developed to provide 125 ksi mini- construction are prone to corrosive attack. each with a and gas industry are majorly in the absence of oxygen. the environment that may cause pollution [49]. [46] in NACE solu- tion (Outokumpu Stainless Steel and Alloys Company. 825 nickel alloy. mechanical properties. 774 22 Avesta. 22Cr merging with them or by reacting with the impurities in duplex. these methods can be broadly classed materials (shown in Table 3) in the hydrocarbon and oil as follows [20]: and gas industries based on a detailed study of process and operating conditions.5Cr-3Mo-2Cu-3Nb- When it is observed that the existing materials of 1. Figure 12 Oil and gas pipeline after being attacked by stress Bergsnasgatan 11.3 0. He stated that a detailed study  Selection of appropriate materials of flow conditions. [46] proposed a specialty stainless steel restrict the rate of the anodic process or the cathodic for solving corrosion problems in the oil and gas industry.5 1. many of Use of inhibitors these stainless steel grades are used.3 0. CPT critical pitting temperature. Applicable face of metals used in oil and gas industries to prevent corrosion-resistant alloys in the oil and gas industry corrosion.5Ti. process by simply blocking active sites on the metal sur- The three stainless steels were LDX 2101. 254 SMO and face.%) PRE Microstructure Rp0. 4:35 Page 7 of 15 http://www. Super 13Cr. Sweeden.22 5 Mn 26 Duplex 450 650 30 17 15 <0 254 SMO 20 18 6. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. and can be combined with fatty acids. and fuels.and medium-alloy steels Well head items. and cadmium . and their salts. and cost. RT - 254 SMO No cracks . such as filming inhibitors revealed that the effective corrosion inhibitors amine-based corrosion inhibitors. compound contributes to the formation of a thin layer concentration range of 50 to 200 ppm in the electrolyte on the surface which stifles the corrosion process [50]. manifolds All of these will lead to energy saving in oil production and well components with sour and increased overall recoverable reserves. zinc. . these VpCI-based Table 3 Recommended materials in the oil and gas anti-corrosion additives have been designed to work well industry in multiphase flow systems in conjunction with different Material specification Oil and gas applications drag reducers. . . storage tanks carrying water or the mixture of hydrocarbon and water. 100 0 to 80 100 25 No cracks bp boiling point. There are also non-metallic linings like fiber Nickel-iron (incolys) Well head and flow lines. carbon compounds for protection of steels in acid media. reheals and self-replenishes. manifolds with paint. Table 5 any part of the system will set the VpCI to work im- shows a list of recommended inhibitors by previous mediately with a self-replenishing mono-molecular researchers and their places of applicability in the oil and protective layer [62]. glass flake. piping and Use of protective coatings pumps A protective layer or barrier on the material to avoid the Duplex stainless steels Piping. pressure in the well head and lead to additional oil (chromium 12% to 18%) downhole rods. or a metallic lining or metal- Ni-Cr-Fe alloys high sour and temperature applications lic sheets. [61] had evaluated several types of corro. The barrier included long-chain amines. VpCIs form a sion inhibitors for the petroleum industry under various physical bond on the metal surface and create a barrier flow conditions. epoxy. The pie chart showing the world consumption Chromium-nickel steels Valve trims. drums. These inhibitor in the oil and gas industry include toxicity. VpCI technology is an environmentally safe and cost- Miksic et al. nickel >8%) materials of separators and tanks. KO drums. effective option for corrosion protection. These different combinations of corrosion Carbon steels Bulk fluids. 80 40 to 80 90 25 No cracks 654 SMO . very high level of chlorides is present 25% chromium super. The barrier layer can be Nickel-chrome (inconels) Well head and flow lines. Low. crude pipelines. oxygen. 9% nickel) LNG storage tanks. well heads. oil and gas wells. Organic subjected to a broad range of corrosive attack and flow corrosion inhibitors are more effective than inorganic restriction from moisture.com/content/4/1/35 Table 2 Drop evaporation and sulfide stress cracking tests for recommended stainless steels in oil and gas industry Grade Drop evaporation test SCC testing Wick test 40% CaCl2. Nickel steels Rarely used in oil and gas sectors. Nickel. valves and casing production. YS yield strength. fatty amides. etc. water and steam injection proved water flow and corrosion protection of pipelines lines. quater. RT room temperature. and electrolyte/hydrocarbon mixture in the presence of Factors to be considered before using a corrosion CO2 and H2S in static and dynamic conditions. an injection of a for oil well acidization include acetylene alcohols. Unlike conventional methods. manifolds with glass. and storage tanks. re- finery units. gas industries. amines. 3. duplex) material and equipment life. vessel and tank internals where a direct contact with the process media will enhance the (22% chromium duplex. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013.5%. and rubber which are normally Ni-Fe-Cr alloys high sour and temperature applications carried out on the equipment like separators. . Active ingredients of the inhibitors layer to protect against aggressive ions. aldehydes.5%. (2. volatile corrosion inhibitor (VpCI)-based material into nary ammonium salts. 4:35 Page 8 of 15 http://www. of corrosion inhibitors on a value basis is given in low-chloride levels Figure 13 [63]. bp DET (%) Cold work (%) Stress (% of YS) Temperature (°C) Result LDX 2101 No cracks No cracks No cracks . availability. products provide a very high level of protection for steel environmental friendliness. LNG liquefied natural gas. condensation. . production and test separators. A dioxide. It can be used in pipelines. imidazolines. a coating or a lining. and other corrosive contami- review of literature on high-temperature acid corrosion nants.Popoola et al. instruments and (chromium >18%. 100°C 25% NaCl. In addition. flow inhibitors and drag reducers provide systems with im- lines. Inhibitors were tested at the other functional properties for added protective capabil- ities.industchem. [49]. hydrogen sulfide. enabling a substantial annual revenue in- pipes crease. knock-out KO knock out. The reduction and high-temperature applications of operating pressure will in turn give a lower back Straight chromium steels Christmas trees. chokes. Mild steel in 15% HCl at 105 ± tinents. 12.4] Mild steel in 1 M hydrochloric acid triazin-3-yl)-guanidine and 0.0 0.industchem.04 .5 Balanced 1.0 0.5) and at high-temperature pressure conditions [59] Rosin amide imidazoline N80 and P110 carbon steels in CO2-saturated simulated formation Figure 13 Pie chart showing the world consumption of water [60] corrosion inhibitors. and 18 in boiling 15% hydrochloric acid 3LPO coatings dominate the rest of the world's pipe carbon atoms solution [52] coating market [67]. Balanced 0. and the largest team of technical and service 4-diazole 2°C and N80 steel in 15% HCl specialists in the business.2 . Single-layer FBE has conditions [51] been more popular in North America. The Phillips Ekofisk an extensive coating program was undertaken [64]. respectively [66].−2 CO2.6-diphenyl-4.5 M sulfuric acid [57] 6-Benzylaminopurine Cold rolled steel in 1. Plastic coating on N-80 tubing. Frequently used for oil field applications in the complete absence of oxygen 22 Cr 22 5 3 Balanced 1. and up to Where no inhibitor was injected.2. 4:35 Page 9 of 15 http://www.com/content/4/1/35 Table 4 Chemical composition of recommended materials in the oil and gas industry Alloys Nominal composition Oil and gas application Cr Ni Mo Fe Mn C N 13 Cr 13 . Figures 14 and 15 represent 3LPO and 3-Phenyl-2-propyn-1-ol API J55 oil field tubing in HCl solutions over a wide range of FBE coatings.0 to 7. Table 5 Recommended inhibitors for oil and gas Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) and a three-layer polyo- applications lefin (3LPO) (polyethylene or polypropylene (PP)) are Inhibitors Oil and gas applications currently the most widely used external anti-corrosion coating systems. presented several unique containing 5. nents like flanges and bolting [20]. the tubing lasted only pipe with inhibitor batch treatment every 30 days gave a tubing life of 7 years [65]. and formic acid temperatures as high as 400°F pipe coating solutions and with more than 75 years of (204°C) in hydrochloric [53] experience. Even with batch inhibition. . Corrosion resistance in CO2/NaCl environments in the absence of O2 and H2S 316 17 12 2.Popoola et al. the coated tubing still 30. Saudi Arabia. and Hydrazides and thiosemicarbazides Mild steel and oil well steel (N80) the UK.8 0. 2-undecane-5-mercapto-1-oxa-3.1 0.5-dihydro-[1. These include [68] 4-diazole Dibenzylidene acetone N80 steel and mild steel in HCl [55] Di-N-dimethylaminobenzylidene acetone Methoxy phenol and nonyl phenol N80 steel in 15% HCl at different exposure periods (6 to 24 h) and temperatures (30°C to 110°C) [56] N-(5.000 ppm of advanced and proven pipeline coating technologies and 2-Heptadecene-5-mercapto-1-oxa-3. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. a world leader in Mixture of ketones.0 0. offshore applications. .3 Corrosion resistance in H2S/CO2 environments in the absence of elemental sulfur coatings are also preferred at times on certain compo. quinolinium Oil field tubular goods to salts. 4-diazole services designed to protect pipelines for onshore and 4-diazole [54] 2-Decene-5-mercapto-1-oxa-3. Bredero Shaw.1 0. and of fatty acids with 11.0 M H2SO4 at 25°C to 50°C [58] Mixture of synthetic magnetite and Oil well steel (N80) in 50 mg/l ferrous gluconate sulfide concentration at various pH (5. 90 lb in.000 ppm chloride levels were completed with N-80 only lasted about 19 months. 19 months before it became perforated. dual-layer FBE is in favor in Australia. and therefore.5 to 11.1 Susceptible to localized corrosion in the presence of small amounts of O2 and H2S 25 Cr 25 7 4 Balanced 1. wells with low levels of H2S. over 27 pipe coating facilities on six con- 2-Undecane-5-mercapto-1-oxa-3. pylene composite FBE as the layer to the steel. the Arctic Islands. Thus. . Frost heaving occurs whenever the ground changes from hard during the winter months to soft during warmer temperatures. The tie layer is a blend of adhesive and FBE had been used in frontier oil and gas in Canada. a developed. The three-layer anti- technology is applied in frontier areas like the Mackenzie. multicompo. with a gradation of FBE concentration. and the Labrador basins. corrosion coating is applied by a side or cross-head ex- Beaufort area. To address this issue. because it allows the reduction of pipe wall thickness. 4:35 Page 10 of 15 http://www. This has the Figure 15 FBE coating. Specific posite coating with a standard total thickness of 750 μm requirements for protection or thermal insulation are (30 mil). there is a need for a coating with indentation coating are applied using an electrostatic powder coating and impact resistance at −40°C/−50°C. more flexible and high HPCC is a single-layer. typical for deep water and high temperature. and a tie layer Frontier areas should withstand the extremely cold tempe- containing a chemically modified polyethylene adhesive. A coating on the high-strength steel pipes for medium-density polyethylene outer coat. Resist- ance to the effects of compression and creep. Due to the incredibly cold temperatures in these areas. trusion process and the quality tested and approved. This Ontario. prior to the application of the thermal insulation layers many issues concerning the strength and flexibility of pipe- lines have developed. Figure 17 Coating on High Strength Steel High yield strength shows the Thermotite five-layer system build-up steel is often used for constructing oil and steel pipes (Bredero Shaw Company.industchem. all-powder-coated. Figure 16 shows a cross section of the com. there is no sharp and well-defined interface between the tie layer Thermotite Flow Assurance Coating Technology The and either of the FBE base coat or the polyethylene Thermotite technology consists of a multilayer polypro- outer coat.com/content/4/1/35 Figure 14 3LPO coating.Popoola et al. taken care of through the bespoke system design. Canada M9W 1M7) [68]. Toronto. ratures and retain the flexibility needed to protect the pipes. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. yield strength grades of steel such as X80 or higher were nent coating system consisting of a FBE base coat.  Low Temperature Application Technology for Powder Coating on High Strength Steel  Thermotite Flow Assurance Coating Technology effect of causing any material that is built underground to High Performance Composite Coating system The shift with it. All materials of the three components of the composite In addition. Pipes that would be flexible enough to bend and shift whenever frost heaving occurred are ne- cessary to sustain consistent flow. can be catered for by Low Temperature Application Technology for Powder adjusting the density and nature of the layers. This coating method process.  High Performance Composite Coating system (HPCC) Figure 16 Cross section of the composite coating. Figure 17 Thermotite five-layer system buildup. 25 Bethridge Road. The anodes are ei.762 impressed or forced by a power supply. and exam. The two methods of applicable for various types of grounds and that the out- applying cathodic protection include [72] put current is high enough to protect the pipeline with low costs. which are inserted into the process stream and continu- tential difference between different metallic elements to ously exposed to the process stream condition. This is achieved by applying a current to the structure to Figure 18 Sacrificial anode cathodic protection. the naturally occurring electrochemical poten. and pipelines to assess tection and conventional current flows from the anode to the material conditions and corrosion rates [75].industchem. One of the methods is to carry out application. (SACP)  Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) Adequate corrosion monitoring and inspection Corrosion monitoring is the practice of measuring the The main difference between the two is that ICCP corrosivity of process stream conditions by the use of uses an external power source with inert anodes and probes (mechanical. the current is External diameter 0.16 × 10−3 Ω ciency and decrease costs. anode and cathode sites graphite.49 × 10−6 Ω m ther inert or have low consumption rates and can be Attenuation coefficient 47. Description Material Steel X60 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) In Length 292 km impressed current cathodic protection. The cathodic protection system can be power source. buried pipeline [74]. Cathodic protection technique The first application of cathodic protection dates back to 1824. and is credited to Sir Humphrey Davy [69]. piping. all the corrosions occur on the anode which sacrifices itself in order to offer protection Table 6 Characteristics of the pipeline examined for ICCP from corrosion to the structure. ture will be at one potential. [73] had applied will not exist [70]. be protected (such as a pipeline) from some outside source. by a cross-head extrusion process. and magnetite. electrical. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. thus. Also. Cathodic protection is a method to reduce corrosion by minimizing the difference in potential between anode and cathode. coated with mixed metal oxide or platinum. Laoun et al. The thermal layers and outer shield or weight coating polypropylene. are ap- plied simultaneously in the thermal insulation lines. When enough current is applied. measurements periodically on fixed and vulnerable Sacrificial anodes are coupled to the structure under pro. long before its theoretical foundation was established. the on-stream inspection by doing the wall thickness tials of different metals are used to provide protection. Figure 19 represents the diagram of the ICCP  Sacrificial (or galvanic) anode cathodic protection used [73]. PP foam and outer shield). solar generating Linear isolation resistance 3340 Ω m units. As the current flows. or thermoelectric generators. It is normally used in conjunction with impressed current cathodic protection to a buried pipe- coatings and can be considered as a secondary corrosion line by solar energy using photovoltaic generator as the control technique. silicon iron.com/content/4/1/35 (two-layers.35 × 10−6 m−1 surrounded by carbonaceous backfill to increase effi- Characteristic resistance 158. They concluded that the method is logically controlled corrosion [71]. monitoring techniques alone provide direct and online measurement of metal loss/corrosion rate in oil and Sacrificial anode cathodic protection In this type of process systems [75]. Corrosion provide protection. locations on the equipment. 4:35 Page 11 of 15 http://www. The method secures a fixed outer diameter and homogenous foam structure with no air inclusions. Figure 18 is the diagram representing sacrificial anode cathodic protection [1]. Isolation resistance 800 Ω m ples are transformer rectifier units.020 m2 source must be able to deliver direct current. Longitudinal isolation resistance 7. The power Surface to protect 699. the whole struc. Table 6 shows the characteristics of the designed to prevent both oxygen-controlled and microbio. the structure as long as the anode is more active than the structure.Popoola et al. or electrochemical devices) SACP uses the naturally occurring electrochemical po. Typical anodes are titanium . the chloride content does transport pipelines. Nevertheless. Other of both solution-annealed and cold-worked 254 SMO areas where corrosion monitoring and inspection are and 654 SMO at any temperature up to 171°C in sour necessary in the oil and gas industry include drilling environments. Figure 20 is the frame. Most of the equipment like separators. The various applications in different equipments of the oil results of a large number of tests demonstrated the and gas industry. In practice. NACE allowed the use corrosion and assessing the material conditions. digesters. assessment of the material conditions. The critical pitting temperature using seawater applications. When stresses are present in caused by a H2S corroding agent. solutions had been provided for vari. water wash systems. 4:35 Page 12 of 15 http://www. ment or at times do temporary repair work before re. Thus. Based on the physical Figure 20 Framework for successful corrosion management. and the hardness is not greater overheads. HRC 35 for the cold-worked material [76]. makes it an alternative to titanium and nickel-based alloys ous corrosion types discussed in the “Corrosion types in many environments where crevice corrosion is possible.Popoola et al. flow lines. These pigs will detect the internal conditions of the pipeline and corrosion condi- tions on the pipe wall thickness and also indicate the wall thickness available on the pipe wall [20]. the superaustenitic grade stainless steels (254 SMO placement is carried out. crude not exceed 5.industchem. The most prominent of the materials superior resistance of LDX 2101 to SCC compared to recommended are inconels and incolys which are Ni-Cr- . a chloride-containing environment. while the extreme corrosion resistance of 654 SMO earlier presented.com/content/4/1/35 Figure 19 Diagram of the ICCP used. Also. standard austenitic grades in all these types of tests [46]. 254 SMO had been shown to be susceptible to crevice Discussion corrosion at temperatures above 30°C in chlorinated sea- From corrosion mitigation in the oil and gas industry water. both 254 SMO and 654 SMO have an and ASTM G48 method E confirmed LDX 2101 to be important place in the material solutions for the oil and resistant to pitting corrosion (a form of CO2 corrosion) gas industry as they tackle the problem of sour corrosion in the oil and gas industry. does not exceed 15 psi (1 bar). drums. The cross-country pipelines are normally checked with intelligent pigging operations like magnetic flux or ultrasonic pigs. International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. than HRB 95 for the solution-annealed material and work for successful corrosion management [44].000 ppm. and associated agents in the oil and gas industry” section Both groups of stainless steels find extensive use in of this paper. and many more [3]. and heaters are checked for corrosion during annual shut- down and turnaround operations. it is observed that and 654 SMO) presented in Table 1 also showed excel- physical inspection is the best method of monitoring lent resistance to SCC and SSC. corrosion is monitored by placing electronic probes in the pipelines and by measuring the change in the electric re- sistance in the probe coil. desalters. sour water strippers. demanding process fluids and sour American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) G150 service. if the partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide mud systems. corrective action is initiated to change the material or replace the equip. steels are prone to The materials presented by Nalli [20] in Table 3 have chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking (SCC). International Journal of Industrial Chemistry 2013. Both methods of the cathodic protection applications. insulation and flow assurance coating systems have been 1. high operating cost implications over the full field life and chemistry. This means that the USA presented in Figure 20. This is that no particular material is the cure for all the evils of cor- reflected in the statement made by Tuttle [13] that rosion. South China Sea. probabilistic phenomenon that implement optimal corrosion control practices [78]. the best way to check corrosion is by visual [63] through the removal of oxygen from the fluid media inspection and checking up the material degradation peri- and thus improves the chances of corrosion resistance of odically. representing a total insulated length of 660 km indicated that it could resist stress corrosion cracking. Undoubtedly. and a total coated length of 1. In tem is adaptable for different materials constituting the oil this paper. rosin amide imidazoline. and other microstructure exhibited by the alloy after corrosion testing areas.Popoola et al. while 25 Cr is corrosion resistant the Labrador basins due to the incredibly cold tempera- in H2S/CO2 environments in the absence of elemental tures in these areas. The method also has controllable out- presented. The new alloy presented by Mannan et al.5Cr-3Mo-2Cu-3Nb. mechanics. requires interdisciplinary concepts that incorporate surface Corrosion control through the use of inhibitors is not science. and 25 Cr) presented can be designed to prevent oxygen-controlled recommended by Craig [48] which are presented in and microbiologically controlled corrosion. the other major areas like building construction.005 km [68]. It costs the oil and gas industry tens of owing to the operating costs of inhibitor injection and billions of dollars in lost income and treatment costs every the higher frequency of workovers. Majority of coating with inhibitor batch treatment every 30 days. It should be noted that the damage caused by corro- are concerns about the efficacy of inhibitors in controlling sion is not only in the oil and gas industry but also in sulfide stress cracking in carbon steels [45]. [47] provides one example of this. recommended for hostile wells because this option has thermodynamics and kinetics. Nevertheless.com/content/4/1/35 Fe alloys.industchem. they are found to be very applicable in well put current that is high enough to protect pipelines with head and flow lines with high sour and temperature low costs. and sulfide et al. However. use of inhibitors coupled with the use of protective Inhibitors had been shown to be one of the major coatings to avoid direct contact with process media are tools for tackling corrosion in the oil and gas industries. The examined case study of Phillips Ekofisk metals either by merging with them or by reacting with wells with low levels of H2S. The pie chart presented in anism is very important before considering various material Figure 11 shows that North America had the largest options for the applications. understanding the corrosion mech- materials in contact [20]. while it only lasted for 19 months before it became per- methoxy phenol. The mechanical properties and North Sea. Frontier oil and gas in Canada sulfur. Thus. the USA must Conclusion find more and better ways to encourage. Corrosion management has improved over the past several decades. It should be clearly understood consumption of corrosion inhibitors as of 2008.5Ti was developed by the method of homogenized used in many major offshore pipe applications in the vacuum induction melting. sented is a better method of tackling these problems as corrosion is a world problem which everybody must find a the process has a broad potential protection and the sys. 4:35 Page 13 of 15 http://www. there year. to corrosion since 1987. tation. while various forms of corrosion had been looking for ways of cutting down expenses lost monitoring techniques are presented elsewhere [75]. Table 4 are also applicable to tackle corrosion in the oil The Low Temperature Application Technology for and gas industry but are only active in the absence of Powder Coating on High Strength Steel presented is very oxygen. 22 Cr. 90 lb in. support. [64] and Hovsepian et al. and so on) had been forated when only batch inhibition was used. nonyl phenol. The alloy (13 Cr) is unique as the method is applicable in frontier areas such corrosion resistant in CO2/NaCl environments in the as the Mackenzie-Beaufort area. Also. comprehensive review of corrosion in the oil . H2S. efficient means of mitigating corrosion in the oil and gas They execute this task by protecting the surface of industry. and so on. solution to as it covers many areas in our daily needs. hydrodynamics. and Corrosion is a stochastic. production and manufacturing.−2 CO2. Each and every case has to be considered in its to- corrosion costs US industries alone an estimated $170 tality before a decision is made on the proper materials. shown to be major tools in tackling oxygen corrosion However. transpor- new impressed current cathodic protection method pre. Gulf of Mexico. billion a year in which the oil and gas industry takes The framework for successful corrosion management is more than half of these costs. and elemental sulfur. [65] had shown that the stress cracking [77]. 316. and absence of O2 and H2S. Though their nominal compositions were not and gas pipelines. the Thermotite with nominal composition Fe-47Ni-20.000 ppm chloride levels showed that the N-80 pipe lution [49]. Various inhibitors applicable in the oil and used gave a tubing life of 7 years (longer) for plastic gas industries had been presented in Table 5. and up to the impurities in the environment that may cause pol. electrochemistry. them (6-benzylaminopurine. The materials (13 Cr. 30. the Arctic Islands. metallurgy/materials science. Houghton galvanically induced hydrogen stress cracking. degree (chemical engineering) with Second Class 21. Tri-service corrosion conference. Cao Y (2008) Armoured against corrosion. steel in CO2 saturated systems. 1st edition. Uhlig HH (1949) The cost of corrosion in the United States. Nalli K (2010) Corrosion and its mitigation in the oil and gas industry. Dallas protection technique. Trethewey KR. Rybicki EF. Engng and Technol 26:9 Published: 27 Sep 2013 35. 2. Oilfield Rev approved the final manuscript. Houston obtained M. Oyo State +234. Lagos State.000-Hour tuneup. The Institute of Materials. His major areas of 23. NMC Proceedings Workshop on Environment. Shadley JR. J of Petrol Technol 39:756–762 Competing interests 14. 11. Dunlop A. Randall BV. London Government Scholarship Board of Nigeria in 2002 and also won a postgraduate 26.D. Materials performance 31:3 that no particular material is the cure for all the evils of 10. Lotz U (1994) Prediction of CO2 corrosion of carbon steel. pp 76–79. Ekiti State +234. Teddington 16. Nigeria. material. Gupta M. Kwara State in the An overview. Dugstad A (1992) The importance of FeCO3 supersaturation on the CO2 Upper at Ladoke Akintola University of Technology. We also like to thank the 29. Mater Prot 8(1):41–47 Technology. p 52 Ado-Ekiti. European 37. He is a registered Engineer under the Council for 25. Parker JC (1978) Use of reactive iron oxide to scholarship awarded by the Oyo State Government of Nigeria in 2010. loop study of NaCl concentration effect on erosion corrosion of carbon Nigeria. American Elsevier. Nigeria. Roberts KP. Shirazi SA. NACE International oil and gas production. Brondel D. the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN).touchbriefings.com/pdf/30/exp032_p_12Nyborg. PM-Pipeliner Report early 1980s. Martin RL (1982) Use of electrochemical methods to evaluate corrosion 1 Department of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering. Kermani MB. Ekiti State. Adetokunbo Ademola. Oxford WF. optimization. NPL. Hausler RH (1984) A novel correlation of tubing corrosion rates of Lagos. Gatzky LK. Tech. Hudgins CM (1969) A review of corrosion problems in the petroleum 3 Department of Chemical Engineering. grade at the University 22. Abuja. 2Department of Chemical electrochemical techniques. Oyelami BO. 53rd Annu. Nigeria. it should be clearly understood 8. Edwards R. 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