Chichimeca

ChichimecaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Chichimecs) Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with Westo. This article is about historical Mesoamerican peoples. For modern day Chichimeco people, see Chichimeca Jonaz. Chichimeca was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico and southwestern United States, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico. In modern times only one ethnic group is customarily referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz, although lately this usage is being changed for simply "Jonáz" or their own name for themselves "Úza". Contents [hide]      1 Overview and identity 2 Word origin 3 Ethnohistorical descriptions 4 Notes 5 References [edit] Overview and identity The Chichimeca peoples were in fact many different groups with varying ethnic and linguistic affiliations. As the Spaniards worked towards consolidating the rule of New Spain over the Mexican indigenous peoples during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the "Chichimecan tribes" maintained a resistance. A number of ethnic groups of the region allied against the Spanish, and the following military colonization of northern Mexico has become known as the "Chichimeca Wars". Many of the peoples called Chichimeca are virtually unknown today; few descriptions mention them and they seem to have been absorbed into mestizo culture or into other indigenous ethnic groups. For example, virtually nothing is known about the peoples referred to as Guachichiles, Caxcanes, Zacatecos, Tecuexes, or Guamares. Others like the Opata or "Eudeve" are well described but extinct as a people. Other "Chichimec" peoples maintain a separate identity into the present day, for example the Otomies, Chichimeca Jonaz, Coras, Huicholes, Pames, Yaquis, Mayos, O'odham and the Tepehuánes. [edit] Word origin The Nahuatl name Chīchīmēcah (plural, pronounced [tʃiːtʃiːˈmeːkaʔ]; singular Chīchīmēcatl) means "inhabitants of Chichiman"; the placename Chichiman itself means "Area of Milk". It is sometimes said to be related to chichi "dog", but the i's in chichi are short while those in Chīchīmēcah are long, a phonemic distinction in Nahuatl.[1] The word could either have a negative "barbarous" sense, or a positive "noble savage" sense.[2] The word "Chichimeca" was originally used by the Nahua to describe their own prehistory as a nomadic hunter-gatherer people and used in contrast to their later, more "civilized," urban lifestyle that they identified with the term Toltecatl.[3] In modern Mexico, the word "Chichimeca" can have pejorative connotations such as "primitive", "savage", "uneducated" and "native". [edit] Ethnohistorical descriptions The first descriptions of "Chichimecs" are from the early conquest period. In 1526, Hernán Cortés writes in one of his letters of the northern Chichimec tribes who were not as civilized as the Aztecs he had conquered, but commented that they might be enslaved and used to work in the mines. This approach was followed by Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán whose attempts to enslave the indigenous populations of northern Mexico provoked the Mixtón Rebellion where Chichimec tribes resisted the Spanish forces. In the late sixteenth century, an account of the Chichimecs was written by Gonzalo de las Casas who had received an encomienda near Durango and fought in the wars against the Chichimec peoples — the Pames, the Guachichiles, the Guamari and the Zacatecos who lived in the area which was called "La Gran Chichimeca." Las Casas' account was called "Report of the Chichimeca and the justness of the war against them", and contained ethnographic information about the peoples called Chichimecs. He wrote that they did not use clothes (only to cover their genitalia), painted their bodies and ate only game, roots and berries. He mentions as further proof of their barbarity that Chichimec women having given birth continued travelling on the same day without stopping to recover.[4] While las Casas recognized that the Chichimecan tribes spoke different languages he saw their culture as primarily uniform. In 1590, the Franciscan priest Alonso Ponce commented that the Chichimeca had no religion because they did not even worship idols such as the other peoples - in his eyes another symptom of their barbarous nature. The only somewhat nuanced description of the Chichimeca is found in Bernardino de Sahagún's Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España in which some Chichimec people such as the Otomi were described as knowing agriculture, living in settled communities, and having a religion devoted to the worship of the Moon. The image of the Chichimecas as described by the early sources was typical of the era; the natives were "savages" - accomplished at war and hunting, but with no established society or morals, fighting even amongst themselves. This description became even more prevalent over the course of the Chichimec wars as justification for the war (the Chichimec area was not entirely under Spanish control until 1721). The first description of a modern objective ethnography of the peoples inhabiting La Gran Chichimeca was done by Norwegian naturalist and explorer Carl Sofus Lumholtz in 1890 when he traveled on muleback through northwestern Mexico, meeting the indigenous peoples on friendly terms. With his descriptions of the rich and different cultures of the various "uncivilized" tribes, the picture of the uniform Chichimec barbarians was changed - although in Mexican Spanish the word "Chichimeca" remains connected to an image of "savagery". The historian Paul Kirchhoff, in his work "The Hunting-Gathering People of North Mexico," described the Chichimecas as sharing a hunter-gatherer culture, based on the gathering of mesquite, agave, and tunas (the fruit of the nopal). While others also lived off of acorns, roots and seeds. In some areas, the Chichimecas cultivated maize and calabash. From the mesquite, the Chichamecs made white bread and wine. Many Chichimec tribes utilized the juice of the agave as a substitute for water when it was in short supply. The Chichimecas were involved in the Mixton Rebellion (1540–1541) and the Chichimeca War (1550–1590). After a series of negotiations with the Spaniards, most of the Chichimecas were encouraged to take part in peaceful agricultural pursuits. Within decades, they were assimilated into the Spanish and Indian mestizo culture.[1] Chichimeca War From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from The Chichimeca War) Jump to: navigation, search The Chichimeca War Date Location Result 1550-1590 Northern Mexico "La Gran Chichimeca" Native American victory Belligerents Chichimeca (Zacateco, Guachichil, Guamare, Pame) Spaniards, Indian Allies The Chichimeca War (1550–1590) was a military conflict waged between Spanish colonizers and their Indian allies against a confederation of Chichimeca Indians. It was the longest and most expensive conflict between Spaniards and the indigenous peoples of New Spain in the history of the colony.[1] Avino. and Nieves were established. Guanajuato.The Chichimeca wars began eight years after the Mixtón Rebellion of 1540-1542. Mazapil.[2] Soon the mines of San Martín. specifically in the Mexican states of Zacatecas. Contents [hide]         1 Prelude 2 The Chichimecas 3 Course of the War 4 Peace by Purchase 5 Importance 6 Chichimecas today 7 References 8 References [edit] Prelude The location of the Chichimeca and other Indian groups are shown on this map On September 8. The war was fought in the Northern Mexico region known as La Gran Chichimeca. Chalchihuites. Aguascalientes. It can be considered as a continuation of the rebellion as the fighting did not come to a halt in the intervening years. Sombrerete. News of the silver strike soon spread across Spanish Mexico. the Caxcanes were now allied with the Spanish. Fresnillo. Jalisco. and San Luis Potosi. The dream of quick wealth triggered multitudes of people to migrate from southern Mexico to the city of Zacatecas in the heartland of La Gran Chichimeca. Unlike in the Mixtón rebellion. The Chichimeca nations resented the intrusions by the Spanish and their Indian laborers and allies on their ancestral . 1546 Indians near the Cerro de la Bufa in what would become the city of Zacatecas showed the Spaniard Juan de Tolosa several pieces of silver-rich ore. Guamares.‖[9] The Zacatecos lived in the present day states of Zacatecas and Durango. Pames. They had absorbed some of the religious and cultural practices of the more urbanized Indian nations to their south. and the fruit (tunas) and leaves of cactus. Disobeying the Viceroy.[5] The Chichimecas were not a single tribe or a united nation.[4] The Chichimecas lived in rancherias of crude shelters or caves.[7] The Pames lived north of Queretaro and south and east of the Guachichiles. The slow-moving caravans of carts and wagons full of goods along the roads were a tempting target for Chichimeca raiders. To supply and communicate with the mines in and near Zacatecas. and Zacatecos. Within this area of about 60. frequently moving from one area to another to take advantage of seasonal foods and hunting. others were nomadic.‖ Their bows .lands. but consisted or four different ethnic groups: Guachichiles. They seem to have been the most numerous of the four ethnic groups and the de facto leaders of the Chichimecas. new roads were built from Queretaro and Jalisco across Chichimeca lands. The nomadic lifestyle and dispersed settlements of the Chichimecas contributed to the difficulty the Spanish had in defeating them.000 km2) the Chichimecas existed primarily by hunting and gathering. and painted and tattooed their bodies. grew their hair long. The bow was their principal weapon and one experienced observer said the Zacatecos were ―the best archers in the world.[6] Their territories overlapped and other Indian groups also joined one or another of the Chichimeca groups in raiding on occasion. Their name meant ‗head colored red‖ and they colored both their skin and clothing that color.000 to 60. They possibly had more political unity that the other Chichimecas and were considered by one writer as the most ‗treacherous and destructive of all the Chichimecas and the most astute. They were the least warlike and dangerous of the Chichimecas – primarily raiders of livestock. the edible parts of the agave plants. Some of the Zacatecos grew maize. Living in close proximity to the silver road between Queretaro and Zacatecas. Their numbers are difficult to estimate. None of these groups were politically united but rather consisted of many different independent tribes and bands. In favored areas some of the Chichimeca grew corn and other crops.000. They were often accused of cannibalism. They had participated in the earlier Mixton War and thus were experienced fighters against the Spanish. they were the most feared of the Indian raiders.[8] The Guamares lived mostly in present day Guanajuato.[3] [edit] The Chichimecas The Chichimecas were nomadic and semi-nomadic people who occupied the large desert basin stretching from present day Saltillo and Durango in the north to Queretaro and Guadalajara in the south. Spanish soldiers soon began raiding native settlements of both friendly and unfriendly Indians to acquire slaves for the mines. although based on the average density of nomadic populations they probably numbered 30. The Guachichiles‘ territory centered on the area around what would become the city of San Luis Potosi. The characteristics most noted about them by the Spanish was that both women and men wore few if any clothes. especially mesquite beans.000 square miles (160. The first outbreak of hostilities was in late 1550 when Zacatecos attacked a supply caravan of Tarascan Indians enroute to Zacatecas. Although the Spanish often attacked and defeated bands of Chichimecas.[11] [edit] Course of the War A statue of a Chichimeca Warrior in the city of Queretaro A modern day Chichimeca Jonaz person participating in a dance in Guanajuato The conflict proved much more difficult and enduring then the Spanish anticipated. Spanish military successes had little impact on other independent groups who continued the war. and attacks on isolated settlements of sedentary Indians and Spanish colonists. within a few months. mostly Indians friendly to the Spanish. During the war. But they proved to be a many-headed hydra. even against Spanish armor which was de rigueur for soldiers fighting the Chichimeca. their arrows were long and thin and made of reed and tipped with obsidian. livestock raids. A few days later they were attacking ranches less than 10 miles (16 km) south of Zacatecas.were short. groups of 40 to 50 warriors were more common. Other raids near Tlaltenango were reported to have killed 120 people. In 1551 the Guachichile and Guamares joined in. The most damaging raids of the early years of the war took place in 1553 and 1554 when two large wagon trains . Although some of their raids were conducted by up to 200 men.[10] Chichimeca battle tactics were mostly ambushes of travelers and caravans. Many-layered buckskin armor was preferred to chain mail as arrows could penetrate the links of the mail. in one instance killing 14 people near the outpost of San Miguel de Allende and forcing its temporary abandonment. the Chichimecas learned to ride horses and use them in war. Despite the apparent fragility of the arrows they had excellent penetrating qualities. This was perhaps the first time that the Spanish in North America faced mounted Indian warriors. The Chichimecas seemed primitive and unorganized. usually less than four feet long. The Indian allies were rewarded with lands and stipends and were allowed to ride horses and carry swords. often staffing their presidios with only three Spaniards. people killed. The top priority of the Spaniards throughout the war was to keep the roads open to Zacatecas and the silver mines – especially the Camino Real from San Miguel de Allende.[14] Thus. They relied heavily. contrary to the Augustinians and Franciscans. the Tarascans.000 Indian allies and traders had been killed by the Chichimecas. (By comparison. or mutilation to the Chichimeca.) By the end of 1561 it was estimated that more than 200 Spaniards and 2. The royal treasury was being emptied by the demands of the war. Churchmen and others who had initially supported the war of fire and blood now questioned the policy. those failing. enslavement. and the very substantial sums of 32. To do so they created a dozen new presidios (forts). in 1567 it adopted the policy of a ―war of fire and blood‖ (fuego y sangre) – promising death. Prices for imported food and other commodities in Zacetacas had doubled or tripled due to the dangers of transporting the goods to the city. land. soldiers. Moreover the Spanish were short of soldiers. the annual salary of a Spanish soldier was only 300 pesos. and friendly Indians to gradually domesticate and Christianize the Chichimecas.[12] The Spanish government first attempted measures of both carrot and stick to attempt to damp down the war. as they had in the past.000 and 40. and encouraged settlers in new areas. declared that the Chichimeca War was unjust and caused by Spansh aggression. especially the Caxcans (whom they had defeated in the Mixton War). the Bishop of Guadalajara made a proposal for a ―Christian remedy‖ to the war: the establishment of new towns with priests. and the Otomi. The increase in Spanish soldiers in the Gran Chichimeca was not entirely favorable to the war effort as the soldiers often supplemented their income by slaving. In 1584. but. The Viceroy opened negotiations with Chichimeca leaders and promised them food. it became clear that the Spanish policy of a war of fire and blood had failed. Beginning in 1590 and continuing for several decades the Spanish implemented the ―Peace by Purchase‖ program by sending large quantities of goods northward to be distributed to the Chichimecas. Aguascalientes.000 pesos in goods stolen or destroyed. Mistreatment and enslavement of the Chichimeca by Spaniards increasingly came to be seen as the cause of the war. clothing. formerly banned for use by Indians.[13] [edit] Peace by Purchase As the war continued unabated. Leon.[15] . to end the conflict. and tools to encourage them through ―gentle persuasion‖ to settle down. In the 1570s the rebellion spread as Pames began raiding near Queretaro. on Indian soldiers and auxiliaries. staffed by Spanish and Indian soldiers. He forbade military operations to seek out and capture and kill hostile Indians. In 1574. including what would be the nucleus of the future cities of Celaya. The Viceroy. the Spanish began to work toward an effective counter insurgency policy which rewarded the Chichimeca for peaceful behavior while taking steps to assimilate them. Alvaro Manrique de Zuniga. priests. and San Luis Potosi. In 1590 the Viceroy declared the program a success and the roads to Zacatecas safe for the first time in 40 years. thus reinforcing the animosity of the Chichimeca. followed this idea in 1586 with a policy of removing many Spanish soldiers from the frontier as they were considered more a provocation than a remedy.on the road to Zacatecas were attacked. the Dominicans. freedom from taxes. and culture. to establish eight settlements in Chichimeca areas. primarily in the municipality of Santa Maria Acapulco in an isolated region in southeastern San Luis Potosi province. [edit] Importance The Spanish policy which evolved to pacify the Chichimecas had four components: negotiation of peace agreements. in 1591. and tools to potentially hostile Indians to encourage them to become sedentary. the Tlaxcalans extracted concessions from the Spanish. [edit] Chichimecas today Over time most of the Chichimeca people lost their ethnic identities and were absorbed into the mestizo population of Mexico. They are conservative and nominal Catholics. including land grants. The Zacatecos and Guamares totally disappeared as distinct peoples. The Franciscans sent priests to the frontier to aid in the pacification effort.[19] Another group of about 1. search The Mixtón War was fought from 1540 until 1542 between Spanish invaders and their Aztec and Tlaxcalan allies against the Caxcanes and other semi-nomadic Indians of the area of .000 speakers of the Pame languages in Mexico. other commodities. and providing food. old allies of the Spanish.500 Chichimeca Jonaz live in the state of Guanajuato. The Spanish also took steps to curb slavery on Mexico‘s northern frontier by ordering the arrest of members of the Carabajal family and Gaspar Castano de Sosa. was for a new Viceroy. as later threats from hostile Indians such as Apaches and Comanches would demonstrate.[18] There are about 10. An essential part of their strategy was conversion of the Chichimeca to Catholicism.The next step. In return for moving to the frontier. and peaceful. successfully preserving their language. Catholic or nominally Catholic.[16] The Peace by Purchase program worked. but mostly still practicing their traditional religion and customs. Hostilities died down and the majority of the Chichimecas gradually became sedentary. resettling Indian allies to the frontier to serve as examples and role models.000 of them live in an isolated area on the borders of Jalisco and Nayarit.[17] About 20. The principal components of the policy of peace by purchase would continue for nearly three centuries and would not be uniformly successful. to persuade 400 families of Tlaxcalan Indians. the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Mixtón Rebellion) Jump to: navigation. converting Indians to Christianity with missionaries. The Huicholes are believed to be the descendants of the Guachichiles. religion. They are noted for being conservative.[20] Mixtón War From Wikipedia. the right to carry arms. They served as Christian examples to the Chichimecas and taught animal husbandry and farming to them. Luis de Velasco. This established the pattern of Spanish policy for assimilating Indians on their northern frontier. and provisions for two years. They are often considered part of the Chichimeca. a generic term used by the Spaniards and Aztecs for all the nomadic and semi-nomadic Native Americans living in the deserts of northern Mexico. They were. in southern Zacatecas.[1] The location of the Indian peoples in the area in which the Mixton War was fought The Caxcanes lived in the northern part of the present-day Mexican state of Jalisco. However. The war was named after Mixtón. .north western Mexico.[2] The Caxcanes are believed to have spoken a UtoAztecan language. depending upon agriculture for their livelihood and living in permanent towns and settlements. the most northerly of the agricultural. the Caxcanes seem to have been sedentary. Contents [hide]        1 The Caxcan 2 Background 3 The War 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 Citations 7 References [edit] The Caxcan Although other indigenous groups also fought against the Spanish in the Mixton War. a hill in the southern part of Zacatecas state in Mexico which served as an Indian stronghold. the Caxcanes were the ―heart and soul‖ of the resistance. and Aquascalientes. perhaps. town-andcity dwelling peoples of interior Mexico. . [edit] The War The death of Pedro de Alvarado is pictured at the top left. Sinaloa and Zacatecas[3] Over a six-year period Guzman. Guzman‘s policy was to ‗terrorize the natives with often unprovoked killing. Durango. brutal even by the standards of the day. and enslaved thousands of Indians.Other Native Americans participating in the revolt were the Zacatecos from the state of the same name. torture.000 to 8. Jalisco. including Guadalajara in or near the homeland of the Caxcanes. and enslavement‖. was in 1529 when Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán set forth from Mexico City with 300-400 Spaniards and 5. killed. But the Spaniards encountered increased resistance as they moved further from the complex hierarchical societies of Central Mexico and attempted to force Indians into servitude through the encomienda system. called Nueva Galicia. [edit] Background The first contact of the Caxcan and other indigenous peoples of the northwestern Mexico with the Spanish. The Indian leader Francisco Tenamaztle faces Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza at the bottom left.[4] Guzman and his lieutenants founded towns and Spanish settlements in the region.000 Azteca and Tlaxcalan allies on a march through Nayarit. tortured. especially on the hill fortress of Mixton. Zacatecas. Onate attempted to storm Mixtón. After killing two Catholic priests. The Caxcanes killed a peace delegation of one priest and ten Spanish soldiers.[6] Spanish authorities also became aware that the Indians were participating in ―devilish‖ dances.600 Spaniards and Indian allies from the region northward with him on his expedition to what would become the United States‘ Southwest. Later in the same year the Indians rose up to kill. Mexico City. the Caxcanes and their allies struck back.[8] The command structure of the Caxcanes is unknown but the most prominent leader from among them who emerged was Tenamaztle of Nochistlan.Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza and Tlaxcalan Indians battle with the Caxcanes In Spring 1540. many Indians fled the encomiendas and took refuge in the mountains. Acting Governor Cristobal de Oñate led a Spanish and Indian force to quell the rebellion. The spark which set off the war was apparently the arrest of 18 rebellious Indian leaders and the hanging of nine of them in mid 1540. roast.[5] The province was thus denuded of many of its most competent soldiers.[7] Oñate then requested reinforcements from the capital. and eat the encomendero Juan de Arze. . emboldened perhaps by the fact that Governor Francisco Vasquez de Coronado had taken more than 1. but the Indians on the summit repelled his attack. The Spanish authorities were now thoroughly alarmed and feared that the revolt would spread. Mexico‘s second largest city. The Spanish were forced to change their policy from one of forcibly subjugating the Indians to accommodation and gradual absorption. The reports of the excessive violence against civilian Indians caused the Council of the Indies to undertake a secret investigation into the conduct of the viceroy. He subsequently died on July 4. The statue is on the main square of Nochistlan de Mejia.[15] [edit] Aftermath As one authority said. the success of Cortés in defeating the Aztecs in only two years ―created an illusion of European superiority over the Indian as a warrior. The aftermath of the Indian‘s defeat was that ―thousands were dragged off in chains to the mines. Alvarado declined to await reinforcements and attacked Mixton in June 1541 with four hundred Spaniards and an unknown number of Indian allies. Zacatecas The Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza called upon the experienced conquistador Pedro de Alvarado to assist in putting down the revolt.[12] With his overwhelming force. the Indian leader in the Mixton War.000 Indians under Tenamaztle and Don Diego.‖[14] By the viceroy's order men.[10] Emboldened. women and children were seized and executed. the Spanish victories over the Aztecs and other complex societies ―proved to be but a prelude to a far longer military struggle against the peculiar and terrifying prowess of Indian America‘s more primitive warriors. They would later serve as auxiliaries to Spanish soldiers in their continued advance northward. Subsequent attacks by Alvarado were also unsuccessful and on June 24 he was crushed when a horse fell on him.Francisco Tenamaztle. a process taking centuries. 1541.‖[16] Victory in the Mixton War enabled the Spaniard to control the region in which Guadalajara. Tlaxcalan and other Indians and under Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza invaded the land of the Caxcanes. a Zacateco Indian. Mendoza reduced the Indian strongholds one-by-one in a war of no quarter. the Indians attacked the city of Guadalajara in September but were repulsed. but the Indian leader later escaped. and others stabbed. It also opened up Spanish access to the deserts of the north in which Spanish explorers would search for and find rich silver deposits.[13] Tenamaztle would remain at large as a guerilla until 1550.‖ However.[11] The Indian army retired to Nochistlan and other strongpoints. was located. In early 1542 the stronghold of Mixton fell to the Spaniards and the rebellion was over.[9] He was met there by an estimated 15. some by cannon fire.[17] After their defeat the Caxcanes were absorbed into Spanish society and lost their identity as a distinct people. . Jalisco. some torn apart by dogs.[18] Spanish expansion after the Mixton War would lead to the longer and even more bloody Chichimeca war (1550–1590). he captured the city of Nochistlan and Tenamaztle. They assembled a force of 450 Spaniards and 30 to 60 thousand Aztec. The first attack of the Spanish was repulsed with ten Spaniards and many Indian allies killed. On November 9. and many of the survivors (mostly women and children) were transported from their homelands to work on Spanish farms and haciendas. The Caxcan possibly survive today.[19] Apache From Wikipedia.060 (self-identified)[1] Regions with significant populations . Apache Apache portraits Total population 56. the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Apacheans) Jump to: navigation. Zacatecas commemorate the Mixtón War. search This article is about the Native American tribe. For other uses. Annual fiestas of the Tastuane in towns such as Moyabua. as the Tastuane Indians. at least in folk festivals. see Apache (disambiguation). Western Apache Religion Native American Church.[citation needed] Some Apacheans were employed in migrant farm labor and relocated to agricultural regions of Southern California. Lipan.S. Texas and the southern Great Plains. The first Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during the late 17th century.[2] Contents . traditional shamanistic tribal religion Related ethnic groups Navajo. northwestern Mexico. Army found the Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists. However. such as the Coachella. Some Apacheans have moved to large metropolitan areas.paʃ]) is the collective term for several culturally related groups of Native Americans in the United States originally from the Southwest United States. and Plains Apache (formerly Kiowa-Apache). Athabaskans Apache (pronounced /əˈpætʃiː/. Western Apache. Kansas City. Imperial and Colorado River valleys. Lipan Apache. Christianity. The modern term Apache excludes the related Navajo people. Apache groups live in Oklahoma and Texas and on reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. Denver. where now tens of thousands of Apacheans live. opposing the Spaniards and Mexicans for centuries. Jicarilla. The largest Apache urban communities are in Oklahoma City. the Navajo and the other Apache groups are clearly related through culture and language. which is related linguistically to the languages of Athabaskan speakers of Alaska and western Canada.[citation needed] The Apachean tribes were historically very powerful. Apachean peoples formerly ranged over eastern Arizona. Plains Apache. The groups spoke seven different languages. These indigenous peoples of North America speak a Southern Athabaskan (Apachean) language. and thus are considered Apachean. French: [a. There was little political unity among the Apachean groups. Mescalero. the U. Phoenix. Jicarilla. Mescalero. New Mexico and Oklahoma Languages Chiricahua. In 19th-century confrontations. San Diego and Los Angeles. Chiricahua. New Mexico. The current division of Apachean groups includes the Navajo.Arizona. 1.2 Crop cultivation o 5.4 Defeat 4 Pre-reservation culture o 4.3.1.2 List of names 3 History o 3.2 Jicarilla o 4.3 Forced Removal o 3.3 Trading.1.1.1 Chiricahua  4.1 Difficulties in Naming o 2.1 Entry into the Southwest o 3.[hide]            1 Present-day Apache groups 2 Name and synonyms o 2.4 Religion 6 Languages 7 Notable Apache 8 See also 9 Notes 10 Bibliography 11 External links [edit] Present-day Apache groups .1 Hunting 5 Clothing o 5.2 Conflict with Mexico and the United States o 3. raiding and war o 5.1.2 Housing o 4.1 Kinship systems  4.1 Undomesticated plants and other food sources o 5.1 Social organization  4.3 Food  4. Edward S. Ch – Chiricahua. N – Navajo. Apachean tribes ca. J – Jicarilla.Sigesh. Yavapai-Apache. 18th century: WA – Western Apache. There undoubtedly existed other Apache groups which are not as well-known by modern anthropologists and historians. the Lipan Apache of southwestern Texas. Her hairstyle and ornament were characteristic of Apache girls then. an unmarried Apache woman. and Fort McDowell Mohave. M – Mescalero. L – Lipan. circa 1905. The Western Apache reservations include the Fort Apache White Mountain. . Pl – Plains Apache The present-day Apache peoples include the Jicarilla and Mescalero of New Mexico. San Carlos. The group is divided into several reservations that crosscut cultural divisions. the Chiricahua of the Arizona-New Mexico border area. Western Apaches are the only Apache group that remains within Arizona. Curtis photo. the Western Apache of Arizona. and the Plains Apache of Oklahoma. TontoApache. had an impact on Europeans."[4] The Zuni and Yavapai sources are less certain because Oñate used the term before he had encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. The other Chirricahuas remained in Oklahoma and eventually formed the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma. The majority moved to the Mescalero Reservation and are now subsumed under the larger Mescalero political group along with the Lipan. now few in number. person" in Mescalero). The most widely accepted origin theory suggests it was borrowed from the Zuni word ʔa·paču meaning "Navajos" (the plural of paču "Navajo"). The Jicarilla are located on the Jicarilla Reservation in Rio Arriba and Sandoval counties in northwestern New Mexico. near historic Fort Stanton. The Lipan. Most Apacheans may not like to be called Apache and rather call themselves by the term from their language (e.g. Plains Apaches are located in Oklahoma concentrated around Anadarko. probably bolstered by dime novels. the term was applied to Southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The first known written record in Spanish is by Juan de Oñate in 1598. By the 1640s. In early 20th century Parisian society.[5] A less likely origin may be from Spanish mapache "raccoon. Apache essentially meant an outlaw and would enter the French language in France."[5] The Spanish first use the term "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s. Other Lipans live in Texas. The Mescalero are located on the Mescalero Reservation in southeastern New Mexico. The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills. but the ultimate origin is uncertain.Present-day primary locations of Apachean peoples The Chiricahua were divided into two groups after they were released from being prisoners of war. [edit] Name and synonyms The word Apache entered English via Spanish.[3] Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai ʔpačə meaning "enemy. referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. Inde "Apache. . are located primarily on the Mescalero Reservation. and Kiva or Kofa. San Carlos. Brugge identifies fifteen tribal names which the Spanish used to refer to Apaches. Plains Apache chief Many written historical names of Apachean groups recorded by non-Apacheans are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their subgroups. Over the centuries many Spanish. San Carlos. and these do not always match modern Apache groupings. He includes Chicame (the earlier term for Hispanized Chicano or New Mexicans of Spanish/Hispanic and Apache descent) among them as having definite Apache connections or names which the Spanish associated with the Apache. Jocome. they often have used different criteria to name finer divisions. Other anthropologists (e. an Apachean individual has different ways of identification with a group. Some scholars do not consider groups residing in what is now Mexico to be Apache. Pelone. He believes that San Carlos is the most divergent dialect and Dilze‘e is a remnant intermediate member of a dialect continuum that previously spanned from the Western Apache language to the Navajo. In the western group he includes Toboso. Sibolo or Cibola. Willem de Reuse finds linguistic evidence supporting only three major groupings: White Mountain. French and/or English-speaking authors did not differentiate between Apachean and other seminomadic non-Apachean peoples who might pass through the same area. and South Tonto. Albert Schroeder) consider Goodwin's classification inconsistent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. as well as the larger tribe or language grouping. For example. These were drawn from records of about one thousand baptisms from 1704 to 1862. Manso. John Upton Terrell classifies the Apache into Western and Eastern groups. Cibecue. David M. Cholome. While anthropologists agree on some traditional major subgrouping of Apaches. and Dilze‘e (Tonto). More commonly Europeans learned to identify the tribes by translating their eponym. In a detailed study of New Mexico Catholic Church records. .[edit] Difficulties in Naming Essa-queta. in the 1930s Greenville Goodwin classified the Western Apaches into five groups (based on his informants' views of dialect and cultural differences): White Mountain. North Tonto. what another group called them. such as a band or clan. Adding to an outsider's confusion.g. they had joined together with the Cuartelejos and Palomas. Historically. Apaches Faraone) is derived from Spanish Faraón "Pharaoh". Hualapais. Jicarilla. One of the 7 major Apachean groups. The Arivaipa are known as Tsézhiné "Black Rock" in the Western Apache language. part of the modern-day Mescaleros or had merged with the Mescaleros. and Yavapais. In 1726. Cibecue. Gila Apache. the term has also been used for Comanches. Arivaipa (also Aravaipa) is a band of the San Carlos local group of the Western Apache. the name was vague without a specific referent. The Flechas de Palo might have been a part of or absorbed by the Carlanas (or Cuartelejos). and Palomas. it referred to Apaches between the Rio Grande in the east. Otherwise. Apaches de Xila. Lipans. Mohaves. Plains Apache. Consisted of Ceder Creek. Coyotero usually refers to a southern division of the pre-reservation White Mountain local group of the Western Apache. Cho-kon-nen. Carlanas (also Carlanes). Xileños. Arivaipa is a borrowing (via Spanish) from the O'odham language. the Pecos River in the west. o Chíshí (also Tchishi) is a Navajo word meaning "Chiricahua. An Apache group in southeastern Colorado on Raton Mesa. and Cibecue (proper) bands. southern Apaches in general". Taraones. Gilenas. the area around Santa Fe in the north. 1983c. Č’ó·k’anén. at least in part. Faraones (also Paraonez. Albert Schroeder believes the Arivaipa was a separate section in pre-reservation times. Mescalero. Gileño (also Apaches de Gila. Carrizo.[edit] List of names The list below is based on Foster & McCollough (2001). n . Before 1700. Chokonni. Pharaones. Faraones only referred to the north and central parts of this region. Gilans. de Reuse (1983). Gilleños) was used to refer to several different Apachean and         . current usage generally includes 6 of the 7 major traditional Apachean speaking groups: Chiricahua. ranging in southeastern Arizona. Cuartelejos. Gilanians. and the Conchos River in the south. Opler (1983b. the term Faraones disappeared having been replaced by Mescalero. the name has also been used more widely to refer to Apaches in general. 2001). Chiricahua. The Carlanas as a whole were also called Sierra Blanca. or an Apachean band in the high plains of southern Colorado to Kansas. Between 1720 and 1726. living to the north of the Salt River between the Tonto and White Mountain groups. It has been suggested that either the Llanero band of the modern Jicarilla or James Mooney's Dáchizh-ó-zhn Jicarilla division are descendants of the Carlanas. After 1814. parts of the group were called Lipiyanes or Llaneros. Apaches de la Sierra de Gila. The name is an autonym from the Chiricahua language. Taracones. Western Apaches. Chokonen) refers to the Eastern Chiricahua band of Morris Opler.  Apache. The Faraones were probably were. One of Goodwin's Western Apache groups. However. the term has been used synonymously with Jicarilla in 1812. and Western Apache.[6] Ch’úúkʾanén (also Č’ók’ánéń. and by the 1730s they were living with the Jicarilla. After 1726. the Natagés are reported to have consisted of the Mescaleros (around El Paso and the Organ Mountains) and the Salineros (around Rio Salado). Na’d ’ s ʼ. Natagêes. Natageses. Ná’įįsha (also Ná’ęs a. generally living in what is now eastern New Mexico and western Texas. Nadíisha-déna. N ’is . Spanish documents start to distinguish between these different groups. Ipandi. See Plains Apache. Na-i-shan-dina. (See also Carlanas. Na’is andine. Na-e-ca.  Jicarilla (from Spanish meaning "little gourd"). Yabipais Natagé. in which case Apaches de Gila refers to Western Apaches living along the Gila River (and thus synonymous with Coyotero). This term is not to be confused with Lipan. Lipanes. Apaches del Natafé.). Some of the Gila Apaches were probably later known as the Mogollon Apaches. and the Texas Panhandle. First mentioned in 1718 around the newly established town of San Antonio. Lipaines. The name was historically used to refer to several different groups that hunted buffalo seasonally on the Plains. etc. Pinaleños. and Siete Ríos Apaches of southeastern New Mexico. Na’is a. Nardichia. Naisha) all refer to the Plains Apache (see Kiowa). Mogollones. Lipan (also Ypandis. The Mescalero are one of the 7 major Apachean groups. Tontos.non-Apachean groups at different times. probably of Athabascan origin.) Lipiyánes (also Lipiyán. Mimbreños. Na-ishi. that may have been a synonym of Llanero or Natagés. In 1745. Nadeicha. a subdivision of the Chiricahua. while later the term was confusingly used to refer to Coyoteros. N d ’įįs . the reference is often unclear. Lipillanes). Once in eastern New Mexico and Texas to the southeast to Gulf of Mexico. Mogollon was considered by Schroeder a separate pre-reservation Chiricahua band while Opler considered the Mogollon to be part of his Eastern Chiricahua band in New Mexico. One of the 7 major Apachean peoples. Lipanos. Term used 1726–1820 to refer to the Faraón.          .e. Chiricahuas. Gila refers to either the Gila River or the Gila Mountains[disambiguation needed]. as well as the non-Apachean Yavapai (then also known as Garroteros or Yabipais Gileños). Sierra Blanca. also referenced in eastern New Mexico and western Texas. This term is not to be confused with Lipiyánes or Le Panis (French for the Pawnee). However. Ypandes. southern Colorado. Ipandes. Mimbreños is an older name that refers to a section of Opler's Eastern Chiricahua band and to Albert Schroeder's Mimbres and Warm Springs Chiricahua bands[7] in southwestern New Mexico. Another Spanish usage (along with Pimas Gileños and Pimas Cileños) referred to the non-Apachean Pima living on the Gila River. American writers first used the term to refer to the Mimbres (another subdivision of the Chiricahua). Llanero is a borrowing from Spanish meaning "plains dweller". The Jicarilla Apache are one of the 7 major Apachean groups and currently live in northern New Mexico. After 1722. since the term was used indiscriminately for all Apachean groups west of the Rio Grande (i. Natagés (also Natagees. Mescalero. An uncertain term. Lapane. Kiowa-Apache. Natajes). while others probably evolved into the Chiricahua proper. Texas. in southeast Arizona and western New Mexico). Lipanis. "[8] White Mountain. Warm Springs were located on upper reaches of Gila River. New Mexico is Tłʼohchiní meaning "wild onion place"). Consisted of Eastern White Mountain and Western White Mountain. Tonto Apache speakers are traditionally bilingual in Western Apache and Yavapai.) Western Apache. White Mountain and San Carlos groups. north of the Verde River. Querechos referred to by Coronado in 1541. The term has also been used to refer to any supposed Apachean tribe found on or associated (usually culturally) with the North American Plains. Pinal (also Pinaleños). Mormon Lake. according to Goodwin. Pinal. Other early Spanish might have also called them Vaquereo or Llanero.  Navajo. New Mexico. which eventually replaced it. A group of Navajos currently living in the Ramah Navajo Indian Reservation in New Mexico. This group consisted of the Apache Peaks. who lived in the vicinity of Tucson. Arivaipa. One of the bands of the Goodwin's San Carlos group of Western Apache. (See also Gileño and Mimbreños. Also used along with Coyotero to refer more generally to one of two major Western Apache divisions.but these were probably the same group. A Western Apache group that ranged closest to Tucson according to Goodwin. Western Apaches considered themselves as separate from each other. generally living in what is now Oklahoma. Ramah. Southern Tonto consisted of the Mazatzal band and unidentified "semi-bands". Naʼishandine) are one of the 7 major Apachean groups. Goodwin's Northern Tonto consisted of Bald Mountain. San Carlos. possibly Plains Apaches.          . and Oak Creek bands. General modern usage separates Navajo people from Apaches. Plains Apache. Fossil Creek. Tonto is one of the major dialects of the Western Apache language. Other writers have used this term to refer to all nonNavajo Apachean peoples living west of the Rio Grande (thus failing to distinguish the Chiricahua from the other Apacheans). The Plains Apache (also called Kiowa-Apache. In historic times. The most numerous of the 7 major Apachean groups. the term was used synonymously with Mescalero. and allied Apache. Some Pinaleños were referred to by Gila Apaches. living in the north and west areas of the Western Apache groups according to Goodwin. This is north of Phoenix. Schroeder has suggested that the Tonto are originally Yavapais who assimilated Western Apache culture. Tonto. (The Navajo name for Ramah. and a small band of Apaches known as the Apache Mansos. they were found living among the (unrelated) Kiowa. Southern Tonto. San Carlos (proper) bands. Goodwin's formulation: "all those Apache peoples who have lived within the present boundaries of the state of Arizona during historic times with the exception of the Chiricahua. After 1749. Goodwin divided into Northern Tonto and Southern Tonto groups. The easternmost group of the Western Apache according to Goodwin. Warm Springs. While these subgroups spoke the same language and had kinship ties. includes Northern Tonto. Cibecue. at times maybe Navajo. Naisha. In the most common sense. perhaps including the Southern Athabaskan. The Coronado Expedition 1540–1542 In April 1541. Linguistic similarities indicate the Navajo and Apache were once a single ethnic group. In the early 16th century. hunted bison and other game. Substantial numbers and a wide range were recorded by the Spanish in the 16th century. There are several hypotheses concerning Apachean migrations.[10] They also left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods. adapted many of their neighbors' technology and practices in their own cultures. Other Athabaskan speakers. Other Athabaskan-speaking people in North America reside in an area from Alaska through west-central Canada.[9] although substantial progress has been made in recent years in dating and in identifying their dwellings and other forms of material culture. Archaeological and historical evidence seem to suggest the Southern Athabaskan entry into the American Southwest was sometime after 1000 AD. Francisco Coronado called them ―dog nomads. primarily because they constructed less-substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups.‖ He wrote: . while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region. Their nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating. although recent advances have been made in the regard in the far southern portion of the American Southwest. This group probably moved into areas that were concurrently occupied or recently abandoned by other cultures. these mobile groups lived in tents. and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. Thus sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. and some groups can be found along the Northwest Pacific Coast.[edit] History [edit] Entry into the Southwest The Apache and Navajo (Diné) tribal groups of the North American Southwest speak related languages of the language family referred to as Athabaskan. One posits that they moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. They do not cultivate the land. The Apache quickly acquired horses. hides and materials for stone tools. Other Spaniards first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. In addition. the specific traits of these groups do not seem particularly Apachean. long before this first reported contact. Harry Hoijer's classification of Plains Apache as an Apachean language has been disputed. with which all the people in this land clothe themselves. Other historians note that Coronado reported that Pueblos women and children had often been evacuated by the time his party attacked these dwellings and some dwellings had been recently abandoned as he moved up the Rio Grande. archaeological data indicate they were present on the plains. Additionally. the Pueblo were forced to work Spanish mission lands and care for mission flocks. To some historians this implies the Apaches moved into their current Southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. dated 1675–1725 excavated in Nebraska. An archaeological material culture assemblage identified in this mountainous zone as ancestral Apachean has been referred to as the Cerro Rojo complex. eastern Colorado. improving their mobility for quick raids on settlements. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents. although some have argued that he simply did not see them. Later Spanish sovereignty over the area disrupted trade between the Pueblos and the diverging Apache and Navajo groups. These natives are called Querechos. ultimately reaching the American Southwest by the 14th century or perhaps earlier. and western Kansas. with black spots. Coronado observed Plains people wintering near the Pueblos in established camps. through the Rocky Mountains.[13] This theory does not preclude arrival via a plains route as well. in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. poles. They dress in the skins of the cattle. They reported the Pueblos exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat. Although the first documentary sources mention the Apache and historians have suggested some passages indicate a 16th century entry from the north.[14] In 1540 Coronado also reported that the modern Western Apache area was uninhabited.After seventeen days of travel. and they have very well-constructed tents. and belongings.[11] The Spaniards described Plains dogs as very white. made with tanned and greased cowhides. The descriptions of peoples such as the Mountain Querechos and the Apache Vaqueros are vague and could apply to many other Plains tribes. trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskans was well established.[12] This Plains migration theory associates Apachean peoples with the Dismal River aspect. and ―not much larger than water spaniels. Another competing theory posits migration south. an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains. Only the Plains Apache have any significant Plains cultural influence.” Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern northern Canadian peoples. When the Spanish arrived in the area. while all tribes have distinct Athabaskan characteristics. perhaps concurrently. but to date the earliest evidence has been found in the mountainous Southwest. at rates as high as two or three miles per hour (3 to 5 km/h). but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. This might indicate the semi- . Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips. thus they had fewer surplus goods to trade with their neighbors. I came upon a rancheria of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). For example. Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty. there seemed to be a pattern between the recently arrived Spanish who settled in villages and Apache bands over a few centuries. [edit] Conflict with Mexico and the United States Further information: Apache Wars In general.S. many Apache bands promised U. one band might be friends with one village and raid another. When Juan José Compas. Both raided and traded with each other. The traditional and sometimes treacherous relationships continued between the villages and bands with the independence of Mexico in 1821. Records of the period seem to indicate that relationships depended upon the specific villages and specific bands that were involved with each other. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps (see scalping) but some bands were still trading with certain villages. When war happened between the two. the Spanish would send troops. after a battle both sides would "sign a treaty" and both sides would go home. Mangas Coloradas or Dasoda-hae (Red Sleeves) became principal chief and war leader and began a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans. Their presence on both the Plains and in the mountainous Southwest indicate that there were multiple early migration routes. Archaeologists are finding ample evidence of an early proto-Apache presence in the Southwestern mountain zone in the 15th century and perhaps earlier. respecting them as conquerors of the . was killed for bounty money in 1837. the leader of the Mimbreño Apaches.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846. soldiers safe passage through their lands. Geronimo When the United States went to war against Mexico. When the U.nomadic Southern Athabaskans had advance warning about his hostile approach and so they were not seen and reported by the Spanish. The warfare between Apachean peoples and Euro-Americans has led to a stereotypical focus on certain aspects of Apachean cultures that are often distorted through misperception as noted by anthropologist Keith Basso: "Of the hundreds of peoples that lived and flourished in native North America. Many books were written on the stories of hunting and trapping during the late 19th century.[16] This band and the Chiricahua scouts who tracked them were all sent to military confinement in Florida at Fort Pickens and. subsequently. It was not uncommon for a band to be given permission to leave for a short period of time. Indian Commissioner L. Ft. The reservation policies of the United States kept various Apache bands leaving the reservations (at war) for almost another quarter century.S. There they remained in internment for 25 years while white settlers took over their land. only about 200 were able to return to their lands. sensationalized by historians.Mexican's land. 1886 at Skeleton Canyon. An uneasy peace (a centuries old tradition) between the Apache and the now citizens of the United States held until the 1850s. an estimated 1. There were also no fences to keep people in or out. Arizona. return to their land to forage. and distorted beyond credulity by commercial film makers. to raid. young and old. Army troops made the people. The United States' concept of a reservation had not been used by the Spanish. when an influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict. Many of these stories involve Apache raids and agreements with Americans and Mexicans. Dudley and U.[citation needed] [edit] Defeat Most American histories of this era say the final defeat of an Apache band took place when 5. Glorified by novelists.E.500 Yavapai and Dilzhe‘e Apache from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve were removed from several thousand acres of treaty lands promised to them by the United States government. walk through winter-flooded rivers. the popular image of 'the Apache' — a brutish.000 troops forced Geronimo's group of 30 to 50 men. terrifying semihuman bent upon wanton death and destruction — is almost entirely a product of irresponsible caricature and exaggeration. mountain passes and narrow canyon trails to get to Indian Agency at San Carlos. The military usually had forts nearby. Oklahoma. Their job was keeping the various bands on the reservations by finding and returning those who left. few have been so consistently misrepresented as the Apacheans of Arizona and New Mexico. The trek resulted in several hundred lives lost. On their release. This period is sometimes called the Apache Wars. and bands that had no kinship relationships were forced to live together. or to simply get away. . 180 miles (290 km) away. Mexicans or other Apache neighbors before. Sill. Indeed."[15] [edit] Forced Removal In 1875. women and children to surrender on September 4. Other times a band would leave without permission. the fanciful and fallacious creation of a non-Indian citizenry whose inability to recognize the massive treachery of ethnic and cultural stereotypes has been matched only by its willingness to sustain and inflate them. there can be little doubt that the Apache has been transformed from a native American into an American legend. Reservations were often badly managed. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife. When a daughter was married. a practice often most strictly observed by distance between mother-in-law and son-in-law. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence. which carried out certain ceremonies. their unmarried children. The degree of avoidance differed in different Apachean groups. where men had to use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of the wife's relatives whom he had to avoid. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua. Apache children were taken for adoption by white Americans in programs similar in nature to those involving the Stolen Generations of Australia. matrilocal residence). the extended family is connected through a lineage of women that live together (that is. a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. and economic and military activities. sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage. their married daughters' husbands. The chief was the closest societal role to a leader in Apachean cultures. Among the Navajo. with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. The office was not hereditary and the . All Apachean men practiced varying degrees of "avoidance" of his wife's close relatives. Local groups were headed by a chief. their married daughters. into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family). Thus. residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. His female Chiricahua relatives through marriage also avoided him. a male who had considerable influence over others in the group due to his effectiveness and reputation.In the post-war era. All tribes practiced sororate and levirate marriages. [edit] Pre-reservation culture [edit] Social organization Apache bride All Apachean peoples lived in extended family units (or family clusters) who usually lived close together. Political control was mostly present at the local group level. and their married daughters' children. Several extended families worked together as a "local group". The chief's leadership was only as strong as he was evaluated to be—no group member was ever obliged to follow the chief. perhaps influenced by the example of the northeastern Pueblo. The Navajo system is more divergent. while among the Lipan and Mescalero. and Western Apache. Navajo. However. On the larger level. The Jicarilla type. dress. and customs. Many Apachean peoples joined together several local groups into "bands". The Lipan and Plains Apache systems are very similar. and eloquence in language. the Navajo did have "the outfit". essentially it was only a recognition "that one owed a modicum of hospitality to those of the same speech.[19] The Chiricahua-type system is used by the Chiricahua. and it has some similarities to the Navajo system. a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family. The Navajo did not organize local groups into bands. Southern Tonto. The Western Apache criteria for evaluating a good chief included: industriousness. generosity. Cibecue. is used by the Jicarilla. but not as large as a local group community or a band. perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. The Jicarilla grouped their bands into "moieties". Mescalero. the Lipan fought against the Mescalero just as against the Comanche. impartiality. it was weak. Lipan. Band organization was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache. and White Mountain. and Plains Apache. the Western Apache organized bands into what Grenville Goodwin called "groups". which is similar to the Dakota–Iroquois kinship systems. having similarities with the Chiricahua-type system. [edit] Chiricahua . The Western Apache system differs slightly from the other two systems. forbearance.position was often filled by members of different extended families. [edit] Kinship systems The Apachean tribes have basically two surprisingly different kinship term systems: a Chiricahua type and a Jicarilla type. The notion of "tribe" in Apachean cultures is very weakly developed. San Carlos. conscientiousness. The Western Apache and Navajo also had a system of matrilineal "clans" that were organized further into phratries (perhaps influenced by the western Pueblo)."[17] The seven Apachean tribes had no political unity (despite such portrayals in common perception)[18] and often were enemies of each other—for example. He reported five groups for the Western Apache: Northern Tonto. -tsúyé "maternal grandfather". there are two words for a parent's child according to sex: -yáchʼeʼ "daughter". the same word will refer to either a sibling or a cousin (there are not separate terms for parallel-cousin and cross-cousin). -chú means one's opposite-sex sibling's daughter's child). Oklahoma History Center Chiricahua has four different words for grandparent: -chú[20] "maternal grandmother". This means if one is a male. -nálé "paternal grandfather". Chiricahuas in a -´-ląh relationship observed great restraint and respect toward that relative. a grandparent will use the same term to refer to their grandchild in that relationship. thus. that is. one's maternal grandmother. -chʼiné "paternal grandmother". then one's brother is called -kʼis and one's sister is called -´-ląh. If one is a female. Additionally. ca. For example. and one's maternal grandmother's brothers are all called -chú. cousins (but not siblings) in a -´-ląh relationship may practice total avoidance. Thus.e. a grandparent's siblings are identified by the same word. one's maternal grandmother's sisters. Likewise. Additionally. by Naiche (Chiricahua Apache). Furthermore. Two different words are used for each parent according to sex: -mááʼ "mother". -gheʼ "son". . the terms are used according to the sex of the speaker (unlike the English terms brother and sister): -kʼis "same-sex sibling or same-sex cousin". Chiricahua cousins are not distinguished from siblings through kinship terms. the grandparent terms are reciprocal.Hide painting depicting Apache girl's puberty ceremony. -´-ląh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite-sex cousin". then one's brother is called -´ląh and one's sister is called -kʼis. 1900. -taa "father". a person's maternal grandmother will be called -chú and that maternal grandmother will also call that person -chú as well (i. These terms also refer to that parent's same-sex sibling: ʼn h "mother or maternal aunt (mother's sister)". These two terms are reciprocal like the grandparent/grandchild terms. -deedééʼ "paternal aunt or uncle (father's brother or sister)". These two terms can also be used for cross-cousins. Additionally.e. These terms are also used for parallel-cousins: -kʼisé "same-sex sibling or same-sex parallel cousin (i. a person will call their maternal aunt -ghúyé and that aunt will call them -ghúyé in return). same-sex cousin's daughter". same-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)". -iłnaaʼaash "male cross-cousin" (only used by male speakers). -´-láh "opposite-sex sibling or opposite parallel cousin (i.e. There are no separate terms for maternal or paternal grandparents. There are also three sibling terms based on the age relative to the speaker: -ndádéé "older sister". . A parent's child is classified with their same-sex sibling's or same-sex cousin's child: hácheʼe "daughter. the Jicarilla have only two terms for grandparents according to sex: -chóó "grandmother". There is only a single word for grandchild (regardless of sex): -ts y . These terms are not reciprocal. The terms are also used of a grandparent's siblings according to sex. -gheʼ "son. Thus. -tsóyéé "grandfather". tsóyéé refers to one's grandfather or one's granduncle. Two terms are used for same-sex and opposite-sex siblings. -ghúyé also refers to one's opposite-sex sibling's son or daughter (that is. same-sex cousin's son". -shdá ha "younger sibling (i. same-sex sibling's daughter. there are separate words for cross-cousins: . -chóó refers to one's grandmother or one's grandaunt (either maternal or paternal). [edit] Housing frame of Apache wickiup . there are two terms for a parent's opposite-sex sibling depending on sex: -daʼáá "maternal uncle (mother's brother)".-naʼáá "older brother".A parent's siblings are classified together regardless of sex: -ghúyé "maternal aunt or uncle (mother's brother or sister)". opposite-sex father's brother's child or mother's sister's child)". same-sex sibling's son. [edit] Jicarilla Unlike the Chiricahua system. -kaʼéé "father or paternal uncle (father's brother)". Thus. Additionally. -béjéé "paternal aunt (father's sister). -daʼ "opposite-sex sibling's son".eedń "cross-cousin (either same-sex or opposite-sex of speaker)". younger sister or brother)". There are different words for an opposite-sex sibling's child: -daʼáá "opposite-sex sibling's daughter".e. There are two terms for each parent. To build it. has already been described. These houses are ‘warm and comfortable.. even though there is a big snow.. . formerly ‘they had no permanent homes. In warm.. dry weather much of the outer roofing is stripped off. Said a Central Chiricahua informant: Both the tepee and the oval-shaped house were used when I was a boy. For waterproofing. Both types were common even before my time. and repair of the dwelling itself and for the arrangement of everything in it.. Below is a description of Chiricahua wickiups recorded by anthropologist Morris Opler: "The home in which the family lives is made by the women and is ordinarily a circular.4 m) frame of wood held together with yucca fibers and covered in brush usually in the Apache groups in the highlands. and in rainy weather.. The final housing is the hogan. The first of which is the teepee. is fixed on a cross-beam so that it may be swung forward or backward. are arranged at one-foot intervals and are bound together at the top with yuccaleaf strands. It had a place for a fire in the center. for those who lived in the plains. long fresh poles of oak or willow are driven into the ground or placed in holes made with a digging stick. shingle style. an 8-foottall (2... which form the framework. However. the wickiup would be burned. with the floor at ground level.’ The interior is lined with brush and grass beds over which robes are spread. even the smoke hole is covered.. Over them a thatching of bundles of big bluestem grass or bear grass is tied. A hide. pieces of hide are thrown over the outer hatching. The tepee type was just made of brush. suspended at the entrance. the usual home type for all the Chiricahua bands. If a family member lived in a wickiup and they died. It takes approximately three days to erect a sturdy dwelling of this type. The doorway may face in any direction. so they didn't bother with cleaning. if a fire is not needed. an earthen structure in the desert area that was good for keeping cool in the hot weather of northern Mexico. It is seven feet high at the center and approximately eight feet in diameter. The oval hut was covered with hide and was the best house. It was just thrown together.. She provides the grass and brush beds and replaces them when they become too old and dry.... maintenance. The more well-to-do had this kind.All people in the Apache tribe lived in one of three types of houses." Chiricahua medicine man in wickiup with family "The woman not only makes the furnishings of the home but is responsible for the construction.’ The dome-shaped dwelling or wickiup. with yucca strings. A smoke hole opens above a central fireplace. domeshaped brush dwelling. These poles. Another type of housing is the wickiup. gathering wild plants.[23] Apache people obtained food from four main sources:[24]     hunting wild animals. what prayers to recite. we used the wickiup.When we settled down. As the different Apachean tribes lived in different environments.. the particular types of foods eaten varied according to their respective environment. Hunting often had elaborate preparations.."A house form that departs from the more common dome-shaped variety is recorded for the Southern Chiricahua as well: . Fly photographed Geronimo. although there were sometimes exceptions depending on animal and culture (e. great care was taken in Mountain Spirit rituals in order to ensure smooth deer hunting. In Lipan culture. his people. and dwellings during surrender negotiations in 1886.. Lipan women could help in hunting rabbits and Chiricahua boys were also allowed to hunt rabbits). A common practice among . such as fasting and religious rituals performed by medicine men before and after the hunt. such as Canon de los Embudos where C. The Western Apache diet consisted of 35–40% meat and 60–65% plant foods. demonstrating their unobtrusive and improvised nature. bowls and jars. [edit] Hunting Hunting was done primarily by men."[21] Recent research has documented the archaeological remains of Chiricahua Apache wickiups as found on protohistoric and at historical sites. Also the slaughter of animals must be performed following certain religious guidelines (many of which are recorded in religious stories) from prescribing how to cut the animals."[22] [edit] Food Various Apache containers: baskets. The women-made baskets could hold heavy loads and were made mainly from yucca or willow leaves or juniper bark. when we were moving around a great deal. since deer were protected by Mountain Spirits. growing domesticated plants trading with or raiding neighboring tribes for livestock and agricultural products..S. and proper disposal of bones. we used this other kind.g. bighorns. Other hunted animals were badgers. peccaries. For example. snakes. ducks. wild cattle. The principal quarry animals of the Jicarilla were bighorn sheep. quail. Beavers. minks. and coyotes. among the Mescalero a hunter was expected to share as much as one half of his kill with a fellow hunter and with needy people back at the camp.[25][26] The Western Apache hunted deer and pronghorns mostly in the ideal late fall season. black bears. The main food of the Lipan was the buffalo with a three-week hunt during the fall and smaller scale hunts continuing until the spring. grouse. Other animals included beavers. horses. horses. mourning doves. deer. cottontail rabbits. Whistles were sometimes used to lure animals closer. buffalo (for those living closer to the plains). elk. deer. porcupines. bighorn sheep. snow birds. mules. which was taboo throughout the southwest (e. muskrats. The Mescalero primarily hunted deer. Another technique was the relay method where hunters positioned at various points would chase the prey in turns in order to tire the animal. Skunks were eaten only in emergencies. rabbits. some common examples of taboo animals included bears. wood rats. opossums. buffalo. ground hogs. insects. chipmunks. fish. quail. peccaries. skunks. surplus mules. chief hares. elk and pronghorn. opossums. Gila river and even the Colorado River valleys. geese. wild steers and wood rats. Minks.g. squirrels. turtles and wood rats. squirrels. rabbits and turtles. surplus horses. fish. wapiti (elk). . Fresh deer blood was drunk for good health. squirrels. Plains Apache hunters pursued primarily buffalo and deer. turkeys and wood rats. a migration from the farm sites along the stream banks in the mountains to winter camps in the Salt. weasels. Eating certain animals was taboo. mountain lions. such as of eating fish. mules. Black. prairie dogs. Feelings of individuals concerning this practice spoke of social obligation and spontaneous generosity. Other game animals included beaver. doves. wildcats and wolves were not eaten but hunted for their body parts. burros. The second most utilized animal was deer. or antelope). elk. The primary game of the Chiricahua was the deer followed by pronghorn. prairie dogs. owls. pronghorns. Although different cultures had different taboos. A similar method involved chasing the prey down a steep cliff.Southern Athabascan hunters was the distribution of successfully slaughtered game. Other animals hunted include: bighorn sheep. Various hunting strategies were used. Some techniques involved using animal head masks worn as a disguise. rabbits. fowls. The most common hunting weapon before the introduction of European guns was the bow and arrow. pronghorn. turkeys. Some taboos were a regional phenomena. bears. opossums. but the Jicarilla never ate bear because it was considered an evil animal. An example of taboo differences: the black bear was a part of the Lipan diet (although not as common as buffalo. Burros and horses were only eaten in emergencies. After the meat was smoked into jerky around November. in certain Pueblo cultures like the Hopi and Zuni) and considered to be snake-like (an evil animal) in physical appearance. and weasels were also hunted for their hides and body parts but were not eaten. beavers. otters. Lesser game included: cottontail rabbits (but not jack rabbits). turkeys. In late fall. hawthorne fruit. lip ferns (used for tea). skirts and moccasins and decorated them with colorful beadwork. narrowleaf yucca blossoms. juniper berries and pinyon nuts were gathered. Other plants utilized by the Chiricahua include: agarita (or algerita) berries. broadleaf yucca) fruit. Western Apaches wore animal hide decorated with seed beads for clothing. Apache beaded clothing was bordered with narrow bands of glass beads in diagonal stripes of alternating colors. onions.[edit] Clothing Influenced by the Plains Indians. prickly pear. one-seed juniper berries. greens (of various varieties). narrowleaf yucca stalks. banana yucca (or datil. Other plants were utilized for only their religious or medicinal value. and cholla fruits were gathered. the Western Apache baked and dried agave crowns that were pounded into pulp and formed into rectangular cakes. These beaded designs historically resembled that of the Great Basin Paiute and is characterized by linear patterning. Spanish bayonet[disambiguation needed] fruit. in certain activities. mulberries. chokecherries. However. grass seeds (of various varieties). chili peppers. At the end of June and beginning of July. ponchos. They made buckskin shirts. alligator juniper berries. such as the gathering of heavy agave crowns. nipple cactus fruit. men helped. similar to their native neighbors in the Plains area. Numerous plants were used for medicine and religious ceremonies in addition their nutritional usage. dropseed grass seeds. Gambel oak bark (used for tea). live oak acorns. In late September. The most important plant food used by the Chiricahua was the Century plant (also known as mescal or agave). gathering was stopped as attention moved toward harvesting cultivated crops. pigweed[disambiguation needed] . Lamb'squarters leaves. mesquite beans. and Emory oak acorns were gathered. In July and August.[27] [edit] Undomesticated plants and other food sources Apache girl with basket. locust pods. In May. 1902 The gathering of plants and other foods was primarily a female chore. maize kernels (used for tiswin). The crowns (the tuberous base portion) of this plant (which were baked in large underground ovens and sun-dried) and also the shoots were used. cota (used for tea). currants. anglepod seeds. saguaro. Gambel oak acorns. mesquite beans. locust blossoms. The most important plant food used by the Lipan was agave (mescal). hackberries. raspberries.[28] who gathered the crowns in late spring after reddish flower stalks appeared. sunflower seeds. locust pods. mint (used as condiment). horsemint (used as condiment). yucca flowers. as well as many different kinds of other fruits. locust. wild onion[disambiguation needed] (used as condiment). wild grapes. sunflower seeds. currants. acorns. prickly pear fruit. greens. walnuts. bear grass stalks (roasted & peeled). strawberries. walnuts. mulberries. Numerous other fruits. nuts. white evening primrose fruit. chokecherries. oak. The smaller sotol crowns were also important. western yellow pine nuts. raspberries. and Lipan less. sotol. tumbleweed seeds (used for flatbread).seeds. box elder sap (used as a sweetener). mesquite. prickly pear juice. box elder inner bark (used as a sweetener). hawthorn. juniper berries. banana yucca fruit. wild celery (used as condiment). western white pine nuts. elderberries. walnuts. mesquite beans. sumac. The Jicarilla used acorns. pinyon pine nuts. pigweed tumbleweed seeds. Other plants include: acorns. Other plants utilized by the Lipan include: agarita. vetch pods. aspen inner bark (used as a sweetener). and yucca fruit. cattails. juniper. western yellow pine. mulberries. pitahaya fruit. and yucca fruit. Lamb's-quarters. sage (used as condiment). agarita berries. cactus fruits (of various varieties). sumac (Rhus microcarpa) berries. wild onions. strawberries. [edit] Crop cultivation The Navajo practiced the most crop cultivation. cattail rootstocks. grapes. locust flowers. palmetto. wild potatoes (Solanum jamesii). prickly pear fruit (dethorned and roasted). sedge tubers. and tuberous roots were also used. wild potatoes. gooseberries. raspberries. pigweed seeds (used for flatbread). pinyon nuts. pinyon nuts. amole stalks (roasted and peeled). Plants utilized by the Plains Apache include: chokecherries. strawberries. wild potatoes. wild grapes[disambiguation needed]. Other items include: honey from ground hives and hives found within agave. prairie turnips. hackberries. blackberries. screwbean (or tornillo) fruit. spurge seeds. unicorn plant seeds. tule shoots. western yellow pine nuts. wild roses[disambiguation needed]. shepherd's purse leaves. pine inner bark (used as a sweetener). The one Chiricahua band (of Opler's) and Mescalero practiced very little cultivation. devil's claw. and wild plums. wild onions. Both crowns of both plants were baked and dried. prickly pear fruit. western yellow pine inner bark (used as a sweetener). mesquite pods. wild cherries. pinyon. seed grasses. Other items include: salt obtained from caves and honey. pecan. . and yucca buds (unknown species). chokecherries. dropseed grass seeds (used for flatbread). wild pea pods. screwbeans. and wood sorrel leaves. wood sorrel leaves. sunflowers. juniper berries. the Western Apache. and narrowleaf yucca plants. saguaro fruit. elderberries. Another important plant was sotol. The other two Chiricahua bands and the Plains Apache did not grow any crops. and seed grasses. purslane[disambiguation needed] leaves. Texas Persimmons. hawthorne fruit. prickly pears. whitestar potatoes (Ipomoea lacunosa). banana yucca flowers. vegetables. pennyroyal (used as condiment). Jicarilla. wild plums. hops (used as condiment). grapes. screwbeans. blackberries. tule rootstocks. gooseberries. Lamb's-quarters leaves. The abundant agave (mescal) was also important to the Mescalero. Most Chiricahua and Mescalero ceremonies were learned through the transmission of personal religious visions. while this is lacking in the Chiricahua and Mescalero.[edit] Trading.[30] Most Southern Athabascan ―gods‖ are personified natural forces that run through the universe.[31] Medicine men (shamans) learn the ceremonies.[30] Another story is of a hidden ball game. and Lipan have an emergence or Creation Story. and one of Water/Moon/thunder: "Child-Of-The-Water/Born For Water") that destroy a number of creatures which are harmful to humankind. minerals. Though raiding had been a traditional way of life for the Apache. Although the following activities were not distinguished by Europeans or Euro-Americans. Sandpainting is an important ceremony in the Navajo. They may be used for human purposes through ritual ceremonies. the Mexican government passed laws offering cash rewards for Apache scalps. and mythological figures within the Western Apache universe. usually to achieve retribution. if properly handled. Raiding was done with small parties with a specific economic target. all Apachean tribes made clear distinctions between raiding (for profit) and war. Navajo chants. and Jicarilla traditions. horses. Certain animals are considered spiritually evil and prone to cause sickness to humans: owls. where good and evil animals decide whether or not the world should be forever dark. and coyotes. and Plains Apache "sacred-bundle" ceremonies. used for a variety of purposes.[29] [edit] Religion Apachean religious stories relate two culture heroes (one of the Sun/fire:"Killer-OfEnemies/Monster Slayer". for instance. As tensions between the Apache and settlers increased. Different Apachean cultures had different views of ceremonial practice. The Apache waged war with large parties (often using clan members). Western Apache. Jicarilla "long-life" ceremonies. plants. in which . bears. The following is a formulation by the anthropologist Keith Basso of the Western Apache's concept of diy ’: The term diy ’ refers to one or all of a set of abstract and invisible forces which are said to derive from certain classes of animals. etc. Many Apachean ceremonies use masked representations of religious spirits. The Navajo. is an important being that often has inappropriate behavior (such as marrying his own daughter. They also believed in taking what they needed.) in which he overturns social convention. Western Apache. while the Jicarilla and Western Apache used standardized rituals as the more central ceremonial practice. Mexican settlers objected to their stock being stolen. meteorological phenomena. which can also be acquired by direct revelation to the individual (see also mysticism). the trickster. raiding and war Some interchanges between the Apache and European-descended explorers and settlers were based on trading. Any of the various powers may be acquired by man and. The Apache found they could use European and American goods. Jicarilla. snakes. Important standardized ceremonies include the puberty ceremony (Sunrise Dance) of young women. Coyote. and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo. ProtoAthabascan kuʔs ce· "handle fabric-like object" "stone" Navajo Western Plains Chiricahua Mescalero Jicarilla Lipan Apache Apache -tsooz -tsuuz -tsuudz -tsoos -tsoos tsoos tsí tséé -tsooz tsé tséé tsé tsé tsé Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla. Lipan is reported extinct. which have relatively similar grammatical structures and sound systems. when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t. see Southern Athabascan languages. [edit] Languages For more details on this topic. as can be seen in the example below. dances for the crop and harvest. sacred art from colored sands. the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k: Western Navajo Eastern Western Plains Chiricahua Mescalero Jicarilla Lipan Apache Apache . and a spirit dance. all Apachean languages are endangered. Lipan. Apachean peoples speak one or more of seven Southern Athabascan languages. including the rain dance. However. Navajo is notable for being the indigenous language of the United States with the largest number of native speakers. The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series k and *c into *c (in addition to the widespread merger of č and čʷ into č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages). Thus. These dances were mostly for influencing the weather and enriching their food resources. Anthropologists believe the use of masks and sandpainting are examples of cultural diffusion from neighboring Pueblo cultures. Western Apache (San Carlos).[32] The Apaches participate in many spiritual dances. including Navajo. Southern Athabascan (or Apachean) is sub-family of the larger Athabascan family.shamans create temporary. and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. which is a branch of Nadene. Chiricahua. and if Navajo and Chiricahua have a high tone. Regarding tonal development. Low-Marked ProtoAthabascan *taʔ tu· High-Marked Navajo Chiricahua Slavey Chilcotin "father" -taaʼ "water" tó -taa tú -táʼ tù -tá tù [edit] Notable Apache . Thus. it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge ProtoAthabascan k/ c. have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. all Apachean languages are low-marked languages. Other linguists. which means that stems with a "constricted" syllable rime in the proto-language developed low tone while all other rimes developed high tone. particularly Michael Krauss (1973). Other Northern Athabascan languages are high-marked languages in which the tonal development is the reverse. Apachean languages are tonal languages. then Slavey and Chilcotin have a low tone."water" "fire" tó kǫʼ tū kǫʼ tú kųų tú kų kó koʼ kó kǫǫʼ kóó kǫʼ He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the k/ c merger to consider Plains Apache as a language equidistant from the other languages. Additionally. Slavey and Chilcotin. ProtoAthabascan kaʔ ʷ Navajo Chiricahua Mescalero Jicarilla "big" -tsaa -tsaa -tsaa -tsaa Plains Apache -cha Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between these two and the differences from the other Western Apachean groups. some stems that originally started with k in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache while the other languages start with ts. if low-marked Navajo and Chiricahua have a low tone. then the high-marked Northern Athabascan languages. Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer. now called Southwestern Apachean. have a high tone. In the example below. scout Cochise. Chairwoman of the San Carlos Apache. Plains Apache beader William Alchesay. actor Victorio. White Mountain scout. Chiricahua sculptor Loco. dancer. Chief [edit] See also . and a 2008 candidate for Arizona's First Congressional District Raoul Trujillo. actor Taza. female warrior Geronimo.Kathy Kitcheyan.                        Richard Aitson. Chief Mary Kim Titla. San Carlos painter Naiche. Chiricahua sculptor Allan Houser. Chief Lozen. Chief Dahteste. Chief Douglas Miles. Chief Nana. Chief Jay Tavare. journalist. Fort Still tribal chairperson Mangas Coloradas. former TV reporter. publisher. Leader Gouyen. Jicarilla potter Chatto. female warrior Bob Haozous. female warrior Mangas Coloradas. Chief Mildred Cleghorn. choreographer. chief Tammie Allen. a movie in the genre of historical fiction about encounters between the US Army and Cochise's band Jicarilla Apache Lipan Apache people Mescalero Native American tribe Native Americans in the United States Navajo people Plains Apache Southern Athabascan languages Western Apache . collection of NMAI                Athabascan languages Battle of Apache Pass Battle of Cieneguilla Camp Grant massacre Chiricahua Fort Apache.Apache rawhide playing cards. 1875–1885. ca.