3 Origin and Evolution of Chishti Dargahs in South Asia A Preliminary Exploration 1
Atia Rabbi Nizami and Mumtaz Khan
Introduction The history of Islam in South Asia cannot be comprehended fully without the role and activities of Sufi saints. They have been looked upon by a number of people as exemplars of spiritual excellence. These saints gained wider popularity with the sequel that their Dargahs2 have emerged as centers of pilgrimage. It needs emphasis that while each religion has its own places of worship like temples, masjids, churches, gurudwaras etc. but Sufi Dargahs transcend the barriers of religion. Despite their being largely Islamic in nature, they are considered sacred by all and thus may be considered multi-religious in nature. People irrespective of their religion, caste, colour or gender goes there and finds solace. The study of sacred place and pilgrimage occupies an important place in the field of cultural geography. A large number of scholars in the allied fields of history, anthropology, sociology, architecture and religious studies (Hawley and Wulff, 1996; Malville and Saraswati, 2008; Schomer and McLeod, 1987; Sinha, 2006) have produced voluminous literature on the sacred places of Hindu religion which is of considerable interest for the geographers. Moreover, geographers (both Indian and
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foreigners) like Sopher (1968), Bhardwaj (1973), Stoddard (1968), Stoddard and Morinus (1997), Watson (1961) and others (NGJI 1987; Patnaik, 2006; Singh and Khan, 2002; Singh and Singh, 2008; and Sinha 2006) have done important work on the places of Hindu pilgrimage in India. Furthermore, there is enough literature produced by scholars in allied fields on Sufi mystics and their shrines (Ahmad, 1962; Aquil, 2005; Chisti, 2000, 2004; Christian, 1989; Digby, 2001; Eaton, 1973, 1997; Green, 2005; Habib, 1946; Sharib, 2006; Shushtery, 2006; Siddiqi, 1989; Subhan, 1970; Suvorova, 2004; Troll, 1989). In this context, S.M. Bhardwaj’s paper (1998) acquires a place of distinction in the geographical study of NonHajj pilgrimage in Islam. Surprisingly, Indian geographers with a few exceptions (Akhtar, 2011; Khan and Nizami, 2008, 2009; Khan and Akhtar, 2009; Nizami, 2010 and Raza, 1967) have almost entirely neglected the sacred places of Muslim pilgrimage. Sufis and their Dargahs have played a tremendous role in the social integration of multi-cultural groups in South Asia. In this context, the understanding of philosophy of Sufism, its arrival and spread in South Asia becomes important. Furthermore, various Sufi silsilahs,3 though part of the same system, have their own distinctive features and areas of influence (Taneja, 2003; Trimingham, 1973). However, Chishtia silsilah, which is the most popular and widespread among these, occupies a distinct place. The present study, therefore, attempts to study the origin and evolution of Chishti Dargahs in South Asia. It follows the broader conceptual framework of cultural geography having temporal emphasis. However, prior to it a brief note concerning Sufism and its geographical manifestation in the form of Dargahs is essential.
Sufism and Geography of Dargahs The term Sufism which has become popular over the ages has a wide range of meanings. It is believed to be originated from the Arabic letters—sa, wa and fa. However, there is no consensus among the scholars regarding its origin. While some scholars trace its origin from safa, which means purity; others believe it to be from the Arabic word safawe, which means those who are selected. Some think that it is derived from the word saf, which means line or row implying those early Muslims who stood in the first row in prayer or holy war. Yet some others assume that the origin of the word Sufism is from suf, which means wool and implies to the people who are interested in the inner knowledge and cared less about their outer appearances and often wear a garment made of wool. Sufism has evoked considerable interest among scholars in the world (Ahmad, 1986; Ali, 1991; Arberry, 1935, 1950; Askari, 1976; Brill, 1984; Burckhardt, 1990; Chaudhary, 1998; Currim and Michell, 2004;
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Digby, 1986a; Eaton, 1973, 1974, 1997; Frembgen, 2004; Green, 2004, 2008; Haq, 1975; Hermansen, 1997; Islam, 2002; Jafri, and Reifeld, 2006; Khan and Ram, 2003b; Lings, 1975; Metcalf, 1984; Mojadeddi, 2001; Nicholson, 1963, 1998; Nizami, 1957, 1983, 1997; Rastogi, 1982; Rizvi, 1978; Schimmel, 1975; Subhan, 1970). In fact, it is a way of life, which cannot be explained theoretically but understood only through participation and practice. The Sufi is one who has submitted himself to the will of God, and constantly strives for ‘fana’ i.e., annihilation or complete merger of oneself with the Almighty. The essence of Sufism is complete sacrifice of the self and the abolition of one’s ego. Sufism distinguishes spirituality from religion and transcends beyond the borders of religions. The important attributes that have contributed to wide acceptance of Sufis are their love for the humanity, purity of mind and perfection in their conduct. From the times immemorial, the concern of religious mystics had been a quest for reality but all genuine mystics found their experiences inexpressible and indescribable. Although some of the scholars claim that it is a very ancient tradition, yet a large number of authorities believe that it started from the Prophet himself. In Sept., 622 when Prophet Mohammad (SAW), migrated from Mecca to Medina (popularly named as hijrat) some of his companions who dwelt in Medina masjid practiced poverty and self-mortification. They were called Ahl-al-Suffa or Ashabi-Suffa or the first Sufis. The Sufis consider themselves as travellers, faring upon a way (raah, tariqah) which was staked out, but on which, a guide (a Pir o Murshid), was indispensable. For initiation into Sufi esoteric an aspirant has to turn to a guide, Sheikh, Pir or a Murshid. He is first required to take a vow of obedience (bait) to his Pir. The administration of such a vow makes him as his murid or disciple. The path shown by the Pir leads the traveller away from self to attain goal or destination known as marifat (quosis).4 These efforts lead the wayfarer to dispose him for flooding in the mystical graces. These mystical graces have been defined subtly which can be learnt only by familiarity with the practices and writings of the silsilah. A Sufi attains the mystical states5 by performing certain acts of devotion like salat (daily rituals), tilawat (recitation of Quran), award (a set of worship forms), mujahada (acts involving self mortification) and dhikr (remembering God through particular breath controls). The influence of Sufi saints in South Asia was so pervasive that within a short span of time the entire country was studded with their khanqahs, jamat-khanas and zawiyas. 6 Sufi shrines at the levels of subcontinent, regional and local have been thoroughly studied by scholars from their own disciplinary perspectives (Christian, 1989; Currim and Michell, 2004; Davidson, 1946; Digby, 2001; Eaton, 1973,
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1997; Gold, 2005; Kumar, 1987; Raza, 1967; Schwartzberg, 1982; Siddiqi, 1989; Subhan, 1970; Troll, 1989). In this context, it needs emphasis that geography of Dargahs, having immense potentialities, may become a vitally important sub-field of cultural geography. Unfortunately, it has been grossly neglected so far. Dargahs of Sufi saints present a significant landscape feature in the sacred topography of any region. The sacred landscape of Dargah and its evolutionary process, the symbolism, soundscape, rituals, the system of Piri-Muridi, the power to attract pilgrims and experiential landscape of pilgrims may be some of the important questions in the geographical studies of Dargahs (Akhtar, 2011; Nizami, 2010). There is a debate in cultural geography about the authorship of cultural landscape. But Sufi religious texts and oral history does not leave the question of authorship open for disputation. They provide definite names of the historical personalities (Sufis) with divine powers who have played a significant role in the creation of religious landscape in India. Moreover, Dargah, in fact, is an important signifying system encoded with religious and mystical symbols. To decode the signs and symbols embedded in the landscape of Dargah to comprehend their meanings is also a fascinating area in the study of geography of Dargahs.
Evolution of Chishti Dargahs In order to understand fully the sacred landscape of Dargahs, the origin and evolution of various silsilahs is a prerequisite. However, this is a challenging task. Since we are concerned here only with the Chishtia silsilah a brief note regarding the times and the system is in order here. In the Islamic history of South Asia, Chishtis were the most esteemed during the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. In their lifetime as well as after their death they have been looked upon as exemplars of piety and objects of veneration. Some of these saints gained greater popularity among the masses with the result that their Dargahs have emerged as places of pilgrimage. A voluminous literature regarding the Chishtia silsilah has been produced by scholars (Aquil, 1995-96, 1997-98, 2005; Chisti, 2000; Digby, 1986a, 1986b; Ernst, and Lawrence, 2002; Habib, 1950; Kandhalvi, 2006; Khan and Ram, 2003a; Moinul, 1974; Nizami, 1980; Rasool, 1990). Of all the Sufi silsilahs, which includes the mystic orders and their sub-branches in the world, only four (Chishtia, Qadiria, Suhrawardia and Naqshbandia) are more popular in South Asia and had influenced the religious life and thought of the people. Despite the fact that two prominent Sufi orders–the Chishtia and the Suhrawardia, were introduced in the country simultaneously but the Chishtis gained more
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success and popularity. Medieval records tell us a number of instances of territorial distributions. In Maktubat-e-Ashraf, Syed Ashraf Jehangir Simnani says that Hansi was the friendly frontier between the Chishtis and the Suhrawardis. Contrary to confronting situations between the two silsilahs elsewhere in the Islamic world, there were friendly relations between them in South Asia and the spirit of mutual trust and accommodation is fully evident.7 The success of a silsilah largely depends upon the Sheikh’s ability to adjust and adapt in the mental and emotional milieu of the people of a particular region. The reason behind the Chishti success in the country was the same. They understood the Indian condition and the religious aspirations of the people. They adopted many Hindu customs and Buddhist practices like bowing before the Sheikh, presenting water to the visitors, circulating zanbil8, shaving the head of new entrants to the mystic circle, audition parties (Sama),9 the chillah-i-makus10 (Nizami, 1978:178). It may be pointed out that because of these local adaptations the appeal of the Chishti’s in a non–Muslim environment was tremendous. As the head of the silsilah a Pir used to send his khalifahs to various provinces which were called the wilayats. 11 These khalifahs in turn appointed the subordinate khalifahs to qasbahs and cities, with a difference that sometimes the second or third stage khalifah may return to the place of his central authority or the Pir (head of the silsilah). Here the distribution or the expansion is not on the basis of the physical characteristics of that area but the spiritual influence or attraction of the Pir towards that particular area (Nizami, 1978:175). However, in some cases it may also be found that the distribution of Dargahs is concentrated around the Dargahs of prominent Sufis e.g. a number of Khwaja Gharib Nawaz’s disciple are buried in Ajmer district. Having this brief introductory note it becomes essential to evaluate the source of data, method employed and their limitations.
Source of Data For tracing the evolution of Chishti Dargahs the following sources were taped and relevant information was collected: (i) Early religious and literary works which included Maktubat (correspondence of the Sheikh) (Muneri, 1898), Malfuzat (converzation and discourses of the Sheikh) (Auliya, 1895; Chishti, 1888, 1890) and Tazkirat (compiled anecdotes of the Sheikh) (Kamboh, 1960; Mirza, 1895; Sarraj, 1963), (ii) Earlier manuscripts both published and unpublished, (iii) Hagiographical accounts, (iv) Books and research publications, (v) Genealogical epigraphs found in various shrines of Chishti Dargahs.
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Limitations of the Data Although we have attempted to arrange the evolution of Chishti Dargahs genealogically in South Asia yet because of the inherent limitations of the data it becomes very difficult to comprehensively understand the process historically. 1. It is almost impossible to find the exhaustive list of disciples of each and every Pir in various stages. Although we have found the names of prominent disciples in various texts but cannot rule out the possibilities of existence of other lesser known disciples. 2. The problem becomes more complex because of the fact that sometimes disciples had initiated themselves in two or more Sufi orders. 3. Another type of problem is related with the textual description of a Pir and his Dargah. In some cases instead of giving the name of the place, the region (e.g. Malwa) is mentioned in the text. So it becomes difficult to locate the exact place of the Dargah. 4. A major problem relates with the fact that sometimes it is not at all possible to trace the place of shrines. 5. Because of difficulty of converting Islamic into Gregorian calendars it becomes difficult to exactly know the exact year of saint’s death.
Method It must be admitted, at the outset, that tracing the evolution of Chishti Dargahs is an extremely difficult task. There are enough historical evidences, during the late medieval period, regarding the emperors or kings, their genealogies and encounters for the expansion of their political territories. However, Sufi saints who were engrossed in their spiritual journey were hardly noticed by the political chronicles. On the other hand they themselves were not much interested in the affairs. Consequently, there is dearth of knowledge about their genealogies, movements and activities. Generally speaking, there is lack of records of their arrival at a particular place, or the establishment of khanqahs or date of their death. In the absence of it, even if we had the information only of the year of their death we could have approximately charted the evolution of Dargahs in South Asia. But even this preliminary data is not available for most of the Sufi saints. It may be pointed out that of all the Sufi saints (216) we could find the year of death of only 35 per cent. Under such a precarious situation, we had no option but to
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approach the problem from a different route. We have tried to understand the process of evolution or diffusion of Chishtia silsilah through the method of spiritual genealogy. As has been explained earlier when a Sufi saint achieves his spiritual goal a number of disciples seek his guidance in their own spiritual journey. The Sheikh or Pir gives his khilafat to some of them and asks them to go and settle in various places. These khalifahs, in their turn later on themselves becomes Pirs and have their own disciples who are similarly dispatched to some other places. This process goes on and ultimately we get a temporally evolved distribution of Dargahs in the entire country. We have followed this procedure to trace the evolution of Chishti Dargahs in South Asia (Table 3.2). However, to trace the spiritual genealogy of Khwaja Saheb to its roots we have followed another method wherein, only the name of Pir (not the disciples) is followed. Consequently, we reached to Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami Chishti, the founder of the Chishtia silsilah at Chisht (Table 1). Following the same method, the spiritual genealogy of the founder himself is traced. However, the backward linkages of the founder (including himself) are represented differently (within bars) because it passes through various silsilahs and Sufis to reach its ultimate source i.e. the Prophet himself (Table 3.1). Furthermore, it also needs emphasis that we have deliberately avoided to show the political boundaries of various countries of South Asia in our maps for two reasons. First, during the arrival and spread of the Sufi silsilahs in the region political boundaries were too fluid and fluctuating having hardly any influence on the movement of Sufis who used to settle wherever they liked. Secondly, despite strict visa restrictions, varying according to political climate, the followers of these saints have reverence for their Dargahs even if they could not visit them.
Ajmer Sharif: The Parent Dargah of Chishtia Silsilah Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (R.A.), the originator of Chishtia silsilah in South Asia arrived in India and decided to settle at Ajmer. During his early days, he used to reside in a cave, at the hilltop near Ana Sagar, which is presently known as Chillah Khwaja Sahib. Later on, he shifted towards the valley by the side of jhalra (a natural water spring) where his shrine is presently situated. It may be emphasised that Khwaja Sahib and his sacred Dargah continues to attract the attention of both hagiographers and scholars alike (Begg, 1960, 1972; Chishti, 2004; Currie, 1989; Dhaul, 2001, 2004; Kazmi, 1998; Khan, 2004; Khan and Nizami, 2009; Khan, 1925; Mani, 1952, 1998; Moini, 1989, 2004; Nizami, 2010; Sharib, 1961, 1980, 2003, 2007). During his stay in Ajmer, Khwaja Sahib initiated many disciples
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Table 3.1: Genealogical Roots of Chishtia Silsilah Prophet Muhammad (SAW) Hazrat Ali Ali Ibn ibn Talib Talib (R.A.) Hazrat (R.A.) Hazrat Hasan Basri (R.A.) Abdul Wahid ibn Zaid (Zaidia) Fuzail ibn Iyad (Iyadia) Ibrahim ibn Adham (Adhamia) Huzaifah al Maarshi Khwaja Hubaira (Hubairia) Ilu Mimshad Dinawari Khwaja Abu Ishaq Shami Chishti (Chishtia) Abu Ahmad Abdal Chishti Abu Mohammad Muqtadi Khwaja Abu Yusuf Nasiruddin Simnani Khwaja Maudood Chishti Khwaja Haji Sharif Zandani Khwaja Usmaan Harooni Khwaja Moinuddin Hasan Chishti
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in Chishtia silsilah and dispatched them to various wilayats (provinces). Likewise, these khalifahs later on appointed subordinate khalifahs for qasbahs and cities. As a result, a hierarchy of saints was established in the country (Table 3.2). In this regard, the chief saint at the centre (Ajmer) stood at the apex of the whole system and controlled a network of khanqahs spread over the country. In other words, it may be emphasized that in this way Ajmer became the parent centre and the highest place of reverence for the Chishtia silsila. It needs emphasis that Khwaja Sahib is often referred to as Sultan-ul-Hind, by the common people. The political terminology intruded in the folk perceptions out of reverence. Moreover, some of the prominent Sufi saints of this silsilah and their Dargahs have also been studied by scholars in considerable details (Begg, 1972; Dhaul, 2006; Ernst, 2004; Habib, 1946; Nizami, 1955, 1991a, 1991b).
Evolution in Stage I All those places where Dargahs belonging to the khalifahs of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (R.A.) are located may be considered as the principal centers during the first stage of evolutionary process. The major centres of this stage besides Ajmer are Delhi, Herat, Kannauj, Multan, Banaras and Ahmedabad. A conspicuous feature of this stage is that out of 24 as many as 10 disciples of Khwaja Sahib have their Dargahs in Ajmer itself. Moreover, the second cluster of Dargahs is found in Delhi where as many as five Dargahs including his principal successor Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (R.A.) is located. It is interesting to note that one of Khwaja Sahib’s disciples, Sheikh Wajihuddin Khurasani’s shrine is in Herat. A close look at the extent of diffusion of Chishti shrines in this stage reveals that except Herat, all other places are located within the radius of seventy kilometers and with a couple of exceptions are found in the Indo-Gangetic plain (Fig. 3.1). It may be emphasized that out of 24 khalifahs of Khwaja Sahib who had their Dargahs in nine different places (including Ajmer) only two (Delhi and Nagaur) became the principal centre from which the Sufis of Stage II trace their origin.
Evolution in Stage II From these two principal centres (Delhi and Nagaur) the evolution of Sufi shrines took place in this stage (Fig. 3.2). A close perusal of table 3.2 reveals that from Nagaur the khalifah of Sufi Hamiduddin Nagori (his son) remained in Nagaur itself. However, from the second principal centre Delhi, diffusion is more widespread. While Dargah of three khalifahs of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (R.A.) are in Delhi itself others are found in Pakpatan, Neharwal, Zafrabad, Sarwar, and Nagaur.
Table – 3.2
Spiritual Genealogy of Chishti Sufis
KHWAJA MOINUDDIN HASAN CHISHTI (Ajmer)
SHAIKH IMADUDDIN NAQI MASHAQI (Ajmer)
AHMAD SAHEB KUFI (Ajmer)
SHAIKH BADARUDDIN GHAZNAVI (Delhi)
NIYAZULLAH KHURASANI (Ajmer)
SHAH KHIZR (Rome)
GHULAM HADI TURK (Ajmer)
SHAIKH MEHMOOD (Neharwal)
KHWAJA BURHANUDDIN (Ajmer)
SHAIKH NIZAMUDDIN ABU MOID (Delhi)
SHAIKH AHMAD (Ajmer)
MOHD. MOHSIN (Ajmer)
QAZI HAMIDUDDIN NAGORI SUWALI (Delhi)
MOHD. SULEMAN KARSHAKI (Ajmer)
SULTAN ABU BIBI HAFIZ MASOOD JAMAL GHAZIR (Ajmer) (Ajmer)
SHAIKH BURHANUDDIN BALKHI (N.A.)
SHAIKH ZIAUDDIN RUMI (N.A.)
KEWAN ASFAR QANDHARI (Delhi)
KHWAJA QUTUBUDDIN BAKHTIYAR KAKI (Delhi)
KHWAJA MOHD. ZAHID TURK (Delhi)
SULTAN SHAIKH FARIDUDDIN SHAMSUDDIN MASOOD GANJ –EALTAMASH (Jafrabad) SHAKAR (Pakpatan)
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Fig. 3.2
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Surprisingly, Shah Khizr, another khalifah chose Rome as his permanent residence. However, in the couple of cases (Sheikh Burhanuddin Balkhi and Sheikh Ziauddn Rumi) we could not find the place of their shrines.
Evolution in Stage III There are only two centres in Stage II from where the Sufis of Stage III trace their origin and became the parent centres. These centres are Delhi, Nagaur and Pakpatan (Fig. 3.3). Delhi was under the guidance of two prominent khalifahs of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki: Sheikh Badaruddin Ghaznavi and Qazi Hamiduddin Nagori. Maulana Imamuddin Badal, disciple of Sheikh Badaruddin Ghaznavi is buried in Delhi. On the other hand Qazi Hamiduddin Nagori had two disciples Khwaja Mehmood Moina Doz, who stayed in Delhi and Sheikh Ahmad Neharwani, went to Badaun. In Nagaur, Sheikh Fariduddin Nagori had his shrine as well as khanqah. From here, he sent his disciple Khwaja Ziauddin Nakshabi to Badaun. Pakpatan where Sheikh Fariduddin Masood Ganj-e-Shakar, the principal spiritual khalifah of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (R.A.) initiated a number of disciples. He carried on the work of the silsilah with distinction, ease and grace. His efforts made the silsilah spread far and wide. He sent his khalifahs in different parts of Indian sub-continent mostly in the Indo-Gangetic plains. His disciples went to Dayalpur (2), Gujrat (Pakistan), Sialkot, Hansi, Pakpatan (2), Kaliyar, Delhi (6) and Badaun. However, one of his khalifah went to as far as Daulatabad. It is said that Sheikh Yaqoob, one of his khalifah was lost. On the other hand, we could not find the exact place of Dargah of Sheikh Zakariya because it is mentioned in the text that he went to Sind. Out of 19 khalifahs in this stage, only 3 became the principal khalifahs from where the Sufis of fourth stage trace their origin.
Evolution in Stage IV All the Sufis of this stage trace their origin from three principal centers of Stage III (Fig. 4). While two of them (Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (R.A.) and Maulana Imamuddin Badal) belonged to Delhi and one (Hazrat Alauddin Ahmad Sabir (R.A.) from Kaliyar. Maulana Shihabuddin Aashiq, the only khalifah of Maulana Imamuddin stayed in Delhi. Both Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and Hazrat Alauddin Ahmad Sabir have a distinct place in the Annals of Chishtia Silsilah. Besides their spiritual attainments, they are also credited with starting two distinct sub-branches of Nizamia and Sabiria. It may be pointed that the efforts made by Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya, the principal anointed khalifah of Baba Farid, transformed the silsilah into an all India movement. In fact, it was under his supervision
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Fig. 3.3
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Fig. 3.4
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that Chishtia silsilah reached its watermark (Nizami, 1978:195). “According to Mohammad Ghaus Shattari he sent 700 spiritually gifted khalifahs to different cities of the country” (Nizami, 1991a:158). Although it is impossible to trace their names in the text, Figure 3.4 clearly shows that as many as 15 of his disciples are buried in Delhi, in most of the cases in the nearby areas of the shrine of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya. In fact, it would be interesting to note that the place called Chabutra-eYaran (platform for friends) is the same place where during his lifetime Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya used to sit with his friends. It has graves of his friends and contemporary Sufis. Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya sent his disciples in various parts of the country. During his days Delhi reached its zenith and pinnacle of glory. His disciples moved towards Gujrat (Pakistan) in the west, Daulatabad in the south, and Pandua and Gaur in the east. Some of them also went to Hansi, Chanderi, Zafrabad, Satgaon, Ujjain, and Panipat. However, in some cases only the names of the region like Punjab, Bihar and Malwa are mentioned in text for the destination of the disciples. Hence the exact location of the shrines is not known to us. However, two disciples of Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya went to Neharwal near Patan in Ahmedabad, which is not located on the map. Hazrat Alauddin Ahmad Sabir of Kaliyar was a saint of the highest order. In fact, Sheikh Shamsuddin Turk Panipati had the distinction of being appointed by him as his khalifah. His Dargah is in Panipat. Unfortunately, the contemporary historians had not written about Hazrat Alauddin Ahmad Sabir (Nizami, 1998:144). This paucity of information in the texts for such a great saint is the most puzzling aspects of the sources.
Evolution in Stage V All those places which trace their origin from the saints of Stage IV becomes the principal centre in Stage V. Of the 27 khalifahs located in the twelve places, only Delhi, Panipat and Gaur became the principal centres from where the diffusion took place in this stage (Fig. 3.5). In this stage, Delhi retained two khalifahs, Sheikh Ruknuddin, a disciple of Maulana Shihabuddin Imam of Delhi and Hazrat Nasir-u-ddin Chiragh, disciple of Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi). Sheikh Ruknuddin is the only one who resided in Delhi with his Pir. On the other hand, Hazrat Nasir-u-ddin Chiragh like his Pir sent his disciples in different parts of the sub-continent e.g. Neharwal, Kalpi, Ahmedabad, Chanderi, Sirhind, Ujjain, Kachocha, Sandila, Solarah, Hansi, Lucknow, Gulberga, Iraj, Kantur and Behraich. Some of his khalifahs also remained in Delhi, including the premises of the Dargah of their Pir. In Panipat, the other primary centre in stage IV, Sheikh
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Fig. 3.5
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Shamsuddin Turk Panipati had only one disciple, Sheikh Jalaluddin Mehmood Kabirul Auliya, who remained at the same place. From Gaur, the third principal centre of fourth stage, Sheikh Sirajuddin Akhi sent his disciple Sheikh Alauddin Asad Lahori to Pandua where his shrine is built.
Evolution in Stage VI Out of 27 khalifahs residing in nineteen places in the Stage V the following six became the principal centres from where Sufis of sixth stage trace their origin: Pandua, Panipat, Ahmedabad, Hansi, Gulbarga, and Delhi (Table 3.2). It must be emphasized that this stage represents a distinct departure from all the previous stages. With the decision of Hazrat Nasir-u-ddin Chiragh, to bury all the insignia received as a symbol of anointment from his own Pir, with his body. He did not appoint any of his successors to take the responsibility of the entire country. He told that a number of his khalifahs would be able to do excellent work in their respective regions. Thus, from this period onward the provincial khanqahs became more prominent. From Pandua, one of the disciples of Sheikh Alauddin Asad Lahori went to Kachocha and the other remained in Pandua itself. From Panipat, Sheikh Jalaluddin Mehmood Kabirul Auliya sent his two disciples to Delhi and Radauli. From Ahmedabad, diffusion is towards Patan and from Hansi towards Narnaul. However, the genealogical chain of Syed Mohammad Gesu Daraz in this stage is in Gulberga itself. In the case of Delhi as the principal centre the silsilah of Qazi Abdul Muqtadi went towards Jaunpur where as the chain of Sheikh Ruknuddin remained in Delhi only. Moreover, Qazi Abdul Saadi sent his khalifah Khwaja Ikhtiyaruddin to Iraj, the place that we could not locate.
Evolution in Stage VII Out of seven Pirs residing in six places in the Stage VI three became principal centres from where the evolution took place in Stage VII. From Pandua, Sheikh Noor Qutub-e-Alam sent his three khalifahs to Manakpur, Ranthambore and Ahmedabad (Table 3.2). Besides these, it is mentioned that one of his disciples Shah Jalal Gujrati was murdered. However, no further details are available in the texts. From Radauli, Sheikh Ahmad Abdul Haq’s khalifah Sheikh Mohammad Arif remained in the same place. Similarly in Patan, Shaikh Alam ul Haq’s disciple Sheikh Mehmood Al Maroof Ba Rajan also remained there. Apart from these in some cases only the name of the saints are available but the place of shrine is not found. These are Sheikh Piyare, the disciple of Sheikh Sadeed Allah. Sheikh Salar Sarmast the disciple of Khwaja Ikhtiyaruddin of Iraj and Sheikh Tajuddin Imam disciple of Sheikh
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Fig. 3.6
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Imamuddin. Another type of case relates to Sheikh Fatahullah, the khalifah of Sheikh Sadaruddin Ahmad Tabib of Delhi whose exact place of shrine is not known. From Oudh (a region) in Gangetic Plains, he sent his two disciples to Jaunpur and Faizabad but the third Sheikh Qasim remained in Oudh (place not known).
Evolution in Stage VIII Out of five principal centres in Stage VII there are only two (Manakpur and Patan) from where the centres of Stage VIII trace their origin. Surprisingly, all the four disciples, Raji Hamid Shah, Sheikh Sayeedo, Sheikh Kalu and Shah Alam remained in the same place Manakpur. On the other hand from Patan, Sheikh Mehmood Al Maroof Ba Rajan sent his disciple to Ahmedabad (Table 3.2). However, place of shrine of Sheikh Mohammad disciple of Sheikh Mohammad Arif of Stage VII and Sheikh Hussain Sarmast disciple of Sheikh Salar Sarmast is not known.
Evolution in Stage IX Out of the seven Pirs residing in two places in the Stage VIII the disciples in Stage IX trace their origin from two Pirs. Raji Hamid Shah from Manakpur sent his disciples one each to Delhi and Jaunpur (Table 3.2). However, place of shrine of one of his disciple Sheikh Daniyal is not known. Moreover, Ahmedabad is the place of shrine of Pir Sheikh Jamal Al Maroof Ba Jumman as well as his murid Sheikh Hasan Mohammad. In another case the place of shrine of Sheikh Ismail, the disciple of Sheikh Hussain Sarmast is also not known. Similarly, the place of shrines of two khalifahs of Mohammad Arif of Radauli (Sheikh Mohammad and Sheikh Budh) is not available.
Evolution in Stage X From the three principal centres in the Stage IX (Ahmedabad, Delhi and Jaunpur) only Ahmedabad became the principal centre from where the diffusion took place in Stage X. In a peculiar case, it was not possible to locate the place of shrine of Sheikh Mohammad in the Stage VIII. But his disciple went to Gangoh which also became another principal centre in Stage IX from where one disciple Sheikh Jalaluddin Mehmood Thanesari trace his origin in Stage X. In Ahmedabad, Sheikh Hasan Mohammad’s disciple stayed in the same city (Table 3.2). Apart from these two, Sheikh Mohammad of Stage X who went to Malwa (place of shrine unknown) had a disciple (Sheikh Saadullah) whose place of shrine also could not be located. Sheikh Allahdad of Jaunpur (Stage IX) had a disciple (Sheikh Maroof) whose place of shrine is not known to
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us. However, in the case of Sheikh Ismail, his disciple Sheikh Khwaja Khanoon went to Gwalior. His shrine is a very famous pilgrimage centre there. However, Sheikh Budh (place of shrine unknown) of Stage IX had two disciples (Sheikh Mansoor and Sheikh Pir) but we could not find the place of their shrines.
Evolution in Stage XI Both the principal centres (Thanesar and Ahmedabad) of Stage X became the centres from where diffusion took place in Stage XI. Surprizingly, both the disciples of Sheikh Jalaluddin Mehmood Thanesari (Thanesar) and Sheikh Shamsuddin Mohammad (Ahmedabad) went out of the country to Balkh (Sheikh Nizamuddin Balkhi) and Medina (Sheikh Yahya Madani) (Table 3.2). However, Sheikh Khwaja Khanoon of Gwalior sent his disciple Sheikh Nizamuddin Narnauli to Narnaul. Furthermore, in the cases related to the disciples of Sheikh Maroof (Sheikh Nizamuddin Ambethwi), Sheikh Pir (Sheikh Qutubuddin) and Sheikh Saadullah (Juda Majad Sheikh Abdul Haq) of Stage X, the place of shrines could not be traced in the Stage XI.
Evolution in Stage XII From the three principal centres (Balkh, Medina and Narnaul) in Stage XI three khalifahs were sent to three places. However, two of them became the parent centres from where the diffusion took place in Stage XII. From Medina, Sheikh Yahya Madani sent his two disciples to Delhi and Ahmedabad (Table 3.2). On the other hand, Sheikh Nizamuddin Balkhi sent his disciples to Gangoh. However, one more Sheikh Qutubuddin emerges in this stage but neither we could find the place of his shrine nor of his khalifah’s (Sheikh Hamid).
Evolution in Stage XIII All the centres in this stage trace their origin from the three principal centers of Stage XII: Gangoh, Ahmedabad and Delhi (Table 3.2). Instead of diffusion outside the city in this stage there is diffusion within the cities. Sheikh Abu Saeed’s disciple Sheikh Mohammad Sadiq resided in Gangoh. Sheikh Ruknuddin Ahmad’s disciple Sheikh Hisamuddin Mohammad Farooq also remained in Ahmedabad. Although Sheikh Kalimullah Shahjehanabadi’s disciple Sheikh Nizamuddin Aurangabadi went to Aurangabad, but we could not found the place of shrine of Sheikh Abdul Rehman, disciple of Sheikh Hamid in this stage.
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Evolution in Stage XIV All those places, which trace their origin in the Stage XIII and had extended the silsilah became the principal centres in the Stage XIV. These are Gangoh, Ahmedabad and Aurangabad (Table 3.2). Gangoh is the same province where after the death of his Pir (Sheikh Mohammad Sadiq) Sheikh Dawood remained there. The second principal centre, Ahmedabad, which was under the guidance of Sheikh Hisamuddin Mohammad Farrukh in the previous stage was entrusted by him to Sheikh Ruknuddin Ahmad in this stage. While his another disciple Sheikh Rasheeduddin Mandood went to Shahpur in present day Maharashtra. From the third centre, Aurangabad, Sheikh Nizamuddin Aurangabadi sent his khalifah Sheikh Fakhruddin Fakhre Jahan to Delhi whose shrine is in Mehrauli near the main mausoleum of Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Evolution in Stage XV Out of three principal centres of Ahmedabad, Gangoh and Aurangabad in Stage XIV, four disciples went to three different places from which two (Delhi and Gangoh) became the principal centres from where the places in Stage XV trace their origin. From Delhi Sheikh Fakhruddin sent his two disciples to Bareli and Mahar (Pakistan) and from Gangoh Sheikh Mohammad Dawood sent his disciples to Amethi (Table 3.2).
Evolution in Stage XVI Out of the two principal centres of Stage XV three disciples went to three different places (Bareli, Mahar and Amethi) which became the principal centre in Stage XVI. Out of these three, Bareli the province of Sheikh Niyaz Ahamd became a prominent centre from where diffusion took place not only in the country but also abroad. Samarqand, Kabul, Lucknow, Shahjehanpur, Mecca and Bareli are the places, which trace their origin from Bareli (Table 3.2). On the other hand from the second principal centre Amethi, Shah Abul Male sent his disciple Mohammad Syed Miran Shah Bhike to Kohram. From the third principal centre of Mahar (Pakistan) Sheikh Noor Mohammad Maharvi sent his disciples to Chachran, Multan and Taunsa to spread the chain of Chishti’s in the sub-continent.
Evolution in Stage XVII In the Stage XVI out of eleven disciples who went to ten places, four (Kohram, Bareli, Multan and Taunsa) became the principal centres for the Stage XVII. From Kohram, Mohammad Syed Miran Shah Bhike
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sent his khalifah Mohammad Salim to Ropar. On the other hand, Shah Mohammad Sulaiman from Taunsa sent his khalifahs to Siyal, Fatehpur, and Khairabad while fourth (Mohammad Ali) remained in the same place. Moreover, in both Bareli and Multan, the shrine of the Pirs as well as their disciples is in the same place (Table 3.2).
Evolution in Stage XVIII Out of the four principal centres in Stage XVII seven disciples went to different places. From these, four places became principal centres in Stage XVIII. From the principal centre of Siyal two disciples of Sheikh Shamsuddin went to Golarah (place could not be traced) and Jalalpur. From Fatehpur disciple of Haji Najmuddin went to Amroha. On the other hand at both Taunsa and Khairabad the disciples remained in the same towns (Table 3.2).
Evolution in Stage XIX Surprisingly, in this stage the place of shrine of Syed Mohammad Azam was not available hence the evolution in this could not be traced. But one of his disciple went to Manakpur. He died in 1832 and his shrine is also at the same city (Table 3.2).
Evolution in Stage XX This stage has only one principal centre at Manakpur which was under the guidance of Hafiz Musa and he sent his disciple Hafiz Mohammad Hussain to Jaipur.
Evolution in Stage XXI This stage had Jaipur as its principal centre. From here Hafiz Mohammad Hussain sent his disciple Shah Nasiruddin to Firozabad. He died in 1878 and his shrine is at the same place
Distribution of Chishti Dargahs From the eternal chain of the Chishtia silsilah, about 172 shrines have been marked to give an idea of the distribution of the Chishti Dargahs in South Asia. Despite innumerable problems relative to the names of Pirs and exactly locating their shrines, we have been able to locate the maximum number of places of Sufi shrines in South Asia. A close perusal of Fig. 3.6 reveals that the major concentration of Chishti shrines is found in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of South Asia. Stretching from Peshawar in the west to Pandua in the east, they are concentrated in an elliptical shaped belt. A striking feature of this distribution is the
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fact that as many as forty Dargahs are found in Delhi. One probable reason behind this concentration seems that out of four spiritual successors of Khwaja Sahib, three had their khanqahs and Dargahs in Delhi. Traditionally, it is considered most auspicious to be buried near the shrine of a pious saint. Hence, a number of murids had their final resting place near the shrine of great Sufi saints. The Indo-Gangetic Plains seems to be fully concentrated with these Dargahs and can be correlated with the fact that this was a fertile agricultural land where the population is dense. In the present day Pakistan the major places where Chishti shrines exists are Peshawar, Wazirabad, Gujarat, Bahawalpur, Sialkot, Lahore, Kasur, Pakpatan and Multan. The last two are the most renowned having the shrines of early Chishti Sufis, including Baba Farid. Baba Farid’s role in changing a number of communities from the stage of pastoralism to agriculture is duely acknowledged. During 13th and 14th century, Chishti’s were the most influential order in South Asia. This was the time when the expansion of the Chishti order reached its zenith. The maximum diffusion of Sufi saints and establishment of their shrines took place during the time of Sheikh Fariduddin Masood Ganj-e-Shakar (Pakpatan), Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi) and Sheikh Nasir-uddin Chiragh (Delhi). Because of Baba Farid’s influence and popularity, Pakpatan became a major centre and a large number of Dargahs are found in that area. However, in the Indian Punjab there are seven Chishti shrines in Jalandhar, Sirhind and Ropar. Another area of concentration of Chishti Dargahs is in the Gangetic Plains, specifically the present Uttar Pradesh. The places where Chishti shrines are found are: Amroha, Jaunpur, Lucknow, Khairabad, Manakpur, Kalpi, Kachocha, and Zafrabad. This is also one of the most densely populated regions in the country. We are not correlating the distribution of Dargahs with the proportion of Muslim population for the simple reason that Sufis never tried to settle in Muslim dominated areas. In fact, it is because of them that a large number of persons became Muslims. Moreover, the modern states of Rajasthan and Gujarat also have a sizable number of Dargahs. Towards the eastern fringe of the main belt places like Pandua, Gaur and Taunsa became more prominent. However, a small group of Dargah is concentrated in Deccan around the centres of Burhanpur, Daulatabad, Shahpur, Aurangabad and Satgaon. The southern most Dargah at Gulberga seems to be strange. Since the Sufi saint of Gulberga was a very prominent figure, he might have been responsible in sending a large number of his disciples to other nearby places. But we could not find it in the texts that were available to us.
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Concluding Remarks On the basis of the above analysis it can be fairly concluded that, broadly speaking, in the initial stages evolution of Dargahs took a distinct pattern wherein expansion took place rapidly and most of the region was covered by the time of Hazrat Nasir-u-ddin Chiragh the last khalifah of the entire sub continent. However, after the emergence of provincial centers diffusion took place in the immediate neighbouring areas. Generally, it was more or less short distance migration of Sufis. It needs emphasis that because of the limitations of both the source of data and the appropriate method, this study fails to satisfy the overall parameters of the historical evolution of Dargahs. However, in the absence of any other alternative we have tried to trace the diffusion of Chishti Dargahs in South Asia. Although the use of present methodology has provided us sufficient material but it may be considered only as a preliminary exploration which needs further probing.
Acknowledgements The authors express their thankfulness to Shri Jai Pal Singh for having gone through a previous draft of the paper and making valuable suggestions; and Mr Aqueel Ahmad Najam for his help in preparing the maps.
Notes 1. A previous draft of the paper was presented at Second International Indian Geography Congress, of NAGI, organized by the Department of Geography, J. R. N. Rajasthan Vidyapeeth University, Rajasthan, INDIA, from Feb. 29 to March 2, 2008. 2. A Dargah is a Sufi shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure often a Sufi saint. Shrines are found in many Muslim communities throughout the world and called by many names. The term Dargah is common in Persian influenced Islamic World notably in Iran and South Asia. Dargahs are often associated with Sufi meeting rooms and hostels known as khanqahs. 3. Silsilah in Sufism is basically a chain of spiritual descent wherein the rituals are transmitted from the founder of the order to the present disciples. All of them trace their origin from the Prophet through the founder of their silsilahs. 4. For reaching the goal or destination a Sufi traveller has to pass through the following stages (muqamat) which includes repentance (tauba), fear of Lord (wara), detachment (zuhud), poverty (faqa), patience (sabr), trust or self surrender (tawakkul) and contentment (rida).
Origin and Evolution of Chishti Dargahs in South Asia | 61 5. On the basis of Abunasr Sarraj (1963), Cyprian Rice distinguishes the following mystical phases or graces: Muraqaba (literally, watching or observation, in this case, of one’s own inner consciousness), qurb (realization of the nearness of God), mahabba (love), fear (both filial as well as reverential), ummid (hope), shauq (longing, yearning), uns (a state of loving familiarity with God), itminan (a sense of security and serene dependence), mushahada (contemplation), yaqin (certainity)(Rice, 1964:56). 6. A Khanqah is a spacious building, which provides special accommodation for every visitor and inmate whereas the jamaatkhanah was a large room where all disciples slept, prayed and studied on the floor. The Chishti saints built jamaatkhanahs and the Suhrawardis constructed khanqahs. Common people were unable to appreciate the difference between these and used the word khanqahs for both of them. The zawiyas are smaller places where mystics lived and prayed but unlike the inmates of khanqahs and jamaatkhanahs did not aim at establishing any vital contact with the world outside (Nizami, 1978:175). 7. Mir Khurd in Siyar-ul-Auliya has described about two such situations of mutual understanding, which were resolved by saints of two silsilahs. When Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (R.A.) reached Multan, Qabacha Beg (Governor of Multan) requested him to settle there permanently. Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya went to see Qutub Sahib with an intuition. He conveyed his desire to leave Multan in a mystical manner by placing his shoes in the direction of Delhi. Qutub Sahib understood the symbolic gesture and took no time in quitting Multan (Khurd, 1914: 61). Another situation described by Mir Khurd is about hundred years after Qutub Sahib left Multan when Sultan Mubarak Khilji requested Sheikh Ruknuddin Multani – the grandson of Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya, to set up a khanqah in Delhi in order to turn away the public eye from Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (R.A.) but he refused to interfere in the spiritual jurisdiction of his contemporary Chishti (Khurd, 1914:136). 8. Zanbil is literally a basket made of palm leaves, technically a bag hung around the neck or across the shoulder for collecting food by means of begging (Khan, 2009:465). 9. A spiritual concert; a public recital of poetry typically accompanied by music, as a part of Sufi dhikr. 10. Chillah-e-makus is one of the Sufi practices in which one has to tie his feet with a rope and gets his body lowered in a well and offers prayers in this posture for 40 nights. This practice was probably borrowed from Sadhus whom it is said that they have their heads downwards suspended from bough of a tree or a suitable framework and pray (Nizami, 1978:177). 11. Sheikh Sharfuddin Yahya Muneri has discussed at some length the significance of the concept of wilayat and the position of wali in his letters. (Muneri, 1898:24)
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