Cemented Material Dam

Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Engineering j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g Research Hydro Projects—Perspective The Cemented Material Dam: A New, Environmentally Friendly Type of Dam Jinsheng Jia a,*, Michel Lino b, Feng Jin c, Cuiying Zheng a a China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing 100038, China b ISL Ingénierie, Saint-Jean-de-Luz 64500, France c Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Article history: The first author proposed the concept of the cemented material dam (CMD) in 2009. This concept was Received 13 April 2016 aimed at building an environmentally friendly dam in a safer and more economical way for both the Revised 29 June 2016 dam and the area downstream. The concept covers the cemented sand, gravel, and rock dam (CSGRD), Accepted 8 October 2016 the rockfill concrete (RFC) dam (or the cemented rockfill dam, CRD), and the cemented soil dam (CSD). Available online 14 October 2016 This paper summarizes the concept and principles of the CMD based on studies and practices in projects around the world. It also introduces new developments in the CSGRD, CRD, and CSD. Keywords: © 2016 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier LTD on behalf of Chinese Academy of Engineering and Cemented material dam Cemented sand, gravel, and rock dam Higher Education Press Limited Company. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND Rockfill concrete dam license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Cemented rockfill dam Cemented soil dam Material properties 1. The concept of the cemented material dam gravity dam stand out from other dam types. However, concrete gravity dams are much more costly, so that there is less than 5% Reservoirs are important infrastructures with functions such of these dams in dams higher than 15 m. An idea for a new type as flood control, irrigation, power generation, and water supply. of dam—partway between a concrete dam and an earth-rock- Dams were being built to store water before 1000 AD. Early dams fill dam—was first proposed in 1941 by an American engineer, were constructed out of local materials, but most of these dams Homer M. Hadley, but the idea was not taken into practice. The failed and brought unmitigated disaster to the people living symmetric gravity dam (optimal gravity dam) was proposed by downstream. The development of dam construction theories laid Jérôme Raphaël in 1970 [3], but no dams were constructed based a foundation for dam safety, allowing higher and higher dams to on this concept. In 1992, Pierre Londe and Michel Lino [4] pro- be built. Dam safety has been improved significantly, especially posed the concept of the symmetric concrete-faced hardfill dam; since the 1990s. However, dam engineers continue to seek new this concept was reported in the International Commission on technologies to build dams in a safer, more economical, and more Large Dams (ICOLD) Bulletin No. 117 under the title “The gravity environmentally friendly way. dam: a dam for the future” [5]. Marathia Dam, completed in 1993 The concrete gravity dam has a high degree of safety [1]. A se- (Fig. 1), was the first hardfill dam. From that point on, several rious secondary disaster will not occur in this type of dam, even if dams of this type were built in Greece, the Dominican Republic, a dam block breaks or if overtopping occurs due to an earthquake Peru, Turkey (Fig. 2), the Philippines, and Algeria [6–8]. or to unexpected flood events (e.g., Shigang Dam [2] in Taiwan Based on the concept of the symmetric hardfill dam, Japan had no serious secondary disaster, even when it was broken proposed the trapezoid cemented sand and gravel (CSG) dam, during an earthquake). This characteristic makes the concrete with new progress in material preparation, mix proportion de- * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/J.ENG.2016.04.003 2095-8099/© 2016 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier LTD on behalf of Chinese Academy of Engineering and Higher Education Press Limited Company. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). [12] put forward the concept of the cemented sand. and the utilization of a “trapezoid” section [9]. 1. For a CSGRD. The CSGRD further broadens the scope of local material utilization. especially for some low dams.6 m) has been built. J. . Fig. 3. and rock dam (CSGR dam.4 m) is under construction (Fig. which were completed in 2012 [10. the Shunjiangyan CSGRD with a gravity dam section (H = 11. and with similar way of mixing sand. ment projects. 3). (H = 52 m) (Fig. as were Okukubi Dam (H = 39 m) and Tobetsu Dam dams of Nagashima. The Jiemian and Hongkou CSGR cofferdams were completed in 2004 and 2005. The coffer. At present. and some sediment control dams were built using Based on the concept and practice of the hardfill dam and the trapezoid CSG dam. Tokuyama. and excavated rock as aggregates. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 491 sign. It can be built with artificial sand and rock when no sand and gravel is available for a steep river. with the maximum particle diameter increased from 80 mm to 150 mm. this method. Fig. some slope treat.11]. The dam structure can be designed according to the material properties of the CSGR in order to make full use of local materials. and Takizawa. Several CSGRDs in China that use artificial sand and rock material Fig. a traditional gravity dam section can be used when the dam stress level is very low. are under design. Jia et al. 4). a “symmetric” or “trapezoid” structure is not always necessary based on research and project practice. gravel. 2. gravel. respectively. or CSGRD) in 2004. Marathia Dam in Greece. Cindere Dam in Turkey (H = 107 m). and the Shoukoubu CSGRD with a symmetrical section (H = 61. Jia et al. Tobetsu Dam in Japan (H = 52 m). sample raw materials in the material field. dams). • New equipment and systems. The struc- The CMD is defined as a new dam type. or traditional gravity shape. and a CSGRD can be built curred in the practice of this type of dam is as follows: when material with a diameter less than 300 mm is possible. freezing/thawing resistance. a mix design of CSGR based on the mix design method material cohesive strength. The maximum normal stress and shear stress at the contact between the dam and foundation are approximately 60% of those of a traditional gravity dam. gravel. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 based on the material properties and the requirements of the dam structure. The shape should be determined (2) Sand. anti-carbonization zones. Compared with a traditional gravity dam section. Jia put forward the concept of the cemented material better function of structures. curtain to be decreased. It is possible to build a symmetrical dam for an erodible foundation or for a poor foundation. In order titious materials in order to improve the cohesive strength.75. aggregates. and average gradation using properties. and the Chinese technical guidelines pre. It should be emphasized that the safety of CMD is similar or • Dam function partition is considered in the structure design. when the amount of cement per cubic meter is 30 kg. It should be safe even when overtopping oc. roller-compacted concrete (RCC).3. is plotted according to the screening tests in order to obtain the 50 kg. even though a traditional gravity dam would not be acceptable. gravel.2. The main progress that has oc- earthfill or fine material is possible. Progress of the cemented sand. 2. and rock are mixed with cemen. 1: 0. gravel. and rock material spectively. in addition. curs. To make better and full use of local materials. A • The maximum diameter of the aggregates has increased from cemented rockfill dam (CRD) can be built when material with a 80 mm to 150 mm (for dams) and to 300 mm (for coffer- diameter larger than 300 mm is possible. (2) High degree of safety due to anti-sliding stability. and vertical. but following the concepts of optimizing the dam than necessary. artificial aggregate. Under the same load case. The anti- sliding stability is less sensitive to pore pressure at the contact between the dam and foundation. sand. Symmetric or trapezoidal dam section is not always used for seepage control. which usually has a large dis- stable slope ratio for a CSGRD can be calculated according to the creteness. or a mixture of all of these can be used the dam in order to realize better function of structures. Raw materials include not only nat- dam (CMD) in 2009 and published a paper in 2012 [13] based on ural sand and gravel. Symmetrical and trapezoidal sections are no longer a tee on CMDs in 2013. 2. and permits the hydraulic gradient between the watertight curtain and the drainage Fig. The resultant hydrostatic force on the upstream face passes approximately through the centerline of the dam foundation section. Its main characteristics are as follows: Rich CSGR material. One reason for the high cost of a gravity dam is that the The CSGRD was proposed based on experiences with hardfill strength of the concrete for most parts of the dam is much higher and CSG dams. Many existing hardfill dams adopt a symmetrical section. Studies on the CSGRD 2. excavated materi- (2) Proper materials can be selected for the different parts of al. as the aggregate. finest gradation. Shoukoubu Dam under construction (H = 61. dal. and rock dam have been developed. and rock material For the CSGRD. Therefore. Jia et al.1. dam according to the properties of the materials used. no serious secondary flood disaster would occur • Cemented artificial sand and gravel (CASG) dams can be for the area downstream. and rock materials used for the mix propor- . and structure to make better use of local materials and of selecting based on the practices of the hardfill dam.4 m). which is determined by lab tests. quake. Mix design of the cemented sand. such as the material continuous mixer and the digital automatic quality-control system. gravel. and necessary. the stress at the dam heel is half of that of a gravity dam when the reservoir is empty. it causes no rotation of the section. developed in Japan is improved and proposed as follows: The stable slope ratios are about 1: 0. (3) The shape or type of the dam can be adjusted for better use • Rich-mix CSGR and grouting-enriched vibrated CSGR are of materials. requirement. trapezoi. A cemented soil dam (CSD) can be built when and freezing/thawing resistance. The to guarantee strength reliability. The material of a CSGRD has good compressive coarsest gradation. but also excavated materials and artificial the above developments. gravel. ICOLD established a technical commit. of a gravity dam. built. partway between an tural partition must be emphasized and an appropriate material embankment dam and a concrete dam. The dam cross-section can be symmetrical. concrete. A rational section and structure can be adopted for a pared by Liu et al. the advantages of a symmetrical section are as follows: (1) Homogenization of stress. and having the character selected in order to adapt to the requirements of the structure. trapezoid CSG dam. 4. • Low CSGR dams can be built on a non-rock foundation. and 80 kg. for CMDs were published in 2014 [14]. The aggregate of a CSGRD is processed very simply. Sand and gravel from the riverbed. re. proper material for different parts of the dam in order to realize and CSGRD. even if the dam breaks during an earth. and the stresses of the foundation at the filling or emptying of the reservoir experience little change. close to gravity dam. (1) The gradation envelope of sand.492 J. This allows the drainage of the contact with the foundation to be simplified. (1) The dam structure is optimized in order to make better use and other materials can be used in dam parts for seepage control of local materials. which extends the usage of local materials. and that the construction cost of the for- construction. the . Concrete-faced rockfill dams (CFRDs) have been practiced show that the permeability resistance grades of grout-enriched on similar foundations with poor results due to overtopping and vibrated CSGR and rich-mix CSGR can reach S8. of which the cement content is no less than 40 kg. In some cases. rolling thickness. Concept of RFC dam and CRD the vibrating compacted (VC) value of the mixture should be controlled. fcu. The be taken at the mixer outlet. a few stones larger than 1 m (or even 2 m) can be used.5–2. quality monitoring system has been developed. the relation. China. Special mixing equipment and quality-control system dam height of 71. 2. 3. In addition. decreasing cement consumption. and gravel. the properties high mud content. that of CSGR.0 and that the minimum strength of the finest CSGR gradation 450 mm cube specimen (full graded) should be conducted. they can be used as improve the safety. for mixing. or Naheng cemented artificial sand and rock dam soft rock aggregate. and that their leakage problems. J.4 m. spreading. 80–40 mm. the gradation range should be controlled. it is very im.1. as well proportion and process. [15]. which can utilize Stones with particle diameters larger than 300 mm are placed in layers that are 1. The Qianwei dike. The saturated compression strength of the stone is generally re- quired to be greater than double the compressive strength of the RFC. be no less than the design strength. a continuous rotary-drum-type mixer and a related mixing especially its durability. For raw material. thus. lowering the temperature Fig. are much better— ity. unloading.4. 5). According to statistics from more than 50 projects in China. with its artificial aggregates. rolling times. dike. The stone size should be at least 10–15 times greater than the aggregate size (which is usually less than 20 mm) in the HSCC to ensure the filling performance of the HSCC. if a heavy vehicle can be employed to transport the stones to the working face. located along Minjiang River in Sichuan Permeable dissolution testing results indicate that strength Province. The Qianwei CSGR dike on a non-rock foundation and the For conditions such as a sand ratio above 35% or below 15%. RFC technology combines the advantages of masonry and concrete. including any material mer could be more than 10% lower. and rolling of CSGR dam cross-section could be similar to that of a gravity dam for and the treatment of placed layers are similar to those of an RCC most low dams. Compared with CSGR. strength at the design age. and 20–5 mm diameters. and for spreading and rolling. and time as sand with a diameter less than 5 mm. Lab test results 14. Rockfill can be cemented with a high-quality realize whole-process and automatic control. The placing thickness. and reducing the shrinkage of the concrete. construction on the dike will commence in 2016. is to be built on a foundation composed of sand obviously decreases with long-term dissolution. and its quality is more easily controlled. and rolling times must be determined through on-site production tests. because the CSGR aggregate. 40–20 mm. CSGR material can be mixed by backhoes. which with a maximum size of 150 mm.k + tσ. Sampling should different gradation at the design age is established (Fig. In order to ensure mixing efficiency and qual. interval between layers. 3. Shoukoubu and Shunjiangyan CSGRDs. A high flow of high strength self-compacting concrete (HSCC) is poured at the top of the rockfill to fill the voids in the rockfill. A CSGR dike has therefore been selected to frost resistance marks can reach F300. A CASR The transportation.1 m. The Naheng Reservoir is located in Yunnan Province and has a 2. 5. so cemented artificial sand and rock (CASR) has been For cofferdams. 6 shows the cross-section of the Qianwei the impermeable layer for CSGRDs. CSGR strength testing of a fcu. Jia et al. has greater dispersion and a contains natural sand and gravel from the riverbed. so as to ensure higher safety factors of the prepared rockfill concrete. the density and com. with a maximum mixing capacity The strength of CASR is much higher and more uniform than of 200 m3·h–1. The concept and main progress of the rock-filled concrete Due to the high dispersion of the raw material. The rock-filled concrete (RFC) dam was proposed and devel- pressive strength of the CSGR should be controlled. dam. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 493 tion test are screened into four grades of coarse aggregate: 150– ultra-wideband positioning technology to monitor the mixing 80 mm.3.k × fcu. In order to oped by Jin et al. the preferable size is generally less than 1/8 of the minimum size of the structural section. It investigated. the proportion can be adjusted using tests to find the optimal utilization of the materials. Fig. There is no natural sand or gravel near the damsite. of CASR (Table 1). in which The developed construction quality monitor system was used t is the probability coefficient and σ is the standard deviation of to control the mixing and rolling of CSGR construction for the compressive strength. quality should dam and the cemented rockfill dam be controlled during the whole construction process. Relationship curve between unit water consumption and compressive rise of hydration heat. Results show that it is much simpler to build a CASR is necessary to use mixers to guarantee mixture quality for dam dam than an RCC dam.77 km and a maximum height of portant to perform seepage control and drainage. paving thickness. system have been developed. a construction self-compacting concrete to build gravity dams and arch dams. The apparent density of CSGR in the field (3) For each quantity of cementitious materials.0 = fcu. these are usually placed in the middle part of the structure.5 m in height. however. with a length of 2. The cementitious materials used in the project should be no less than 80 kg. and the compressive strength of a determined mix ratio needs to satisfy the requirement that the 150 mm reference cube specimen with a standard curing of 28 d minimum strength of the average CSGR gradation be no less than is adopted as the criterion. can be detected by adopting a nuclear moisture density meter ship between compressive strength and water consumption for in combination with the water replacement. 8 Self-compacted stability (h) ≥ 1 HSCC 150 — 28.5%–4. Design of RFC dam The water consumption is 170–200 kg·m–3. the cement content is 160 kg·m–3. • • The water-cement ratio varies from 0.16 and 0.0 100.7 1.0 22.4 52. The macro properties of RFC are similar to those of concrete.15 by volume. The shearing coefficients along the inter- Generally. The following requirements: strengths of RFC are listed in Table 3 and Table 4. the mix proportion of HSCC shall conform to the face between two layers can be f ′ = 1.0 1. The CRD requires further investigation with ments listed in Table 2.3.7 27.04 2. • The volume ratio of coarse aggregate is between 0.2 34. A typical cross-section of the Qianwei dike. real practice to continue its development. 6.0%. For C10 RFC.71 and c′ = 1. if there is a frost resistance The CRD was proposed by Jia based on RFC.8 1.0 Table 4 Compression strength of core specimen in RFC projects.4 0.7 22.33.0 — Passing time of V-funnel (s) 7‒25 HSCC 600 17.4/22. The working behavior indexes of HSCC shall meet the require- ods than an RFC dam.44 > W6 CASR-2 40 80 78 651 1693 11.73 2.1 17.1 33. built with a greater choice of material and of construction meth. • The volume ratio of mortar is between 0.075–0.2 68. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 Fig.6/22.4 28. 3.7 20. 180 d anti-permeability grade Cement Fly ash Water Sand Rock 28 d 90 d 180 d 28 d 90 d 180 d CASR-1 45 75 78 651 1694 13.14 2. for C30 RFC. Jia et al.87 > W6 Table 2 Table 3 Working performance requirements of HSCC. Much less • The air content of HSCC is 1. According to the material property 3.494 J. Materials (kg·m–3) Compressive strength (MPa) Tensile strength (MPa) No. although it can be requirement.085. and The design criteria used in a concrete gravity dam can be adopted in Table 1 Material testing results of cemented artificial sand and rock (CASR) and roller-compacted concrete (RCC).27 and 0.3 26.21 .8/19.54 Wudongde Station Cofferdam C15 61.43 2.90 1. according to the frost resistance.0 1.20. Compression strength of core specimen (MPa) Project name Location Design grade RFC/HSCC Rock RFC HSCC Changkeng III Reservoir Dam body C20 100. the ratio of tensile strength to the compression strength of RFC is 0. HSCC in RFC accounts for only 40%–45% of the volume.59 MPa. and shall be determined cement is used in RFC than in mass concrete.2/23.0 32.68 2.80 to 1. Test item Acceptable index Dimension Compression Average value Effect of specimen size Type (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (%) Slump (mm) 260 ‒280 Slump flow (mm) 650 ‒750 RFC 600 15.31 > W6 RCC 65 84 82 755 1558 22. Comparison of compression strengths of HSCC and RFC. Strength of RFC test.2. the cement content is 280 kg·m–3.3 19. with water. when material. Design of CSD silty-clayey materials—with almost no processing aside from eventual screening for the maximum size of aggregate before it is The lime treatment of a soil increases the cohesion of the mixed with adequate content of lime and/or cement and. increase of the unconfined compressive strength. etc. In general. The limit between the fields of application of cement and lime the property of the stone in the RFC. which corresponds to the minimum per- ing dam rehabilitation) in China. 7 gives an example of the joint should be determined cautiously. to rapidly obtain a higher body. Similar to an RCC dam. it is possible to enhance an RFC arch dam. To date. performance tests are necessary to choose an RFC dam usually has an impervious layer arranged upstream.1. Rc. In spite of the slow kinetics Soil treatment with lime and/or cement is a profitable tech. um height dams with lime-treated material because it is known Calcium air lime can be in the form of either quicklime (CaO) or that the stability of small dams relies on the cohesion. Since the stress level in an arch dam is higher the performance of a clayey material. Hydraulic binders (such as cement) behave quicklime: The cohesion grows from 10 kPa to 20 kPa just after as a glue to bind the particles of a granular material. followed by cement treatment. As these can- and the geological condition of the damsite. natural pozzolanas. Several tests have been performed in the lab and in 70 m. RFC technology was first adopted in a project.. However. CSD uses natural soils—generally 4. the cohesion also increases 30 m and 50 m. the distance between two transverse joints—that tive in the presence of “clean” materials (i. provided the compaction is made on the 4. Due to the low ticularly in the presence of soil that contains clay. Concept and development of cemented soil dam wet side of the Proctor curve (w = 1.e. It is very suitable to build small to medi- hydraulic binders [16]. South Africa. not be predetermined. with only 2% quicklime.18]. depends on the proportion and activity of the clay. for a silty soil (PI = 7. even in the case of a silty soil (PI = 9) treated structures. 5 MPa at 90 d is shown.. Based on the practice in China. . the friction angle is not modified by the lime treatment and is in siliceous fly ashes. 7. of reaction between lime and clay. and European countries). Pozzolanic treatment and to 100 kPa after one year. It reacts differently than a cement. the right binder and the right proportions. Applications also exist in hydraulic works (in the US. depending on the amount of aggregate and cement in the HSCC. the same order of magnitude can be obtained for a lime-treated soil as for natural soil. An example of the hardening kinetics of a silty soil treated with lime and lime plus cement.). ment: lime treatment first. Of these RFC projects. Only two recently built RFC arch dams have been completed. soils is slower than the kinetics of the cement-treated soils (or tion heat will last a long time. Once mixed with lime. Cement is effec- cement content. par- stability and dam stress for an RFC gravity dam. It should be noted that binders need lime to set and harden (i. rapidly with time. it could reach 30 m or more. the temperature condition. Fig. those with a very low is. and 70 m. J. the final mechanical performance of a cement- Although the behavior of both has been very good during the treated granular material is higher than the performance of a impound process.e. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 495 order to determine the cross-section and recheck the anti-sliding hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2). In this Fig. thanks to a double treat- than that in a gravity dam. a level of performance. The grouting time of the transverse lime-plus-cement-treated soils).6% have dam heights between 50 m and with time. Concept of CSD to internal erosion has also been measured according to the hole erosion test (HET) treated mixtures. the same soils treated with lime [17. The resistance 4. a cemented rockfill with a compres. Australia. Jia et al. 24% of clay).3% have dam heights between In parallel with the increase of Rc. The use of CSD was first proposed in 2014. such as sand and gravel). they behave like the range of 28°–35°. 40. The results show that pared with a concrete dam or an RCC dam. the cost of an RFC dam can the field to compare the permeability of non-treated soils with be reduced by 10% to 30% under the same conditions when com. Thanks to its combina- that of a normal concrete gravity dam. factor that is important in the design of an RFC arch dam. The tensile strength of RFC should be 90% of that of HSCC. OMC is short for optimum moisture content) with a sheep-foot roller. lime is effective in the presence of clayey materials.2. and 48. the critical stress increases nique that is widely and successfully used in transport infra.15 OMC. more attention should be paid to the design of lime-treated clayey material. Because From the kinetics point of view. for dam heights between 30 m formance commonly accepted for hardfill/CSG. with time In 2005. Tests show the results on clayey silt treated with 3% necessary. the width of a monolith—of an RFC dam could be larger than content of clay. tion with clay. the hardening of lime-treated much more fly ash is used in HSCC. to flocculate the clay and reduce its sion strength of C20 or higher should be adopted in the arch dam activity. the temperature rise of hydra. A threshold between 4 MPa and it has been successfully applied in more than 80 projects (includ. screening. (or in situ) and in central plant. The results prove that the slope (circular (3) Environmental benefits. such as hardfill or CSG. of the dam and also to limit the settlement of the foundation. A dam can be built even on a non-rock founda- Two procedures are possible to achieve soil treatment: in place tion when the dam height is lower than 50 m. it is For 10–15 years. . and dam. compared to 2. the main progress and new prin- 500 kPa with 2% lime addition. the cemented soil deformability is low for a charge of be overtopped or broken. well during an 8 m overtopping flood. The cohesion of cemented soil is one of its main differences from layer by layer. The consumption of cemen- also be considered. or clayey soils with lime or cement in a central plant. and mixing are achieved by the plant. been carried out: a circular slip plane analysis as an embankment It demonstrates the ability to improve construction quality. and construction. factor of 5–10 after the addition of lime (from 50 kPa to 400– CSG dam. CSGRD. Cracking of the dam body during construction (2) Economic and construction advantages. other information technologies (ITs) has been developed for the modate poor foundation conditions. concrete or hardfill dam. the permeability of the This procedure allows for very homogeneous mixtures with a treated material is higher than for natural soil. the CSD body is mainly out of the water and has no water. or in granular materials treated with cement. The height lower than 50 m. Hongkou CSGR cofferdam. The for low pore pressure building. a CMD Fig. spreading. Pore pressure amount of equipment used (mainly the number of mixers). The thickness of each layer depends for which the cohesion increases in the hours or days following on the capacity and performance of the mixer and the roller. Cemented soil dam section. tor curve. material. A CMD can be built in a very strong earthquake area is provided on the upstream face of the dam (Fig. as in a hardfill use of cemented material. In this range. it has also been possible to treat humid and/ convenient to place the cemented soil close to the optimum Proc. racy in the binder dosage. In this man. also. Conclusions a factor of 5–10 after treatment. and the construction period could be significantly reduced by the The upstream facing can be a concrete slab. Many other CSGR or RFC metrical. The profile is sym. after earthmoving. that of a gravity dam with a larger dam section. and have good performance. in the example cited). • The compressibility index. The to more than 500 m3·h–1. tightness function. This preliminary analysis must be con. Application procedures RFC dam (or a CRD) can be built when the material diameter is larger than 300 m.5 m. It is placement. the quantity moisturizing. as was designed for Filiatrinos Dam in Greece titious material such as cement and fly ash is much lower com- and the Quatabian hardfill dam in Iraq. with upstream and downstream slopes in the range of cofferdams have suffered similar loading cases and shown good 1H/1V to 1. we discuss dams with heights up to 50 m as a reference. Jia et al. One building depends on the permeability of the material and its mixer is able to mix 200–300 m3·h–1. which is favorable high accuracy in the binder dosage and the water content. 8). involving much less processing. and RFC dam. and mixing than concrete.5H/1V. pared with that of a concrete dam or RCC dam. Two types of analysis have ing and quality control for raw material. The stability analysis of a CSGRD in order to conduct whole-process and real-time monitor- 30 m high CSD has been checked. either in the cut. OMC + 1].5 m for untreated soil. it results in much less secondary disas- fill up to 20–25 m. the fill. 8. such as Cindere Dam (107 m) in Turkey. followed by earthmoving. the slopes of a CSD will be basically deter. Although it can Thus. foundation is soft. A watertight facing. A geomembrane anchored in the dam body can grading. mined by its stability during construction. Thermal stress The objective of this replacement is to improve the stability control measures are not necessary in most construction cases. Work on CSGRDs or first filling is not a problem. A CSGRD can be built with sand. such as [OMC – 1. with drainage underneath. of the natural clay soil is divided by 5. The technology has improved dramatically over the last 50 The stability of an embankment built with fine materials de. of the natural clay soil is not (1) Safety performance. ner. with a height of 35. or artificial rock material when the material diameter is less than 300 mm. • The yield strength. The most common way is in place. output depends on the size of the plant. demonstrated firmed by further laboratory and in situ tests. In this case. deformability. currently limited to 35 cm after compaction. performance. It A digital system based on Global Positioning System (GPS) and is considered as a basic component for CSD in order to accom.3. general trend is as follows: • The expansion index. As a result. mixing. years and allows for good quality mixtures with a good accu- pends greatly on the pore pressure building during construction. Cs. ps. provided that the cracking of the and RFC dams indicates that 10% to 20% of the cost could be saved dam can be accommodated by the upstream facing. and ciples are summarized as follows. Cemented material is usually prepared dam. Cc. The output depends on the type and Pore pressure building is also a concern for a CSD. To reduce the risk of pore pressure building. This low ter for the downstream area compared with other type of dams deformability tends to limit the pore pressure building for a dam when suffering from an extraordinary flood or earthquake.496 J. with a height over 100 m. and an 4. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 paper. Therefore. and can be from 50 m3·h–1 Oedometric tests have been performed on cemented soil. but the sliding stability of the slab is questionable if the in a very simple way. A CSD can be built with local earth plane) method is the most relevant. The safety of the CMD is similar to explicitly affected by the treatment. gravel. of free water in the soil is reduced. and a limit equilibrium analysis along horizontal planes as a can be used for other CMDs. of the natural clay soil is multiplied by a Based on research and worldwide practice on the hardfill dam. [8] Mason PJ. widely used. .10(5):138–42. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Roller Com- a non-rock foundation through investigation. Ouchi M. Chinese. Chinese. In: Proceedings of Conference on proposed. Koksal A. Mikio K. Design of the 100 m-high Oyuk hardfill dam. 2012. compressive stress status for all load cases. to keep the material of the CMD inner dam body under a dry and [6] Batmaz S. editors Proceedings of the concrete. les routes et leurs aménagements. Fry JJ. can be used for the dam’s outer parts with possible ten. Li XY. Michel Lino. des sols à la chaux: une technique innovante pour la construction des ou- vrages hydrauliques en terre. The design and construction of a faced (5) Structural analysis and calculation method. New York: ASCE. Zaragoza. Yoshida H.1(1):5–15. an earth dam.37(5):578–82. Statistics of dam failures in China and analysis on failure or hydraulic binders: application to the construction of fills and capping lay- causations. cross-section is basically determined as being between those of a [9] Takashi Y. Jinsheng Jia. Zhang CH. Service d’études sur les transports. A material with good [7] Batmaz S. Study on rock-filled concrete dam. 2000. Madrid. 2015 Jun 13–20. Zheng GY. p. Consideration on seismic safety of dams in China after the Wen- chuan Earthquake. 4th International Symposium on Roller Compacted Concrete Dams. Germany. lic of China. A “symmet. Ma FL. 2000. Pekcagliyan MD. French. Pacific Grove. in order [10] Hirose T. or reinforced Turkey. References [18] Laboratoire central des ponts et chaussées. The faced symmetrical hardfill dam: a new concept for RCC. French. Spain. Sun DY. Paris: Laboratoire central des ponts et chaussées. and decrease the requirement on the foundation. Stavanger.40(12):124–8. of optimizing the dam structure to make better use of local ma. Shi JJ. CSGR dam: material property studies and engi- CMDs. Ma FL. Molyneux JD. Froumentin M. Nerincx N. ers. especially for the large number of small. Cindere dam—107 m high roller compacted hardfill dam (RCHD) in tensile strength. CA. J Adv Concrete Technol Generally. (4) Design concept for a CMD. p. / Engineering 2 (2016) 490–497 497 can be built in a very environmentally friendly way.11(6):44–53. Buil JM. Nagayama I. Eng Sci 2009.36(11):1347–52. Chinese. Bei- jing. Chen ZP. J Hydraul Eng 2006. Application of CSG method to construction of concrete dam and an embankment dam. Feng Jin. Boca Raton: CRC Press. 2000 Sep 19–22. USA. Liu ZM.15(3):90–4. and Cuiying Zheng declare French. [15] Jin F. Lino M. 1996. [17] Herrier G. Design criteria for trap- to decrease the stress level. In: Berga L. 1970. A new design concept has been [3] Raphaël JM. France. [2] Chen HQ. Int Water Power Dams Constr 1992. [11] Okamura H. Int J Hydropower Dams 2003. Paris: International Commission on Large Dams. 2012 Oct 23–25. Spain.or medium. 2003. 2003 Nov 11–19. R39). It is better ommendations. Water Resour Hydropower Eng 2009. 2001 Sep 9–15. 2000. J. sile stress during construction or operation. [16] de Collectif. Studies on cemented material dam and its application in China. An XH. Sasaki T. 2001. The dam cross-section of gravity dam. Beijing: China Water & Power Press. Yoshio O. The dam symmetrical hardfill dam. terials and of selecting proper material for different parts of the [4] Londe P. that they have no conflict of interest or financial conflicts to dis. Hughes RAN. 221–44. Puiatti D. Bulletin 117: the gravity dam: a dam for the future—review and rec- rical” or “trapezoidal” shape is not always necessary. 2014. Le traitement close. p. such as enriched CSGR. China. In: Proceedings of 20th ICOLD Congress. Chonggang S. compared with other [12] Jia JS. requirements of a gravity dam. In: Proceedings of the 25th ICOLD Congress (Q96. CMDs with heights less than 50 m can be built on [13] Jia JS. expand the range of material usage. the stress and stability of a CMD must satisfy the 2003. Jia JS. dam in order to realize better function of structures. a CMD is enlarged compared with that of a gravity dam. [14] Liu N. 1970 Mar 1–5. 121–6. Fujisawa T. The CMD can be pacted Dams. Self-compacting concrete. J Hydraul Compliance with ethics guidelines Eng 2005. [5] ICOLD. ezoid-shaped CSG dams. concrete. 989–1007. Jia et al. the stability should be rechecked based on the criteria for neering application. 2015. Int J Hydropower Dams 2008. Ergeneman I. Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Repub- sized projects that will be built in future. In: Proceedings of the 69th ICOLD Annual Meeting. The shape design of a CMD is based on the concepts Rapid Construction of Concrete Dams. Soil treatment with lime and/ [1] Xie JB. Jofre C. Paris: Presses des Ponts et Chaussées. Le béton compacté au rouleau: Les barrages en BCR: projet national BaCaRa 1988–1995. Bonelli S. For a CSD. The optimum gravity dam.44(2):19–24. Dresden. Norway. Jia F. SL 678‒2014 Technical guideline for cemented granular material dams.

Comments

Description