INTRODUCTIONFloriculture:Origin: Latin flōs, flōr-, flower; kŭlˌchar – To grow It is the art and knowledge of growing flowers to perfection or It is a branch of horticulture which deals with commercial growing , marketing and arranging flowers and ornamental plants. Hi-Tech floriculture: The technology which is ultramodern, less environmental dependent and capital intensive having improved productivity with quality produce is hi-tech Floriculture. Commercial Floriculture:The science and art of commercial floriculture has been recognised as an economic activity with the potential for generating employment and earning valuable foreign exchange. IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF FLORICULTURE IN INDIA Besides food and nutritional security, the aesthetic value is also equally important for our daily lively hood as well as for environmental purity. Floriculture is important from the following point of view; 1. Economic point of view 2. Aesthetic point of view 3. Social point of view Economic point of view • Floriculture is a fast emerging major venture in the world, especially as a potential money-spinner for many countries in world. • Many flowers and ornamental plants are being grown for domestic as well as for export market will provide more return/unit area than any other agricultural/horticultural crops. • For example in markets such as Delhi and Mumbai and other metros a single spike of gladiolus and gerbera cut flower may sell up to Rs. 3-5 in Kharif and Rs. 5-10/spike in Rabi/Summer. • Gestation period of flower crop is very less compared to other crops. • Modern-day floriculture refers to the production of high-value cut flowers such as rose, gladiolus, carnation, mums, orchids, tuberose, anthurium, lilium, gerbera etc,. • Now days, growing of these cut flower crops, suited for flower arrangements/decorations for bouquets preparation and for floral boskets, have increased substantially and its share of the total trade has also improved. • The sale of loose flowers of Jasmine, Crossandra, Marigold, China Aster, Chrysanthemums, Berlaria and Gaillardia etc., are a roaring business in south India. • Marketing of Floriculture products for different ventures is emerging as a potential segment of this field. • Besides, one can also work as consultant, landscape architect etc with proper training. • Plant rental service • One can also work as entrepreneur and offer employment to others. • In addition to these careers which involve research and actual growing of crops. • Floriculture also provides service career opportunities which include such jobs like floral designers, grounds keepers, landscape designers, architects and horticultural therapists. • Professional qualification combined with an inclination towards gardening and such other activities produces efficient floriculturists and landscaping professionals all over the globe. • Presently more than 145 countries are involved in flower production on commercial scale. • Rose is another important commercial flower the cut blooms of which are highly prized in large cities, Rosa damascena and Edouard rose are used for manufacture of attar and rose water. The flowers of Rosa damascena and R. borboniana are used for preparing conserve or gulkand, a product mainly used in sweets, and for chewing in combination with pan(betel leaf). • Perfumery industries:- Flowers of Jasmine for extraction of jasmine oil. • There is a great demand for good quality of flower seeds, nursery stocks such as bulbs, budded roses and potted plants have a good internal as well as export market. • Aesthetic point of view 1 • • • • • • Lot of scope for landscaping and is considered as billion dollar earning industry in states which ultimately adds the monitory value of any building/property. To a Japanese flower arranger each flower expresses one or more meaning (eg. Ikebana). The wealth of any nation is linked with the health of its people. Unless we can ensure the healthy development of our citizens, especially for the younger generation, by providing them for open breathing places through bio-aesthetic planning like in Chandigarh city and landscape gardening, we cannot expect to buildup a healthy society and prosperous nation. Horticultural therapy It is the new dimension of horticultural sciences to heal the psychic debility and the science is to use garden, landscape plants, parts of plants, growing activity as tools to work. The bio-force of plants offer a permanent solution to the problems of bio force of human thus, bio aesthetic horticulture is emerging as a new occupational therapeutic tool to restore the lost rhythm and harmony back to human self or inner environment. It is being utilized in psychiatric hospitals, general hospitals and physical rehabilitation centers, homes for elderly, prisons and schools. The patients can achieve higher level of personal development and satisfaction. Social point of view Flowers symbolize the purity, beauty, peace, love, adoration, innocence and passion etc. Hence, many flowers are used to express the most sensitive, delicate and loving feelings eloquently what our words fail to express. In our society no social function is complete without the use of flowers, floral ornaments, bouquets or flower arrangements they are invariably used in all social functions. Used in social gatherings, birthday parties, welcoming friends or relatives and honoring dignitaries. The concept of Valentine’s Day is fast catching up in India also. The arrival of new born is rejoiced with flowers, To an Indian, especially for Hindu’s, flowers have a much greater significance in religions offerings. It has estimated that more than 30-40 % of the total flower productions are being consumed in Kolkata city alone used for worshiping purpose. Floral garlands, gajras and venis are required in marriage ceremonies for adornment of hairs by women of all ages, especially in the south India. In the present modern era sicks are wished for speedy recovery by offering beautiful cut flowers, while the deads are bidden farewell with flowers along with tear of sorrow. Flowers are very closely associated with mankind from the dawn of human civilization. There is increasing habit of ‘saying with flowers.’ Any Indians born with flowers live with flowers and finally dies with flowers. In India, floriculture industry comprises i.e., Income generating activities in Floriculture are, Cut Flowers Loose Flowers Cut Greens Foliage and Flowering Pot Plants Dry Flowers Production of bulbs and tubers Hybrid seed production Nursery production of plants and potted plants, Flower baskets, pots and containers etc. Extraction of essential oil Plant rental services • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Garlands and venis • Flower arrangements and floral craft • Landscape Designing PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF FLOWERS AND PLANTS: • The consumption of floriculture products is linked to the GDP of the countries. Developed countries with high per capita income obviously are the major consuming markets. 2 • With rising income, consumption of floricultural products is on the increase both in developed and developing countries. It is estimated that, the Global demand for floricultural products is growing @ 8-10 %. In India the demand for cut flowers and pot plants is growing @ 20-25 %. • CATEGORIES OF FLORICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN GLOBAL TRADE: • Live plants and buds, • Cut flowers • Cut foliages • Dry flowers • Seeds of different seasonals, • Pigments (Xanthophylls) and • Essential oils etc ROLE OF INDIAN GOVERNMENT AND OTHER AGENCIES FOR EXPORT: • In recent times, the Indian government has done a lot for promotion of exports of floriculture products. The Government has identified floriculture industry as thrust focus area for export. • The import duty on seeds, bulbs, cuttings etc. has reduced to zero and that to on goods for green house items, seed development machinery has been brought down to 25%. • Income tax and other tax concessions have been granted to new floriculture exporting companies. • Subsidy of freight charges equal to 25 % of IATA approved rates i.e., Rs. 10 per kg Europe and United States and Rs.6 per kg for South East Asia and Middle East. • Reduction in the tariff from 55 to 10 % on import of live plants and other plant bulbs, root, cut flowers and other ornamental foliage. • The import of flower seeds and tissue culture material of any plant origin is now allowed without an import permit. • The Agricultural and Processed Food Product Export Development Authority (APEDA) and National Horticulture Board (NHB) have also helped for export promotion. INSTITUTIONAL ASSISTANCE TO FLORICULTURE HI-TECH PROJECTS NABARD Soft Loan Assistance: 1. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) has evolved a scheme for extending soft loan assistance to prospective entrepreneurs. 2. The entrepreneurs could be individual, proprietary / partnership firm, group of individuals, cooperative societies etc. 3. The assistance will be restricted to the shortfall in promoters contribution stipulated under relevant schemes. NATIONAL HORTICULTURE BOARD (NHB) • NHB has evolved a scheme for development of post harvest infrastructure during the eighth five year plan period. • Registered farmer’s organization, Co-operative societies and corporate sector are eligible for financial assistances. • Promoters have to contribute 20% of the project cost. 40% will be provided by NHB as soft loan @ 5% p.a. Remaining cost of the project will be financed by commercial banks. APEDA SCHEMES TO ASSIST EXPORT ORIENTED FLORICULTURE • For development of Infrastructure and services @ 25% of cost of the project and Rs. 1.5 lakhs for purchase of refer van. • For development of post-harvest infrastructure @ 50% of cost/ Rs. 5.0 lakhs for pre cooling and cold storage units. • Scheme for packing development – 30% of cost; maximum Rs. 1.0 lakh. • Scheme for export promotion and market development; maximum Rs. 0.5 lakh. • Scheme for survey, feasibility, consultancy and data base, - 40% of cost and maximum Rs. 20.0 lakhs. • Scheme for air freight subsidy – 25 % of IATA (International Air Transport Association) rates; maximum Rs. 10/- per kg for Europe and USA and USA and Rs, 6/kg for West Asia and South-East Asia. • It has already setup cold storage and cargo handling facilities which are operational at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai and Thiruvananthapuram. 3 P. chrysanthemum and Dahlia. Area around Trivendrum 4. aster. • The Govt. Easy bank finance For 100 % export oriented units (EOU’s) government has allowed sale of 50 per cent of production in domestic markets. Govt. Liliums. gladiolus. Area around Srinagar 8. Canara Agri-Commercialization and Enterprise funded by the United States Agency for International Development (ACE-UASIG) State finance Corporations SCOPE TO ENTER FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY IN INDIA: • India is bestowed with diverse agro-climatic and ecological conditions. • India is geographically well located between two major markets that is Europe and East Asia. Liliums Carnation. • Labour cost is very low in India. Area around Bangalore 3. Anthurium and other foliage plants Lotus. chrysanthemum. Anthurium and foliage plants Rose. H. when the demand is in peak because of festival like Christmas. • Winter being mild in India we can export flowers to temperate countries during the winter season. Area around Delhi. which is helpful for Indian exports. Area around Pune / Nashik 5. carnation. Gladiolus. carnation. chrysanthemum. Floriculture products posses 25-30 time more foreign exchange earning ability than cereals or other agricultural products. carnation. other bulbous plants and seeds Jasmine. ornamental foliage plants seeds Orchids. 4 . gladiolus Rose. Gerbera. Floriculture is capable of attracting and retaining a large number of progressive farmers / entrepreneurs. tuberose. North Eastern region including Sikkim 6. carnation-orchids With the implementation of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) agreement European nations would bring down the import duty. dahlia.. Rose Gladiolus. SBI. APEDA is giving financial assistance to some extent for export of floriculture products. which are favourable to grow all types of commercially important flowers generally found in different parts of the world. of India has identified floriculture as ‘extreme focus thrust area’ for export during IX plan. 100 % tax exemption on implements / raw materials used in greenhouses for 100 % EOU’s The rules and regulations related to import and exports have been minimized. Area around Kolkata 7. The quality of water available for irrigation is acceptable in most of the cases. Area around Solan. Singapore have ‘International standard flower auction centre. New Year day and Valentines Day. tuberose. chrysanthemum. which at present is 15 per cent. 9. UP and Punjab 2. • The Govt. jasmine. Salvia. rose. of India is setting up the infrastructure for floriculture industry. tuberose Orchids. Gladiolus. With international market growing at 8-10% and domestic market at 15-20 % hence the scope to enter floriculture industry is unlimited. chrysanthemum.Area around Coimbatore including Nilgiris • • • • • • • • • • • • Product Rose. of India has identified product specific zones for selective development • Products specific intensive floriculture zones: Product Zone 1.• • Nationalized banks viz. Phyto-sanitory certificates are given only in selected cities like Delhi. 9. No detailed economic feasibility studies with reference to establishment. 10. 22. proper grading etc. Lack of our sale promotion activities in importing countries. Lack of professional backup of delivery and supporting companies. 13. Delhi etc. Export value of flowers appro. agencies involved in import and export of floriculture products. maintenance and cost of production in glass house conditions / protected cultivation. 16. 6. constraints/Problems/bottlenecks/hurdles/disadvantages/drawbacks for floriculture industry 1. Indian mentality.350 crores during 2009-10 Major area under greenhouse in India is around Bangalore. Lack of infrastructure facilities like Green house (Glass house. post-harvest techniques. 23.• Ample sunlight and optimum temperature during winter means there is no need for artificial lighting or heating in green house production.15 Lakh ha area under floricultural crops in India. 5. Nasik. poly house).600 ha under green house cultivation. 2.g varieties. India . Lack of streamlined quality control mechanism and poor co-ordination between govt. Lack of basic infrastructure roads. 5 . 12. perlite and rock wool mediums requires research and cost effectiveness. Cold chain etc.lack of quality consciousness. Exemption from import duty by importing countries (15%) – Some countries like Columbia Mauritius etc are exempted. Plants in soil based container medium is not allowed in most middle-east and European markets – so peat moss. to achieve diversification and to market effectively. 11. 15. modern cultivations method etc. 4. Rs. 3. Lack of information on new / Ruling varieties – continuously keep changing in international markets. Elaborate procedures and delay in claiming subsidies. Lack of Research and development in floriculture. Cheating – This affects floriculture industry as a whole. Mumbai and Madras. Already a flower auction is working though on a small scale. Kolkata. Lack of information on modern practices like high density planting. Hyderbad. 1. • APEDA and GOK have established four flower auction centers including one in Bangalore at a cost of Rs. 7. Pune.-Government level talks needed. fertilizer and irrigation management plant protection care. 20. Lack of appropriate planting material and production technology for export – lack of knowledge about importing and exporting countries. Lack of training facilities in high tech production technology. • Since India has the largest middle class population in the world today. Poor facilities for post harvest handling of cut flowers. It is a continuous process. 24. 7 crores. New varieties. water electricity. 19. 17. 14. There are no organized marketing co-operatives of other bodies which can take care of floriculture trade in India. 8. inadequate refrigerated transport and storage facilities. selling rates General Information: India ranks 2nd next to China with an area of 191 thousand hectare and produces 1031 thousand metric tons of loose flowers and 69. No direct flights (Cargo flights) from places like Bangalore and Pune which are main production centers – results in double shipment – increases cost and more scope for spoilage. High rates of royalty payment to foreign breeders. Lack of specific information on area and production of different flowers – is a handicap in planning production for domestic and export market. The freight rates in India are high which makes products uncompetitive in international markets. No regular cargo flights from India 21. Lack of market intelligence (international) e. 18. The scale of production in many units is too small to reduce the cost of production. GHT emerged as a viable in the agri-business in India. demand for flowers for domestic consumption is steadily increasing with the gradual improvement in the standard of living and quality of life.027 lakh cut flowers annually (2010-11). flower shape. In India roses are grown for cut flowers.Gurgaon.Italy India is the largest producer of the loose flowers in the world Largest rose-growing area is situated in the Aligarh district. since most of the airline operator prefer heavy consignments High airfreight – Freight cost is 3 to 4 times higher than that in Mauritius. Navsari. Israel and few Asian countries. making essential oils. Major area under greenhouse in Gujarat is around Surat.-one of the leading state for adoption GHT. Pal The international flower market is situated at Aalsmeer in The Netherlands The largest producer of perfumery products.g. Haryana First website for flower auction in India. water electricity. Guj. Direct international cargo flights are only for a few cities which leads to change of flights at two to three places and the flowers being perishable are badly affected.L. inadequate refrigerated transport and storage facilities. Lack of professional backup of delivery and supporting companies. Elaborate procedures and delay in claiming subsidies.Bulgaria Apopka. B. ROSE INTRODUCTION Roses are symbol of beauty. The scale of production in many units is too small to reduce the cost of production. colour of flowers. Some countries have adopted rose as their national flower e. Great diversity in plant growth.P. Without roses gardens are not considered complete.Lotus First DDG of Horticulture.com at Bangalore The first Director General of ICAR and famous rosarian.www. Tedious phyto. Valsad Districts.L.The Netherlands The largest exporter of cut greens. It is top ranking cut flower.sanitary certification and an unorganized domestic market Frequently asked Questions: National flower of India. production and consumption. Lack of basic infrastructure roads. slow openings of flowers and good keeping quality made roses so popular that it is grown commercially to meet the demand of cut blooms. England 6 . Occupying area -100 ha under GHT in Gujarat Tamilnadu is a leading loose flower producing state in India. fragrance and are used to convey the message of love.Dr.K. rose water and Gulkand.Chadha First Horticulture commissioner and Executive Director of NHM and National Professor. Leading exporter of flowers in the world is The Netherland The leading importing country for floriculture products from India Export Constraints Non availability of adequate cargo space in major airlines. Florida is regarded as cut greens capital of the world Largest exporter of cut flowers and pot plants.rosebazar. High rates of royalty payment to foreign breeders. Poor facilities for post harvest handling of cut flowers. in the flower trade on the basis of average.K. to achieve diversification and to market effectively. fragrance. West Bengal is a leading cut flower producing state in India. Chadha The headquarter of National Horticulture Board(NHB). Paradise. The leaves are alternate. Albas 15. Aalsmeer gold. Mischief. Picture. Ramblers (A) Hybrid Teas It is obtained by crossing hybrid perpetuals & Teas roses. Fabiola. Fragrant Gold. eglanteria R. Dutch Gold. involucrate syn(R. The 1st variety “La France” of this class was produced by French breeder GUILLOT (1867). macrophyla R. Moss Roses 13. The ripe fruit (hip / hep) consist of many one seeded carpals in a fleshy tube & the seeds are hard.(R. roses are production of bloom on long canes. clinophyla) R. Miniatures 9. Sonia. The rose breeders and Geneticists have not yet exploited 95 percent of the rose species. usually prickly. Black lady Apricot / Bronze ► Thais. west Asia. Eglantine rose) R. Flowers are solitary or in corymbs. varieties :Yellow ►Golden Giant. Hybrid Teas 2. Baccara. Oklahama Happiness. Grandifloras 6. walpolina R. Blue moon. sempervirance) R. Coral & Vermilion ► Montezuma. Sunset song. ORIGIN & HISTORY Roses are native of The Himalayas region. Valencia. Mauve / Lavender ► African star. Dark Crimson ► Christian Dior. China roses 8. Red. Teas 5. giantea syn.BOTANY Rose is an ornamental shrub with upright or climbing stems. Whisky. Hybrid Perpetuals 4. (R. First prize. elongated buds. longicuspis R. Orange. leschenayltina syn(R. Pink ► Confidence. lobes either simple or compound. Europe & North America. Austrian Briars 19. Polyanthas 7. sericea (Laddak rose) Classification of Roses 1. Fragrant . The species grown wild in India : Rosa brunonii (Himalyan musk rose) R. oddly pinnate (R. Cloud. rebiginosa (sweet brier. Avon. China. and inserted at the top of a roundish or pear shaped fleshy tube. slow opening of flowers & good keeping quality. foetida syn. Bourbon Roses 11. Cabbage roses 12. Calyx is 5 lobed. Superstar. Noisette roses 17. odorata var. Buccaneer. but only 8 species have played a major role evolving modern rose cultivars. Musk roses 16. Scarlet. Floribundas 3. French roses 14. sterling silver 7 . There are about 150 recognized species. Damask roses 10. gigantea) R. moschata (musk rose) R. Crimson Glory. compound. South Seas. eglanteria) R. with stipules adherent to the leaf stalks. Main characteristics of H. persica has undivided leaves).T. Rugosas 18. Queen. White ► June bride, Pascali, Tushar Bicolour ► Bajazzo, Flaming sunset Colour blend ► Kiss of fire, Tahiti, sea shell, Double Delight, Striped & Hand painted ► Anvil sparks, Careless love, Siddharth, Madhosh Exhibition varieties ► Anvil spark, Avon, Christian Dior, Eiffel Tower, First Prize, Garden Party, Pusa Sonia, Show Girl, Super Star, The Doctor Scented varieties : ► Avon, Sughandha, Kana Kangi, La France, Seventh heaven Commercial varieties ► Superstar, Montezuma, happiness, Ilona, Sonia, Gladiator ( very popular among Nasik and Pune) (B) FLORIBUNDAS These have been produced by crossing Hybrid Tea x Dwarf Polyantha by Danish breeder Poulsen in 1912 & 1st Floribunda was named Rodhatte”. Produce flowers in clusters like polyantha of better shape & bigger size than the flowers of polyantha but flowers are smaller than hybrid Teas. They are produced in great profusion appearing like bouquets. Varieties ► Red- Marlena, Rob Roy, Jantar Mantar; Orange- Scarlet- Shola, Zambra, Zorina, Pink- Queen Elizabeth, Mercedes, Belinda white- Himangini, Iceberg (C) HYBRID PERPETUALS They are the immediate forerunners of Hybrid Teas. These are considered to be the off-springs of Rosa chinensis, R. gallica and R. centifolia. They flower more than once in the season. (D) TEAS Also called “Tea scented China roses” they derived their name from their distinct aroma, believed to be felt when a chest of tea leaves is opened. They are known to have originating from R. chinensis and R. gigantae. (E) GRANDIFLORAS Mainly obtained from crosses between Hybrid Tea and Floribunda types. They produce Hybrid Tea like blooms in clusters. e.g. Montezuma, Queen Elizabeth. (F) POLYANTHAS The dwarf small flowered Polyanthas were forerunners of the popular large flowered Floribundas of today. e.g. Echo, Anjani, Nartaki, Swati, Priti, Rishi Bankim. (G) CHINA ROSES The China rose (R. chinensis), more than any other, is responsible for nearly all the present day rose and bears red to nearly white flowers in small clusters. (H) MINIATURE ROSE This are also called as baby or fairy roses. They are neat & compact but dwarf plants. These are easily propagated by semi-hard to hard wood cutting. Varieties ► Gold Star, Cinderella, Peon, Indian Varieties ► Chandrika, Delhi Starlet, Pushkala, Dazzler (I) DAMASK ROSES Rosa damascena R. Phoenica x R. gallica (J) RAMBLERS Ramblers have climbing habit, these have been produced by crossing Hybrid perpetuals x R. wichuriana & R. multiflora Exotic Varieties ► American pillar, Excelsa, Dorothy, Perkins, Albertine Indian varieties ► Delhi white, kanyakumari, Lalkila, Akash Pradip GENETICS AND BREEDING : The present day garden roses are complex hybrids involving interspecific hybridization, polyploidy with high female & male sterility. The basic chromosome number in rose is 7 , colour in roses as in other flowers is governed by the expression of water soluble pigments called anthocyanidins. ROSE BREEDING IN INDIA More than 300 cultivars have been developed in India. Some important cultivars developed at IARI & by Dr. B. P. Pal are 8 Hybrid Tea ► Anurag, Arjun, Bhim, Chitwan, Dr.B.P.Pal, Dr.Homi Bhabha, Jawahar, Kanakungi, Mechak, Mridula, Mrinalini, Poornima, Raja surendra singh of Nalagadh & Raktagandha. Floribunda ► Banjaran, Chandrama, Delhi Princess, Loree, Mohini, Nellambari, Prema, Rupali, Sadabahar, Sindoor, Shabnam, Suchitra & Suryakiran. At IARI 3 rose cultivars were developed through induced mutation 1. Abhisarika from Kiss of fire 2. Pusa Christian from Christian Dior 3. Madhosh from Gulzar Importance and Uses 1. Shrub or Bush: - Shrubs or bush roses, prepared by budding the desired cultivars on a rootstock at the height of 5 to 10 cm from the ground level, are planted in small group to create excellent mass effect in a rose or flower garden. They may also be mixed with other plants in a shrubbery. Flowers on such plants can either be retained on the plants or can be cut for indoor decoration. Cultivars like Christian Dior, Double Delight, Paradise, First Prize, Gladiator, Kiss of Fire, Montezuma, and Paradise make good bushes and are also suitable for growing as shrub. 2. Standard Rose: - Standard roses or tree roses as it is popularly known, is a very important feature in the rose garden. They are not distinctive type but prepared by budding any cultivar at a higher point on long rootstock and allowing the crown to form only at the top leaving the entire stem clear of any vegetative growth. According to their height of budding they may be (a) Full Standards Are prepared by budding at a height of 1.0 – 1.15 m. (b) Half Standards between 45 cm & 60 cm. (c) Weeping standards At 1.5 m or even higher above the ground. Hybrid teas & few grandiflora are suitable for making the full standard roses. . Floribunda & Polyantha roses are excellent for growing as half standards. Rambling roses such as white pearl & prosperity are other cultivars suitable for making beautiful weeping standards. 3. Climbers :- The The climbing & rambling roses can be used to cover the walls of houses or fencing or pergolas, arbours & arches. Ramblers produce flowers only once in a year & flowers are in clusters lasting for several weeks. Unlike ramblers, the flowers of many climbing Hybrid Teas appear singly or in group of two or threes. 4. Hedge and edge:- A rose can also be useful for making hedge or edge. They are also suitable for panting along the garden paths, giving beautiful colours. Vigorous floribunda’s are suitable for hedge & if necessary, the plants can be planted in 2 rows. Climbing or rambling roses may also be used for making tall hedges. 5. Rockery :- Roses are also grown in rockeries and for this purpose hardy miniatures and pompon cultivars such as Fairy Queen and Magic may be selected 6. Pot plants:- Roses can easily be grown in as a pot plants in suitable containers kept both indoor as well as outdoors. For beautifying the balconies or terraces which receive limited sunlight, Miniatures and dwarf polyanthas should be selected. Bush roses may also be grown in pot for beautifying the compounds around the building & for display in rose shows. 7. Hangers:- miniatures can also be grown in hanging baskets, and cultivars suitable for making rose hangers are the climbing Miniatures. 8. Cut- flowers:- Rose makes one one of the best cut-flowers and as such is in great demand in the internal as well as foreign markets. In the European markets roses cut flowers are regularly imported to supplement the internal production. Germany is the biggest consumer & importer of cut flowers. In general, cultivars with more petallage & opening slowly with long lasting quality are chosen as cut flowers. Rose cut- flowers are arranged in in flower vases look extremely beautiful and they have a rightful place in the scheme of interior decoration. Christian Dior, Happiness, Queen Elizabeth, Super star, Illona, Sonia, Red success, Belinda etc. are suitable for this purpose. Indian cultivars Arjun & Raktagandha producing flowers with long stems are also suitable for cutflowers. 9. Perfume and Allied products:a. Rose oil (Rose perfume) Rose oil is an important commercial product obtained from rose petals. Bulgarian rose otto is largely used in perfuming soaps & cosmetics. The commonly grown rose sp. for rose oil are Rosa 9 damascena, R. barboniana, R. centifolia, R. alba & R. gallica. In India, R.damascena & R.barboniana are cultivated for rose oil. • Bulgaria has emerged as a major producer & exporter of the otto of roses & the roses perfumery. • Generally, 1 kg oil is obtained from 3000 – 4000 Kg petals. Among the different sp. of rose R.damascena gives max. oil yield. R.damascena 0.057 – 0.058% R.barboniana 0.040 – 0.042% R.teplitz 0.03 – 0.035% The principle constituent of normal rose oil is 1-citronellol (40 – 65%) The essential oil content was highest in flowers harvested early in the morning at 8:30 – 9:00 am. a. Rose water It is obtained from petals & used as perfume & in medicines & confectionary. It is used in eye lotions and eye drops, drinking water in functions b. Gulkand Rose petals are also preserved for direct consumption, by making gulkand. Which is prepared by pounding equal proportion of petals and white sugar. It is considered both a tonic and laxative. Rosa damascena, R.chinensis, R.gallica, R.pomifera & some other scented roses. e. g. Edouard are used for preparing gulkand. c. Source of vitamins Rose hips are a very good source of ascorbic acid the life given Vit.C, that every 100 g of rose hip syrup contain 150 mg of ascorbic acid. d. Other uses In Europe, roses are also used for making pot-pourri, conserves, rose vinegar & rose petal wine. Jams, jellies & syrup have been made for centuries in Bulgaria & exported. • Dried rose petals are known as pankhuri which is occasionally used for preparing sweetened cold drinks. PROPAGATION : Means production of new individual Sexual propagation:Seeds ► • To produce new hybrids through breeding. • The seeds formed in the fruit known as hips are sown for obtaining hybrid seedling. • Temperature below 20-250 C. is required for better germination Root cutting ► • Plants produced by root cuttings are more resistant to frost than stem cutting. Cuttings ► • The most important use of cutting is to raise rootstocks for budding. • e.g. Some climbers, ramblers & polyanthus, Miniatures Layering ► • For the multiplication of climbers & ramblers, this method is quite useful. Grafting ► • This is exacting operation, failures are common. • cost of grafted plant is higher than budded plant. Budding ► • Roses are commonly propagated by “T” or Shield budding. • The common rootstocks is used in Edouard rose (R. bourbonica) or R. multiflora. • Plants are ready for transplanting within two years. • Recently, R. indica var.odorata has been found better than the former rootstock. • Thorn less rootstock is also getting popular, as easily propagated by hardwood & semi hardwood cutting Cuttage Buddage ► • • cutting are budded immediately and planted in sand or burnt rice husk media under polythene cover in December- January. It takes about 3-4 weeks for cutting to strike roots and bud to grow. 10 'Pusa Urmil'.60 cm • Polyantha and Miniature .0 to 6.5 Climate:• Rose can be grown successfully in different climatic zones.60-75 cm • Floribunda . 'Pusa Mohit'. Soil preparation:• The initial preparation of rose beds should preferably done during summer season • The land is dug at the depth of 45. • They can be grown in all types of soil with proper drainage • Well drained medium. ' Pusa manhar' .0 to 7. 4. the position of the bud union should be 5. New Delhi suitable for growing in Green House 1. 9. Bihar and Orissa – September to December Manure and Fertilizers:• Best time for adding organic manure is before planting and at the time of pruning • 4-5 kg of organic manure (cow dung/compost) / plant • 25 g of bone meal/plant or 11 . 'Pusa Ajay'. • Moderate temperature. • Roses grow very well in the tropical regions of India at lower altitude.October to December • West Bengal. 'Pusa Arjun'. 'Pusa Shatabdi' Production Technology for open conditions Soil:• Rose plants grow well in fertile soil. 7.• High success can be obtained by treating the cutting and buds with 1000 ppm IBA • Plants are ready for planting in one year Rose varieties developed by IARI. 'Pusa Ranjana'. • Well decomposed FYM/cow dung manure /compost manure @ 100 kg/ha be incorporated at the lower half of the pit pit or trench so as to keep the manures away from the roots of the plants at planting time. 'Pusa Abhishek'. 11. While planting. • The effective season of production decreases with rise in temperature beyond 280 C. 2.5 cm above the soil level. loamy soil having adequate organic matter is ideal. 8. • pH of 6. 10.30 x 45 cm Time of Planting :• Maharshtra and Karnataka. 'Pusa mohit'. 3. It is advisable to plant rose in the afternoon. 'Pusa muskan'. 5. • 30 kg/ha P2O5 as SSP mixed and the beds are irrigated thoroughly about ten days before planting Planting:Planting should be done in thoroughly prepared beds. Planting Distance:• Hybrid Tea .60 cm and all stones and other foreign materials along with weeds are removed.30-45 cm High density commercial planting:• Hybrid Tea . bright sunshine and high light intensity are good for flower production.End of May.June and September to December • Temperate Zone and Eastern India – October. 'Pusa Komal‘. 6.February • South India . e.60 g N. to secure flowers for particular occasion pruning can be adjusted accordingly. Over crowding of shoots at the centre should be thinned out to keep the centre open. containing nine plants in two splits i. Moderate pruning – For hybrid Tea. Pune and Nasik. In climbing roses. m. weak and dead wood is removed each year to encourage the regular development of strong and healthy bush and to obtain good flower yield. Prunning technique in Hybrid Tea and Grandiflora roses Pruning technique in Floribunda roses Prunning technique in Climbing roses Pruning are of three types 1. to influence growth.Twice in the year in June and November Weeding:12 . Therefore.October • In hills . a harder pruning by retaining only 3-4 buds on each stem is followed 2. to improve the quality of product.5 – 6 days interval Pruning:It is a art and science of cutting away a portion of a plant to improve its shape. half amount of N. Pruning time • Most of the part of India . ( PAU) Irrigation • Water requirement of roses depend upon soil type & seasons. • During winter . flowering and fruitfulness. Most of the varieties taken about 60 – 65 days for blooming after pruning..After the dormant winter season • In Bangalore. 20 g P2O5 and 20 g K2O should be applied per sq. • During summer water requirement is more than winter. it is good in which stem are cut to half of their length leaving about 5 to 7 buds on pruned stem 3. all interlaced stems and old shoots are to be removed. Training:Means developing a desired shape of the plant with particular objectives by controlling the habit of growth • • • Old. Light pruning It is preferred in Floribunda roses Miniature requires the removal of dead and weak shoots and just clipping of top. Hard pruning To obtain larger exhibition blooms.7 – 10 days interval • Summers. full dose of P and K at the time of pruning and remaining half dose of N is applied one month after the first application. and Intensity:6000-8000 f. PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF CUT ROSE Ideal growing media • Light.) • RH(50-60 %) • Aeration (Good in air and soil) • CO2 (1000-3000 PPM) varieties • Long stem (50-120 cm): • Vivaldi. Calypso. Lambada • Small flowered (30-70 cm): Motrea. Monocot weed can be effectively controlled with Glyphosate (1. Fibrous root system Easily propagated Vigorous growth habit and healthy Resistant/tolerant to biotic and abiotic stress Uniform growth Free from suckers Thick bark to hold firmly the bud Support the bud for long time Able to grow varied soil and agro climatic conditions Environment • Temp (Day : 18-28C and night:15-18C) • Light (Photoperiod over 12 Hrs. coco-peat and rock wool Characteristics of rootstock spp. • The graded flowers are bunched with 10 or 20 stems in each bunch. Baronesse. /ha) & dicot weeds with Oxyfluorfen (0. Tineke • Medium stem (50-70 cm): • Jaguar. Mulching:• Rose beds may be mulched with straw. black polythene film. • Loose flower should be harvested only when they are fully open.sulphate) to enhance their shelf life. Post harvest Management • The cut roses are kept in plastic buckets / containers filled with clean water having disinfectant & preservative (silver thio.6. golden Times.5 Kg a. Carona Bed size • Single. suppress weeds & produce more flowers of better quality. Konfetti. Yield 6 to 7 lacs sticks / ha.0 • Humus 10-12% • Imp constituents are sand. Grand Gala. Coronette. Suckers:• The shoots or sucker of the root stock emerging from the base of the plant should be removed as soon as they appear. First Red. double and four row planting system 13 . /ha) as pre – emergent treatment.i. • It helps conserve soil moisture. Harvesting • The rose flowers are cut while still in the bud stage after the sepals curl back & the colour is fully showing. well drained • pH 6 . hand weeding is practiced.0 Kg a.i. • They can be distinguished from those of the scion by the shape & size of their leaves. Pinching:Pinching in rose is generally practiced to adjust flowering for a particular season.5 • EC less than 1.c.Generally. 000-70. • 45-60 cm raised • 100 cm width • 60 – 85 cm path between two raised bed Spacing : 30 x 25 cm. maximum leaf area is required • Number of new shoots are to be encouraged which can produce marketable flowers • The pin sized flower bud is removed without leaves up to one month after planting BENDING • The bending is a major operation for polyhouse roses.The double row bed system is better than 3 or 4 row beds because it is very difficult to manage it in India. to reduce apical dominance by which dormant bud below the bend get extraordinary impetus and thereby produce long shoots with flowers • The branch arise from the main shoot bent smoothly towards path side by pressing hard followed by bending it with thumb and index finger by leaving two leaves below • 14 .000 plants/ha Planting Method • Six month old budded plants with at least two shoots is ideal • The roots are soaked in a diluted solution of Benlate to avoid disease • The polyhouse should be kept warm and high humidity is maintained Framework Development • The framework of basal shoots is very important for increasing quality flower production • To build up a strong root system. 60. 5 ml/ltr 1) Use tolerant rootstocks: indica.calaxin.Maintenance of bent stems • Roll these suckers twice a week to avoid energy towards bottom break • Only sprouts that come on the bent branches within 5 cm from the bending place can be left AFTER CARE • Overhead water spray during strong sunshine hrs to assist establishment and post planting losses • Deshooting after 7-8 months of planting • Resting of plants is done during off season (June-August) IMPORTANT DISEASE SN Name of pest 1 2 3 Powedery mildew Black spot Die back Management 1)WP sulfer or sulfer fumigation 2) Spray kerathion.5 ml/ltr or karanj oil 5 ml/ltr 1)Spray trizophos MP@ 1 ml/ltr or endosulphan oil 2 ml/ltr 4 Crown gall 5 Rust 6 Downey mildew IMPORTANT INSECT PEST SN Name of disease 1 Red scale 2 Thrips 3 4 White fly Bud catterpillar DISORDERS • Bull head : malformed flower • Bent neck • Limp neck • Blind shoot • Vascular plugging PINCHING • Removal of shoot apex to overcome apical dominance and lateral shoot development • 2-3 unfolded leaves are removed • Reduce plant height • Promote lateral branching • Regulate flowering Harvesting • For local market: When outer one/two petals starts unfurling • For distant market: 15 . caniana 1) Use of bittertenol.Fosetyl-AL Management 1)Healthy planting material 2)Cutting and burning heavily infested shoots 3)Soil application of carbofuron@1kg/ha 4)Spray confidor @4ml/10ltr OR 5ml neem oil/ltr water 1)Spray Imidacloropid 4ml/10ltr OR 5ml neem oil/ltr water 2)Spray dimethoate @ 2 ml/ltr at iitial stage 3)Drenching 4ml/ltr cloropyriphios reducing resting pupa population 1)Spray trizophos @ 1. contaf 1) Spray contact fungicides 1)Cutting and burning heavily infested parts 2) Proper ventilation and watering 3)Spray dicofol @ 2.multiflora. tridimefon and triforine 1) Spray Metalaxyl-MZ. 2 gives good quality flowers. EC < 0. flowers water loss and arrest the excessive opening the buds • Cold rooms (3-5 degree c) FLORAL PRESERVATIVES • Aluminium sulphate OR Citric acid(300 ppm) Storage • 2-30 C Grading • Long stemmed (50-120 cm): with 10 cm difference • Medium stemmed (50-70 cm): with 5 cm difference • Small flowered (30-70 cm): with 3-5 cm difference Optimum Yield • Open field: 25-50 stems/m2/year • Indian Green House: 150-200stems/m2/year • Loose flowers: 3-5 tonnes/ha/year • • GERBERA OTHER NAMES • TRANSVAAL DAISY • BARBERTON DAISY • AFRICAN DAISY TYPES OF GERBERA • SINGLE • DOUBLE • Introduction: • Genus Gerbera was coined in honour of German naturalist.15° C is optimum. rich. of 22° . Cultivation Requirements • Soil: Well drained. PROPAGATION • SEEDS • DIVISION OF PLANTS • CUTTINGS • MICRO-PROPAGATION Cultivation 16 . • Native of S. slow down the respiration.7.5 • Light: 32-43k lux for 8-10 hrs per day. • Gerbera jamesonii belongs to family Compositae / Asteraceae.25° C and night of 12° . • Temperature: Day temp.v.African and Asiatic regions. harm full u.Fully coloured tight bud Loose flower: Fully open flowers White. A crop grown under poly house has a life of 2 years with high quality flowers • Poly house protects the plants and flowers from direct rains. diseases and heavy winds. Gerbera was grown under shade houses where crop failures were their because of rains. • Climatic conditions can be controlled in a poly house up to some extent. pests. • Provision for moveable shade net is a must. • Water: pH – 5. the ideal temperature for flower bud initiation is 23 ° C Gerbera cultivation • Until a decade ago. neutral or slightly alkaline soil is most suitable. Traugott Gerber. rays. Soil pH between 5. pink and yellow cvs are harvested earlier to red as red may not open if harvested at tight bud stage Pre cooling • Immediately after harvesting • To remove field heat.2.5 to 7. however plan in such a way that produce come during the season. analysis soil/water sample before start fertigation schedule. • Gerbera can be planted throughout the year.0 Magnesium Sulphate 1.8 • Do not fertigate for first 10 days. DAWN. neem cake and paddy husk (if required). Drippers ( 2 lph ) should coincide with plants for proper irrigation and fertigation. • Irrigate through mist for first few days and then start drip.m Name Quantity ( kg ) Solution A Ammonium Nitrate 2. MYTHE. • Pl. CABANA. 17 • . • Usually 8 – 10 plants are planted per square meter .4 Mono Potassium Phosphate 1. Spread Farm yard manure. • Keep the crown of the plantlet above the ground while planting .Soil preparation : Plough the soil thoroughly 3-4 times up to a depth of 40-50 cm.2 Calcium Nitrate 2. One has to very careful regarding fertigation in hydroponic culture. • Two row planting with plant to plant 30 –40 cm and row to row 40 cm distance in triangle system is ideal for good growth. Planting • Planting material should be sourced from a good company. Fumigate with metham sodium / basamide or formalin and keep the soil covered with poly film for a week at least. basal dose of fertilizers. preferably with fertilizers! Too wet soil will invite Phytophthora root rot And too dry will invites mites etc. CROSSROAD. • In hydroponics. OXFORD. SAWANA. Irrigation interval should be many numbers per day . Leach the beds with water before planting. Irrigate young plants first with mist for about 10 days and then start through drip. Deep planting may lead to seedling rot. Fertigation / week / 1000 sq. VARIETAL WEALTH • SUNWAY. • Regular preventive sprays of pesticides and fungicides should be given. • Apply 19:19:19: @2. DALMA. SPYKER. Cultural practices • Keep the shade net ( 50 % ) close when the plants are young or during summer.5 kg alternate day for first 30-40 days. Bed layout • Beds should be 60 cm wide and 40 cm height with 40-50 cm pathway. EVERGREEN Irrigation It is preferred to have two drip lines running adjacent to the rows in the centre. plants are grown in pots filled with coco peat / peat moss etc. Make beds 60 cm wide with 40-50 cm pathway. bone meal.WINTER QUEEN.4 Sulphate of Potash 1.4 Solution B Potassium Nitrate 3. PITON • FINOLA. MARMARA. • 18 . application of Carbofuran. • Remove the dry and infected leaves regularly.. Dithane M-45.. leaf and folwer size small • Remedy:Foliar Spray of FeSO4 (0. carbendazim etc. Rhizoctonia sp. dicofol .5 per cent urea • Maintain moderately acidic PH Mg Deficiency • The leaves turn yellowish. Spray Triazophos. drenching / spraying of Carbendazim. of Bunches -35 No. soil application of Phorate or Carbofuran. Spray Ridomil. Soil sterilization. of Flowers -350 MICRONUTRIENTS DEFICIENCY • IRON DEF. Acetamiprid. OPTIMUM YIELD • GREEN HOUSE:200-250 FLOWERS/M2/YEAR • OPEN FIELD:120-150 FLOWERS/M2/YEAR Packaging Box Size. Soil sterilization. acephate. Oidium sp. ) metalaxyl. Soil application of Paecilomyces formulations. calyxin. • Scout for any pest and disease symptoms. Spray Thiophanate M. Fusarium Soil drench with Thiophanate M. • Each flower is packed in a plastic cup / cone and bundled in 10s.Remove the first floral bud which is seen by 30-40 days.5 per cent) with 0. Harvesting Stages of Gerbera • Before out row of ray florets show pollen • When outer row of petals is perpendicular on stalk • Harvest the flower when disc florets are half open. monocrotophos.e. ) Downy mildew ( Bremia lactucae ) White flies Leaf minor ( Liriomyza trifolii ) and Aphid Mites (Hemitarsonemus latus ) Root knot nematode ( Meloidogyne sp. Sclerotium rot ( Sclerotium rolfsii ) Blight ( Botrytis cinerea ) Powdery mildew ( Erysiphe cichoracearum . Thiophanate M on lower side of the leaves. Take flower production only when enough foliage is there ( i.) PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS Soil sterilization. • Remedy: Treating the crop with chelates of megnesium combination Health Management Root rot ( Pythium sp.100X40X20cm No. balyton. Spray propagite. • A pretreatment of STS may be given during storage at the farm. benomyl. abemactin. Harvest / Post harvest • Harvesting is done by bending the flower at base on either side ( boot stage ). Pack 50 bundles in a carton box for on ward journey. spp. by about 3 months ). ) Foot rot ( Phytophthora spp.:Young leaves show intervenal cholorosis. chlorfenpyr. Spray acephate. Spray Quintal. newly planted shrubberies • French marigold.Red Brocade.Giant double African orange. Butter Scotch. cure for piles. Pusa Basanthi Gainda (IARI varieties) and MDU 1 can be cultivated. edging. • Corrections : do not harvest flower stem when they are immature in winter Premature flower wilt: • It occurs mostly after a period of cloudy days with low light intensities followed by a clear sunny day. SOIL & CLIMATE • Marigold can be successfully cultivated on a wide variety of soil. Chrysanthemum charm. Valencia. sygnata) – Tagetes lucida (sweet scented marigold) – Tagetes lacera – Tagetes lemmonii • There are 30 species of genus Tegetes • Family. Globular and yellow and orange coloured in various shades French Marigold:• The hardy annual bushy plant (20-30 cm.Pre harvest stem break: When the flower stem is subjected to stress and wilt specialy in sunny weather and after it sudden application of water leads to extreme tension. Sussana INDIAN VARIETIES:Local types (orange & yellow). is imposed on cells in the stem • Corrections : keeping soil moist during sunny days and reducing air temperature Bent Neck • Insufficient flower stem hardening or maturation of the stem tissue below the harvested flower can result in stem collapse.Asteraceae • Centre of origin.as blood purifier. Climax. • Lack of carbohydrate • Corrections:• If possible screen the crop and let the plants get used to the radiation gradually • MARIGOLD Botanical name – Tagetes erecta (African marigold) – Tagetes patula (French marigold) – Tagetes tenuifolia (Syn. Giant double African yellow.Mexico • The name Tegetes was given after a Tages – a demigod known for his beauty • African marigold is represents vulgar mind and French marigold is a symbol of jealousy • Known as friendship flower in USA African Marigold:• Hardy. Rusty Red. Pusa Narangi Gainda. erect and tall annual growing up to 90 cm • Flowers are large. Spun gold • French Marigold. bedding plants. Dubloon. herbaceous boarders.Most Ideal for rockeries. Cracker Jack. eye diseases and ulcers • The essential oil from flowers is used in perfumery industry • Control of nematode Varieties • African marigold. Crown of Gold. Golden Age. hanging baskets and window boxes • Leaf extract is good remedy of ear ache • Leaf paste used for boils and carbuncle • Flower extract. T.) • Flowers are small either single or double • Flower colours are yellow to Mahogany red Importance and Use • Garlands. 19 • . they should be stocky and bears 34 true leaves.40 C) is adversely affect flowering • Mild climate (14. Name Control No 20 . at the time of transplanting.36. • Pinching is done 40 days after transplanting. in well prepared land and soil is pressed around root zone to avoid air pockets. development of axillary branches and flower production are influence by the presence of apical dominance and grow upward to their final height and produce terminal flower bud and after that the axillary branches develop which also bear flower. • High temperature (26. • Very old seedlings are also not desirable. sufficient moisture in the soil is essential • Lighter soil required more frequent irrigation than heavy soil • Summer – irrigation is given at 4-5 days interval HARVESTING • Cool hours in the morning or evening • Field should be irrigated before plucking so that flower keep well for longer • Regular plucking is important for increasing productivity • Flowers are collected in polythene bags or bamboo basket for carrying to the market YIELD • African Marigold – 11 . • Light irrigation is given after transplanting • Spacing 20x30 cm or 30x30 cm PROPAGATION • By seed and apical cutting • Seeds are sown in the raised beds PLANTING TIME Flowering season Sowing time Transplanting time Late Rains Winter Summer Mid June Mid September January.• well drained .20 C .28.8 million flowers/ha) PESTS Sr.8 .50 C .18 tonnes/ha (1. late pinching at 50-60 days proved less effective MANURES AND FERTILIZERS • 200:100:100 kg NPK/ ha • Full dose of P and K and half dose of N is applied at the time of transplanting • Remaining 100 kg/ha N is applied one month after transplanting IRRIGATION • Marigold takes 55-60 days to complete vegetative growth • At all stages of vegetative growth and during flower production.P.0 to 7.6 0 C) during growing period greatly improved flowering • October month is best for planting.February Mid July Mid October February.5 .5 million flowers/ha) • French Marigold . deep fertile soil having good water holding capacity • pH 7.5 • Marigold requires mild climate of luxuriant growth & profuse flowering. • Thin & long seedlings do not make a good plant.March PINCHING • In tall cultivars of Tagetes erecta.12 tonnes/ha (6 . • T.2. PLANTING • Raising the seedling in nursery bed. • The removal of apical shoots enhance well shaped bushy plants with more number of uniform flowers. They are Jasminum sambac (Arabian jasmine or mogra (double)) J. Plants give dusty appearance Hairy Caterpillar . More than 40 jasmine species are found in India. and South East Europe Family. Burma. Since the crop requires lots of manpower for harvesting and other operations.1 Red Spider Mite . grandiflorum (Chameli or Janti) J. It is an ideal crop for small farmers whose land holdings are less than 1 acre.. sambac) are reported to be used in China for flavouring tea 21 . veni. of which only three species are used for commercial cultivation.Rolling of leaves. only small farmers are cultivating the crop. And Leveillula taurica JASMINE Introduction Jasmine is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man.Sometimes appear near flowering time. Australia. wilting of shoot tips and leaflets DISEASES Sr. faintly scented flowers Tamil Nadu is the leading producer of jasmine in the country. Pythium spp. used for decorating hair of women and for religious offering Flowers are also used for the production of perfumed hair oils and attars The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of Spanish jasmine (J. Flowers and buds are used for making garlands. bouquets.Eats away foliage Kelthane 2 3 Leaf Hopper . Importance and uses Widely cultivated for its flowers. No Name 1 2 Damping off by fungus Rhizoctonia solani Endosulphan or Quinalphos Melathion Collar Rot by fungus Phtopthora spp. as both shrub and climber. jasmine is enjoyed in the garden.Oleaceae Basic chromosome number is n= 13 "Chameli" in Hindi. "Mallika" in Sanskrit and "Malligai" in Tamil Jasminum humile Known as ‘Italian jasmine’ or ‘Swarn chameli’ is a shrub native to tropical Asia The yellow. grandiflorum) The Grasse region of France supplies the best quality jasmine perfume in the world The jasmine oil is regarded as unique as it blend well with other floral extracts and it is highly valued throughout the world for producing high grade perfumes The natural oil of Jasmine is used in high grade perfumes and almost all the superior perfumes contain at least a small quantity of Jasmine oil The oil is use din soap and cosmetic industries The flowers of Arabian Jasmine (J. And Sclerotium rolfsii 3 4 Flower Bud Rot by fungus Alternaria dianthi Powdery Mildew By fungus Oidium sp. auriculatum (Jooee) and The first two species are mainly cultivated for selling as fresh flowers whereas the last one is cultivated for concrete extraction. Jasmines are native of India and also China. 5 g / l 22 . once after annual pruning and again during June-July Inter Cultural Operations Weeding and strengthening of irrigation channels and bunds are the intercultural operations followed for jasmine cultivation.90 cm3. Manuring It is recommended that each plant should be applied with 10 kg of FYM and 60 g of Nitrogen and 120 g each of Phosphorus and Potassium and should be applied in two split doses i. The ideal conditions for successful cultivation are warm summer with ample water supply and sunny days. it comes up well in well drained rich sandy loam or clayey loam soils.e. Spraying of monocrotophos 36 EC @ 2ml /l is recommended to control bud worm and blossom midge. commonly ground layers • Seeds are hardly used for propagation but are used for raising new hybrids. • The highest rooting of 90% was recorded in soft wood cutting treated with IAA 1000 ppm and hard wood cuttings treated with NAA 500 ppm • Best rooting and survival were obtained with IBA at 4000 ppm Soil and Climate Jasmine can be cultivated in wide range of soils i.10 g of Temic granules/plant near root zone and for Root rot .Bud worm. Plant Protection Pests .. before sun rise.Nematode and root rot are the major diseases attacking the jasmine crop.. from sandy loam to clay soils. Grandiflorum 1. CO-2 J. Single Mogra 4.Drench the soil around plant with Copper oxychloride @ 2. Varieties Jasminum sambac 1. Double Mogra J. Normally. Auriculatum 1.1. Diseases .e. Growth regulators are also effective. Gundumali 2. CO-2 Irrigation First irrigation should be given immediately after planting and subsequent irrigation at an interval of 7-10 days depending upon the weather conditions and soil type. Season of flowering and harvesting Flowering commences after 6 months of planting.. Planting should be done during June-November Spacing. To control the red spider mite.5m x 1. which is followed by digging of pits at a size of 45 .Propagation • Cuttings of almost mature wood • Layers. It is advisable to prune the plants during the last week of November to get increased yield and quality flowers. Each pit should be applied 10-15 kg of well rotten Farm Yard Manure (FYM) before filling the pits. blossom midge and red spider mite are the major pests of jasmine.e. Control measures for Nematode . Madanban 3.5m. However. spraying of sulfur (50% WP) @ 2g / l is recommended. irrigation is withheld prior to pruning and plants are pruned by removing all past season shoots including dead and diseased branches. Fully developed unopened flower buds should be picked in the early morning i. CO-1 2. The first weeding should be done 20-25 days after planting and subsequent weedings are done once in 2-3 months Pruning Pruning is done to get the desired crop. Land Preparation and Planting One or two initial ploughings are required to remove the weeds present in the land. CO-1 2. Distribution Tuberose is cultivated in • America • Italy • France • South Africa • Formosa • Egypt • Israel • India • Mexico • Morocco • Taiwan In India Tuberose cultivated in • West Bengal • Assam • Maharashtra • Rajasthan • Gujarat • Karnataka • Andhra Pradesh • Tamilnadu In Gujarat Tuberose cultivated in • Navsari 23 .500 2 3 4. Family :.Polianthes tuberosa L.Yield parameters: 1 Particulars/year Flower yield in kg/acre 750 1.. It require as warm humid climate and temperature around 300C for its luxuriant growth.Amaryllidaceae Origin :.500 2. TUBEROSE B. It is commercially cultivated for cut and loose flower trade. It is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals of tropical and subtropical areas..:. Tuberose is in great demand for its attractive and fragrant flower spikes.N :. Tuberose flower is a good source of essential oil .Mexico Chromosome No. There are double semi double and single forms are available . It is generally planted in February – March in plains and April – May in hills. Tuberose varieties are named on the basis of the number of rows of petals they bear .n=30 Vernacular name: Nishigandha/ Rajnigandha/Gul-e-shabu/ gulchhari.) is widely grown in the plain of India flaunting its fragrance both outdoor and indoor.500 3. Tuberose is an ornamental bulbous plant. INTRODUCTION TUBEROSE (Polianthes tuberosa L.. Double type tuberose Types and cultivars of tuberose Types Single Cultivars Local single Suvasini Vaibhav (IIHI) Prajwal Hyderabad single Phule Rajni Calcutta single Singal Mexican Rajat Rekha (NBRI) Double Local double Hyderabad double Calcutta double Swarna rekha (NBRI) Shringar (IIHR) Shringar: • single type flowers on strong. • The concrete obtained from 'Shringar' has higher iodole content than that of 'Mexican single.• • • Uses • • • • • • • Valsad Surat Baroda As cut flowers In the landscape As potted plant For essential oil Making artistic garland Floral ornaments Bouquets and buttonholes Types of Tuberose 1. Single type tuberose 2. • tolerant to nematode (Meloidogyne incognita race 1). • The concrete content(0. • The flower buds are attractive with slightly pinkish tinge • The spike has more number of flowers and the individual flowers are larger in size compared to the local 'Single' variety. 24 .13%). medium spikes. • This hybrid yields 36% higher loose flowers when compared to local 'single'. friable soil and rich in organic matter and nutrients with plenty of moisture are preferable.tropical and temperate climates. Light • Tuberose is sun loving plant. • Spike yield is higher compared to other varieties. Vaibhav: • This hybrid bears double flowers on medium spikes. big. • In the case of Double flowered type the plant produce 35 to 45 leaves of 48 to 55 cm length during the first year. Prajwal: This new hybrid bears single type flowers on tall stiff spikes. The flower buds are slightly pinkish.drained. • Spike length varies from 75 to 95 cm with 40 to 50 flowers per spike. • For pot cultivation. • The spike take 26 to 29 days for opening of flower. Propagation Tuberose propagated by • Seed (for developing hybrids) • Bulbs and bulb. 25 . • Flower buds are greenish. pure white flowers borne on long spikes he number of flowers in a spike in also more. a mixture of garden soil. • Flower opening is bold in this hybrid as compared to shy opening of flowers in the cv „Double‟. Growth and flowering • Tuberose is perennial plant (3 years crop). FYM and leaf mould in proportion of 2:1:1 should be used. • this hybrid has been released at Karnataka State Level. will produce 8 to 12 side shoots. • Spike yield is 26% higher compared to local 'double'. Soil • Tuberose can be grown in any type of soil from light sandy to clay loam. Suvasini: • This is a multi-whorled variety with bold. • pH 6. • Flowers gradually develop from the base to apex on the spike. • High light intensity is required for bulb and flower production. well. • High atmospheric humidity and temperature around 300c is optimum. • For bulb production. Temperature • Tuberose can be grown with success under wide climatic condition ranging from tropical to sub. • Flowering is maximum in the first two years. • Warm and humid climate with average temperature ranges from 200c to 350c. • The spike length and quality of flower is affected if the temperature is above 400c.• this hybrid has been released at Karnataka State Level. • Number of spike per plant varies from 1 to 3. • The single flowered‟ type. with 60 to 80 number of leaves of 50 to 60 cm length from one large size bulb.5 to 7. It yields more loose flowers than other varieties. • Spike length 90 to 120 cm with 20 to 35 flowers. • At least 45 cm deep. • It take 55 to 65 days for the appearance of the flower spike from planting.lets. in the first year. Very low temperature and frost asso damage the plants and flower. tuberose must be grown in full sun.5. 00am Bulb 26 .5 to 3.5cm in diameter Planting time • In India Area Plains Hills South India West Bengal Time of planting February-March April – May July – August st • 1 week of April Planting distance • In India Area Nasik (MH) Nadia (WB) Howrah(WB) Lucknow(UP) South India Gujarat Planting distance 15cm X 20cm 20cm X 20cm 25cm X 20 cm 30cm X 30cm 20cm X 20cm 30cm X 30cm Nutrition FYM 20t/ha 200-200-150 NPK kg/ha/year In Gujarat 200-200-200 NPK kg/ha/year Irrigation • Application of water for the purpose of supplying regular moisture is essential for the growth and development of tuberose plant. • In the summer months. • Picking of individual flowers should be completed before 8. • Harvesting is done in the early morning or late evening. Inter-culture • Hoeing • Earthing up • Mulching • Weeding -> use Atrazine 3Kg/ha -> use Gramaxone 3Li/ha Harvesting Flower • Tuberose beings to flower after 110-120 days of planting. • The crop is irrigated at 5-7 day intervals. • Harvesting is done by cutting the fully-opened spikes from the base or single flowers are harvested as they open by day.(multiplication of tuberose is done commercially by bulbs). • Harvest when 2-3 flowers are open on the flower stalk and others are showing color. irrigation is recommended twice a week. Bulb size 2. 05% armigera): growing spikes. Eggs are deposited singly on Parathion 0. usually on the undersides of the leaves. green. 27 .02 kelthane @ 1. • Before digging out the bulbs. Larvae bore into buds and flowers and feed on them by making holes.07% or Methyl (Helicoverpa spikes. Aphids: These are tiny insects. where these make webs.Harvest handling Stage of harvest:When first pair of flowers in the spike is fully open Storage:Can be stored wet or dry at 7 to 100 for 3 to 5 days Pulsing:pulsing is a short duration treatment given to cut flower in form of high concentration of sucrose and germicide. Grading The flower spikes are graded according to the • Stalk length • Length of rachis • Number of flowers per spike • Weight of spike Yield Flower • Cut flower:– 5 lakh flower spikes/ha/3 year • Loose flower – 10. These usually occur in cluster and feed on flower buds and young leaves. Setting up to light traps Bud Borer Eggs are deposited singly on growing Sprays of Endosulphan 0.1% or Carbaryl @0. 8 percent sucrose + 200ppm 8-HQC for 24 hours reduce floret abscission. soft bodied. Pests This pest mainly damages flowers. These are usually red or brown in colour and multiply fast.000 kg/ha/3 years Bulb • 22 to 25 t/ha of plantable size Post.1% at an interval of 15 days is effective. if allowed to continue. • The leaves are then cut off at the ground level and the bulbs are dug out. At this stage irrigation is stopped.000 to 14. • Grasshoppers: Dusting the plants with 5% Folidol dust Spraying of Quinalphos@0. promote floret opening and increase vase life. Eat the young leaves and floral buds malathion @0.2% concentration Mites: Mites thrive well under hot and dry conditions.05% or Malathion 0. the leaves become dry and the bulbs attain dormancy. deep purple or black in colour.Bulbs reach maturity at the cessation of flowering during winter season.000 kg/ha/year – 30. More or less round sclerotic. of 30 Botrytis Spot and Blight ( Botrytis elliptic) Carbendazim @2g/litre of water effectively controls the disease. where the inflorescence is malformed. these are associated with a contagious disease known as bunchy top. Streak nematode damage leaves whereas root gall nematode causes stunting of plant growth and yellowing and drying of leaves Spary malathion (0. the infected plant becomes weak and unproductive. flower.1%) Weevils ( Myllocerus sp): Applying BHC dust ( 10%) in the soil before planting controls larvae. Greasy streak nematode (Aphelencoides besseyil ) Application of Thimet or furadan (20 kg/ha) to the soil. The disease appear during the rainy season. brown spots are formed on and around the infected leaf.Thrips: Thrips feed on leaves. Tuberose hybrid 'Shringar' released from IIHR. As a result. was found to be tolerant to nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). The infection also occurs on the leaves and stalks. The infected leaves get detached from the plant. 28 . The weevils are nocturnal in habit and damaged shoots and leaves. Infected flowers show dark brown spots and ultimately the entire inflorescence dries up. The treatment should be repeated at 15 days interval. they feed the edge of the leaves. producing a characteristic notched effect. Diseases Stem Rot The diseases symptoms are preceded by the appearance of prominent spots of loose green colour due to rotting which extend and cover the entire leaf. Greasy streak nematode (Aphelencoides besseyil ) Streak nematode damage leaves whereas root gall nematode causes stunting of plant growth and yellowing and drying of leaves Application of Thimet or furadan (20 kg/ha) to the soil. Larvae feed on roots and tunnel into the bulbs. soil application Brassicol( 20%) @ kg/hectare. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). stalk and flowers. Usually. Nematode Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita). These suck the sap and damage the whole plant sometimes. USA. Frequently asked questions • The tuberose bulbs are reported to contain an alkaloid lycorine. Sweden. Italy. Kenya (1. Italy (4.2%). 29 . Belgium/Luxembourg and Japan (in order of the volume of imports). Middle East. Switzerland. • The target markets for cut flowers identified by the floriculture committee of the Commerce Ministry are Europe. Potential Centers • The selection of location for production of carnation or any other flower for export purposes depends mainly on three factors.3%).9%). carnation.8%). The leaves become yellow and dry up. namely. The fungus mainly affects the roots and the infection gradually spreads upward through the tuber and collar portion of the stem. USA. rose.Sclerotial Wilt ( Sclerotium rolfsii): The initial symptom of this disease is flaccidity and drooping of leaves. Far East (Hong Kong. Austria. Singapore). rubbed with turmeric and butter and applied as a paste over red pimples of infants. • Dried tuberose bulbs in the powdered form are used as a remedy for Gonorrhea • The family of tuberose is Amaryllidaceae • The native of tuberose is Mexico • The common name of tuberose – Gulchari and Gulshabbo in hindi and Rajanigandha in Bengali • The bulb of tuberose contains alkaloid Lycorine which cause vomiting • The haploid chromosome number of tuberose is 30 • Two gamma induced mutants cultivars Rajat Rekha (Single) and Swarna Rekha (double) are developed by NBRI. UK. • The bulbs are diuretic and emitic. which cause vomitting. Columbia (9. Denmark. tulip and lily account for 70-75 per cent of the world trade. Lucknow • Dormancy of tuberose bulb can successfully broken by the treatment with 4% thiourea solution for one hour CARNATION Export Market • The main importing countries for cut flowers are Germany. chrysanthemum. France. the location for the production should be decided. • The five flowers. Japan. Based on these considerations. • The main exporting countries are Holland (70%). Both tubers and roots show rotting symptoms. • cost of production • quality • cost of transportation.4%) and the Canary Islands (1. Israel (5. Thick cottony growth of the fungus is visible on the rotten stem and on petioles at the soil level.1%). Spain (2. • Only the production of high quality flowers at low cost can face the international competition. bedding. chrysanthemum.divine and anthos. do not last for long time 2. Kalimpong. barbatus D. is believed to be derived forma Greek word coronation because these flowers were used in decoration the crowns of Greek athletes The generic word Dianthus is derived from Greek word Dios. carnation (Latin. flesh). the carnation flowers are used for extraction of perfume and only light coloured flowers are used for this purpose. Carnation Botanical name:. Why Carnation become popular • Excellent vase life • Wide range of flower colour and forms • Ability to withstand long distance transportation • Rehydrate easily • Lighter weight Importance and Use • Excellent for cut-flowers. caryophyllus D.Crayophyllaceae Centre of origin. woody below. Other locations can also be selected on the basic factors indicated above.Dianthus caryophyllus Family:. iris.45 to 1. cymbidium. narrow and linear succulent leaves which are keeled and five nerved • The stems are hardy. gypsophilla. are most suitable for cut flower growing including carnation • In certain parts of France and Holland. knappii . anthurium and narcissus. freesia. tulip. boarders. • Large flowers with fringed petals. Border or Picotte 30 • . carnatio.yellow colored Besides cultivated forms. pots. about 9 species are found in India The common name. Nasik. gladiolus. herbaceous. from caro.Areas around Pune. beauty and clove like fragrance and good vase life. edging and rock garden • Cool climate in Kashmir. Chabaud or Marguerite:• annual with single or double flowers reproducing true from seed. lily. suffrutescent at the base • Medium tall(0. • Carnation absolute are used in sophisticated perfumes Morphology • Half hardy perennial. the petals are broad with frilled margins and the calyx is cylindrical with bracts at the base Classification 1.flower while the species name has been given after generic name of the clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus) due to resemblance of fragrance of carnation flower to clove. Bangalore and Delhi have been identified by experts as most potential centers for cultivation of carnation. Kullu valley. carnis. Bangalore etc. chinensis D. • Popularity of carnation ranks among the top three cut flowers in the West. glabrous and possess one to three angles with tumid joints • The flowers are solitary. carnation. terminally formed. It is loved for its exquisite form.0 m) with thick. gerbera. Introduction • The top ten cut flowers in international trade: roses.Mediterranean area/ Southern Europe ( France) Basic chromosome number in 15 and most of the species are diploid There are 250 species of dianthus found in the world of which only few are cultivated D. Medley Red.White Sim. Calypso. Peach Delight Yellow. • The ideal soil pH is 6. Lior. Pamir. Iceland.Pink Sim. White Lilia Pink. Picottes (White or yellow with narrow bands) 3. Alicetta. Malmaison • Stiff and massive habit plants with broad leaves • Fully double flowers mainly pink with well filled centers 4.White Royallete.0 Climate: • Require high light intensity during winter and cool temperature during summer • The ideal temperature is 100C to 200) • Sunlight for 12 hours • RH: 50-60% Ideal greenhouse conditions for Carnation cultivation 31 . with single coloured or irregular colour markings or blended colours makes it attractive • The flowers are frilled with open centre and petals are broad and smooth edged Bordercarnations Self ( single colour) 1. Bizarres ( 2 to 3 colours) 4. Tahiti Orange. flower all year round • Quality flowers which withstand long distance transport Florists’ carnations 1. Enzo. Murcia. Nora.Symmetrical flower.Rony. Silvery Pink. Espana.Pallas. Red William. Candy.Scania. Karma. Sharina Red. Karina. Goldilocks Soil • • • Roots of carnation are fibrous and highly susceptible to poor drainage.0 t0 7. Sonsara Pink.Tangerine Sim. Madea. Spray type (Miniature ):• Ability to produce small to medium sized numerous flowers and bloom size do not increase irrespective of disbudding and best fertilizer application • Better adopted to warm climate Varieties Standard type variety : White. Standard type:• Ability to produce single large sized blooms on longer flower stalk if timely disbudding and proper nutrition is applied • Better adapted in cool climate • Suffer from diseases when grown under warm climate 2. Granda. Fancies( Yellow or white background mottled with various colours) 2. Barbara. Tibet. A rich porous and friable sandy loam or loamy sand soil rich in organic matter is considered to be most ideal. Yellow Dusty.Yellow Odeon.Annelies. Etna. Lena. Flakes ( Clear ground flaked with one colour) 3. Orange Triumph Spray type variety : White. Perpetual flowering ( Florists‟ Carnations) • Hybrids involving of many Dianthus species. Killer Yellow. Roma. Excel. Photo period ( Long day over 16 hours) and Intensity (100 watts bulb spaced at 10. Summer 130– 15. service area prepared above the ground Soil media having 3:1 sandy loam soil and well rotten FYM if thoroughly mixed Container is sterilized with formalin Then rooted cuttings are planted at the same depth as in the nursery Optimum planting Density and distance Ordinary.25-32 plants/ m2 _High density . Standard type • Removal of lateral buds below the terminal ones. • Lateral bubs down to about six nodes from the terminal flower bud are removed to encourage the growth of main flower bud • The best time is when the flower bud diameter is about 15 mm • Terminal bud is retained and all the lateral buds are removed 2.5 m height) Temperature: Night ( Winter 100– 110C . Light.0 m size with 60 cm.500-1500 ppm) Propagation 1.Terminal cutting • For better rooting cuttings are treated with 500 ppm NAA or IBA for 5 seconds and high humidity • IAA at 50-200 ppm for 5 minutes also stimulated rooting • High percentage of rooting is observed in cool months than summer month Micro propagation Bed Preparation commercial production of carnation is done in container system of planting Raised bed of 30 cm high with 1.0 m x 10.70C.40 plants/ m2 Standard.30x30 cm Disbudding 1.seeds 2.20x20 cm Spray. Spray type • The main flower bud is removed to encourage the lateral flower buds to develop • The disbudding in all the types of carnation should be done within 7 days from the appearance of there buds • When side shoots after flowering are 3-5 cm long then retain 6-10 shoots per plant • Terminal bud is removed and lateral buds are retained De-shooting 1. at 1. Spray type • When side shoots after flowering are 3-5 cm long then retain 6-10 shoots per plant Pinching • It is an important cultural practices • It depends on time of flowering and cultivar • In pinching terminal growing shoot about 2-3 cm long is removed to overcome apical dominance and to promote side branching when the plants are 6-8 leaf pair stage.40C) and day (100– 110C) Free circulation of air Relative humidity: 50-60% CO2 . Annual carnation.5 m. Perennial carnation. Standard type • When side shoots after flowering are 3-5 cm long then retain 3-5 shoots per plant 2. 32 . spring 12. It is done in four ways to regulate flowering in carnation. Thrips 5. Pinch and a half. so as to get single large peak flowering 4. When the side shoots are 6-8 cm long and this stage occur at 40-50 days after pinching. Flower yield • Standard. Heliothis caterpillars 7. Red spider mite 4. Sclerotinia sclerotiarum) • Flower bud rot ( Alternaria dianthii) • Rust (Uromyces caryophyllinnus) • Flower blight (Botrytis cinerea) • Fairy ring spot • Viral diseases Important pests: 1. Double pinching. dianthi) • Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) • Foot rot ( Phytopthora. Then half of the shoots are again pinched. Immediately after harvesting flowers should be placed in a bucket of clean water inside the green house and transported to the grading hall.First pinching is done in all the shoots. Single Pinching.Terminal growing shoot about 2-3 cm long is removed once in all the shoots 2. then again do the pinching in all the shoots. and they should not be wet at harvest. 3. The marguerite and annual carnation pinching is done at 40 and 60 days after transplanting Harvesting • The standard cultivar for local market are harvested when flowers are half opened or painting brush or outer petal is perpendicular to stem.First pinching is done in all the shoots. Nematodes Disorders • Calyx splitting • Grassiness • Sleepiness • Splitting at nodes and bushiness 33 . White fly 6.First pinching is done in all the shoots. When the side shoots are 6-8 cm long and this stage occur at 40-50 days after pinching. This increase the duration of flowering. Rhizoctonia solani. This delays the flowering and flower quality is also poor 5. while for distant market when 50 % flowers have shown colour For loose flower fully opened flowers are harvested Harvesting time: Early morning and/or in the late afternoon.Pinching techniques 1. Mealy bug 3. while for distant market cross is developed on buds and colour is visible • The spray cultivars for local market are harvested when two flowers have opened and others have shown colour. Aphid 2. Later on keep removing the shoots by pulling up to 2 months. sp. Pinch plus pull pinch.4-6 stems/plant • Spray – 8-12 stems/plant • Average yield 200-300 flower stems/m2/year Grading Based on minimum stem length (cm) • A: over 45 cm • B: 30-45 cm • C: Less than 30 cm Diseases : • Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. Pythium. Gladiolus grandiflorus Family :. Fusarium wilt • Associated with Hot Spot application of 0.4 mM before harvesting Causes of splitting of nodes and control • Poor shoots developed through gaps • Poor flower quality • Boron deficiency • Apply boron 2 g/m2 How tinting is done in Carnation A concentrated liquid or powder colour is mixed in small amount of warm pure water (370C) and stems are placed in it. Alternaria leaf spot Gladiolus Introduction Botanical Name :.• Small narrow leaves and tied tips Causes and control of Calyx splitting • Temperature fluctuation • Night temperature should not be below 100C. The colour develops in different patterns on the petals after 10-24 hours Name Symptoms Control 1.Iridaceae Centre of Origin :-Tropical and south africa Pollination System :-Cross/Self pollinated Chromosome No.2 % (Fusarium oxysporum weather and high Bavistin dianthii) humidity • Yellowing of leaves and wilting of entire plant • Soil borne disease 2. :-2n=30 to 120 Plant Discription : It is a herbaceous plant bearing underground storage stems known as corms from which arise sword shaped foliage so known as „sword lily‟ bearing terminal inflorescences of flowers known as spikes Area Under Cultivation 34 . • Use of more nitrogenous fertilizes • Vary from cultivar to cultivar • Do rubber banding before flower opening Causes of Grassiness and control • No flower production • Genetically related disorder • Vary from cultivar to cultivar • Remove and destroy all plants Causes of Sleepiness and control • There is temporary or permanent wilting of flowers • Exposure to ethylene or water stress or higher temperature • Spary STS 0. Punjab. Meera. mayor. and Topaz. peter pears. Pitambar. Apsara. Basant Bhar. Shobha Exotic Grock. Hot water treatment or water soaking for four to seven days facilitates early and uniform sprouting. bedding. • A heavy clay soil. communis G. grandiflorus (All modern day cultivars are designated in it) G. mixing of 5-8 cm thick layer of river sand along with the manure will make the clay soil cultivable or Planting of gladiolus on raised bed • pH 6 to 7 Climate • Gladiolus prefers mild climate and sunny situation for their proper growth and flowering. • Florets open acropetally forming a natural progression of different stages of floret opening. Cartago. pots. Spic & span. 35 . it can tolerate temperature up to 40OC only if the relative humidity is high and soil moisture levels are optimum. borders. Priscilla. Propagation • For multiplying the planting stock it is advisable and cheaper to use cormels. cardinalis G. is unfit as the gladiolus root system is easily damaged by excessive soil moisture. with poor drainage. • Temperature is considered as a major factor influencing the number of days taken for flowering. • Cormels are selected carefully to prevent spreading of disease. Lucknow Archana. The gladiolus corm is formed by swelling of 5 to 8 shortened basal internodes of the flower stalk. Bangalore Aarti. Mukta. Jacksonville Gold. well-drained sandy loam soil. They are produced in clusters on stolons between mother and daughter corms. West Bengal. Psittacinus hybrid. • Swelling of root at the base indicates that cormels are ready for planting. Himachal Pradesh. Smita. American beauty. Gazel. Eurovision. carbohydrates and proteins. atroviolaceus G. Soil • Gladiolus produces the best spikes when grown in deep. Mohini. • Corms are very rich in vitamin C. Manhar. and Uttar Pradesh. Peculiarities of gladiolus • Grown for cut flowers. Triloki. psittacinus NBRI. Sapna. Aldebaran.Gladiolus is mainly cultivates in Maharashtra. Manisha. Karnataka. Friendship. Nova. hybridus G. • However. Poonam. floribundus G. primilinum G. Jwala. underground storage stem with a central axis. bouquets and floral arrangements. • Optimum growth of gladioli occurs at temperatures between 10O and 25OC where the night temperature is not above 16OC. gandavensis G. IIHR. • However. Corms:The corm is a fleshy. White Goddess. Important species of Gladiolus G. Size of Corms • The size of the corms has a positive correlation with the height of the spike and number of florets per spike. as it is a source of pathogens. corms are planted 8-15 cm deep • 15-30 cm x 30-40 cm. Minimum illumination of 8 hours/day is essential for most of the gladiolus varieties. The bigger corms called 'Jumbo'. • Plants are loosely fastened at three places with the help of jute cord. Earthing Up • Earthing up is practiced when the soil is heavy and deep planting is not possible. Corms are treated with thiourea (1000ppm) or GA3 (100. weeding and hoeing is done manually. Time of Planting • The best time for planting flower size corms is mid-September to mid-October. Method of Planting • Normally. • First weeding is completed within three weeks after sowing while the second weeding is done before application of fertilizer as top dressing. • It is done when the plants are 20-30 cm in height.5 cm are mainly used as a planting stock in the nursery for development of bigger corms for next year planting. • After removing the weeds.000/ha is ideal for quality production of flower spikes and corms. the field should be reploughed and levelled. are good for getting top quality spikes for exhibition purposes. 36 . depending upon the size of corms. • When the area is small. Land Preparation • The soil should be thoroughly ploughed 30-40 cm deep and exposed to sun for at least 25 days. The period of flower initiation commences when the third leaf becomes visible and ends when the sixth and seventh leaf appears.• • Light levels affect initiation of flower. If green manuring crop is taken it should be turned down into the soil at least two months before planting of corms. • Smaller corms. • A plant population of 15/sq. • The tall plants are staked. • Animal manure is not recommended. of 2-5 cm diameter each can also be planted as flowering stock • corms and cormels having diameter less than 2. Staking is done after the emergence of spikes but before opening of florets. 6-8 cm diameter. Quality of flower spikes and yield is better in a long day condition than short days. • Ridges and furrows are prepared as per the spacing • recommended.250 ppm) before planting to break dormancy Intercultural Operations Weeding and Hoeing • The field is kept clean by regular weeding and hoeing.m or 1. • Medium-sized corms of 4-5 cm diameter each are selected for planting to obtain quality blooms • and uniform flowering.50. Mulching • Mulching with dry grass helps to conserve the moisture and suppress the weed growth. but without any sign of withering. Plenty of moisture. Irrigation is provided immediately after the application of fertilizers and during the emergence of buds.50. • Normally.5 lakh corms. Manuring & Fertilizer Application of fertilizer leads to the formation of healthy and large sized corms.000 marketable spikes per hectare. then they should be cut with 3-4 open florets. • No irrigation should be given thereafter. • 120 kg N. plants are twisted down to ground level for allowing the corms to mature. planting density and management practices. early varieties start producing spikes from 75 day while the late season varieties from 85-90 day after planting • Spikes should be cut in the tight bud stage. • After flowering. corm size. • The spikes are cut with a sharp knife either early in the morning or in the evening. this practice should be discouraged in fields infested with termites. • The balance N is given in two split doses. Yield • The yield of flower spikes and corms in gladiolus depends on variety. with one or two pairs of leaves and 1-3 floral buds showing colour. • Usually. Irrigation • Sufficient water is required for good growth of gladiolus.• However. one as foliar spray at four leaf stage while the second as soil application at the bud stage. 150kg P2O5 and 150 Kg K2O per hectare • 60 kg N and entire dose of P2O5 and K2O is applied as basal dose. • The corms are checked for any disease infection and the affected corms are discarded. • Watering should be stopped at the time of ripening of corms. Lifting of Corms and Cormels • Corms planted during September-October are ready for lifting during March-April in the North-Indian plains and upto August in hills. when the leaves start turning yellow. FYM should only be applied for a preceding crop and never before planting gladioli. • Corms and cormels should be dug out with the help of a spade. 1-2 irrigation a week are sufficient. which give large-sized flowers on long spikes during the succeeding year. Harvesting • Gladiolus spikes are ready for harvesting when the first bud shows the colour of the variety. 37 . Application of fertilizer use should be based on soil analysis. Slant cut should be given at the base of the harvested spikes and immediately placed in a bucket with cold water. • Number of irrigation depends upon the • climate and type of soil. Soil should be dug deep in order to take out all the cormels. • If the spikes are to be used as fresh flowers. • The plant should be left with 3-5 leaves on the stem for the development of new corms and cormels. followed by a dry period. • Additional income can be obtained from the sale of about 3. • Gladiolus planted at a spacing of 30 x 20 cm yields approximately 1. • Corms are matured when 25% cormels have become brown which generally take 30 to 45 days from flowering • when the leaves also start yellowing. pests and diseases during storage. for preventing their rotting due to poor aeration. Cleaning. these are cleaned and diseased ones discarded. • For curing. the layers of corms should not exceed three • cured for five weeks at 21°C.Curing • Curing is one of the essential post harvest operations for successful storage of corms. the corms and cormels of each cultivar are kept in trays in a shady but well ventilated place for about a fortnight. Grading and Storage • After the corms are fully cured.3 days. The old withered corms are taken out and cleaned. • It is advisable to keep on turning corms and cormels periodically. • Treating the corms with 0. • Refrigerated storage increases the shelf life of the flowers without any addition to the spike weight. • Then they are fasted with rubber bands. bruising and moisture loss.) of exotic cultivar require low temperature during storage and should be kept in cold storage. • To prevent desiccation before and after grading. • Being smaller in size. • After grading. the cormels are stored in plastic trays having fine perforations. without decay. Packaging • Bundles of 12-spikes each are first wrapped in corrugated paper for protection from sudden temperature fluctuations. they should be bunched in units of 12 and held together by rubber bands. colour spike length and number of florets per spike. Grading • Spikes are graded into three lots. packed in ribbed cardboard boxes and transported to their destinations. the corms and cormels are graded in different grade-sizes. The corms are stored in perforated trays in a well-ventilated cool and dark room with temperature not exceeding 270 C.5cm dia) are fairly hardy and may be stored at room temperature. the spikes can also be kept in floral preservatives. However. Factors determine the level of dormancy in corms of gladiolus • Cultivar • Season (more in crop grown during summer than winter crop) • Temperature (more when high temperature during corm development) • Photoperiod (more in long days than short days) Light (more in crop grown under high light intensity 38 . • They remain fresh during transit for 1. • The small sized cormels (<0. • After lifting and removing the adhering soil. • Spikes are stored in refrigerated van for transporting them to long distance.5cm dia. Storage • Graded spikes should not be stored for more than 24 hours before they are packed and transported. the large ones (>0. variety.2% Captan 15 days before storage or dusting with 5% Cythione dust and Dithane M-45 protects them from insects. depending upon the weather conditions. • After cleaning. • These should be kept at a minimum temperature of 4-80C in upright position until packed for transportation. based on overall quality. Different grades of corms and cormels suggested by NAGC ( North American Gladiolus Council) Grade Size/diameter (cm) Jumbo >5.i.Methods to break dormancy of gladiolus corms • Low temperature storage for 2-3 months at 4-7° C • Ethylene chlorohydrin (4-5 drops/litre container for a week) • Dip corms in thiourea 500 ppm solution for 30 min.9 to =2.05% Methyl Parathion 0.05% Spraying of Quinalphos @0.5 to increase the shelf life.9 (Planting stock) 1.1%. wheat bran and molasses scattered in the field effectively controls the larvae.1 % at 15 days interval Application of Carbofuran/Phorate @ 1g a.1 No./m2 is found effective.3 Vase-life • Upon arrival at destination. • Vase-life of gladiolus spikes varies from 5-10 days. the spikes should be immediately taken out of the cardboard boxes. • Spikes can also be kept in floral preservatives containing sucrose (3000-5000ppm) and Streptocycline. • Dip corms in Garlic paste for 30 min.04% or Dimethoate 0. depending upon the cultivar and room temperature.2 No.1% or Chlorpyriphos 0. • Dip corms in BA 25-50 ppm solution or 10% H2S for 30 min.0 to =1.3 > 2.2 > 3.5 cm long basal ends of the spikes should be cut off and the spikes placed in acid solution having pH between 3-3.05. • Dip corms in GA3 50 ppm solution for 30 min.6 1. in diffused light but not in the open sun.05% or Quinalphos @0.1 No.1 > 3. • Spikes should be opened at a moderate temperature of 21-230C. dusting the corms with 5% Cythion Cut Worms (Agrotis segetum) Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) Mites (Tetranychus equatorius) Mealy Bug (Ferrisia virgata) Root-knot Nematode (Meloidogyne sp) Rodents 39 . It is advisable to store the spikes in air-conditioned chambers for sale.5 No. Fluvalinate 0.8 No.2 to =3. Pests Thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) Spraying of Methyl O Demeton 25EC or Dimethoate 30EC @2ml/litre of water at 10 days interval Carbaryl or Malathion @ 0.3 to =1.012% and Diazinon at 0.05% or Carbaryl @0. Sprays of Methyl Parathion 0. • About 2.04% or Acephate 0.4% Methyl Parathion 0.8 to =5.4 (Flowering stock) No.5 1.5 to =3. India. Sri Lanka. Mexico.000 Cultivars : 50.2%) gladioli) Storage rot (Penicillium gladioli) Copper oxychloride(0.3%). Philippines.When growing on ground • Epiphytic. prepare their own food by photosynthesis and do not easily die even if left uncared for several month Common factors Perennial Partial shade High humidity Good for tropical weather Good for tropical weather Morphology Spike.as in Oncidium and Phalaenopsis Raceme as in Dendrobium Panicle as in Cleisostoma Single as in Paphiopedilum 40 . Australia Introduction • Perennial • Terrestrial. Diseases Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.2%) Advances in the Production Technology of Orchids Orchids Family : Orchidaceae (largest family) Genera : 600-800 species : 25.When grow on trees or shrubs • Lithophytes.000 • species in India :1600 • Max species in NE part :800 • North west : 200 • Central and western India: 200 • South and coastal regions: 200 Origin: South and Central America. Malaysia.000-60. or tuberous roots or assimilating roots or aerial epiphytic • They are not parasites.When grow on rocks • Saprophytic.and storing them in perforated trays. Dithane Z-78 (0.2%) Curvularia blight (Curvularia trifolii f. Burma. Bavistin (0.3%).) Copper oxychloride(0. gladioli) Bavistin 0.45 (0.1%) Stemphyllum leaf blight (Stemphyllum spp. China. Dithane M. New Guinea.2% Core or corm rot ( Botrytis gladiorum) Maneb (0.Which derive their nourishment from dead or decayed organic matter • herbs with rhizomes or pseudo bulbs.000-30. Thailand. Important commercial genera Arandas Cymbidium Dendrobium Mokaras Oncidium IMPORTANCE AND USES Excellent for growing in pots, baskets, beds, split hollows, bamboo pieces and trees Highest value as Cut flower Adornment for hair Indoor (miniature orchids) Few species are used for making glues for manufacturing of musical instruments and enamel products Making baskets- Stems of Dendrobium split fresh pseudo bulbs used as blackboard dusters in Sumatra Attractive Bracelets prepared from the yellow pseudo stem of Dendrobium in New Guinea Food (dried leaves of Dendrobium salaccense cooked with rice gives exotic flavour and milk- castard drink with tuber, Leaves as vegetables), Vanilla as essence Medicinal Important generas of Orchids native to India Aerides Arachnis Ascocentrum Cymbidium Dendrobium Phalaenopsis Paphiopedilum Renanthera Rhynchostilis Vanda Classification on the basis of habitat Epiphytic Terrestrial Epiphytic Live on the bark of tree or on moss covered rocks, fixing themselves with their strong fasciculate roots Nourishment from fine particles of rain water or from the detritus that collects around the roots not from the host plant Can be grown successfully in hanging baskets Imp Ex.-Aerides, Cattleya, Epidendrum, Rhynchostilis, Vanda, Phalaenopsis, etc. Terrestrial Live or grow on the ground and can be cultivated in pots Imp Ex.- Calanthe, Cymbidium, Habenaia, Phaius, Spathoglottis, Thunia, etc. Classification on the basis of growing pattern Sympodial Monopodial 41 Pseudo monopodial Orchids Sympodial Orchids • Have stems of determinate growth • The stems sooner or later ceases, usually at the end of the season‟s growth • Produce pseudo bulbs which are swollen stems used for storage of water and food • More common among orchids • e.g. Cattleya, Epidendrum • Monopodial Orchids • Have indeterminate terminal growth • They have no rhizomes and form no pseudo bulb. Food material is stored in leaves • The plants produce aerial roots, which help them to anchor as they extent upward • e.g. Vanda, Angaecum, Aerides, Arachnis, Angraecum, Rhynchostylis Pseudo monopodial Orchids • Intermediate between sympodial and monopodial • Stems elongate through season and also extend in lateral season • Flowers are borne mostly laterally, often near the apices of the stem • e.g. Dichaeinae, Pachyphyllinae, Pterostemmatinae Propagation Seeds Cutting e.g. Vanda, Arachnis, Phalaenopsis Pseudo bulbs Offshoots or Keiks Aerial shoots Tissue culture Air layering e.g. Vanda Keikis :Rooted shoots at nodal region on the stem IMP. FACTORS AFFECT GROWTH & YIELD LIGHT : (Intensity:200-300 foot candles) TEMPERATURE : ( Day : 15-25ºC and Night : 10-15.5ºC) HUMIDITY : (Day : 75-80% and Night : 30-40% ) PERFECT VENTILATION PARTIAL SHADY OCATION CO2: (2000-3000 PPM) Media Containers Planting systems MEDIA Aeration Well drained Rich in humus Retain adequate moisture Supply sufficient moisture pH slightly acidic to neutral MEDIA FOR EPIPHYTIC ORCHIDS Tree bark 42 Dried fern foliage Coconut husk Brick pieces Charcoal Vermiculite Peat moss Perlite Leaf mould Gravel Tile pieces MEDIA FOR TERRESTRIAL ORCHIDS Leaf mould Soil Sand All in equal parts CONTAINERS Wooden boxes Baskets Earthen or plastic pots Small trays Containers should have many holes or sits to ensure good drainage and aeration shallow pots with more diameter are better Management Shade regulation Shade level Cladding MaterialShade nets • • • • • Covering the sides Height Colour Longevity Cost Nutrition Liquid fertilizer is good in orchid Ideal nutrition ratio 20:20:20 NPK with trace elements along with coconut water(20-25%) Management Irrigation Nutrition Shade regulation Plant protection Irrigation • Time • Quantity • Method Pests Diseases Fungal 43 DISORDERS Dry sepal injury : Due to high humidity and smog Deformed flower : Due to low temp.5 Hrs.Bacterial Viral IMPORTANT INSECT PEST SN 1 Name of disease Snail and slugs Management 1)Hand picking of snails and putting them in 5% salt solution is effective method 2) Spray 10 ml neem oil/ltr water 3)Spread poison bait 4)Placing bowls with beer betn the beds attract the snail 1)Healthy planting material 2)Cutting and burning heavily infested shoots 3)Soil appn of carbofuron@5-7g/pot 4)Spray confidor @4ml/10ltr OR 10 ml neem oil/ltr water 1)Spray Imidacloropid 4ml/10ltr OR 5ml neem oil/ltr water 2)Spray dimethoate @ 2 ml/ltr at iitial stage 3)Drenching 4ml/ltr cloropyriphios reducing resting pupa population 1)Spray trizphos MP@ 1 ml/ltr or endosulphoan 2 ml/ltr 1)Spray Aciphate 1. retaining 2-3 unopened buds Smaller spike orchid : Fully opened flowers YIELD 8-10 spikes/year in good mgmt condition STORAGE 44 . and chilling injury Browning of throat :same above HARVESTING Dendrobium like genus : When 70% flowers open.5ml/ltr water 2)Spray 10ml neem/karanj oil/ltr water 2 Scale 3 Thrips 4 5 Orchid beetle Mealy bug IMPORTANT FUNGAL & BACTERIAL DISEASES SN Name of disease Management 1 Leaf spot 1) Spray suitable fungicide 2 Pythium rot 1) Spray Mancozeb or any of the anti-Oomycete fungicide like Fosetyl-Al and Metaxyl 3 Heart rot 1)Spray any systematic fungicide like Fosetyl-Al and Metaxyl 4 Flower blight 1) Infected flowers destroyed and the plants shifted where the humidity is less 5 Rotting of pseudo 1) Spray Agrimycin or 8-quinolinol benzoate bulbs 6 Leaf and crown rot 1) Treated infected plants in 8-quinolinol benzoate solution for 1-2. long petioled.South africa Family:. sometimes with erect woody stems.Bird of Paradise The name comes from remarkably shaped and coloured flower clusters. The genus strelitzia includes about 5 species Strelitzia augusta Strelitzia reginae Strelitzia kewensis Strelitzia nicolai Strelitzia juncea Propagation 1. The plants are 90 to 180 cm. high. Leaves are large.Strelitzia spp. Division of clumps and separation of offshoots Vegetatively propagated plants establish and flower in shorter period than those raised from seed Climate 45 .Musaceae Common Name:. like the crested head of a bird. At 5-8ºC Problems • High and prolonged rainfall Diseases Low light • High temperature Humidity fluctuation Shedding of leaves Other problems • Air circulation • Water stagnation • Low humidity • Moss • Senility • Improved varieties Harvesting and Post harvest handling Stage of harvest Time of harvest Method of harvest Pulsing Grading Packing Transporting Production Technology of Bird of Paradise Botanical Name:. Seeds 2. rhizomatous. Centre of origin:. February.Gladiolus. • At the time of flowering 5 gm/l or 3 gm/l Potassium sulphate and 2 gm/l can be recommended Irrigation:• Strelitzia is a moisture loving plant • Watering is done immediately after planting and following once in a week depending on season and growing conditions Harvesting:• Harvesting stage for local market :. Tuberose. August and September • Pits of 90 cm are dug and filled with soil and FYM • Plant spacing:. Tubers. Irish Climate:They are grouped in two groups according to climatic requirements 46 . emergence of first flower and exposure of orange sepals • For distant market:. Plants propagated by underground modified stems are grouped into four groups.Amaryllis. Freesia Bulbs. however they can be grown in warm greenhouse either in borders or in pots Temperature 10-130C (minimum) and 20-220C (maximum) Soil They prefer well drained loamy soil rich in organic matter and the ideal media should contain 1 part organic soil 1 part peat 1 part sand Planting:• Time of planting:. 250 mg/l 8-HQC and 150 ml citric acid at 220 C for enhancing blooming Diseases:1. Bud Rot (Botrytis cinerea) Pests:Mealy bug ORNAMENTAL BULBOUS PLANTS Horticulturally plants of all these groups are known as bulbous plants.90 x 90 cm and planting density of 10000-15000 plants/ha is recommended Manures and Fertilizers:• 6 gm SSP and 3 gm/l Potassium Nitrate should be sprayed for three months with an interval of 10 days. In cool climate.• • • • • • Strelitzia grows and flowers well under tropical and subtropical conditions under both in full sun or in slightly shady situation.Canna.At tight bud stage • and kept in the solution of 10% sucrose. Zephyranthus. Crinum Rhizomes.Split of bracts at the top. Root Rot (Fusarium monoliforme) 2.Dahlia Corms. Division:.1. Cool climate:. Lilies etc.July The planting depth is depending upon size of bulb.Canna. Dahlia.February.When lower 2-3 florets have opened • For distant market:. Warm climate. Dahlia. Generally planted at 7-10 cm depth Planting Distance. produce flowers on long stem and thus needs support Bamboo stakes can be provided Harvesting:• Before harvesting of flowers.November Tuberose and Zaphyranthus. Off-sets.30x20 cm Interculturing Weeding and Hoeing:• Weeds should not be allowed to grow and should be removed as soon as they appear otherwise they compete for nutrients and water with the main crop • Hoeing helps in aeration of soil and better development off bulbs Irrigation:• 7 to 10 days in winter • 5 to 7 days in summer Staking:• Gladiolus.September to October Amaryllis.When basal florets show colour Staking:• Gladiolus.March Canna.7. the plants should be irrigated • Narcissus and Daffodils:. produce flowers on long stem and thus needs support • Bamboo stakes can be provided Lifting of bulbs and their storage:• The bulbs are dug after 10-12 weeks after flowering has been finished 47 . Narcissus. Dahlia. Dahlia.m N2O into two or three splits Planting Dahlia.g. tubers.at goose neck stage • Gladiolus and Tuberose:• for local market. freesia Soil:Sandy loam or loamy sand soil pH.g.0 Propagation:1. Zaphyranthus 2. Daffodils. rhizomes and corms 3.Gladiolus. tuberose.0 to 8. Dahlia. Narcissus. Crinum.m well rotten FYM 20 gm P2O5 and 20 gm K2O Splits (Top dressing) 40 g/sq. Irish. Dahlia Seed:.e. Terminal cuttings:. Freesia Manuring At the time of planting 5 kg/sq.e. Lilies etc. cormlets or bulblets 2.g.e. cuttings. troughs. The name Tulipa is derived from the persian word “Toliban” meaning turban which the flower resembles. Propagation:. Garden display and decoration.Lilium Family:.Bulbs. seeds Dahlia spp.Liliaceae Centre of origin:. Common name:.They are best grown in pots. healing scalds and burns.India Uses:. Window gardens. pot plant.Begoniaceae Centre of origin:. Central and South America Uses:. borders and flower bed and flower arrangements Propagation:. rockeries. Cape belladonna Family:. Common Name:.Liliaceae Centre of origin:. tubers Amaryllis belladonna Common name:. The mucilaginous sunstance coming out from the bulbs while cooking is used as an ointment for tumours. August lily.As bedding purpose. shrubbery etc Canna indica Common name:. hanging baskets.Tulip Family:. gardening and medicinal uses Lilium tigrinum (Tiger Lily) are very tasty and consumed in China.As cut flower.Cut flower.Amaryllis Belladonna lily.Mexico Uses:.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:.Begonia Family:. seeds Lilium spp.Tubers. Pots. beds. growing in beds. tubs.Seeds. grafting.North-East Asia. Excellent for cut flower.Northern Hemisphere Uses:. Common name:. Seeds Begonia spp. borders and pots and also for indoor gardening.• • After digging bulbs are dried in shade for few days Bulbs are treated with 0.Asteraceae Centre of origin:. Propagation:.Mexico. Stem cuttings.As pot plant. inflammations.South Africa Uses:. Japan and China The tulips ranks first among the all ornamental bulbous plants.Bulbs.2% Bavistin solution for 30 minutes and stored Important bulbous crops Tulipa spp. as bedding plants also Propagation:.Dahlia Family:. Common Name:.Indian shot Family:. ulcers.Cannaceae Centre of origin:. window boxes. as mixed plantation in shrubbery border 48 . Nargis Family:.Liliaceae Centre of origin:. Common name:.South America Hymenocallis litterollis Common name:.South Africa Gloriosa superba Common name:. (Narcissus and daffodils) Common name:.Liliaceae Centre of origin:. Common name:.Zephyr lily or rain lily Family:. Family:.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:.Iridaceae Centre of origin:.Glory lily Family:.Flag flower Family:.spider lily Family:.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:.Zingiberaceae Centre of origin:.Freesia Family:.Tropical Africa Hemerocallis flava Common name:.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:.South America Alpinia spinosa Common name:. North Africa and Europe Haemanthes multiflorus Common name:.Sudarshan or Sukhdarshan or St.Tropical Asia (India and Ceylon) Freesia reflecta Common name:.Day lily Family:.iridaceae Centre of origin:.South America 49 .South East Asia and Southern Europe Narcissus spp.Alstroemeriaceae Centre of origin:.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:. John or Cape lily Family:.Asia.Amaryllidaceae Centre of origin:.South Africa Iris spp.Blood flower or Red cape lily or foot ball lily Family:.Sikkim and Bhutan Alstroemeria aurantica Common name:.Astroemeria.Siberia.Crinum asiaticum Common name :.Shell ginger or Hedychium Family:.Japan Zephyranthes sp. double. seeds are sown in Aug. 6. The presence or absence of light has no effect on germination of aster seed.China Aster B. 1. 50 .2n=18 INTRODUCTION China aster is a herbaceous annual & some perennial species are also available which known as „Daisy‟.even in June. The flowers are different shape like single. As bedding plant Flowering pot. peony flowered.07 lakh flowers/ha 43. 8.:. Excellent as a cut flower Garland preparation Table decoration & bouquet making Dwarf cv.October . 5. Name of variety Kamini Poornima Shashank Violet cushion Phule Ganesh White Phule Ganesh Pink Phule Ganesh Violet Phule Ganesh Purple Color Deep pink White Creamy white Violet White Pink Violet Purple Plant height 60 cm 50 cm 55 cm 55 cm Medium tall Medium tall Medium tall Medium tall Production 50 flowers/plant 25 flowers/plant 45 flowers/plant 70 flowers/plant 47. button size to large dahlia size.03 lakh flowers/ha 60. The flowers size may vary from small. USES 1.leaf hardy. quilled or shaggy flowers types. incurved. 2. throughout the year) The optimum temperature for germination of aster seeds is 21oc & seeds germinate in approximately 8 days. blue.N Callistephus chinensis Family Composite (Asteraceae) Origin China & Japan Chromosome No.83 lakh flowers/ha PROPAGATION Mainly done by seeds. anemone flowered.47 lakh flowers/ha 46. 3. The colour range of asters. The plant is tall .July. 4. 7. 4. Window boxes plant. Varieties developed in India No. predominantly pink. It is grown in many parts of world for cut flowers. & white & their long vase life have made the aster a popular cut flower. winter annual. 5. 2. (Banglore. 3. Flowers are also damaged by high night temperature or severe wind. prevailing in summer. Plants are trellised with one or two layers of 15 cm2 fencing wire mesh supported by posts spaced at 3-5 m in the bed. Harvested asters are being placed over night in a solution containing silver nitrate 25 ppm. First week of October is a appropriate time of transplanting TRELLISING/STAKING Tall cultivars may need staking but this is not necessary for the dwarf types. flower size etc. it is transplanted to field. porous & well drained soils They will not tolerate water logged conditions as this aggravates the serious soil borne disease problems. The leaves are usually striped off the lower 1/3 to 1½ of the stem. Asters are usually harvested & bunched in the field during the picking operation. It is desirable to cut stem lengths of at least 30 cm & up to 45 cm. It is then ploughed again & worked into a fine tilth with discs cultivators or harrows.120:80:120 Kg/ha Application of Zn. The most suitable soil pH range of 5. High night temperatures in summer. Mn improve flower quality. Bo. the flowers are affected by high temperature. SOIL Rich. flowers should be placed in water. 75 ppm citric acid & 2 – 5% sugar.5 or medium acid. Bunch contain 10 – 15 stems. Packing 51 . that is above 23oc. To obtain continuous flowering over a longer period. Many methods of trellising can be used for asters. LAND PREPARATION Ploughing is usually 20-25 cm deep. the sowing should be done at 7-10 days interval. If sowing is delayed. After harvesting. especially for cut flowers. PLANTING 30x20 or 30x15 Seedling should be planted by pressing the soil around them . then following with an application of water.At 3 to 4 leaf stage. The land is then left in rough state until 2-3 weeks before planting. Cu. CLIMATE Flowers & plant can be damaged by frost. stem length. FERTILIZER / MANURE N:P:K :. HARVESTING & GRADING Asters are usually cut when the outside petals are fully unfolded but some petals in the centre are still tightly curled or showing a slight greenish tinge. a 10 minute dip in 1000 ppm silver nitrate alone or with 2 -5% sugar increases the vase life very significantly. If flowers are to be sent to market immediately. reduce stem length & flower size.5 to 6. IRRIGATION Aster requires a continuous soil moisture throughout the entire period of growth USE OF GROWTH REGULATORS Foliar spray of GA3 100 – 300 ppm induce early flowering increases branching. preferably in a cold room at 5 – 8oC to remove the field heat. The seedling should not be planted too deep as this encourages collar rot diseases. Erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in boarders or as cut flowers 2. The dwarf and compact growing ones are suitable for front row plantation or pot culture 3. They are packed in shallow cartons with only 2 layers of bunches.flower) • Known as “queen of east” • National Chrysanthemum Society established in America having thousands of active members which classifies cultivars. anthos. an important insecticide. No. • Centre of origin:.Chrysanthemum spp. Certain species like C. Hanging baskets Classification of chrysanthemum by National Chrysanthemum Society (NCS) America. Bunch of asters are wrapped individually or sleeved in cellophane or paper before packing. coccineum are also cultivated as a source of pyrethrum. Ryori Giku is a yellow flowering culinary type which is eaten as delicacy in Japan after frying 6. 4.golden.3 .Asteraceae/ compositae • (Chrysos. Vase life :.China or Europe and Asia • Family:. conduct shows and publishes journals • Chrysanthemum has also figured prominently in philately in China and Japan • Earlier chrysanthemum was proclaimed as the national flower of Japan by emperor Uda in year 910 AD • Presently Cherry blossom is a national flower and chrysanthemum is a symbol of Royalty in Japan and having largest numbers of cultivars Importance and Uses 1. 5. cinerariifolium and C.4 days Pests Heliothis Leaf miner Spider mites Aphids Brown jassids Diseases Fusarium wilt Rust disease Grey mould Botrytis blight Chrysanthemum Introduction • Botanical Name:. The decorative and fluffy bloomed small flowered cultivars are ideal for garland making and hair decoration. 1 2 3 4 5 Type Single Irregular Incurve Reflex Regular Incurve Decorative Intermediate Incurve 52 . 1954 Sr. A daisy-like flower with a center disk and one or more rows of ray florets.A true globular bloom equal in breadth and depth. Tips of these florets may be open. Dorothan -white Regular Incurve :. SPIDER:. ANEMONE:. REFLEXED:.Ray florets are flat or may be twisted or quilled but disc florets are well developed and prodominant. The upper florets tend to incurve. Intermediate Incurve :. but giving a more open appearance.Essentially the same as the semi-double. similar to bird plumage. Many of the popular commercial incurving types are in this intermediate class.Ray florets are large & tabular & are usually curved. Cameo-white. Important verities are cresta-white. The tops of these blooms are full. As in classes 1-3 the center disk should not be visible. Decorative :.This bloom class is smaller than the irregular incurve. Ex.A flattened bloom with short petals. The center disk is round and visible. The bloom is fully double with no open center. ray florets are short. SPOON :. The florets (petals) loosely incurve and make fully closed centers. arranged to give bloom of compact hemispherical shape & florets are incurved or reflexed. Pinching once or twice is very helpful.6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Pompon Single and Semi-Double Anemone Spoon Quill Spider Brush or thistle like Unclassified Single Irregular Incurve :.They are getting popular and produced large crops of small bloom.white. The florets smoothly incurve and form a ball.These are the giant blooms of the chrysanthemum genus. Single and Semi-Double :. POMPON:.The florets in this class curve downward and overlap. 53 . Ex. broad. only partially incurving with full centers. but the lower petals generally reflex. QUILL :. but somewhat flattened . The lower florets present an irregular appearance and may give a skirted effect. Rupasi bangle. regularly.The florets in this Class are straight and tubular with open tips. except the ray florets are like spoons at the tips. Disc florets are covered or inconspicuolus open. with shorter florets. Grace land – white with yellow cushion. Rekha.day:18-201C) CO2:500-1000ppm Nutrients Pinching (Twice after 4 and 8 weeks of transplanting) De-Shooting (Retain 4-5 shoots in standard and 8-12 shoots in spray cultivars) Disbudding (remove lateral buds in standard and terminal bud in spray cultivars) Propagation • Terminal stem cuttings (4-5cm) during June-July. 4. Birbal sahni. Pink cloud.Fine tubular florets which grow parallel to the stem and resemble an artist's paint brushes or in the thistle form the florets are flattened. Anne. High temperature over 27 \C accelerates bud initiation but delay flowering. Sonali Tara Important factors affecting growth and flowering of chrysanthemum Genotype Soil: Sandy loam. Nightingale.2-1. Peacock Evening Star. Alfred Wilson. 3. Surya. Unclassified :. Mountainers. Snow Don White. Rosa Apsara. Purnima. Pink Casket Miss Universe. Quality: 600-800nm. Birbal Sahni. more consistently at 17 \C night temperature. Peter May. They are often exotic.) Temperature ( night:10-160 C. with twisted florets. Important cultivars of chrysanthemum for export 5. Thermo zero: Flowering occurs at any temperature between 10-27 \C. Icicle. Ajay.Twisted ligulate petioles are its distinguishing character which give the bloom and open airy appearance with irregular overlapping petals Ex. Dragon Party Time. Chandrama.7 Light ( intensity: 1.2-6.Those blooms which fit in none of the other classes. princess Anne. Varieties Varieties Niharika. 2. Bright golden. Mountaineer. Jayanti. photoperiod: less than 9. Anupam. Thermo negative: Bud initiation occurs at low at high temperature (10-27 \C) but high temperature delays development of buds. Kundan Bravo. Nanako. twisted and dropping. Green Goddess Pitamber. Sonar Bangla. Hindustan. Maghi. Nanako. pH: 6. Lehmans. 54 . Shola Vandana. JAPANESE OR IRREGULAR:.6 MJ/m2 /day. Thermo positive: low temperature between 10-27 \C inhibit or delay bud initiation which occur more consistently at 16 c.5 hours. They may also exhibit characteristics of more than one bloom class. Bidhan‟s Best Classes of chrysanthemum on the basis of temperature 1.Brush or Thistle :. Snow ball. Leaf miners 7. 45 and 60 days after planting increases the flower yield.• • • Suckers during February to April Micro propagation Seeds Optimum planting density and spacing for growing chrysanthemum • Greenhouse cut flowers: 40-54 plants/m2. Irrigation • Chrysanthemum requires frequent and thorough irrigation • irrigation is given twice a week in the first month and subsequently at weekly intervals Plant Growth Regulators • Crop growth regulation and flowering can be modified or controlled by use of growth regulators. Powdery mildew (Oidium chrysanthemi ) 6. . Aphids 2. • Spraying GA (50ppm) at 30. Hairy caterpillars 4. flower distortion. Red spider mites 3. Thrips 5. Nematodes Important disorders in chrysanthemum 1. Flower quality and yield can be improved by the use of regulators. Leaf spot and flower blight (Alternaria. Grubs 6. Premature budding 2. • Loose flowers: 30 x 20 cm or 20-25 plants/m2 • Standards: 20 x 20 cm • Spray: 20 x 30 cm • Pot : 3-5 cuttimgs/pot(15 cm) Manures and Fertilizers • FYM: 3-5 Kg/m2 • N:P:K: 30:10:15 g/m2 at monthly interval • Loose flowers: FYM: 10-15 ton.) 7. Quilling of florets 3. P:100kg. • Apply nitrogen through CAN source as urea causes phyto -toxicity. Bacterial rot (Erwinia chrysanthemi) 5. Stem and foot rot (Rhizoctonia solani) 3. tomato spotted chrysanthemum mosaic and chrysanthemum rosette) Important insects of chrysanthemum 1. Wilt (Fusarium oxyporum f. Root rot( Pythium. Viral diseases (chrysanthemum stunt. N:150kg. Phytophtora spp.chrysanthemi) 2. sp. Septoria spp. Important disease of chrysanthemum 1. Crown bud formation 55 wilt.) 4. K:120 kg/ha • Spray of light solution of CAN + SSP at bud developing stage is very beneficial. Gray mould ( Botrytis cinerea) 8. as in dried ornamentals the microbial activities in the aging process come to stand still.4. Five important characteristics of dried ornamentals Novelty Longevity Aesthetics Flexibility Year-round availability The important facts about Dried ornamentals The largest market situated for dried ornamentals United Kingdom Leading dried flower exporting countries 1.5 Green 60 10. Dehydration techniques for drying of flowers Why dried ornamentals The charm of dried ornamentals can be maintained from few months to years with lesser cost if protected from the damage of high humidity. South Africa 4. Heat delay 5. Australia 2. • Sprays: Harvested for local market when two flowers have opened and others have shown colour. Different grades of chrysanthemum Commodity Grade Blue Stem length (cm) Flower diameter cm) Stem strength 75 15 Strong Red 75 12.5-1. while for distant market when 50% flowers have shown colour • Loose flowers: Fully open flowers • Pot mums: 50% buds have developed colour.75 lakh/ha • Loose flowers : 8-15 ton/ha • Greenhouse: 150-250 flower stems/m2/year.5 lakh/ha • Spray: 1.or 25 • In corrugated card board boxes of 91 x 43 x 15 cm (L x W x H) accommodates about 80100 cut flowers of chrysanthemum • Wrap flower bunches in cellophane sleeves Optimum yield of chrysanthemum • Standard: 2.5 to 4. Petal burn Stages of harvesting chrysanthemum • Standards: When outer row of florets start unfurling for distant market and for local market half opened flowers. China and 56 .0 Yellow 60 --- Packaging • In bunches of 10.20. India 3. Flower pitchers 7.K. Rosa Export Performance of Floriculture Produce Sr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Products Flowering plants Bulbs and tubers Dry flowers and plant parts Fresh cut flowers Fresh foliage Live plants (Tissue culture) Total Year (02-03) 0.46 177. and 10. Helipterum 3. U.5. Spain Top ten genera of dried ornamentals in the global flower market 1.71 2. matchsticks) are arranged and glued to a backing.10 45. Festive decorations 5. USA 3. Floral arrangements 2. Gift boxes/packs 4.33 22.29 165.29 1. Papaver 9. Thailand Leading dried flower importing countries 1. photographs. Pomanders (a ball of mixed aromatic substances) 57 . Gypsophila 6. 6. Nigella 5. Italy 6.91 1. Japan 4.55 Different uses of dried ornamentals These dried items may be used with fresh flower or alone as: 1.39 116. Bouquets 3.2 51. Helichrysum 2.01 249.g.86 Year (03-04) 0. Carthamus. Holland.839 43. Amaranthus 8. Limonium 4. pieces of paper. Germany 5.5 2. Collages (a form of art in which various materials (e. Floral balls 8. Delphinium 7. 2. and 7. Rosa The contribution of dried ornamentals of the total flower export from India during 1991 to 2001 is 60-70 per cent. Israel 5. Greeting cards 11. Delphinium 7. • The plant parts should be harvested when it will yield the highest possible quality product. Embedded in River sand 10. • All stages of flower development in an inflorescence should be collected. Sweet smelling pot-pourries Top ten genera of dried ornamentals in the global flower market 1. Hong Kong 6. Papaver 9. UK 2. Gypsophila 6. • Collection should be made in dry season and on a sunny day. • Fresh material to be collected. Major export destinations from India for dried ornamentals 1. Embedded in boric acid 8. Freeze dryer (C) Embedded drying in room temperature ( Time period in days) 7. Singapore and 7. Air/ Room 2. Nigella 5. and 10. Other European countries Export from India is over 10 thousand ton of dried ornamentals Consideration for better result in dried ornamentals • Collect material after the dew and surface moisture has evaporated. • Material should be collected after irrigation fields a day or two. Wedding cards And 12. Helichrysum (Straw flower) 2. Vacuum chamber 6. USA 3. Japan 4. Hot Air Oven 3. • Embed material immediately after plucking • Cut all undesirable portions before embedding. as immature shrivel very fast. Micro Wave Oven 4. • Spread uniformly all plant parts/petals in herbarium press. Helipterum 3.9. Embedded in silica gel 9. which have sufficiently harden. Embedded in Saw dust 58 . Carthamus. Different methods of drying (A) Natural drying (B) Open drying in: 1. Solar dryer 5. Limonium 4. Amaranthus 8. Wall sceneries 10. drying ( kept at -800C. This normally takes two to three weeks. Embedded in River sand 16. It will pull tighter as the stems shrink during drying. In room 32. 4. Embedded in Saw dust 29. 59 .11. and pompon chrysanthemum embedded in sand in an upside down fashion and kept in the sun would dry in a day or two. remove them and wire the flowers. Group the stems into small bunches and tie with a rubber band. marigolds. Embedded in Boric acid 26. open sun drying is followed for drying many flowers. dry. Embedded in River sand 22. Oven Drying Electrically operated hot air oven at a controlled temperature of 40-500 c is used for drying flowers in an embedded condition. 6. In India. 3. Embedded in Silica dust 21. pansies. Embedded in River sand 28. Embedded Alum powder 18.) Air Drying Steps for air drying 1. Embedded in Saw dust 17. or furnace room. Embedded Alum powder 24. Embedded in Boric acid 14. Embedded in Corn granules (D) Embedded drying in Air Oven 13. Good air circulation is important. Embedded in Corn granules (G) Press drying 31. 2. Hang upside down in a warm. Embedded Alum powder 30. Embedded in Silica dust 15. Embedded in Corn granules (E) Embedded drying in Micro Wave Oven 19. In Hot Air Oven (45° C) (H) Cryo. dark area such as an attic. Flowers like small zinnias. Embedded in Silica gel 27. Cut flowers of good quality at prime conditions or slightly immature. Embedded in Boric acid 20. Embedded in Saw dust 23. Embedded in Alum powder 12. Remove foliage from stems. Embedded in Corn granules (F) Embedded drying in Solar drier (Time period in light hours and days) 25. Allow to remain until thoroughly dried. closet 5. Avoid damp rooms or direct sun on the flowers. If stems are weak or become brittle after drying. Sun Drying Plant material is embedded in drying medium (sand) in a container and exposed to the sun daily to facilitate rapid dehydration. not altering the form of the petals (in other words. etc. tapping on the container. Lastly.Standardization of drying time and temperature were done at NBRI Flower French marigold African marigold China aster. it is done. Standing time of 10 minutes to few hours is needed after the drying for best results. it wasn't until the late 80's the freeze-drying industry discovered the allurement and longevity of freeze-dried flowers. Several materials may be used. Freeze Drying Originally introduced in 1813 by William Hyde Wallaston to the Royal Society in London. perlite and combination of these materials are used in this method. and then the vapor condenses as ice in another chamber. cut the flower stem to about a half an inch and stick this into the center of the material at the bottom to hold the flower. desiccating material is probably the most commonly used method and many consider it the best all around method. pour the desiccating material along the perimeter of the container. A vacuum pump slowly pulls the water out of the flowers as a vapor in one chamber. It involves first freezing the flowers at (-)100C for at least 12 hours. put about an inch of desiccating material at the bottom of the container. Next. Freeze drying is accomplished by a process called sublimation. building up a continuous mound of about an inch. the material will not weigh down the petals as it would if it were just poured on top of the flower). The flower has to be embedded in silica gel medium in a microwave safe open container along with a small cup with water nearby. It is fast and the results are good. Microwave Oven Drying Electronically produced microwaves liberate moisture from organic substances by agitating the water molecule. and they vary in cost and the results that they produce. Gerbera. small flowers. add an inch of the material above the top of the flower. saw dust. Continue adding the material. and Zinnia Medium and large roses very large flowers Helipterum. Chrysanthemum. When the temperature of the silica gel reaches about 160º F. Sand. Because of this process. until the flower is completely covered. It requires a special freeze-drying machine. and limonium Drying Temperature 0 Time 72 hours 96 hours 48 hours 72 hours 96 hours 48 hours 45-49 C 0 45-49 C 40 – 44 C 0 0 40-44 C 0 40-44 C 0 45-49 C Embedding Method Embedding the flowers in a granular. away from the flower. To cover a flower. Borax. Then tap lightly on the container and the material will move to the flower. Silica gel. Freeze dried flowers are fresh flowers that have been specially dried to preserve their natural shape. Rose buds. 60 . the shape and natural color of the flower is maintained. colour and beauty. Delphinium. however. Corn granules Post Harvest Handling of Dried Flowers Since Dry flowers are made up of cellulose materials of plant origin. Rinse in cold water and scrape or brush the green pulp from the leaves. The herbs and fruits should be thoroughly dried to prevent mildew. New pieces of waxed paper must be used for each pressing. Heavytextured leaves are the best choices for this method of preservation. is quicker and easier. Rosemary. thermo cool packing. The dried flowers should be treated with a suitable biocide (insecticide and fungicide) and packed in waterproof containers Packing of dried Flowers Dried flowers are fragile and require careful handling. this treatment eliminates all tissues but the "skeleton" or veins of leaves. Rinse and dry. which is responsible for absorbing the aromatic oils and slowly releasing them. To lighten the color of the leaf skeletons. if allowed to absorb moisture. Alum powder 6. Potpourri Potpourri is usually a mixture of dried. Metallic tins and thermo cool boxes are also used for packing dried flowers.450C. Silica gel (White and self indicating blue) 2. Marjoram. poly lined or wax paper lined cartons are normally used for packing dried flowers. Verbena.dry and moist. Placing the foliage between two pieces of waxed paper and pressing the wax paper with a medium hot iron easily preserves the flexibility and the fall colors of foliage. Scented Geranium. Important desiccants used for drying of ornamentals 1. The basis of a potpourri is the aromatic oils found within the plant. The dry flower 61 . Achillea (Yarrow). Skeletonizing As the name implies. stems and roots. Boil leaves 40 minutes in 1-quart water and 2 tablespoons of lye. Basil. Card board boxes. Thyme. After 24 hours the bundle is removed to an electric hot air oven for 24 hours at 40. Anise and Fennel can be used for scent. Aluminium sulfate 7. carnation. They are hygroscopic in nature. Sage. The most common. leaves. Herbs such as Artemesia. be careful not to destroy the network of veins. Boric acid 4. Two kinds of potpourri can be made . etc Press Drying Flowers and Foliage are placed in-between two folds of newspaper sheets or blotting paper and these sheets are kept one over other and corrugated boards of the same size are placed inbetween the folded sheets so as to allow the water vapour to escape. Major flowers dried by this method are roses. its screws tightened. the dry method. lacy appearance to dried arrangements. The whole bundle is then placed in the plant press. Mint. Skeletonized leaves lend an interesting. but the potpourri does not last as long. River sand 5. Both methods require a "fixative". immerse in a 1-quart water and 2 tablespoon household bleach solution for 2 hours. problem of mould infection will occur. it invites lot of pests. seeds.For Roses it takes 15 – 17 days and for other flowers normally 10 – 12 days. sweet-scented plant parts including flowers. Saw dust 8. Lavender. Borax 3. Moth balls and silica gel pouches should be kept inside the packing to avoid insect and moisture damage. and flower mass Type of Containers Vase Bowl Pedestal Basket Novelty TOOLS Secateur Scissor Blade Knife Tape Thread Important considerations: Design-outline: line flowers Mass effect: for the focalization Complete look: filler flowers Arrangement should be flowing and radiating Color combination: pleasant to the eyes Occasion and Theme 62 . tapering Mass : Round used at center of arrangement Form : Uncommon. FLOWER ARRANGEMENT: ART AND TECHNIQUE Flower-Arrangement? The art and science of arranging cut flowers and foliage in a container to make it more artistic and beautiful as per the theme. unusual shape Fillers : To fill in between lines. vertical.arrangements are to be kept in transparent polypropylene boxes (100-200 gauges) for display. Integrated feelings of flowers Offering/Prayer/Welcome Types: Western type Eastern type (Ikebana) Modern type (free style) Western Concept: Based on Geometry in Formal Artistic way Eastern Concept: Based on Spirituality and informal Artistic way Principles of flower-arrangement Harmony Focalization Scale and proportion Balance Depth and rhythm Repetition and Continuity Type of flower arrangements: Type on the basis of Shape: Line : Thin. who saw Ikebana. not merely as decoration.Standard patterns: Triangular: symmetrical and asymmetrical Round or spherical Oval „S‟ curve „L‟ shape Crescent Eastern Type: Ikebana: Living flower Ike (To set in) + bana (flower) Ikebana: An expression Signifies life and freshness Ikebana Japanese culture holds nature in high regard. Thus it was not available to common people for many centuries. The arrangement should point towards heaven. His school was available to all levels of society and his work was influenced by contemporary artists. Unshin Ohara. Principles: Asymmetry Few flowers Closeness to Nature Continuity Schools There are many schools of Ikebana. would never be placed lower than one found in a meadow. Chinese monks who used flowers in religious offerings. The Sogetsu school was started in 1927 by Sofu Teshigahara. Heaven is represented by the uppermost layer. The aim is to minimally use flowers and stems to accentuate the beauty of each. including the container. reflecting Buddhist spirituality. There are around 3. Adherence to the principles of nature are depicted by rules which. brought the concepts of flower arranging to Japan. but rather as a form of art. The principles of this art form were taught by monks to royalty and Samurai families only. has records dating back to the 15th century. but there are no thick layers as in Western flower arrangements. The Ohara school was started in the late 19th century by a would-be sculptor. for example. Ikebana was introduced world-wide. Dali and Miro. He developed his own containers and started the Moribana type of arrangements. History of Ikebana In the 6th century. As a consequence of the second World War and the interest of the wives of US servicemen. Ikenobo. There must be balance between all the elements in the arrangement. who found the Ikebono school rather formal and who also wanted to use the Western flowers that were being introduced to Japan. Seasonal variations are much appreciated and many flowers and trees are imbued with specific meanings. state that a plant found in mountains. Styles 63 . man by the middle layer and earth by the lowest layer.000 schools of Ikebana in Japan and the art is practiced by approximately 15 million people. Layering This is an important aspect of Ikebana. such as Picasso. The oldest. Moribana arrangements reflect natural shapes. which contained a spiritual centre. the ruling Muromachi shogun built simple homes. which is used in the Japanese Tea Ceremony. which so beautifully depicts the splendour of nature. this form of arrangement uses tall vases and positions the flowers to highlight vertical lines. This is based on Buddhists beliefs that the mind should be left to further imagine form. Basic considerations: Not mass but few flowers Face upside and natural curves Originating from one point Flowers should look evolving and rising Standard types: Moribana: Shallow container Nagiere: Tall vase Morimono: fruits and vegetables Zenebana: statue or sculpture Position In the 15th century.Heads of different schools create new styles of Ikebana and it can take up to 5 years to learn the techniques for fastening and positioning the stems and flowers that are used. such as entrances to large buildings and shop windows. as well as public places. Ikebana is not symmetrical. This has sharp points to hold the flowers in place. Nageire This is an old form of Ikebana arrangement. PRODUCTION TECNOLOGY OF HELICONIA Contents Introduction Botany World Scenerio Uses Market value 64 . The most common arrangements are Rikka (standing Nageire (flung flowers) Moribana (piled-up flowers) Rikka Also known as Shoka or Seika. This area was known as the toko-no-ma and was to be found in rooms used to receive guests. Symmetry Unlike Western flower arrangements. „cascading‟ Moribana This style uses shallow containers and a holder called a kenzan. an odd number of branches will be used and the kenzan (holding pin) is placed asymmetrically. Stems are therefore varied in length. The style of arrangement may be slanting‟. Arrangements are now designed to complement their surroundings and to be viewed from all perspectives. This more modern style permits the use of Western flowers. such as an alcove. For this reason. to house objects of art. this form of media. A shelf might be used if the home had no toko-no-ma and traditionally the floral arrangements were viewed only from the front. living rooms and tables. is to be found decorating many different areas. „upright‟. Nowadays. Rules guide the length. proportions and angles of stems. for example. The arrangement should take the form of a triangle. parrot‟s flower. which are sometimes rather slender and with some varieties extremely large. Production of heliconia in containers for interior use is considered a good prospect by Danish growers. Spread by means of a fleshly underground rhizome.heliconia will range in height from 2 to 20 feet. India has an annual production of about one lakh stems which accounts for less than one per cent of the total floral production of the country. have pioneered the appreciation of heliconias The most popular cultivar is Tay. The climate of the heavy rainfall areas of South Gujarat is also favourable for growing this crop. Depending on varieties. USES • As cut flowers • In the landscape • As potted plants 65 . perennial herb with an erect. Heliconia also known as Lobster‟s claw. aerial and stem like tube composed of overlapping leaf sheaths called psuedostem. and Jose abalo in Venezuela. A few collectors in tropical countries.Types Plant protection measures Harvesting Yield INTRODUCTION Heliconia (Heliconia spp. They are some o f the most unusual flora of the tropics. BOTANY Heliconia is the only genus in the plant family Heliconiaceae. which was collected from the Singapore Botanical Garden.) belongs to the family Heliconiaceae are tropical plants of princely dimensions grown for their attractive foliage and brilliant flower spikes. 50% of the production of heliconia comes from West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. This is gaining importance as a commercial flower crop in states like Kerala. Major heliconia producing Nations are Barbados. which is a member of the order Zingiberales. This is a newly introduced crop in South Gujarat performing well since two years. Strikingly elegant flower heads rise fron banana like clump of oval leaves. It is rhizomatus. Brazil and Venezuela. In South America. Hawaii. parrot plantain and false plantain. It has banana like foliage. Roberto Burle in Brazil. Karnataka. Heliconia is promoted as a Special Occasional flower. such as Iris Bannochie in Barbados. Have erect or pendulas terminal inflorescence composed of two or more boat shaped bracts arising from a central axis. interest is growing and the large flower producers of Columbia have planted heliconia for export to the United States and Europe. Assam and other North-East states. OTHER NAMES Lobster‟s claw Parrot‟s flower Parrot plantain and False plantain WORLD SCENARIO AND HISTORICAL FACTS In many countries. psittacorum H.vincent Red Sassy Small red Christmas Holiday Orange Yellow Green Chocolate Flash Cream Yellow Green Rainbow Turbo Red Orange Yellow Red Pink stripe Sexy pink Maroon pink Hanging orange Frosty Parrot‟s peak Sexy orange 66 Erect Pendent H. (2) Pendent heliconia. you will realize that the tropical flowers are not so expensive. with only one heliconia you obtain an arrangement similar as attractive and as elegant. you use more than one flower.. H.caribaea. SPECIES & CULTIVERS OF HELICONIA TYPE SPECIES CULTIVERS Erect H..hirsuta H. with hanging bracts pointing down.angusta H.rostrata H. TYPES. MARKET VALUE In the market.chartacea H..bihai Andromeda Black cherry Lady di Parakeet Petra St.• • Interior landscape Other uses – leaves are used for roof thatching as well as food wrappers. the tropical flowers can last up to two weeks in vase! Try it and compare prices. the tropical flowers are perceived as more expensive flowers compared with traditional flowers as roses. On the other hand.nutans H.. TYPES OF HELICONIA (1) Erect heliconia. It is true that the unitary price of a tropical flower overcomes the price of a traditional flower but remember that when making a traditional arrangement.wagneriana H.pendula H. Roots and seeds of certain varieties are used for medicinal purposes. Additionally.indica H. you will need at least a dozen of roses to make a showy arrangement. Usually.Platystachys . carnations or pompons.latispatha H. This statement is not exact or accurate. with standing straight bracts pointing up. making big reduce population and killing snails. Mealy bug and Thrips Control measures Spraying of Monocrotophos 0.05% and Dimethoate at 0.(0.05%.05% and Dimethoate 0. heliconia. knot nematode.Flow chart of Heliconia cultivation Selection of soil (Soil rich in organic material. Snail will chew the young leaves of Hand picking by dropping in 5% salt solution will heliconia by scraping. Spray of irregular holes.05% Spraying of Methyl parathion 0. feeding on the nectar. 67 . Adult and young ones neem oil @ 10 ml/l and soap nut extract @ 60 g/l devour plants during nights protects foliage from damage Plant parasitic nematode viz.D. slightly acidic and well drained medium with high fertility) ↓ Selection of Rhizome (Generally 10-40 g weight is recommended ↓ Spacing Fertilizer application ↓ Irrigation (water requirement for most of the species is 25 mm / plant / week) ↓ Plant protection measures ↓ Weeding (oxydiazon & glyphosate are used as a direct spray) ↓ Harvesting Table 18: Effect of growing situations on flower yield of heliconia Treatment Open condition 35 per cent condition 50 per cent condition C.05) Flowers per hectare 22222 shade 633333 shade 526983 18227 PLANT PROTECTION MEASURES a) Insect Insects Aphids. root Chemical fumigation of soil prior to planting. reniform.often infest flowers. burrowing planting only hot-water-treated or nematode free nematode and lesion often infest rhizomes. stricta Inflorescence yield/plant/year 20 15 10 9 8 12 JASMINE Introduction Jasmine is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. YIELD Species/Cultiver H. psittacorum is harvested at the stage with none.Oleaceae Basic chromosome number is n= 13 "Chameli" in Hindi. Australia. auriculatum (Jooee) and The first two species are mainly cultivated for selling as fresh flowers whereas the last one is cultivated for concrete extraction.b) Diseases Diseases The most common fungal diseases are Root rot (Phytophthora) and Stem rot (Phythium). Excess moisture should be avoided. Removed infected leaves. Flower stalks should be cut near the ground early in the day. only small farmers are cultivating the crop. HARVESTING The flowers can be harvested with peduncles of 70 cm or more. grandiflorum (Chameli or Janti) J. Golden Torch Cv. Leaf spot Control measures Fungicides like Captaf. one or two open bracts .bihai H. Mencozeb.wagneriana H. and South East Europe Family. Larger heliconia can be cut when one. of which only three species are used for commercial cultivation. Jasmines are native of India and also China. H. faintly scented flowers Tamil Nadu is the leading producer of jasmine in the country. Andromeda H. "Mallika" in Sanskrit and "Malligai" in Tamil Jasminum humile Known as ‘Italian jasmine’ or ‘Swarn chameli’ is a shrub native to tropical Asia The yellow. Burma. Importance and uses 68 . Soil Solarization is useful. Metalaxyl.psittacorum Cv. It is an ideal crop for small farmers whose land holdings are less than 1 acre.rostrata H. Foliar application of Mancozeb or Chlorothanil is effective. They are Jasminum sambac (Arabian jasmine or mogra (double)) J. Since the crop requires lots of manpower for harvesting and other operations.half to two-third of the inflorescences are blooming. More than 40 jasmine species are found in India. Land Preparation and Planting One or two initial ploughings are required to remove the weeds present in the land. it comes up well in well drained rich sandy loam or clayey loam soils. • The highest rooting of 90% was recorded in soft wood cutting treated with IAA 1000 ppm and hard wood cuttings treated with NAA 500 ppm • Best rooting and survival were obtained with IBA at 4000 ppm Soil and Climate Jasmine can be cultivated in wide range of soils i. commonly ground layers • Seeds are hardly used for propagation but are used for raising new hybrids.. Each pit should be applied 10-15 kg of well rotten Farm Yard Manure (FYM) before filling the pits. from sandy loam to clay soils.e. bouquets.1. 69 . The ideal conditions for successful cultivation are warm summer with ample water supply and sunny days.5m. Madanban 3. veni.5m x 1.. CO-2 J.90 cm3. Flowers and buds are used for making garlands. as both shrub and climber. Auriculatum 1. Double Mogra J. CO-1 2. Varieties Jasminum sambac 1. Grandiflorum 1. CO-2 Irrigation First irrigation should be given immediately after planting and subsequent irrigation at an interval of 7-10 days depending upon the weather conditions and soil type. Growth regulators are also effective. Gundumali 2. However. sambac) are reported to be used in China for flavouring tea Propagation • Cuttings of almost mature wood • Layers. Planting should be done during June-November Spacing. Single Mogra 4. jasmine is enjoyed in the garden. which is followed by digging of pits at a size of 45 . Widely cultivated for its flowers. grandiflorum) The Grasse region of France supplies the best quality jasmine perfume in the world The jasmine oil is regarded as unique as it blend well with other floral extracts and it is highly valued throughout the world for producing high grade perfumes The natural oil of Jasmine is used in high grade perfumes and almost all the superior perfumes contain at least a small quantity of Jasmine oil The oil is use din soap and cosmetic industries The flowers of Arabian Jasmine (J. used for decorating hair of women and for religious offering Flowers are also used for the production of perfumed hair oils and attars The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from the flowers of Spanish jasmine (J. CO-1 2. e. It is advisable to prune the plants during the last week of November to get increased yield and quality flowers. blossom midge and red spider mite are the major pests of jasmine.Bud worm.10 g of Temic granules/plant near root zone and for Root rot Drench the soil around plant with Copper oxychloride @ 2.500 3..5 g / l . Advancement of petal senescence 5. Fully developed unopened flower buds should be picked in the early morning i.. Yield parameters: Particulars/year 1 2 3 4. Season of flowering and harvesting Flowering commences after 6 months of planting. spraying of sulfur (50% WP) @ 2g / l is recommended. Pruning Training is basically done to give the desired shape to the plant whereas. The first weeding should be done 20-25 days after planting and subsequent weedings are done once in 2-3 months. once after annual pruning and again during June-July. Diseases .Manuring It is recommended that each plant should be applied with 10 kg of FYM and 60 g of Nitrogen and 120 g each of Phosphorus and Potassium and should be applied in two split doses i. WATER RELATIONS 70 . irrigation is withheld prior to pruning and plants are pruned by removing all past season shoots including dead and diseased branches. Post harvest handling is Important for cut flowers 2. 2. Pests . Bottle neck in marketing 6. To control the red spider mite. Market fluctuations Factors affecting post harvest life of flowers 1..500 2. pruning is done to get the desired crop. Flowers are Perishable in nature 3.500 POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF CUT FLOWERS Importance 1. Flower kg/acre yield in 750 1. Control measures for Nematode . QUALITY /STAGE OF HARVESTING 2. Inter Cultural Operations Weeding and strengthening of irrigation channels and bunds are the intercultural operations followed for jasmine cultivation.. After harvest: Physiological and Biochemical Processes 4. Normally.. Plant Protection 1. before sun rise. Spraying of monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 2ml /l is recommended to control bud worm and blossom midge.e.Nematode and root rot are the major diseases attacking the jasmine crop. gypsophila. temp. lillium. The proper stage of harvest is “BUD” which is at stage of opening. & use of certain chemical to regulate it. The time of harvest should be early hours of morning or evening hours.2 g/lit. snapdragon. 5. PRESERVATIVE SOLUTION 8 – Hydroxy Quinoline Sulphate (8-HQS) or 8 – Hydroxy Quinoline Citrate (8-HQC) @ 0. ABA : Accelerates petal senescence GA3 : Promotes longevity of flowers & used in bud opening solution. 8. RESPIRATION RELATIVE HUMIDITY GROWTH REGULATORS PRESERVATIVE SOLUTION PRECOOLING & STORAGE PACKING & TRANSPORTING STAGE OF HARVESTING If flowers are harvested at early stage.3 g/lit. should be added in the water as it will bring down the pH below 3. gerbera. Use of foliar sprays to reduce leaf yellowing during transport of cut flowers. Silver nitrate @ 2. continuously is very effective but expensive germicide. 7.3. 4.2 or 0. then it may not open. The carbohydrate supplied in the form of sugar ( sucrose) will increase longevity of cut flowers & also improve colour of flowers. Flowers harvested around noon normally have poor keeping quality. orchids. WATER RELATIONS The keeping quality of flowers depends on 1. IAA : Promotes ethylene production of isolated carnation petals. If matured at over mature stage then it will deteriorate soon. stock. are commonly used germicides in vase solution. 6. RELATIVE HUMIDITY • Higher the humidity in the air. & reduces flower drop in wax flowers . alstroemaria. PRECOOLING 71 . GROWTH REGULATORS Ethylene : This gas hormone is harmful for cut flower longevity.0 – 3. RESPIRATION The rate of respiration depends on quality of carbohydrates available in the harvested flowers.5 which improve water uptake & useful for rehydration after harvest. Transpiration These depends on (a) The relative area of absorption (b) the total water holding capacity of the tissue. delphinium & snapdragon. alstroemaria etc. The rate of water absorption 2.5 g/100 lit. Water with high pH & high salt content is not suitable for cut flowers The flowers after harvest should be placed in the water immediately otherwise delay in keeping in water allow air entry in the stem & causes blockage of vascular vessel. Higher temperature causes faster rate of respiration & burning of tissue. less is the transpiration rate & vice-versa. STS (Silver Thio-Sulphate) extend vase life of carnation. Citric acid @ 0. sweet pea. Cytokinin : Delay senescence of some cut flowers. sweet pea. gladiolus. • Best results are obtained at reduced pressure to 40-60 mmHg. promote floret opening and increase vase life. Bayers decision theory etc are being developed for flower grading. PULSING pulsing is a short duration treatment given to cut flower in form of high concentration of sucrose and germicide. sulphur dioxide. Chlorine can be used and modified with MA storage system Low pressure storage (LPS) or Hypobaric storage • Storing plant material under condition of reduced pressure along with continuous moist air flow • This system is base don principal of removal of CO2 and ethylene under reduced pressure conditions. N2 mainly and other gases like Nitrous and Nitric oxides. 8 percent sucrose + 200ppm 8-HQC for 24 hours reduce floret abscission. Grading of cut flowers:Definition:. • Flowers should look fresh. CO2. STORAGE • Wet Storage : Short term storage. turgid and spot-less along with proper bud size and stalk length as per the requirement.cooling a desired temperature is reached. image processing techniques. low O2 and high relative humidity • Various gases like O2. Hypobaric storage CA Storage • External Gas Generator: For replacing of O2 with CO2 • Liquid Nitrogen Atmosphere generators: Flushing with sprayed liquid nitrogen • Gas separator systems: CO2 and O2 are selectively removed from the storage and N2 continues into the storage space. Modified atmospheric storage (MA storage) 3. cut stem is dipped in water. • Advance techniques like machine vision system. Pre cooling is fast removal of field heat and is important to slow down the metabolic activities of cut flower. Grading: • Grouping of flowers based on quality prior to marketing is called grading. • Carbon dioxide Control systems: Based on scrubbing system for controlling level of CO2 in the storage. • Ethylene Control Systems MA Storage • A modified atmosphere: Created by altering the normal composition of air via a sealed package system to provide an optimum atmosphere for increasing the storage length and quality of the produce.Grading means grouping of flowers based on quality prior to marketing. Criteria for grading:72 .Cut flowers after harvest should be immediately placed in distilled water after rehydration and then should be moved to cold storage without packaging for pre. • Two types: Passive MA and Active MA Storage • Development of beneficial equilibrium modified atmosphere (EMA) of high CO2. Three types of storage methods 1. Controlled atmospheric storage ( CA storage) 2. neutral network analysis. • • • • • • • Appearance Stage of maturity Blemishes or injuries due to diseases Insect infestation Colour Size of the bud Straightness and stem length Packaging • It protects flowers from bruising and physical injury during transportation. Introduction 73 . temperature extremes. precipitations. LDPE.5 % of the area Packaging films: • Butter paper • Polypropylene • Tissue paper • Coated paper • LDPE • HDPE Storage Temperature: 2-10°C temperature Box dimension: Flower Carnation Chrysanthemum Gladiolus Rose Length (cm) 100 80 120 100 Width (cm) 40 50 50 40 Height (cm) 20 23 15 30 Protected Cultivation Technology in Floriculture Greenhouse A greenhouse generally is a structure which protects plants from wind. • Total vent: 4. insects and diseases. PP. It is also of vital importance to create an ideal micro-climate around the plants. compression test and vibration test. parchment paper and Newspaper • Corrugated paper (wrapping in rose) • External Packaging: CFB boxes • Strength Test: At 0°C and 100 per cent RH for drop test. • It brings down rate of metabolism • Maintains turgidity in cut flowers and avoids dehydration effect of cold storage • Minimizes low temperature chilling injury during cold storage • Improves opening ability in cut flowers • Retains petal pigments • Maintains overall freshness and quality Types of Packaging • Internal packaging: Cellophane. excessive radiation. HDPE. Butter paper. 5 and EC of 0.) Site selection for greenhouse 1) The selected site should be pollution free. Gladiolus. Export value of flowers appro. 2) Source of good quality water with PH 5. Jasmine. Marigold.350 crores during 2009-10 Major area under greenhouse in India is around Bangalore. Cacti. Greenhouse industries. Bonsai.) 8.-one of the leading state for adoption GHT. Navsari.5 to 7. Hyderbad. Occupying area -100 ha under GHT in Gujarat Economically viable floricultural braches 1. India . (Ex. Tuberose. Rose petals.15 Lakh ha area under floricultural crops in India.1 to 0. 2) Gutter should be placed in the North-South direction. etc.7 Ms/cm 5) Facilities of good roads for transport of greenhouse produce to nearby markets. GHT emerged as a viable in the agri-business in India. Guj.) 2. Flower dehydration industries. Floricultural plants production through tissue culture. 6) Sufficient land should be available considering future expansion. 3) Slop along the gutter should not be more than 2%. Marigold. Dieffenbachia. ) 7. including packaging and storage facilities.5 to 6. Rose. 7) Easy and cheap availability of labours. Lotus. Rose. Nasik.5 to 0. snow. Carnation. etc. Jasmine. 4) Slop along the gable side should not be more than 1. Rose. Spiderlily. and all annuals) 5. Carnation. Production of flower bulbs and seeds. Oil extraction industries. 8) Communication facilities should be availability at the site. (Ex.25%. 1. Annuals nursery) 3. Landscape gardening industries. Delhi etc. Production of commericial floricultural crops in open field. Rs. (Ex. 9. Marigold petals. etc. 9) Sufficient space for post-harvest treatments.0 and EC between 0. Pune. (Ex. Annatto seeds. Major area under greenhouse in Gujarat is around Surat.3 ms/cm. (Ex. (Ex. (Ex. Rose. Carnation.600 ha under green house cultivation. etc. hail) • Strength to support the load of internal services systems • Flexibility in shading and humidity control systems • Good mechanical strength with long lasting property • Economically feasible 74 . (Ex. ect. Extraction of colour dyes. Gerbera. etc. Selection of structure of greenhouse • It serve to modify microclimate congenial for selected crop growth • Simplicity and operation-friendly • Strength to withstand extreme climate conditions (wind. 4) The soil should have a pH of 5.) 4. Bedding plants and nursery industries. Gerbera. Amryllis. 3) The site of construction should be higher than the surrounding land. Orientation of a greenhouse 1) Top vent opening should be towards the east side.) 6. etc. Tuberose. Valsad Dists. White Perforation: 30%. Black. Diffused film: To diffuse light equally inside the greenhouse 3. Anti Drip Film: Reduce surface tension of condensing water vapor and avoid droplet formation 7. UV Stabilization: stabilizer like Hindered amine light stabilizer (HALS) are added to arrest natural degradation from UV rays 2. Red. Anti mist film: Constantly allows mist to continue to condense on the area of film surface. Thermic Film: To raise the cool night temperature 6. Anti Sulfur film/Sulfur stabilized film: Resist detrimental effect of sulfur in greenhouse (Nickel Quencher is used) 5. Blue. UV Blocker / Antivirus film: Blocking of UV rays prevents the activities of some insects like whitefly and thrips by hampering their sight 4.Classification of greenhouse Type of Greenhouse According To Structure/Shape 1) Ground to ground greenhouse 2) Gable type greenhouse 3) Quonset type of greenhouse According to the environmental control system 1) Naturally ventilated 2) Evaporative cooled or fan and pad 3) Heated green house Type of greenhouse according to the material of structure: 1) GI structure [some parts with Aluminum 2) MS structure 3) Wooden polyhouse Type of greenhouse according to cost of structure: 1) Low cost greenhouse(150-300 Rs/m2) 2) Medium cost greenhouse(500-1000 Rs/m2) 3) High cost greenhouse(1500-5000 Rs/m2) Type of covering material 1) Glass 2) Polycarbonate sheet 3) Fiberglass reinforced plastic a) Plain sheet b) Corrugated sheet 4) Plastic film a) UV stabilized Low density polythene (LDP) b) Silpaulin Characteristics of covering film 1. 75% CLIMATE CONTROL SYSTEM IN GREENHOUSE 75 . Anti dust film: Less dust accumulation on the outer surface results in more light transmission and better photosynthesis ShadeNet Green. so moisture is on the film and not in the air 8. 50%. 40%. Heater. CO Shade nets. White washing Incandescent lamps. High Intensity discharge lamps (HID) Humidifiers foggers-to increase RH. Air Movement Temperature. Gerbera 3.5-19 18-19 18-20 Humidity (%) 65-70 60-65 60-65 60-65 60-65 75-80 70-80 70-80 60-65 60-65 60-65 Light Intensity (LUX) 60000-70000 40000-50000 40000-50000 35000-40000 35000-40000 25000-30000 25000-30000 25000-30000 50000-60000 50000-60000 50000-60000 Technical options for greenhouse Capacity Equipment Influences 1.5-18 18-21 18-20 18-20 15. Orchid 7.5-20 18-21 10-12 15-16 16. Carnation 4. venting. Cucumber 10. Pure CO . RH. Artificial lighting 6. Movement. screen. Hot water heating. Air Air Temperature. Capsicum Day ( ºC) 24-28 20-24 16-20 22-24 23-26 24-30 22-24 22-25 22-27 24-27 21-24 Night ( ºC ) 18. Foliage plants 6. Exhaust fans Temperature. fogging. Chrysanthemum a) Cut flower b) Pot 5. Rose 2. RH. Air Movement 2 CO concentration 2 76 . CO conc. steam heating etc Venting. Humidity and wetness 7. Fluorescent tubes. Cooling 3. Air Movement Light Temperature. Fuel gases 2 2 Light. Tomato 9. movement. Temperature. Heating 2. RH. Ventilation Heater. dehumidifiers-to decrease RH CO burner. shading Vents. Anthurium 8. RH. RH. Shading 5.1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Cooling Heating Shading Watering Photoperiodic control Ideal climate requirement for various crops: Name of crop 1. 2 4. Soil and soilbased growing medium if used in protected cultivation must be sterilized with steam (or chemicals). Disease and Pest Management Intensive cultivation and favourable growing conditions in a greenhouse also provide ideal conditions for disease causing organisms and pests. Fresh flowers should be reach to the destination with proper cool channel. Post-harvest Care and Handling: Development of post harvest handling techniques and efficient marketing or distribution channel is also important for a flourishing greenhouse operation. raised beds soil based or in artificial growing media. Packaging and transportation are very important to decide the price of the cut flowers. crops to be grown. climate. Therefore. Supporting Activities: Every greenhouse operations need the supporting activities like water and soil analysis lab and research and development programme to develop new and better ways of doing the operations. Greenhouse Structure: Once feasibility report is ready. second consideration is decision on the appropriate type of greenhouse for protected cultivation. Growing System: Ornamental plants are grown in containers. Management: 77 . the cut flower crops and vegetables are generally produced in ground. • temperature • relative humidity • light intensity • light duration • soil moisture • soil aeration • nutrition CONSIDERATIONS IN PROTECTED CULTIVATION Feasibility Study: Before constructing a greenhouse one must take into consideration the location. Uniformity in planting materials and freedom from diseases and pests are very important for a commercial greenhouse production project. prophylactic measures become very important in greenhouse production. Planting Material: For producing high quality ornamental plants for export.Enrichment Factors affecting in greenhouse production High quality greenhouse production depends on several external factors. This involves detailed studies on structures. Marketing: Day to day information about local and international market is very important. glazing materials and control systems that are necessary for a given location and crop. the grower needs good quality planting material of varieties that are in demand in importing countries. cost of production and economics returns to determine whether the project is economically feasible or not. This will come with experience. Crop wise project cost and subsidy available for green house Sr.0 Gerbera Rose Carnation Capsicum Economics of gerbera crop cultivation in green house Sr.6 0. Proper Co-ordination Above all a successful greenhouse operation demands proper co.72 4. No. 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2.9 0. One has to build up knowledge on flower cultivation and continue learning. No.6 8. Lac/acre 8.The success of greenhouse production depends on the ability of the grower to use the infrastructure and production inputs optimally.8 0. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Prod.9 0.8 0. Cost Rs./m 202 228 118 118 189 210 100 320 78 188 176 572 Rs.56 8. Yield/pl/y 36 42 33 33 40 43 25 40 27 40 40 40 *Total cost 2 (Rs)/y/ m 230 276 278 278 291 306 200 280 246 292 304 228 78 Price Rs.0 10.8 0. If one decides to invest on greenhouse production of flowers it will have to be a long-term commitment./fl 0.08 9.9 0.Lack Rs) 9.85 0.75 0.8 0.5 2 2 2 2.88 .4 Fl.00 1.40 4.72 7.5 Total income 2 Net profit 2 (Rs)/ m 432 504 396 396 480 516 300 600 324 480 480 800 Rs.52 7.7 0./ fl.04 22.12 4. 1 2 3 4 Crop grown Project cost (Lack Rs/ac) 48 40 52 24 Subsidy (20 %.28 3.ordination between all the persons and activities involved in the actual growing.4 5.12 7. 60 0. (Rs)/y/m Rs.25 1.00 *Total cost /plant = No of flower/plant x Cost/flower + Cost of GH/yr/plant (Rs.64 13. 2 (14 pl/ m ) No of variety = 2-10 var. No of variety = 4-14 var./ 2 (Rs.5 10. Economic of carnation crop cultivation in green house Sr.5 plant/m No of variety = 1-3 var.0 2.0 3./fl) /pl/y fl. Fr. *Total Price No.0 287 184 274 304 2 Total Income 2 Net profit 2 (Rs/m ) 780 350 612 720 2 Rs.5 Total income 2 Net profit 2 (Rs)/ m 378 500 Rs./m 120.11.5 200.16.72 6. Economics of capsicum crop cultivation in green house Sr.0 10.16) Plant density = 24 plant/m -accept no.0 8. Lac/acre 4.4 35 186 2 1.00 14 25 258 300 3.0 Rs.85 13.5 315 2 129 5. Yield/pl/y income (Rs)/y/ m 2 (Kg) (Rs)/m 1 2 3 4 1 3. Fl.Plant density = 2. Cost Yield cost (Rs. Total cost Price Rs.60 40 30 32.13 0. Economics of rose crop cultivation in green house Sr.336 4.0 19.52 16. Comparison of different crops cultivation in green house 79 .11) 2 Plant density = 8-10 plant/m No of variety = 2-5 var.5 200 66 170 2 Net profit (Rs) 2 Per m 200 8. /m 493 166 338 416 Rs.) (Rs/y/m ) 1 2 3 4 0.82 8.85 0. Prod.66) Plant density = 6 plant/m -except no 12 (8 pl/ m ).16 *Total cost /plant = No of flower/plant x Cost/flower + Cost of GH/yr/plant (Rs./ fl.4.4 115 Lac/acre 8.Yield *Total cost Price 2 No Cost /pl/y Rs. Prod.60 0./kg Total 2 No./fl 1 2 1.5 2.64 *Total cost /plant = No of flower/plant x Cost/flower + Cost of GH/yr/plant (Rs. Fl. Lac/ acre 2.5 400 75 285 Note.5 3.00 0. Center height – 6 m. Yield/pl/y 2 Gerbera 0.5 2 Rose 1. No polythene used in the structures./ fl.5-200 Carnation 0.) Total income (Rs/ m ) 2 300-800 78-572 Net profit (Rs/ m ) Note: The economic aspects were calculated from the information given by 17 respondents. Co.25 14-36 258-300 2. Automation – Top vents.5-0. No.0 378-500 120.4-200 Total cost (Rs)/y/m ) Price (Rs. Problems faced by growers Sr.4m x 4m. screen and side curtains 2.0 350-780 166-493 Capsicum 1-4 kg 66-200 30-40/kg 75-400 8./fl Fl.4-0.5-3. Gutter height – 4 m. Cost Rs.90 25-43 186-306 1. Problem A. in Gujarat No information available from Govt No training centre in Gujarat Erection delayed by the Co.5-13 184-304 2. The major problems encountered by the farmers are: Lack of erection of greenhouse Companies in Gujarat Lack of hitech horticulture training centres in Gujarat 80 . Thickness of glass – 4 mm.Crops Prod.0-1. Grid – 6. Initial problems in set up of GH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 No any erection co. demand for advance payment Inter state sales tax No subsidy Low quality of material and work Lack of guidance on loan and subsidy 100 100 100 50 50 15 20 30 50 I I I II II V IV III II Problem (%) Rank Shade house Local low cost nursery structure Shade net used on top and sides.5-3. Flat roof with 50% shed net Glass House Area – 560 sqm.85 8.5-2. Free from pests. Variability b. Harvest factors a Stage of flower bud at harvest b Time of harvest Table 1 Optimal Harvesting Stage of flowers for local Market Name of Flower Stage of Harvest Althea rosea Half floret open Anthurium sp. Spadix almost fully developed Callistephhus chinesis Fully open flowers 81 . Lack of planting material available locally High summer temperature High power charge High cost of soluble fertilizers High cost of plants material Pest and diseases problems A cut flower should have the following characteristics: a. clean. Stem should be strong enough to hold the weight of flowers. diseases. for example. c. f. Growing media ii. antirrhinum. Light ii. bruises and blemishes or petal discoloration. Flower should open acropetally in case of gladiolus. Uniform stem. Pre harvest factors a. Environmental factors i. flower size. Straight and study long stems. No split or mended calyx in case of carnation. healthy and normal foliages representative of variety. irrigation iii. 1 bud swelling to full opening and 2 maturation senescence and wilting Senescence of cut flowers Ultra structural changes Physical changes Physical change Biochemical changes Metabolic changes Factors related to the post harvest life and quality of cut flowers and foliages A. stage of development with appropriate colour. Season v. etc. Bright. use of agricultural chemicals iv. Carbon dioxide c. physiological disorder. b. Lack of information available from Govt. diseases and pests B. g. e. d. Cultural factors i. Most of the cut flowers complete their life cycle in two distinct phases. Temperature iii. Humidity iv. Eucalyptus sp. Post Harvest factors a. Paphiopedilum sp. Half florest open Outer petals fully elongated Disc florets start to elongate Center of oldest flower fully open 3-4 days after opening Fully open flower Fully open flower Half open flowers Two fully open flowers Outer row of flowers all fully mature 2-5 buds showing colour Coloured buds Goose neck stage 3-4 days after opening 3-4 days after opening Two basal florets creamy white or one floret opened Oute two petals unfurled from the tip Half floret open First floret open Fully open flower Half coloured buds Fully open flowers Stage of Harvest Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves C. Preventing flower pollination. Cultivating of flower crops at elevated CO2 8. Polianthes tuberose Rosa hybrids Solidago sp. Light c. Sterelitzia reginae Tagetes erecta Tulipa gesneriana Zinnia elegans Table 2 Harvest Stage of Foliage Plants Name of Foliage Plant Adiantum sp. Dianthus caryyophyllus Standard cultivars Spray cultivars Gerbera jamesonii Gladiolus cultivars Hippeastrum hybrids Lilium sp. Preservatives f. Conditioning of flowers after cut. g. Controlling pests and diseases of plants. Asparagus sp. 2. 5. Ethylene Production The production of ethylene which affects flower quality can be reduced by : 1.Cattleya sp. Codiaeum variegatum Dieffenbachia sp. Water Quality e. Humidity d. Harvesting of the buds at immature stage. Proper aeration of green houses and during packing of cut flowers. Chrysenthemum morifolium Standard cultivars Anemones Pompon and decorative Cymbidium sp. Avoiding injuries to flowers. Phalaenopsis sp. Avoiding storage of flowers with other commodities which produce ethylene. 6. 3. 7. 4. Dahila varriabilis Dendrobium sp. Ventilation Spacing and Packaging 82 . Temperature b. Cleaning and removal of affected plants in greenhouse 9. SADH (500 ppm) for 8 hours . Bud Opening Table 4 Chemical for pulsing of Different Cut Flower Flower Chemical Solution Rose Sucrose 4 -6% for 12 hours or Sucrose (3%) for 18-24 hours. CaCl2 (1%) for 250 hours . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Impregnation c. AOA (10 mM) for 45 minutes .5 milimolar + Sucrose 70-100 g/1 for 20-24 hours Gladiolus Sucrose (100 g/1) + STS (0.5%) for 8 hours . AgO3 (1 mM) for 15 minutes .HQC (250 ppm) + Sucrose (100 g /1) + Critic acid (150 ppm) at 22º C for 40-50 hours No.2 milimolar STS + 70 g/1 Sucrose + 1 g/1 GA at 20º C for 24 hours Rose 500 ppm Critic acid in cold storage at 0-1º C overnight Bird of paradise 8 .4 milimolar) at 20º C for 24 hours Gypsophila 400 mg/I Quarternary ammonium compound + 100 g/1 Sucrose at 2428º C for 24 hours Lily 0. Conditioning of Cut flowers b.3 milimolar Chrysanthemum AgNO3 (25 ppm) + Sucrose (50 g /1) for 16 hours at 21º C Cyclamen 15% Sucrose + 30 ppm AgNO3 for 5 hours at 20º C then 15 hours at 4º C Carnation STS 0. Na2S2O3. NiSO4 (5 mM) for 12 hours Table 5 Chemical Used for impregnation of Different Cut Flower Gladiolus AgNO3 (1000 ppm) for 10 -15 minutes 83 No. 5H2O (1000 ppm) for 8 hours Gladiolus Sucrose (20%) for 16 hours Carnation Sucrose (10-15%) or Physan (200 ppm) for 16 hous Chrysanthemum Sucrose (5%) for 16-20 hours Bird of Paradise Sucrose (10%) or physan (200 ppm) for 16-20 hours Tuberose Sucrose (8-10%) for 28-36 hours.h. Pulsing Table 3 Chemicals for Conditioning Flowers Cut Flower Floral Preservative Antirrhinum Silver thiosulphate (STS) 0.5 mM) for 45 minutes . Diseases and pests Techniques for Improving Vase Life of Cut Flowers a. Maleic hydrazide (0. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 . Silver thiosulphate (0. Table 6 Chemical Used for Bud Opening of Cut Flowers Cut Flower Chemical for Bud Opening Rose a. AgNO3 (50 ppm) + 8-HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (50ppm) d.fructose(1%) f. 5.2-4 mM 0. 1 2. 8 HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (20 g/I) Carnation a.2 3 4 5 Phalaenopsis Rose Tuberose Chrysanthemum and Carnation NiCL2 (1000 ppm) for 15 minutes NiSO4 (10 mM) for 20 minutes AgNO3 (1000 ppm) for 15 minutes or CoCL2 (1000 ppm) for 30 minutes AgNO3 (1000-1200) for 19 minutes No. AgNO3 (50 mg/1) + 8 HQC (200 mg/1) + Sucrose (70-100 g/1) Gerbera a. 8 .1% 50-100 ppm 100-1000 ppm 10-200 ppm 0. 8 . Vase Solutions : Table 7 Agrochemicals used in vase Solution of Cut Flowers No. Pulsing with Sucrose (10%) + AgNO3 (50 ppm) b. Sucrose (4%) + A12 (SO4) 3 (200 ppm) Chrysanthemum a.HQC (300 ppm) + Acidifier c.2 mM) + Sucrose (70 . 3.HQS 8 .HQC (300 ppm) + S ose (2%) b. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Name of Compound 8 .01-1% 250-500 ppm .Hydroxy quinoline citrate Thiobendazole Chlorhexidine 6 .HQC (100 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) b.HQC (300 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) c.HQC TBZ BA IAA GA3 ABA SADH CCC MH Ca(NO3)2 Al2(SO4)3 AgNO3 STS ZnSO4 KCL 84 Category Germicide Germicide Germicide Germicide Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth retardant Growth retardant Growth inhihitor Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Concentration 200-0600 ppm 150-600 ppm 5-300 ppm 10-250 ppm 10-100 ppm 1-100 ppm 1-400 ppm 1-10 ppm 10-500 ppm 10-50 ppm 5-500 ppm 0.HQC (200 ppm) + Acetyl Salicylic acid (100 ppm) + D.Benzylamino purine Indole . 6. N:P:K (200:200:200) ppm + Aspirin (200 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) e. D.Hydroxy quinoline sulphate 8 . STS (0. Sucrose (10%)+ 8-HQC (250 ppm) + Citric acid (150 ppm) d.HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (30 g/1) + Critic acid (30 g/1) b. Sucrose ( 5%) + AgNO3 (25 mg/1) + Critic acid (75 mg/1) c.3 acetic acid Gibberellin Abscissic acid Daminozide Chloermequat Maleic hydrazide Calcium nitrate Aluminium sulphate Boric Acid Silver nitrate Silver thiosulphate Zinc sulphate Potassium chloride Symbol 8 . STS conditioning (0. 8 .2 mM) pulsing for 15 minutes + 8. 8 . 4.fructose (1%) + Boric acid (500 ppm) + Cobalt chloride (250 ppm) Gladiolus a.100 g/1) b. Sucrose (5%) + AgNO3 (50 ppm) + 9 . AgNO3 (30ppm) + Sucrose (6%) Bird of Paradise a. 5-0 3-4 Statice 3 6 Tulip 0-1 8 Herbaceous Cutting Carnation (unrooted) -05.5-0 2-3 Essential Features of Packaging 85 .-0 5-6 Chrysanthemum( unrooted) -0.19 Cobalt chloride CoCL2 Mineral salt 25-200 ppm e. Table 8 Dry storage periods of some Cut Flowers and Herbaceous Cuttings Flowers Storage Temperature Storage period (week) (°C) Cut Flowers Anthurium 13 3-4 Aster 4 1 Carnation 0-1 16-24 Chrysanthemum 0-1 3-4 Cyclamen 0-1 3-5 Dahlia 4 3-5 Gladiolus 2-10 2 Lily 0-3 6 Marigold 8-10 2 Narcissus 1 2 Orchid 8-10 2 Rose 0-5. water loss and external conditions during transport.3 2 Strelitzia 8 4 Snapdragon -0. Cold Storage 2. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA) 3.5 5-6 Poinsettia 12-13 4 Table 9 Storage period of cut Flowers Kept in wet Conditions Flower Storage Temperature Storage period (week) (°C) Carnation 4 4 Gerbera 4 3-4 Gladiolus 4 2 Lily 1 4 Rose 0. Gamma Irradiation Storage 1. In India. Low Pressure Storage (LPS) PACKING Packing is done to protect flowers from physical damage.5-3 4-5 days Snapdragon 1 8 Tulip -0.05-0. cut flowers are packed in rectangular bamboo baskets. bunch. g. For long distance transportation. Ethylene scrubbers containing KMnO4 may be added to packages having such flowers. lower most leaves and injured outer petals are removed .cooled rapidly before packing in boxes and loading in vacuum type of containers. Cut flowers like carnation. Increase in the period of transport generally increases the infection caused by fungi and reduce the keeping quality. Cut flowers of gladiolus. The individual units of sale like bouquet. b. Unpacked flowers are grouped according to grade species and varieties and should be kept separately in vases or containers either in water or preservative solution. Otherwise. should contain same species or cultivars at the same stage of bud development. They should be packed individually in a plastic vial or rubber balloon filled with water tied to the cut ends of flowers. After unpacking flowers. All vent holes of boxes which contain cooled flowers should be closed. antirrhinum and delphinium are highly sensitive to ethylene. Recently. pulsing. refrigerated trucks should be used. 86 .a. etc. Transportation : Normally. Delicate buds and flower heads are packed by wrapping with soft paper or plastic mesh or by placing them in specially moulded forms made of plastic or card board.the basal ends of stems are cut in a slanting manner and kept in water. The cut flowers should be pre-cooled and pulsed with STS solutions prior to air – shipment to reduce ethylene production. Flowers prone to physical damage may be transported in flat boxes equipped with paper insert with holes for individual flower stems. bud opening. Cut ends of cut flowers can also be placed in absorbent cotton saturated with water and enclosed in waxed paper or polyethylene foil. Cut flowers may be transported in insulated trucks without refrigeration for short distances (less than 20 hours). Flowers loaded with low temperature are placed in a cold room at 5-10° C for 12-24 hours after checking for chilling injuries and then transferred to a higher temperature and unpacked. narcissus. the flowers are reconditioned with chemical solutions or physical methods for obtaining proper turgidity. general. whereas for long distances. d. Marketing : Cut flowers are unpacked in the retail shop immediately after receiving to prevent squeezing and crushing. fresh and free of pests. f. The flowers are maintained intact. Flowers transported at ambient temperature are simply unpacked and kept in water or preservation solution. c. Transportation and Marketing a. lupin and snapdragon are sensitive to geotropic bending. One disadvantages in case of sea shipment is the longer period of transportation than air shipment. cut flowers are transported by cargo planes. taking time more than 20-24 hours. They can be cut inside the water to prevent air blockage. Boxes used for air cooling should have sufficient vents on either end. merchant ships and trucks for long distances. The channel should be kept for air circulation inside the truck during transport. b. Air shipment is the quickest method of transportation. flowers are conditioned shortly after harvest with chemicals and pre. orchid. These flowers spikes must be transported in upright position. Cut flowers like orchid and anthurium are susceptible to damage by chilling. modern post – harvest technologies like conditioning. e. box. Potted foliage plants are sprayed with STS Solution or fungicide before shipment. lily. pre-cooling and packing are a must. sea shipment has come into the light for transporting of flowers because of high cost involvement in case of air shipment. Polythene foil can be used in case of light packing for maintaining humidity and to keep the respiration rate low. In. Foil sacks filled with air or nitrogen are also used for packing delicate exotic flowers. Alstroemeria. larkspur. k. Appropriate packing. etc. healthy and normal foliages representative of variety. Flower Bud and Petal Abscission 1. Uniform stem. Petal discoloration. Bright. bruises and blemishes or petal discoloration. Variability e. m. Application of MH (200 – 400 ppm) and citric acid (500 ppm) through cut stem. Pollination and fertilization causing ethylene production. Free from pests. Environmental factors i. 4. Application of growth retardants. 3. Flower should open acropetally in case of gladiolus. l. Light 87 . Shaking. diseases. flower size. Use of ethylene inhibitors. Spray with NAA ( 30-50 ppm) 3. Foliage yellowing. 3. 2. n. antirrhinum. Stem should be strong enough to hold the weight of flowers. Reasons : Control : A cut flower should have the following characteristics: h. clean. Straight and study long stems. wounding and high temperature. 3 bud swelling to full opening and 4 maturation senescence and wilting Senescence of cut flowers Ultra structural changes Physical changes Physical change Biochemical changes Metabolic changes Factors related to the post harvest life and quality of cut flowers and foliages A. 1. 4. Pre harvest factors d. 5. No split or mended calyx in case of carnation. Most of the cut flowers complete their life cycle in two distinct phases. A rising activity for cell wall hydrolytic enzymes in petals. Failure of bud opening after storage. j. physiological disorder. 2. 3. Storage Problems of cut flowers 1. Formation of an abscission layer. Pulsing 2. 1. Reasons : Control : e. Opening of Flowers not in a proper stage. Spread of fungal diseases. i. 4.PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES a. 2. for example. Treatment with fungicides. stage of development with appropriate colour. Half floret open Sterelitzia reginae First floret open Tagetes erecta Fully open flower Tulipa gesneriana Half coloured buds Zinnia elegans Fully open flowers Table 2 Harvest Stage of Foliage Plants Name of Foliage Plant Adiantum sp. Spadix almost fully developed Callistephhus chinesis Fully open flowers Cattleya sp. Goose neck stage Paphiopedilum sp. irrigation iii. diseases and pests B. Carbon dioxide f. 3-4 days after opening Phalaenopsis sp. Harvest factors a Stage of flower bud at harvest b Time of harvest Table 1 Optimal Harvesting Stage of flowers for local Market Name of Flower Stage of Harvest Althea rosea Half floret open Anthurium sp. use of agricultural chemicals iv. Half florest open Chrysenthemum morifolium Standard cultivars Outer petals fully elongated Anemones Disc florets start to elongate Pompon and decorative Center of oldest flower fully open Cymbidium sp. Asparagus sp. 3-4 days after opening Polianthes tuberose Two basal florets creamy white or one floret opened Rosa hybrids Oute two petals unfurled from the tip Solidago sp. Humidity iv. Codiaeum variegatum Dieffenbachia sp. Stage of Harvest Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves Mature leaves 88 . Growing media ii. Temperature iii. Fully open flower Dianthus caryyophyllus Standard cultivars Half open flowers Spray cultivars Two fully open flowers Gerbera jamesonii Outer row of flowers all fully mature Gladiolus cultivars 2-5 buds showing colour Hippeastrum hybrids Coloured buds Lilium sp. Season v. 3-4 days after opening Dahila varriabilis Fully open flower Dendrobium sp. Eucalyptus sp. Cultural factors i.ii. Post Harvest factors a.4 milimolar) at 20º C for 24 hours Gypsophila 400 mg/I Quarternary ammonium compound + 100 g/1 Sucrose at 2428º C for 24 hours Lily 0. 5. Avoiding storage of flowers with other commodities which produce ethylene.3 milimolar Chrysanthemum AgNO3 (25 ppm) + Sucrose (50 g /1) for 16 hours at 21º C Cyclamen 15% Sucrose + 30 ppm AgNO3 for 5 hours at 20º C then 15 hours at 4º C Carnation STS 0. 6. Conditioning of Cut flowers b. Preservatives f. 3.5 milimolar + Sucrose 70-100 g/1 for 20-24 hours Gladiolus Sucrose (100 g/1) + STS (0. Avoiding injuries to flowers. Temperature b. Controlling pests and diseases of plants. Harvesting of the buds at immature stage. Humidity d. Bud Opening Table 4 Chemical for pulsing of Different Cut Flower Flower Chemical Solution 89 No. . 4. Diseases and pests Techniques for Improving Vase Life of Cut Flowers a.HQC (250 ppm) + Sucrose (100 g /1) + Critic acid (150 ppm) at 22º C for 40-50 hours No.2 milimolar STS + 70 g/1 Sucrose + 1 g/1 GA at 20º C for 24 hours Rose 500 ppm Critic acid in cold storage at 0-1º C overnight Bird of paradise 8 . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Impregnation c. Conditioning of flowers after cut. Light c. 2. Pulsing Table 3 Chemicals for Conditioning Flowers Cut Flower Floral Preservative Antirrhinum Silver thiosulphate (STS) 0. Ethylene Production The production of ethylene which affects flower quality can be reduced by : 1.C. 7. g. Cleaning and removal of affected plants in greenhouse 9. Ventilation Spacing and Packaging h. Proper aeration of green houses and during packing of cut flowers. Preventing flower pollination. Cultivating of flower crops at elevated CO2 8. Water Quality e. D. Pulsing with Sucrose (10%) + AgNO3 (50 ppm) b. Table 6 Chemical Used for Bud Opening of Cut Flowers Cut Flower Chemical for Bud Opening Rose a.5%) for 8 hours .HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (30 g/1) + Critic acid (30 g/1) b.fructose (1%) + Boric acid (500 ppm) + Cobalt chloride (250 ppm) Gladiolus a. Sucrose (10%)+ 8-HQC (250 ppm) + Citric acid (150 ppm) d. AOA (10 mM) for 45 minutes .HQC (300 ppm) + S ose (2%) b. 4. Sucrose (4%) + A12 (SO4) 3 (200 ppm) Chrysanthemum a. Vase Solutions : Table 7 Agrochemicals used in vase Solution of Cut Flowers No.fructose(1%) f.HQC (300 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) c. N:P:K (200:200:200) ppm + Aspirin (200 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) e. CaCl2 (1%) for 250 hours .2 mM) pulsing for 15 minutes + 8. 1 2. 3. STS (0.HQC (200 ppm) + Acetyl Salicylic acid (100 ppm) + D.Hydroxy quinoline sulphate Symbol 8 .2 mM) + Sucrose (70 . 6. NiSO4 (5 mM) for 12 hours 1 2 3 4 5 Table 5 Chemical Used for impregnation of Different Cut Flower Gladiolus AgNO3 (1000 ppm) for 10 -15 minutes Phalaenopsis NiCL2 (1000 ppm) for 15 minutes Rose NiSO4 (10 mM) for 20 minutes Tuberose AgNO3 (1000 ppm) for 15 minutes or CoCL2 (1000 ppm) for 30 minutes Chrysanthemum and Carnation AgNO3 (1000-1200) for 19 minutes No. Na2S2O3. Silver thiosulphate (0.1 Rose 2 3 4 5 6 Gladiolus Carnation Chrysanthemum Bird of Paradise Tuberose Sucrose 4 -6% for 12 hours or Sucrose (3%) for 18-24 hours. Sucrose ( 5%) + AgNO3 (25 mg/1) + Critic acid (75 mg/1) c. 8 HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (20 g/I) Carnation a.5 mM) for 45 minutes . 8 . AgNO3 (30ppm) + Sucrose (6%) Bird of Paradise a. 1 Name of Compound 8 . 5. AgNO3 (50 ppm) + 8-HQC (200 ppm) + Sucrose (50ppm) d. SADH (500 ppm) for 8 hours .100 g/1) b. 8 . STS conditioning (0. 8 . Maleic hydrazide (0.HQS 90 Category Germicide Concentration 200-0600 ppm . 5H2O (1000 ppm) for 8 hours Sucrose (20%) for 16 hours Sucrose (10-15%) or Physan (200 ppm) for 16 hous Sucrose (5%) for 16-20 hours Sucrose (10%) or physan (200 ppm) for 16-20 hours Sucrose (8-10%) for 28-36 hours. AgO3 (1 mM) for 15 minutes .HQC (100 ppm) + Sucrose (2%) b. AgNO3 (50 mg/1) + 8 HQC (200 mg/1) + Sucrose (70-100 g/1) Gerbera a.HQC (300 ppm) + Acidifier c. 8 . Sucrose (5%) + AgNO3 (50 ppm) + 9 . Hydroxy quinoline citrate Thiobendazole Chlorhexidine 6 .1% 50-100 ppm 100-1000 ppm 10-200 ppm 0.Benzylamino purine Indole .2-4 mM 0.01-1% 250-500 ppm 25-200 ppm e.3 acetic acid Gibberellin Abscissic acid Daminozide Chloermequat Maleic hydrazide Calcium nitrate Aluminium sulphate Boric Acid Silver nitrate Silver thiosulphate Zinc sulphate Potassium chloride Cobalt chloride 8 . water loss and external conditions during transport.HQC TBZ BA IAA GA3 ABA SADH CCC MH Ca(NO3)2 Al2(SO4)3 AgNO3 STS ZnSO4 KCL CoCL2 Germicide Germicide Germicide Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth regulator Growth retardant Growth retardant Growth inhihitor Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt Mineral salt 150-600 ppm 5-300 ppm 10-250 ppm 10-100 ppm 1-100 ppm 1-400 ppm 1-10 ppm 10-500 ppm 10-50 ppm 5-500 ppm 0. cut flowers are packed in rectangular bamboo baskets.2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 8 . In India. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA) 3. Cold Storage 2. Low Pressure Storage (LPS) PACKING Packing is done to protect flowers from physical damage. Gamma Irradiation Storage 1. Table 8 Dry storage periods of some Cut Flowers and Herbaceous Cuttings Flowers Storage Temperature Storage period (week) (°C) Cut Flowers Anthurium 13 3-4 Aster 4 1 Carnation 0-1 16-24 Chrysanthemum 0-1 3-4 Cyclamen 0-1 3-5 Dahlia 4 3-5 Gladiolus 2-10 2 Lily 0-3 6 Marigold 8-10 2 Narcissus 1 2 Orchid 8-10 2 Rose 0-5.3 2 Strelitzia 8 4 91 . The channel should be kept for air circulation inside the truck during transport. cut flowers are transported by cargo planes.5-0 2-3 Essential Features of Packaging a. Cut flowers like orchid and anthurium are susceptible to damage by chilling. f. modern post – harvest technologies like conditioning. whereas for long distances.Snapdragon Statice Tulip Herbaceous Cutting Carnation (unrooted) Chrysanthemum( unrooted) Poinsettia -0. merchant ships and trucks for long distances. Delicate buds and flower heads are packed by wrapping with soft paper or plastic mesh or by placing them in specially moulded forms made of plastic or card board. taking time more than 20-24 hours. Flowers prone to physical damage may be transported in flat boxes equipped with paper insert with holes for individual flower stems. larkspur. Polythene foil can be used in case of light packing for maintaining humidity and to keep the respiration rate low. e. Boxes used for air cooling should have sufficient vents on either end. bud opening. Transportation : Normally. antirrhinum and delphinium are highly sensitive to ethylene. Ethylene scrubbers containing KMnO4 may be added to packages having such flowers. Transportation and Marketing c. 92 .5-0 3 0-1 -05.05-0. For long distance transportation.-0 -0. Cut flowers like carnation. pre-cooling and packing are a must.5-3 4-5 days Snapdragon 1 8 Tulip -0. Foil sacks filled with air or nitrogen are also used for packing delicate exotic flowers. lupin and snapdragon are sensitive to geotropic bending. Alstroemeria. d. They should be packed individually in a plastic vial or rubber balloon filled with water tied to the cut ends of flowers. refrigerated trucks should be used. g. pulsing. Cut ends of cut flowers can also be placed in absorbent cotton saturated with water and enclosed in waxed paper or polyethylene foil. lily. orchid. narcissus. Increase in the period of transport generally increases the infection caused by fungi and reduce the keeping quality. c. Cut flowers may be transported in insulated trucks without refrigeration for short distances (less than 20 hours). These flowers spikes must be transported in upright position. b. Cut flowers of gladiolus.5 12-13 3-4 6 8 5-6 5-6 4 Table 9 Storage period of cut Flowers Kept in wet Conditions Flower Storage Temperature Storage period (week) (°C) Carnation 4 4 Gerbera 4 3-4 Gladiolus 4 2 Lily 1 4 Rose 0. Application of growth retardants. lower most leaves and injured outer petals are removed . One disadvantages in case of sea shipment is the longer period of transportation than air shipment. 5. 1. The individual units of sale like bouquet. Flower Bud and Petal Abscission 1. The cut flowers should be pre-cooled and pulsed with STS solutions prior to air – shipment to reduce ethylene production. 3.cooled rapidly before packing in boxes and loading in vacuum type of containers. the flowers are reconditioned with chemical solutions or physical methods for obtaining proper turgidity. Storage Problems of cut flowers 1. Unpacked flowers are grouped according to grade species and varieties and should be kept separately in vases or containers either in water or preservative solution. Marketing : Cut flowers are unpacked in the retail shop immediately after receiving to prevent squeezing and crushing. sea shipment has come into the light for transporting of flowers because of high cost involvement in case of air shipment. PROBLEMS AND REMEDIES b. etc. fresh and free of pests. Application of MH (200 – 400 ppm) and citric acid (500 ppm) through cut stem. d. The flowers are maintained intact. Spread of fungal diseases. should contain same species or cultivars at the same stage of bud development.Air shipment is the quickest method of transportation. After unpacking flowers. 3. 4. All vent holes of boxes which contain cooled flowers should be closed. Reasons : Control : 93 . Treatment with fungicides. Otherwise. 3. flowers are conditioned shortly after harvest with chemicals and pre. Potted foliage plants are sprayed with STS Solution or fungicide before shipment. They can be cut inside the water to prevent air blockage.the basal ends of stems are cut in a slanting manner and kept in water. Formation of an abscission layer. A rising activity for cell wall hydrolytic enzymes in petals. general. box. Shaking. 2. 1. Flowers transported at ambient temperature are simply unpacked and kept in water or preservation solution. 2. Petal discoloration. Flowers loaded with low temperature are placed in a cold room at 5-10° C for 12-24 hours after checking for chilling injuries and then transferred to a higher temperature and unpacked. Pulsing 2. Foliage yellowing. Use of ethylene inhibitors. bunch. Spray with NAA ( 30-50 ppm) 3. In. 4. Failure of bud opening after storage. wounding and high temperature. Opening of Flowers not in a proper stage. Reasons : Control : f. 4. Pollination and fertilization causing ethylene production. Recently. 2. Appropriate packing.