Buddhism

Buddhism“Buddhadharma”redirects here. For the magazine, see Buddhadharma: The Practitioner's Quarterly. Buddhism /ˈbudɪzəm/* [1]* [2] is a religion* [note 1]* [3] Truths. Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravada Buddhism (Pali: “The School of the Elders”) and Mahayana Buddhism (Sanskrit: “The Great Vehicle”). In Theravada Buddhism, the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way), thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.* [6] Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana Buddhism, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai) is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana; Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India,* [7] is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Mongolia* [8] and Kalmykia.* [9] Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body.* [10] Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.* [11]* [12] Buddhism denies a creator deity and posits that mundane deities such as Mahabrahma are misperceived to be a creator.* [13] Instead, the foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, the Dharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community). “Taking refuge" in the triple gem has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and in general distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.* [14] Development along the Buddhist path is generally accomplished by practicing some or all of the Ten Meritorious Deeds; however, the threefold practice of generosity, virtue, and meditation (including samatha and vipassanā) is often given special emphasis. Other practices include the study of scriptures; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic; devotional practices; ceremonies; the Mahayana practices of bodhicitta, invocation of buddhas and bodhisattvas, and the Vajrayana practices of Generation stage and Completion stage. Standing Buddha statue at the Tokyo National Museum. One of the earliest known representations of the Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE. and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha, commonly known as the Buddha (“the awakened one”). According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha lived and taught in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE in ancient Magadha kingdom.* [4] He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened, divine,* [5] or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end their suffering through the elimination of ignorance and craving. Buddhists believe that this is accomplished through the direct understanding and Buddhists number between an estimated 488 milperception of dependent origination and the Four Noble 1 2 1 LIFE OF THE BUDDHA lion* [web 1] and 535 million,* [15] making it one of the because we have very little information that can be conworld's major religions. sidered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could.”* [20] 1 Life of the Buddha The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the fifth century BCE.* [21] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.* [21] “The Great Departure”, relic depicting Gautama leaving home, first or second century (Musée Guimet). Main article: Gautama Buddha This narrative draws on the Nidānakathā of the Jataka tales of the Theravada, which is ascribed to Buddhaghoṣa in the 5th century CE.* [16] Earlier biographies such as the Buddhacarita, the Lokottaravādin Mahāvastu, and the Sarvāstivādin Lalitavistara Sūtra, give different accounts. Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies.* [17]* [18] The Vajrashila, where Gautama sat under a tree and became enlightened, Bodh Gaya, India, 2011. Ascetic Gautama with his five companions, who later comprised the first Sangha. (Painting in Laotian temple) According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, “the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death.”* [19] In writing her biography of the Buddha, Karen Armstrong noted,“It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a biography of the Buddha that meets modern criteria, According to this narrative, shortly after the birth of young prince Gautama, an astrologer named Asita visited the young prince's father, Suddhodana, and prophesied that Siddhartha would either become a great king or renounce the material world to become a holy man, depending on whether he saw what life was like outside the palace walls. Śuddhodana was determined to see his son become a king, so he prevented him from leaving the palace grounds. But at age 29, despite his father's efforts, Gautama ventured beyond the palace several times. In a series of encounters—known in Buddhist literature as the four sights—he learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, a corpse and, 3 finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at the rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had peace with the world. These experiences prompted Gau- discovered, traveling throughout the northeastern part of tama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest. the Indian subcontinent,* [23]* [24] and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in Kushinagar, India. The south branch of the original fig tree available only in Anuradhapura Sri Lanka is known as Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi. 2 Buddhist concepts Main article: Glossary of Buddhism 2.1 Life and the world Dhamek Stupa in Sarnath, India, where the Buddha gave his first sermon. It was built by Ashoka. Gautama first went to study with famous religious teachers of the day, and mastered the meditative attainments they taught. But he found that they did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued his quest. He next attempted an extreme asceticism, which was a religious pursuit common among the śramaṇas, a religious culture distinct from the Vedic one. Gautama underwent prolonged fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost starved himself to death in the process. He realized that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put an end to suffering. So in a pivotal moment he accepted milk and rice from a village girl and changed his approach. He devoted himself to anapanasati meditation, through which he discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way (Skt. madhyamāpratipad):* [22] a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.* [web 2]* [web 3] Traditional Tibetan Buddhist Thangka depicting the Wheel of Life with its six realms Buddha statue depicting Parinirvana (Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh, India). Gautama was now determined to complete his spiritual quest. At the age of 35, he famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya and vowed not to rise before achieving enlightenment. After many days, he finally destroyed the fetters of his mind, thereby liberating himself from the cycle of suffering and rebirth, and arose as a fully enlightened being (Skt. samyaksaṃbuddha). Soon thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order. Now, as the Buddha, he spent 2.1.1 Saṃsāra Main article: Saṃsāra (Buddhism) Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. Specifically, samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence,* [note 2] where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering. Samsara 4 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS arises out of avidya (ignorance) and is characterized by dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path. The doctrine of anattā (Sanskrit anātman) rejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called in Hinduism and Christianity. According to Buddhism there ultimately is no such thing as a self independent from the rest of the universe. Buddhists also refer to themselves as the believers of the anatta doctrine 2.1.2 Karma —Nairatmyavadin or Anattavadin. Rebirth in subsequent existences must be understood as the continuation of a Main article: Karma in Buddhism dynamic, ever-changing process of pratītyasamutpāda ( “dependent arising”) determined by the laws of cause and In Buddhism, Karma (from Sanskrit: “action, work”) effect (karma) rather than that of one being, reincarnating is the force that drives saṃsāra—the cycle of suffering from one existence to the next. and rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (Pali: Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms “kusala”) and bad, unskillful (Pāli: “akusala”) actions according to Theravadins, or six according to other produce“seeds”in the mind that come to fruition either schools.* [30]* [31] in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.* [25] The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive 1. Naraka beings: those who live in one of many actions is called sīla. Karma specifically refers to those Narakas (Hells); actions of body, speech or mind that spring from men* tal intent (cetanā), [26] and bring about a consequence 2. Preta: sometimes sharing some space with humans, or phala “fruit”or vipāka “result”. but invisible to most people; an important variety is In Theravada Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one's karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. In Mahayana Buddhism, the texts of certain Mahayana sutras (such as the Lotus Sutra, the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra and the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra) claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of their texts can expunge great swathes of negative karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for example, Vajrayana) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off of previous negative karma.* [27] The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amitābha has the power to destroy the karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra.* [3]* [28] 2.1.3 Rebirth Gautama's cremation site, Ramabhar Stupa in Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh, India Main article: Rebirth (Buddhism) the hungry ghost;* [32] 3. Animals: sharing space with humans, but considered another type of life; 4. Human beings: one of the realms of rebirth in which attaining Nirvana is possible; 5. Asuras: variously translated as lowly deities, demons, titans, or anti-gods; not recognized by Theravada tradition as a separate realm;* [note 3] 6. Devas including Brahmās: variously translated as gods, deities, spirits, angels, or left untranslated. The above are further subdivided into 31 planes of existence.* [web 4] Rebirths in some of the higher heavens, known as the Śuddhāvāsa Worlds or Pure Abodes, can be attained only by skilled Buddhist practitioners known as anāgāmis (non-returners). Rebirths in the Ārūpyadhātu (formless realms) can be attained by only those who can meditate on the arūpajhānas, the highest object of meditation. According to East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, there is an intermediate state (Tibetan "bardo") between one life and the next. The orthodox Theravada position rejects this; however there are passages in the Samyutta Nikaya of the Pali Canon that seem to lend support to the idea that the Buddha taught of an intermediate stage between one life and the next.* [34]* [35] 2.2 Suffering's causes and solution 2.2.1 The Four Noble Truths Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as one of many possible forms of Main article: Four Noble Truths sentient life, each running from conception* [29] to death. The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as • The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things spoken. Nalanda.“anxiety”.* [36] These eight factors are: dukkha Right View (or Right Understanding). India. Gautama combined the yoga practice of his teacher Kalama with what later became known as“the immeasurables”. unsatisfactoriness* [note 5]) 2. im. The truth of dukkha (suffering. The third noble truth is that the complete cessation of dukkha is possible. On a deeper level. its causes. Right The first truth explains the nature of dukkha. taken together. The truth of the origin of dukkha The Dharmachakra represents the Noble Eightfold Path 3.2. lead 4.2. anxiety.” * [36] The eight factors of the path are not to be under• The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness. satisfactoriness”. The truth of the cessation of dukkha Noble Truths—consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions. manuscript. [37] due to the fact that all forms of life are changing. within three divisions (or higher trainings) as shown beOn this level. Right Intention (or Right Thought). the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance (Pali: avijja) of the true nature of things. Within the context of the four noble truths. anxiety.* [38] What Thich Nhat Hanh calls the“Four Immeasurable Minds”of love.2 Noble Eightfold Path Main articles: Noble Eightfold Path and Buddhist Paths to liberation The Noble Eightfold Path—the fourth of the Buddha's The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. The truth of the path leading to the cessation of to the cessation of dukkha.* [note 6] 2. a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards. The four truths are:* [note 4] 1. another.. the term indicates a lack of satisfac. and it is said to have Ajahn Sucitto describes the path as“a mandala of interthe following three aspects: connected factors that support and moderate each other.“un. joy. Right Mindfulness. Bihar. and bodily—that operate in dependence on one that are constantly changing. and the fourth noble truth identifies a path to this cessation.* [note 7] Main article: Brahmavihara While he searched for enlightenment.low: tion. unsatisfactoriness). one without egotism. the origin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving (Pali: tanha) conditioned by ignorance (Pali: avijja). and equa- .The eight factors of the path are commonly presented permanent and without any inner core or substance. moving on to the next. and are said to provide a conceptual framework for Buddhist thought. compassion. and how it can be overcome. These four truths explain the nature of dukkha (suffering. etc.* [38] Gautama thus invented a new kind of human. that when developed together. Rather.2 Suffering's causes and solution 5 2. “unease”. they define a complete path. Sanskrit central to the teachings of Buddhism. in which each stage is completed before growing old. and Right commonly translated as“suffering”. they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one's behaviour—mental.2. Dukkha is Livelihood. and dying.3 The Four Immeasurables The second truth is that the origin of dukkha can be known. stood as stages.Concentration. or * • A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life way of living. Right Speech. Right Action. Right Effort. May all sentient beings be free of suffering and its causes. and some regard it as essential practice. Phitsanulok. mettā or loving-kindness meditation is perhaps the best known. which is said to have been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his enlightenment. viewing things as characterized by the three marks of existence. Thailand nimity* [39] are also known as brahmaviharas. divine abodes. 2.* [web 8] 2. attachment and anger. the Buddha recommended self-mortification. or simply as four immeasurables.”* [web 6]* [web 7] The practitioner prays: 1. a fundamental misunderstanding or misperception of the nature of reality.2. 3. May all sentient beings be in equanimity.* [web 5] The Four Immeasurables are taught as a form of meditation that cultivates “wholesome attitudes towards all sentient beings. The Middle Way has several definitions: . Abhidharma. which avoids the extremes of permanence and nihilism or inherent existence and nothingness. free of Monks debating at Sera Monastery. a state wherein it becomes clear that all dualities ap. Some schools of Buddhism discourage doctrinal study. May all sentient beings never be separated from bliss without suffering.3. Another term for emptiness. 2.Main article: Three marks of existence parent in the world are delusory. The concept of liberation (nirvāṇa) —the goal of the Buddhist path —is closely related to overcoming ignorance (avidyā). 4.6 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS 4. An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the Middle Way (or Middle Path). May all sentient beings have happiness and its causes. 2.* [web 5] Pema Chödrön calls them the“four limitless ones”. Buddhist philosophy and Reality in Buddhism). that things ultimately either do or do not exist). the ultimate nature of all phenomena (in the Mahayana branch). and is liberated 1. philosophies and world view concepts (see. for example.1 Three Marks of Existence 3. Tibet bias. An explanation of Nirvana (perfect enlightenment). a lack of inherent existence. The middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example.from suffering (dukkha) and the cycle of incessant retion away from the extremes of self-indulgence and births (saṃsāra). The practice of non-extremism: a path of modera.4 Middle Way Main article: Middle Way Buddhist scholars have produced a number of intellectual theories.* [41] 2.3 Nature of existence Statue of Buddha in Wat Phra Si Rattana Mahathat. To this end.* [40] Of the four. In awakening to the true nature of the self and all phenomena one develops dispassion for the objects of clinging. foundation.pratītyasamutpāda is the scheme of Twelve Nidācepts are in fact constructed by the mind. but Buddhism seeks to be neither pessimistic nor optimistic. and so conditions and the thing itself are constantly changing. In English-language Buddhist literature translated from Pāli. dissatisfaction. In fact. and its existence is dependent on external conditions. anatta is not meant as a metaphysical assertion. but as an source or origin”). Vijñāna: consciousness. Impermanence (Pāli: anicca) expresses the Buddhist notion that all compounded or conditioned phenomena (all things and experiences) are inconstant. Chinese: 緣 起) is an important part of Buddhist metaphysics. unsteady.“dukkha”is often left untranslated.* [45] 4.* [note 8]* [42]* [43] Angkor Thom in Cambodia a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. 1. sorrow. Not-self (Pāli: anatta. It is variously rendered into English as “dependent origination”. the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra). The doctrine asserts that because things are impermanent.* [note 9] When asked if the self was identical with the body. Things are constantly coming into being.“conditioned genesis”. its philosophical meaning is more analogous to “disquietude”as in the condition of being disturbed. The doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda. Upon careful examination. In the Nikayas nas (from Pāli “nidāna”meaning “cause. Tibetan Wylie: rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba . Pali: paticcasamuppāda. the Buddha refused to answer. the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra) in detail. and frustration. anguish. affliction. which explain the continuation of the approach for gaining release from suffering. (Sanskrit. suffering. one finds The best-known application of the concept of that no phenomenon is really“I”or“mine". Avidyā: ignorance. Suffering (Pāli: दुक्ख dukkha. Although the term is often translated as “suffering”. Since nothing lasts. “suffering”is too narrow a translation with“negative emotional connotations”* [web 9] that can give the impression that the Buddhist view is pessimistic. Everything is in constant flux. these con. specifically spiritual ignorance of the nature of reality. each one giving rise to the next: respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self. tween the subsequent characteristics or conditions of the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the cyclic existence. pain. “dependent co-arising”. Saṃskāras: literally formations. Nāmarūpa: literally name and form. “interdependent arising”.“dependent relationship” . but realistic. and not-self.3. According to the doctrine of impermanence. The word roughly corresponds to a number of terms in English including suffering. life embodies this flux in the aging process.* [46] . Sanskrit: anātman) is the third or “contingency”. Sanskrit दुःख duḥkha) is also a central concept in Buddhism. explained as referMain article: Pratītyasamutpāda ring to karma.2 Dependent arising 2. It states that phenomena arise together in 3.* [note Buddha rejected both of the metaphysical assertions “I 10] have a Self" and “I have no Self”as ontological views Main article: Twelve Nidānas that bind one to suffering. mark of existence. By analyzing the constantly changing physical The Twelve Nidānas describe a causal connection beand mental constituents (skandhas) of a person or object. unsatisfactoriness. attachment to them is futile and leads to suffering (dukkha).* [44] 2. stress. referring to mind and body. there is no inherent or fixed nature to any object or experience. misery. and in any experience of loss. Everything we can experience through our senses is made up of parts. and impermanent. anxiety. and ceasing to be. specifically discriminative. discomfort.3 Nature of existence 7 The Three Marks of Existence are impermanence. so as to encompass its full range of meaning. As such.2. including at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of the Buddha. it is Nirvana (Sanskrit.* [49] stimulation (by a sense object). He may have arrived at his positions Early Buddhism. widely attested in the 2. body and mind-organ. Bodhi literally means“awakening”. For Nagarjuna. According to the Jonang school. which produces a new existence. Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by Nāgār7.1 Nirvana Prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era. Pali:“Nibbāna”) means“cessation” not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner.e. some exponents of Yogacara asserted that used to mean craving. according to lamentation. affliction and despair). tathāgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of Sentient beings always suffer throughout saṃsāra until the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of BuddhaMain article: Śūnyatā nature. The dent. early Buddhism. Sparśa: variously translated contact. istence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was 8.).3. it is also known underlying essence. Vasubandhu and Asanga in parfuel. impression. “own-nature”or “self-nature”). but 6.* [50] East Asian Buddhism provides some sigMahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical nificance to these texts. ticular did not. all . but life is understood as starting There are conflicting interpretations of the tathāgataat conception.4 Liberation philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of śūnyatā. 150–250 CE). bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to .as“Awakening”or“Enlightenment”in the West.* [47] phasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha). While the Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the exunpleasant or neutral. form the basis of subsequent (The Theravada explains this as having two mean. dha in the Nikāyas. Nagarjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist 2.* [48] garbha in Mahāyāna thought. in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term as the Mādhyamaka. when adventitious obscurations are re2.the Gelug school. it is the potential for sentient beings taining Nirvana. from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Budtongue. Tṛṣṇā: literally thirst. is arahant. nose. and thus without any “extinguished”. but it is more combut his philosophy was argued within the parameters set monly translated into English as “enlightenment”. arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition.“quieted”. i. Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts. Jarāmaraṇa: (old age and death) and also soka. 10.e. dha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating term for anybody who has achieved nirvana.8 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS 5. ings: karma. Bhava: literally being (existence) or becoming. and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara school. dependently origiignorance—leads to the absence of the others.* [web 10] the Sakya school. whether something is pleasant. Mahayana schools often place emthe existence itself. The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doc. but in Buddhism nearly always inappropriate.Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition. in opposition or synthesis. grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. In Tibetan Buddhism. to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-Mahayana schools). In Nyingma.4. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India. tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. they are“empty”of being indepen. and ultimately to statements of the Budparideva. Ṣaḍāyatana: the six sense bases: eye. In out by the agamas. the word also means mind was truly existent. 11. domanassa and upāyāsā (sorrow. The idea may be traced 12. Vedanā: usually translated feeling: this is the “he.Main article: Nirvana (Buddhism) trines. Upādāna: clinging or grasping. nated). Then the absence of the first Nidāna— to awaken since they are empty (i. which feeds the continuing cycle of rebirth. it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system. the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). and Besides emptiness. Nagarjuna's school of thought is known Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit.3 Emptiness moved. or “emptiness”. According to they free themselves from this suffering (dukkha) by at.* [web 11] These two schools of thought. dukkha. pain. “extinction”(of craving and ignorance and therefore phenomena (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths (saṃsāra)). Not all Yogacarins asserted that 9. Some of the writings attributed to applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants.juna—were reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu donic tone”. to Abhidharma. ear.“calmed". Jāti: literally birth. particularly anatta and dependent origination. 1992d). Gombrich. Enlightenment. A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya). hate and delusion. they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth. a person may awaken from the “sleep of ignorance”by directly realizing the true nature of reality. India. Shwezigon Paya near Bagan. and that one needed to attain bodhi to eradicate delusion: An important development in the Mahayana [was] that it came to separate nirvana from bodhi ('awakening' to the truth. A Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life. The commentaries to .2. 2. aversion)* [web 13] and moha (delusion). while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well. or other being. The Pali Canon refers to many previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas). —Richard F. according to Mahayana Buddhism. The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism.4. coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate.* [web 14] In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism. for lists of many thousands Buddha names see Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō numbers 439– 448). while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial. In Theravada Buddhism. which implies the extinction of raga (greed. bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early texts. animal. But the Mahayana tradition separated them and considered that nirvana referred only to the extinction of craving (passion and hatred). aversion and ignorance. they merely use different metaphors for the experience. Enlightenment). origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples. that of being freed from greed.4 Liberation 9 arahant has attained only nirvana. How Buddhism Began* [51] Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha. no longer reincarnating as huTherefore.* [web 12] dosa (hate. He thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha. and to put a lower value on the former (Gombrich. rather than historical. the man. the status of nirvana was downgraded in some scriptures. using only some different metaphors to describe the experience. and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death. Myanmar Theravada Buddhism In Theravada doctrine. thus still being subject to delusion. Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya. with the resultant escape from the cycle of rebirth. where Gautama Buddha attained Nirvana under the Bodhi Tree (left) nirvana. Originally nirvana and bodhi refer to the same thing.2 Buddhas Main article: Buddhahood According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of desire. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving. This interpretation ignores the third fire. ghost. delusion: the extinction of delusion is of course in the early texts identical with what can be positively expressed as gnosis. such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. implying that delusion was still present in one who attained nirvana. when the physical body expires. craving). [52] but lacks the skill to teach others • Savakabuddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the Blissful (安樂). The method of self-exertion or “self-power”—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism. betends not to be viewed as merely human. such as“world realm”. but as the earthly tween the various schools of Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes. which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific “otherpower”of Amitabha Buddha. In attaining bodhi. evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. is called anagami. usually just called the Buddha.* [54] The The Great Statue of Amitābha in Kamakura. the arahant has overcome these obstacles. In addition. is the Buddha of this era. 2. that of being freed from craving. he is living types: on in other planes of existence. therefore. may be best to rely on the power of Amitābha. As a further distinction. projection of a beginningless and endless.Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the dha. Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: point where few are capable of following the path. who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas). The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious. thought. . and monks are therefore permitted to offer “new truths”based on his input. Moreover. or as essentially Nirvana itself. who discovers the truth by himself and teaches the and in its belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who path to awakening to others vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be en* • Paccekabuddha.* [53] A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element. cept of śūnyatā (that ultimately nothing has existence).10 2 BUDDHIST CONCEPTS the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion. Pure Land. so it all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.* [web 15]* [web 16] The Gautama Buddha. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence. the Bud.3 Buddha eras Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. who discovers the truth by himself lightened). This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge. Japan understandings of this matter reflect widely differing inMahayana Buddhism In the Mahayana. the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion. the Buddha terpretations of basic terms. Pure Land (淨土) of Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana. and delusion. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. omnipresent The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism.4. hate. and not at all in others. Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its con• Sammasambuddha. in certain Mahayana sutras. if only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name. who receive the truth directly or indirectly from a Sammasambuddha Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning. Traditionally. Laos Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption (Pali: jhāna. śīla. kṣanti. has generated bodhicitta. Skt: dhyāna). and prajñā.11 2.* [web 17] According to Jan Nattier. motivated by great compassion. A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva. dhyāna. an early and important Mahayana text.” * Statue of the Buddha in meditation position.4. and chanting.1 Devotion Main article: Buddhist devotion Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists. and for as long as living beings remain.* [64] The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well. a bodhisattva is anyone who.* [55] Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences. the term Mahāyāna “Great Vehicle”was originally even an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna “Bodhisattva Vehicle. [57]* [58]* [59] Mahayana Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vow. offerings.” 3 Practice 3. for according to the Buddha. prostration. In Pure Land Buddhism. devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice.1 Yoga A statue of Prajñāpāramitā personified.* [60] According to Mahayana teachings. vīrya.* [61] Devotional practices include ritual prayer. until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world. In Nichiren Buddhism.”* [56] The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra. Meditative states alone are not an end. these perfections are: dāna.4 Bodhisattvas Main article: Bodhisattva Bodhisattva means“enlightenment being”.* [62] The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha.* [63] One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition. where the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six pāramitās. devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice. 3. contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva: “Because he has enlightenment as his aim. a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called. Haw Phra Kaew. Java refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. which the 14th Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse. and generally as space endures.1. pilgrimage. . summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention (Bodhicitta) as follows: “For as long Vientiane. too. for once one has reached Buddhahood. 1st century CE. the Buddha can be viewed as the supreme Refuge: “Buddha is the Unique Absolute Refuge. Skt. Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shra. but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of “transcendent wisdom”(Pali paññā. See also the Tathāgata and Gautama Buddha. dence for a contemplative tradition. in pre-Buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction. in the lama.* [71] eternal and immutable essence. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought. based on the practice of mindful awareness. In Mahayana. even as early as the so are the Three Jewels (Refuges).* [65] Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day. manic tradition. Gandhāra. These Three Jewels bring 3. based on strong parallels between Upan. he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evi.* [69] Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation. this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of “meditation”coupled with the perfection of “discipline”(Pali sīla.the quality of excellence.times adds a fourth refuge. Buddha is the Imperish- . The Buddha built upon the yogis' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques. there is no possibility of falling back to suffering. whether praised or reviled.* [70] Relic depicting footprint of the Buddha with Dharmachakra and While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in triratna.1. Infant baptism). Pāli: ti-ratana)* [web 19] as the foundation of one's religious practice. prajñā) was original. considered the ultimate expression of compasof the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early sion. while a Buddhist monastic should do so. the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: triratna.* [74] The Three Jewels are: • The Buddha. pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts. This is a title for those who have attained Nirvana.their faculty and goodness.* [71] He mentions less likely possibilities as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as as well. Just as real jewels never change dition. The Buddha could also be represented as a concept instead of a specific person: the perfect wisdom that understands Dharma and sees reality in its true form. but rejected their theories of liberation.* [72] Having argued that the cosmological state.having an irreversible effect: “The Three Jewels have ments in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tra. In Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism some- a fruition that is changeless.* [68] They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism.* [web 18] The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques. In Mahayana Buddhism. recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf.* [66] In Buddhism.the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow ishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals or pledge. the Three Jewels are perceived Buddhist texts.12 3 PRACTICE even the highest meditative state is not liberating. some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating. śīla). for example. Skt. mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned* [73] in the Majjhima Nikaya.* [67] Religious knowledge or “vision”was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold.2 Refuge in the Three Jewels Main articles: Refuge (Buddhism) and Three Jewels Traditionally. because they have an late Rig Vedic period. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta. samādhi. without worries. and “monkhood”(Vinaya or Patimokkha).” * [75] • The Dharma. but also peace in the community. is among the oldest organizations on Earth.2 Buddhist ethics 13 able. and deed. 3. To refrain from taking that which is not given (not committing theft). Eternal. quiet. but as .3. which is internal. calmness. Śīla is the foundation of Samādhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. “basic morality with asceticism”(eight precepts). speech. The teachings or law of nature as expounded by the Gautama Buddha. Hiroshi Kanno writes of this view of the Lotus Sutra: “it is a Dharma-gate of sudden enlightenment proper to the Great Vehicle. Gandhara. without resorting to a teacher”. The four conditions of śīla are chastity. It refers to moral purity of thought. 1st century CE. or mind. keeping the precepts is meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator. The monks' order. 1.2 Buddhist ethics Statue of Gautama Buddha. and involves an intentional effort. Indestructible and Absolute Refuge. Further. To refrain from taking life (non-violence towards sentient life forms). which correspond to “basic morality”(five precepts). It is one of the three practices (sīla. are several levels of sīla. which add basic asceticism. If they wish. To refrain from sensual (including sexual) misconduct. Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence. or simply the congregation of monastic practitioners. To refrain from lying (speaking truth always). To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. According to the scriptures. which began during the lifetime of the Buddha. There mindfulness (specifically.* [76] • The Sangha. It is an action committed through the body. According to the Law of Karma. which is external.“novice monkhood”(ten precepts) The precepts are not formulated as imperatives. it is a Dharma-gate whereby one awakens spontaneously. Those who have attained any of the Four stages of enlightenment. and can meditate well: 2. 5. word. especially in Mahayana. which are common to all Buddhist schools. It can also. connote the ultimate and sustaining Reality that is inseparable from the Buddha. 3. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts. they can choose to undertake the eight precepts. “moral discipline”. from some Mahayana perspectives. presentday Pakistan. The five precepts are training rules in order to live a better life in which one is happy. (Musée Guimet) Main article: Śīla Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as “virtuous behavior”. “morality”. or ahimsā. and paññā) and the second pāramitā. 4. the Dharma embodied in the form of a great sutra (Buddhic scripture) can replace the need for a personal teacher and can be a direct and spontaneous gateway into Truth (Dharma). drugs and alcohol). and extinguishment. This is especially said to be the case with the Lotus Sutra. “ethics”or “precept”. Monastics are instructed by the Buddha to live as “islands unto themselves”. and married lamas.”* [80] sic. 10. 6. music.* [78] PRACTICE in the Theravadin recension.14 3 training rules that laypeople undertake voluntarily to facilitate practice. the rules themselves are designed to assure a celibacy. In Chinese Buddhist monks performing a ceremony in Hangzhou. even if there is no further Buddhist practice. To refrain from the use of garlands. but also more .minds his hearers that it is the spirit that counts. not includes the Patimokkha. To refrain from dancing and playing muthe end in itself. samatha meditation (Sanskrit: śamatha) and vipassanā meditation (Sanskrit: vipaśyanā). The precise content of the vinayapitaka (scriptures on Vinaya) differs slightly according to different schools. In Japan. the Buddha constantly reIn the eight precepts. singing and unseemly shows. 8. but Chán (Zen) meditation is more popular. China Buddhism.3 Monastic life Buddhist monks in Thailand Main article: Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore itself and other phenomena. On the conduct is made more strict. where. In this sense. it:“more than merely a means to an end: it is very nearly 7. for example. a set of 227 rules for monks only monks. 6. which are the basic precepts for monastics. and alseventh precept is partitioned into two.* [79] 3. ointments. To refrain from accepting gold and silver.4 Meditation 7. that is after the mid-day meal. To refrain from taking food at an unseasonable time. To refrain from (using) high and luxurious seats (and beds). there is also a distinctive Vinaya shows and other performances. and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to Vinaya. and provide a perfect springboard for the higher attainments. the most completely displaced the monastic vinaya. and becomes a precept of other hand. Novice-monks use the ten precepts. nuns. and a tenth added: lows clergy to marry. for Bodhisattvas. and from things that tend to beautify and adorn (the person).* [82] According to PeVinaya is the specific moral code for monks and nuns. 3. the third precept on sexual mis. the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower heavens is likely. these exist (translated chih kuan).* [77] In Buddhist thought. perfumes. To refrain from using high or luxurious seats Sutra (not to be confused with the Pali text of that name) and bedding. this has allaypeople for short periods. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment. whenever Buddhism has been healthy. To refrain from dancing. Regarding the monastic rules.* [81] According to Theravada Buddhism the Buddha taught two types of meditation. attending In Eastern Buddhism. To refrain from eating at the wrong time (eat living life as the vinaya prescribes it is. the eating of meat is frowned upon and vegetarianism is actively encouraged The complete list of ten precepts may be observed by (see vegetarianism in Buddhism). The three additional precepts are: satisfying life. as one scholar puts only from sunrise to noon). wearing jewelry and cosmetics. It ter Harvey. and ethics contained within the Mahayana Brahmajala 8. 9. For the complete list. because this practice can lead to both samatha and vipassana'. The most common method of meditation is to concentrate on one's breath (anapanasati). which is Main articles: Prajñā and Vipassana what leads to insight knowledge (jñāna.* [84] The evidence of the early texts suggests that at the time of the Buddha. from sitting cross-legged or kneeling to chanting or walking. Upon development of samādhi. experiencing. A young monk in Sri Lanka and suffering is identified as craving. analyzing. the cause of human existence Samādhi (meditative cultivation): samatha meditation Main articles: Samādhi (Buddhism) and Dhyāna in Buddhism In the language of the Noble Eightfold Path.2 Prajñā (Wisdom): vipassana meditation tation can calm the mind. There are many variations in the style of meditation. Samatha meditation starts from being mindful of an object or idea. In Buddhist practice. which is expanded to one's body. The cultivation of mindfulness is essential to mental concentration. The primary means of cultivating samādhi is meditation.4 Meditation committed lay people have practiced meditation. These are believed deeply rooted afflictions of the mind that create suffering and stress.4. some even to the point of proficiency in all eight jhānas (see the next section regarding these). Nibbāna is the ultimate goal of Theravadins. it is said that while samatha medi. Once the meditator achieves a strong and powerful concentration (jhāna. mind and entire surroundings. only vipassanā meditation can reveal how the mind was disturbed to start with.* [note 11] 3. his mind is ready to penetrate and gain insight (vipassanā) into the ultimate nature of reality. It then leads the meditator to realize the Four Noble Truths. Pāli ñāṇa) and . all defilements are suppressed temporarily. Sri Lanka samādhi is “right concentration”. calm. hatred and delusion. tranquil. leading to a state of total concentration and tranquility (jhāna).3. In Theravāda Main article: Jhāna in Theravada In Theravāda Buddhism.* [83] According to Routledge's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. These various defilements are traditionally summed up as greed. Jhanas are also states that Arahants abide in order to rest. throughout most of Buddhist history before modern times. samyak- Samadhi Buddha statue in Anuradhapura.3. these defilements must be permanently uprooted through internal investigation. When one is in jhana. and thus can lead to nirvāṇa (Pāli nibbāna). eventually obtaining release from all suffering. a technique of the Noble Eightfold Path. Sanskrit ध्यान dhyāna). in contrast. one's mind becomes purified of defilement.4. and luminous. To be free from suffering and stress. serious meditation by lay people has been unusual. Only understanding (prajñā or vipassana) eradicates the defilements completely. many male and female lay practitioners did practice meditation. and understanding of the true nature of those defilements by using jhāna. which carries with it the various defilements. Enlightenment and Nibbāna. which is needed to achieve insight.1 15 understanding (prajñā Pāli paññā). thought of ancient India during the second half of the first .* [note 12] Zen places less emphasis on scriptures than some other forms of Buddhism and prefers to focus on direct spiritual breakthroughs to truth. in order to loosen the grip of the ego and to facilitate the pene. visualizaMain article: Zen Zen Buddhism (禅).”* [89] Thinking and thought must therefore not be allowed to * Initially. a Zen temple in Kyoto. reading. we discover the Self that is living universal non-dual life (before the separation into two) that pervades all living creatures and all existence. an Awakening to a universal. In the Tibetan tradition.* [note 13] The Buddhist“Carpenter's Cave”at Ellora in Maharashtra. and the latter (while certainly employing koans) focusing more on shikantaza or “just sitting”. anicca (impermanence) and anatta (not-self). The Four Noble Truths and the three marks of existence. accepts all the basic concepts of Mahāyāna. prajñā is attained at a conceptual level by means confine and bind one.* [92] Prajñā (Sanskrit) or paññā (Pāli) means wisdom that is based on a realization of dependent origination. Zen Buddhism is divided into two main schools: Rinzai (臨 宗) and Sōtō (曹洞宗). seon tion. and meditation as a means of developing the mind. It is spoken of as the principal means of attaining nirvāṇa. when thoughts and fixation on the little “I”are transcended. studying. or even as little as three years. cludes a vast array of spiritual and physical techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. non-dual Self occurs: “When we let go of thoughts and wake up to the reality of life that is working beyond them. Korea and Japan and that lays special emphasis on meditation. or esoteric Buddhism). point of practice.4.4 Vajrayana and Tantra in discourse.* [note 14] According to Zen master Kosho Uchiyama. the roots of Buddhism lie in the religious tration into the realm of the True Self or Formless Self. a meditative riddle or puzzle) as a device for spiritual break-through. 4 History Main article: History of Buddhism 4. one could in theory attain Nirvana at any or “Diamond Vehicle”(also referred to as Mantrayāna. India Zen Buddhist teaching is often full of paradox. but also inor any other activity.3 Zen practices. through its revelation of the true nature of all things as dukkha (unsatisfactoriness). pronounced Chán in Chinese. and sometimes reciting Buddhist texts and engaging 3. Prajñā is the wisdom that is able to extinguish afflictions and bring about bodhi. it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in one lifetime.1 Philosophical roots Ginkaku-ji. Tantric Buddhism is largely concerned with ritual and meditative 3. conducting the business of one's daily life. Using these techniques. it is applied to daily life so that each Buddhist can Though based upon Mahayana.16 4 HISTORY which is equated with the Buddha himself. whether deep in meditation.4.* [91] One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy through ritual. Japan in Korean or zen in Japanese (derived from the Sanskrit term dhyāna. these practices can include sexual yoga. Prajñā is also listed as the sixth of the six pāramitās of the Mahayana. It to a sermon. listening Tantrayāna. the former greatly favouring the use in meditation on the koan (公案. meaning“meditation”) is a form of Buddhism that became popular in China. Once the conceptual understanding is attained. Notably. though only for some very advanced practitioners. [90] of listening to sermons (dharma talks). physical exercises. Tantric Buddhism.Historically. Tibeto-Mongolian Budverify the truth of the Buddha's teaching at a practical dhism is one of the schools that practice Vajrayana level. form was declared by“Kashyapa”to certain rishis.* [113] At the same time.* [109] He names the Vedic rishis.4.* [note 26] or the idea adha.divine eyes. transforming it into what is recognized as early culture* [104] Hinduism.2 Earliest teachings materialists (such as Ajita Kesakambali). philosophical thought within the Vedic tradition as reflected e. which stretched from Sravasti. these movements were influenced by.* [note 18]* [note 19]* [note 20]* [note 21]* [note 22]* [note 23] Rock-cut Lord Buddha statue at Bojjanakonda near Anakapalle in the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. and were later adopted by Brahmin orthodoxy. samsara (“eternal recurrence”) and yoga (“spiritual practice”).2 Earliest teachings 17 millennium BCE. who emphasized the rule of fate. he did not dethat appear in a number of movements in Greater Mag. a district of Andhra Pradesh. not anti-Vedic. Moreover.* [note 17] Scholars have reasons to believe that ideas such as samsara. buddha (“awakened one”).* [111] However. and in some respects continued.* [106] Many of these new movements shared the same conceptual vocabulary—atman ( “Self”).g.* [102] Other Vedic texts re. notions of rebirth and karmic retribution from an earlier the traditional Hindu itself gradually underwent profound changes. including Buddhism. who stressed that the soul must be freed from matter. who claimed they possessed revealed truths not knowable by any ordiA ruined Buddhist temple on Gurubhakthula Konda (konda meaning “hill”in Telugu) in Ramatheertham village in nary human means. besides Buddhism.* [107] This view is supported by a study of the region where these notions originated.* [105] These movements included. and moksha originated in the shramanas. the Buddha was This land. and declared that the Veda in its true was recognized as non-Vedic. the Ajnanas (agnostics) and the Jains. karma (in the sense of the influence of morality on rebirth). antinomians . atomists (such as Pakudha Kaccayana). India (such as Purana Kassapa). and the authority of the brahmans. These include rebirth and karmic retribution to the Vedas of his time. These movements inherited of the self uniting with the Self.* [note 15] It was challenged by numerous new ascetic religious and philosophical groups and teachings that broke with the Brahmanic tradition and rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans. in all probability by severe penances had acquired the power to see by because the Magadhas at this time were not Brahman. as there was significant discontent with the sacrifices and rituals of Vedic Brahmanism. the most important ones in the 5th century BCE were the Ajivikas.* [93] That was a period of social and religious turmoil. dhamma (“rule” or “law”). the Lokayata (materialists). the land of the Aryas. The Buddha says that it was on this alGreater Magadha prior to this were not subject to Vedic teration of the true Veda that he refused to pay respect influence. whose members were known as shramanas. karma (“action”). and deised. who veal a dislike of the people of Magadha.* [108] However. Buddhism arose in Greater A particular criticism of the Buddha was Vedic animal Magadha. 4. were a continuation of a non-Vedic strand of Indian thought distinct from Indo-Aryan Brahmanism.* [103] It was not until the 2nd or 3rd centuries BCE clared that the original Veda of the rishis* [110]* [note that the eastward spread of Brahmanism into Greater 25] was altered by a few Brahmins who introduced anMagadha became significant.* [web 18] He also mocked the Vedic "hymn Kosala in the north-west. At the same time. nirvana (“extinguishing”). various skeptics (such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta). they declared that the entire Brahmanical system was fraudulent: a conspiracy of Vizianagaram. Ideas that developed in imal sacrifices. India the brahmans to enrich themselves by charging exorbitant fees to perform bogus rites and give useless advice. the capital of sacrifice. of the cosmic man".* [note 24] The shramanas rejected the Veda. to the east of aryavarta.* [note 16]* [94] These groups.nounce the union with Brahman. in the Upanishads. to Rajagrha in the south east. three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:* [122] 1. Yet.] was by means of meditative practices. it is not clear what he was awakened to.”* [134] Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.* [note 27] The reliability of these sources.* [135]* [136] According to the Mahāsaccakasutta.* [116] of early Buddhist soteriology.1 4 Tracing the oldest teachings Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. Norman supposes that the these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time.3 Core teachings familiair to his hearers.”* [141] later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.* [116] whereas Norman notes that“the Buddha's way to release [. which are not 30]</ref> specified. is a sonal.* [119]* [116] The mentioning of the four truths as constituting“liberating insight”introduces a logical problem.“Scepticism with regard to the possibility of remon term for the desired goal of this practice.R.* [138]* [note 35] 3.* [117] 4. According Main article: History of Buddhism in India to Vetter. and concludes that the Buddha “introduced five periods:* [145] Early Buddhism (occasionally called a concept of karma that differed considerably from the Pre-sectarian Buddhism). “adjusted to the need of each person. and were 4.”* [note 31] According to Vetter.“the Buddha at first sought “the deathless”(amata/amrta).”* [131] Bronkhorst The history of Indian Buddhism may be divided into disagrees. but intentions and desire.”* [132] According to ian Buddhism: The period of the Early Buddhist schools..“Cautious optimism in this respect. and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism.* [117]* [116]* [51] erating insight”was preceded by the four jhanas.* [137]* [note 34] Although “Nibbāna” (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the com2.* [note 33] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. in the suttas* [139]* [140] in those texts where“librelation between dhyana and insight. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts.* [143] Bruce Matthews notes that there is no cohesive presenta.The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanical tion of karma in the Sutta Pitaka. and did not serve lightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of in earliest Buddhism as a description of “liberating inthe four noble truths as constituting “liberating insight” sight”. Bronkhorst.“Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials.* [119] The three marks of existence may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.2.* [144] but its usage may have been common to the that the doctrine was incidental to the main perspective shramanic traditions. the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna. many other * trieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism.18 4. since the four truths depict a linear path of practice.* [127] which may mean term. inconsistencies remain. and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings.* [117] In time. the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating.* [141] Schmithausen.* [subnote 6]</ref> elaborated. the four truths may not have of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enbeen formulated in earliest Buddhism."* [note 29] and Richard Gombrich. Later Mahayana Buddhism. not physical and mental activities as such Early Mahayana Buddhism.* [128]* [129]* [note 32] According to Vetter. this short description was Lopez. which is concerned with the here and now.* [114]* [note 28] According to Schmithausen. is a matter of dispute. ." [note terms can be found throughout the Nikayas.2 Dhyana and insight According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson..* [133] According to Tilmann Vetter. resulting in the description of the eightfold path.* [142] Gotama's teachings may have been per. or“liberating inA core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the sight”.* [116]* [117]* [118]* [51] According to Vetter.3 Indian Buddhism dhism.2.2. the four truths became a substitution for prajna. which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas. only after this realization did he become acquainted with the doctrine of rebirth.* [117] Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention. Nikaya Buddhism or Sectarcommonly held views of his time.* [123]* [subnote 2]</ref> HISTORY were seen as responsible for rebirth.* [134]* [116] “Liberating insight”is a later addition to this text. and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies. the description of the Buddhist Johannes Bronkhorst* [subnote 5] and Donald path may initially have been as simple as the term “the middle way”. in his often-cited article On some Aspects According to Bronkhorst.* [127] Schmithausen is a notable scholar who has questioned whether karma already played a role in the theory of rebirth of earliest Bud4. which are among the earliest Mahāyāna sūboth sides of the dispute reveals disparate traditions. and something similar to the First Council must have taken place to compose Buddhist scriptures. and. The different Abhidharmas of done orally. [151] tures are the Vinaya Pitaka and the four principal Nikayas The Sthaviras gave rise to several schools.1 Pre-sectarian Buddhism the Mahasanghikas' own vinaya. another disciple. one of which or Agamas.* [152] nirvana.ture buddha Maitreya.3 Indian Buddhism 19 and Esoteric Buddhism (also called Vajrayana Buddhism). 100 CE if not earlier. at some period after the Second Council the Sangha began to break into separate factions. 2nd—3rd century. nearly 100 BCE. Sthavira group offers two quite distinct reasons for the schism. the fuwas in the time of Ashoka and the Mahasanghika tradi.claims or inhumanly high criteria for *arhatship. and have proFollowing (or leading up to) the schisms. and trinal disagreements too. The Dipavamsa of the Theravāda says that the losing party in the Second Council dispute broke away in protest and formed the Mahasanghika. the Noble Eightfold Path. schisms were being caused by docthe Four Noble Truths. soon after the parinirvāṇa represent the words of the Buddha himself. recited the monastic rules (vinaya).* [note 36]Richard Gombrich noted Sariputta led communal recitations of the Buddha's teaching for preservation in the Buddha's lifetime in Sangiti Sutta (Digha Nikaya #33). Gautama Buddha. Buddhist councils erally date these texts to around the 3rd century BCE. the Five gether in the same monasteries. Therefore the seven Abhidharma works are generally claimed not to According to the scriptures.caused by disputes over vinaya. These Ab4. The fortunate survival of accounts from sūtras. Upāli. Most scholars regard Main article: Mahāyāna the traditional accounts of the council as greatly exagger. according to schematic classifications. these schisms were places throughout the early texts. Scholars genMain articles: Early Buddhist schools.Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā ated if not entirely fictitious. and a Buddhist monk.Abhidhamma Pitaka or not.ars disagree on whether the Mahasanghika school had an rors occurred in oral transmission. a detailed scholastic reworking of doctrinal material appearing in the Suttas. the first Buddhist council was held. by about Aggregates. left to right. recognized by nearly all scholars.4. In the first coun. Both pardhism. This contradicts 4. 100 and Theravada to 200 years after the death of the Buddha.3. The primary purpose of the assembly was the various schools did not agree with each other.* [150] According to most scholars. and monks following difclude that Gautama Buddha must have taught some. therefore.* [note 38] Every school had Buddha. Scholto collectively recite the teachings to ensure that no er. each Saṅgha posed many other theories. was called upon to recite the discourses (sūtras. but those of (from Sanskrit: “highest extinguishment”) of Gautama disciples and great scholars. the Puggalavada tradition places it in 137 AN. Guimet The root schism was between the Sthaviras and the Mahāsāṅghikas.2 Early Buddhist schools hidharma texts do not contain systematic philosophical treatises. The Mahāsāṅghikas argued that Main article: Pre-sectarian Buddhism the Sthaviras were trying to expand the vinaya and may also have challenged what they perceived were excessive Pre-sectarian Buddhism is the earliest phase of Bud. with different theoany ancient Indian tradition.* [147]* [148]* [149] started to accumulate an Abhidharma. but eventually. which shows them as on the same. appealed to tradition. Musée tion places it much later. according to some 4.3. The tras. karma and rebirth.* [154]* [155] developed among the Mahāsāṃghika . transmission of teaching was ries and different texts. the abhidhamma.* [note 37] The various accounts differ as to when the actual schisms occurred. Ānanda. Originally. the Sarvastivada tradition of Vasumitra says it A Buddhist triad depicting. winning side. Certain basic teachings appear in many was the Theravāda school. so most scholars con.* [146] Some scholars disagree. a cousin of the Buddha and his personal attendant. a Kushan. the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. they started immediately after the Second Council. but summaries or numerical lists. Pāli suttas) of the Buddha. Its main scrip. As with its own version of the Abhidharma.ties. According to the Dipavamsa of the Pāli tradition. dependent origination.3.* [note 38]* [153] cil.3 Early Mahayana Buddhism sources.ferent schools of thought seem to have lived happily tothing similar to the Three marks of existence. Ritual must be examined as well. for bodhisattvas.4. and Bhavaviveka. lineage in Tibetan Buddhism.later Yogacara. including Amaravati. 2. the first translator of Mahāyāna sūtras into Chinese during the 2nd century CE. and the Mūlasarvāstivāda ordination hyamaka and Yogacara have a great deal in common. Tathagatagarbha. . Those who venerate the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras are called the Mahāyānists. Nāgārjunakoṇḍā and Jaggayyapeṭa “can be traced to at least the third century BCE. which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of InThere is no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a dia. and also the practice of the Four Noble Truths.20 4 HISTORY along the Kṛṣṇa River in the Āndhra region of South India.3. the two main philosophical Mahāyāna formally belonged to an early school. ordination lineage from the early schools of Buddhism.* [172] In India. on the Kṛṣṇa River. and they have in common the prohibitions of the five offences. The scriptures of Vajrayana have not yet been put in any kind of order. and later doctrines.”* [160] Anthony Barber and Sree Padma note that “historians of Buddhist thought have been aware for quite some time that such pivotally important Mahayana Buddhist thinkers as Nāgārjuna. among many others. Madeage in East Asia. along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha. Therefore Mahāyāna was and the commonality stems from early Buddhism. distinguishes Mahāyāna from Hīnayāna as Main article: Vajrayana follows:* [168] Both adopt one and the same Vinaya.”* [163] Buddhas of Bamiyan: Vairocana before and after destruction by the Taliban in 2001 Mahāyāna texts. which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.* [note 39] Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series. formulated their theories while living in Buddhist communities in Āndhra. but rather that it existed as a certain set of ideals. Yogacara. and therefore research must include exploring Hinduism as well. and Buddhist Logic as the last and and therefore each bhikṣu or bhikṣuṇī adhering to the most recent. if not earlier. not just doctrine.K. 3. This schools of the Mahayana were the Madhyamaka and the continues today with the Dharmaguptaka ordination lin. Dignaga. in the Āndhra country.”* [159] A.5 Vajrayana (Esoteric Buddhism) The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the 7th century CE.3. while those who do not perform these are called the Hīnayānists. Āryadeva.* [174] never a separate rival sect of the early schools. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokakṣema.* [156] The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā genre.* [157]* [158] Guang Xing states.* [167] 4. Warder believes that “the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country.* [173] According to Dan Lusthaus.”* [161] They note that the ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Kṛṣṇa Valley. along with texts concerning Akṣobhya Buddha.* [170]* [note 40] separate formal school or sect of Buddhism.4 Late Mahayana Buddhism hisattvayāna (the“Vehicle of the Bodhisattvas”).* [166] There were no great Indian teachers associated with tathaFrom Chinese monks visiting India.* [165] Paul Williams has also noted that the Mahāyāna never During the period of Late Mahayana Buddhism. we now know that gatagarbha thought.* [164] Initially it was known as Bod. Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Scholarly research concerning Esoteric Buddhism is still in its early stages and has a number of problems that make research difficult:* [176] 1.”* [162] Akira Hirakawa notes the “evidence suggests that many Early Mahayana scriptures originated in South India. Candrakīrti. four mahad nor ever attempted to have a separate Vinaya or jor types of thought developed: Madhyamaka.* [175] both Mahāyāna and non-Mahāyāna monks in India often lived in the same monasteries side by side. Vajrayana Buddhism was influenced by Hinduism. “Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahāsāṃghikas in southern India. The gradual spread of Buddhism into adjacent areas meant that it came into contact with new ethnical groups. probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin. Buddhism had become vir- This period marks the first known spread of Buddhism beyond India. and then to Korea and Japan. would ultimately lead. According to the edicts of Aśoka. emis. 4. Coin depicting Indo-Greek king Menander. These two missions. and were translated into Chinese. who was a public supporter of the religion. converted to the Buddhist faith and became an arhat in the 2nd century BCE . Mahayana Sutras spread to China. from Persian and Greek civilization. Menander. though the literary sources are all open to question. to the emergence of Theravāda Buddhism and its spread from Sri Lanka to the coastal lands of Southeast Asia.* [180] In the 2nd century CE. (British Museum) time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka. A Greek king. The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE. particularly in eastern Main article: Timeline of Buddhism provinces of the neighboring Seleucid Empire. The support of Aśoka and his descendants led to the construction of more stūpas (Buddhist religious memorials) and to efforts to spread Buddhism throughout the enlarged Maurya empire and even into neighboring lands—particularly to the Iranianspeaking regions of Afghanistan and Central Asia.4. has even been immortalized in the Buddhist canon. The Dharmagupta school spread (also in 3rd century BCE) north to Kashmir. Buddhism spread from India to Tibet and Mongolia.Buryat Buddhist monk in Siberia . and to the island of Sri Lanka south of India. Gandhara and Bactria (Afghanistan).* [177] Buddhist proselytism at the time of emperor Ashoka (260–218 BCE). During the Indian period of Esoteric Buddhism (from the 8th century onwards). in opposite directions. Striking examples of this syncretistic development can be seen in the emergence of Greek-speaking Buddhist monarchs in the Indo-Greek Kingdom. It is a matter of disagreement among scholars whether or not these emissaries were accompanied by Buddhist missionaries. During this period Buddhism was exposed to a variety of influences. and in the development of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhāra. and even Buddhism may have spread only slowly in India until the farther to Hellenistic kingdoms of the Mediterranean.4 Buddhism today 21 Development of Buddhism saries were sent to various countries west of India to spread Buddhism (Dharma). beyond the Mauryas' northwest border. to changing trends in non-Buddhist Indian religions—themselves influenced by Buddhism. The Theravada school spread south from India in the 3rd century BCE. in the first case to the spread of Buddhism into China. who.5 Buddhism today Main article: Timeline of Buddhism:Common Era By the late Middle Ages. and in the second case. to Sri Lanka and Thailand and Burma and later also Indonesia. according to Buddhist tradition records in the Milinda Panha.5 4.* [178]* [note 41] The first documented translation efforts by foreign Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE. 4. is followed by over half of world Buddhists. Bhutan. making this the largest body of Buddhist traditions. Southeast Asia and the West. Sri Lanka. as of 2010.* [note 42] 2010s. While in the West Buddhism is often seen as 90-100 80-90 exotic and progressive. areas of India (it's the majorin the world”. Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim).* [web 21] ity religion in Ladakh.* [186] or 535 million* [15] people as of the forms of Buddhism. is the dominant form of Buddhism in Cambodia. significantly depart from traditional beliefs and practices. At the present time. and Burma. the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world. Thailand. and the Sangha (the Buddhist community). also practiced in broader East Asia. Laos. Modern influences increasingly lead to new forms of Buddhism that Percentage of Buddhists by country. Taiwan.* [181]* [182] China and India are now starting to fund Buddhist shrines in various Asian countries as they compete for influence in the region. and Russia (mainly Kalmykia. Korea.Main article: Buddhism by country * tional formula in which the practitioner takes refuge in Buddhism is practiced by an estimated 488 million. approximately 244 million or 18. [web 1] They are mostly followers of Chinese schools of Mahayana.* [web 1] A number of modern movements or tendencies in Buddhism emerged during the second half of the 20th Century. Soka Gakkai International (SGI) is a lay Buddhist movement linking more than 12 million people • Tibetan Buddhism is found in Tibet and other parts around the world. and is currently described as“the most of China (particularly in Inner Mongolia). Buddhists in Asia are frequently 15-30 5-15 well organized and well funded. including the Dalit Buddhist movement* [183]* [184] (also sometimes called 'neoBuddhism').2% of its toments * tal population. and Tuva). In countries such as 1-5 Cambodia and Bhutan. Mongolia. Mahayana. Japan. the Dharma (the teachings of the Buddha). according to the Pew Research Center. it is recognized as the state religion and receives government support. in the East it is regarded as fa70-80 50-70 30-50 miliar and traditional. Ambedkar) also practices Theravada. It is now again gaining strength worldwide. [web The Three Jewels: the Buddha. using Pāli as its scriptural language. Vietnam and Singapore are major concentrations of Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia. representing 7% to 8% of the world's total population. Singapore and Vietnam as well as such communities within Indochina. Buryatia. Overall there is an overwhelming diversity of recent 1] 495 million. Engaged Buddhism. but basic lay adherence is often defined in terms of a tradi. and the further According to a demographic analysis reported by Pedevelopment of various Western Buddhist traditions.22 5 DEMOGRAPHICS tually extinct in India.China is the country with the largest population of Buddhists. Map showing regions where Buddhism is a major religion In the second half of the 20th Century a modern movement in Nichiren Buddhism: Soka Gakkai (Value Creation Society) emerged in Japan and spread further to other countries. and Buddhist texts are increasingly translated into local % of population Buddhist languages. 5 Demographics Formal membership varies between communities.* [web 20] Most Buddhist groups in the West are nominally affiliated with at least one of these three traditions: • Theravada Buddhism. • East Asian forms of Mahayana Buddhism that use Chinese scriptures are dominant in most of China. R. The Dalit Buddhist movement in India (inspired by B. diverse”* [185] and“the largest lay Buddhist movement Nepal. although it continued to exist in surrounding countries. significant population in Himachal Pradesh. ter Harvey (2013):* [15] Mahayana has 360 million ad- .6 Late 20th century Buddhist move. a small group of “elderly members”. meditating. Buddhists a growing presence in the west. giving rise to the Sthavira sect. Theravada has 150 million adherents. Saudi Arabia. sectarian Buddhism. producing but as this term is rooted in the Mahayana viewpoint and ties. however. Monks follow the vinaya: traditions from which contemporary Theravada emerged. or treat the same concepts as central. Burma. [web 23] several concepts common to both major grown from a total of 138 million adherents in 1910. Lebanon and several Western European countries (1910–2010). . Each century CE onwards. including Śrāvakayāna. can be considered derogatory.1 Timeline This is a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions: 6. Laypersons * [197] merit. the Four Noble Truths. • Both accept that members of the laity and of the sangha can pursue the path toward enlightenment (bodhi). broke away from the majority Mahāsāṃghika during the Second Buddhist council. More recently (2000–2010). dependent origination. The Second Buddhist council resulted in the first schism in the Sangha. does have its own core concepts.e.* [web 22] An alternative scheme used by some scholars* [note 43] divides Buddhism into the following three traditions or geographical or cultural areas: Theravada. Cambodia as well as small portions of China.* [191] This classification is also used by some scholars* [192] and is the one ordinarily used in the English language. • Both accept the Middle way.* [194] After unsuccessfully trying to modify the Vinaya.1 Timeline 23 herents. Malaysia and Bangladesh. Thailand.2 Theravada school Main article: Theravada The name Theravāda comes from the Sthaviras. i. • Both consider buddhahood the highest attainment.Theravadin Buddhists believe that personal effort is reers to name the family of early philosophical schools and quired to realize rebirth. from which the Theravadins claim descent. of Buddhist branches: which 137 million were in Asia. 6. Vietnam.* [195] Sinhalese Buddhist reformers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries portrayed the Pali Canon as the original version of scripture. a variety of other terms are increasingly used instead. and tradition. during the dynasty of the Guptas. sthaviras. teaching and serving their lay communican perform good actions. and Vajrayana has 18. the United Arab Emirates. Seven million ad. mainstream Buddhism and nonMahayana Buddhism. 6.2 million adherents.* [196] Theravāda is primarily practiced today in Sri Lanka. Nikaya Buddhism. Buddhism has tion. there was a fast annual growth of Buddhism in Pakistan. Iran and some African countries. 6 Schools and traditions Main articles: Schools of Buddhism and Buddhahood Buddhists generally classify themselves as either Theravada or Mahayana. For exditional Buddhists are found outside of Asia.Mahayana Buddhism flourished in India from the 5th ical outlook. to 495 million in 2010.6.some comparisons can be drawn between them. according to one Buddhist ecumenical organiza* According to Johnson and Grim (2013). early Buddhist schools. East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. probably caused by a group of reformists called Sthaviras who split from the conservative majority Mahāsāṃghikas. of which 487 million are in Asia.* [196] They also emphasized Theravada being rational and scientific.* [187] There are 10 countries with the highest Buddhist majority: • Both accept the Buddha as their teacher. the countries with highest growth rates are Qatar.3 Mahayana traditions conservative Buddhism. themselves have a variety of other schemes. Main article: Mahayana Young monks in Cambodia Not all traditions of Buddhism share the same philosoph.* [186] According to them. It has Some scholars* [note 44] use other schemes. ample. the Noble Eightfold Path and the Three marks of existence. Laos. Hinayana (literally “lesser vehicle”) is used by Mahayana follow. * [198] In most of this Buddhist scriptures and other texts exist in great variety.g. introducing a copying error Japan. Some texts still exist in Sanskrit and Buddhist with substantial elements from other traditions. and to the Chogye school.* [202] itself. area however. but Chinese. nearly all Buddhists belong tures are mainly written in Pāli. the most Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as important one being the Nālandā University in north. a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradithe Lotus Sutra and the Mahaparinirvana Sutra) to lay tion. Eastern Tarim Basin. a form of Vajrayana. they form separate de. China. mavajra. Pure Land. Singapore. Some of these sutras became for Mahayanists a effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught manifestation of the Buddha himself.24 Chinese and Central Asian monks. and faith in and originally by Manjushri. Bezeklik. pe. Korea.* [201] The Guhyasiddhi of Padveneration of those texts are stated in some sutras (e.value on learning the various texts.* [199] Hybrid Sanskrit. but is discussed below under the heading of Vajrayana (also commonly referred to as “Northern Buddhism”). the Himalayan regions. others take a more scholastic approach. parts of Russia and most of where a deity was mistaken for a place. There are a variety of strands in Eastern Bud. which is officially Son (Zen). which later eastern India. The Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Native Mahayana Buddhism is practiced today in China. Buddhist scripTendai. Some schools venernominations with the five major ones being: Nichiren. In Japan in particular.* [200] The Mañjusrimulakalpa. Shingon. Tibetan.ate certain texts as religious objects in themselves. 9th–10th century. (National Institute of Informatics and the Tōyō Bunko) 7 BUDDHIST TEXTS Japanese Mahayana Buddhist monk with alms bowl 6. Saiva text Tantrasadbhava.Main article: Buddhist texts dhism. and Zen. Garuda and Vaisnava tantras will be Sutras.* [203] Vietnam (also commonly referred to as “Eastern Buddhism”). of which “the Pure Land school of Mahayana is the most widely practised today. came to classified under Kriyatantra. prescribes acting as a Saiva guru and initiating memthe foundations for the later attainment of Buddhahood bers into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas. while culiar to Japan.a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Saivism. Mongolian. The Buddhism practiced in Tibet.4 Vajrayana traditions Main article: Vajrayana Mahāyāna centres of learning were established. .”. In Korea. states that mantras Mahayana schools recognize all or part of the Mahayana taught in the Saiva. and Mongolia is also Mahayana in ori.7 Buddhist texts gin. they are fused into a single unified form of Different schools of Buddhism place varying levels of Buddhism. along with other.7. with the emphasis on Zen. The Tibetan Buddhists have not even translated most of the āgamas (though theoretically they recognize them) and they play no part in the religious life of either clergy or laity in China and Japan. Buddhism has no single central text that is universally referred to by all traditions. refers to the Vinaya Pitaka. We have portions of the Tipitakas of the Sārvāstivāda. but currently there is no single text that represents all Buddhist traditions. are known to the other schools as the āgamas. combined document of Buddhist principles in “The Buddha and His Dhamma”.* [205] Other scholars say there is no universally accepted common core. Later in Sri Lanka. while the followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism base their faith and philosophy primarily on the Mahāyāna sūtras and their own vinaya. teaching. various attempts have been made to synthesize a single Buddhist text that can encompass all of the major principles of Buddhism. More recently. The Pāli sutras. Kāśyapīya. However. Nepal Dwight Goddard collected a sample of Buddhist scriptures. The Pāli Tipitaka is the only early Tipitaka (Sanskrit: Tripiṭaka) to survive intact in its original language. such as the Tao Te Ching.* [206] The size and complexity of the Buddhist canons have been seen by some (including Buddhist social reformer Babasaheb Ambedkar) as presenting barriers to the wider understanding of Buddhist philosophy. The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains material often described as systematic expositions of the Gautama Buddha's teachings. Sammitya. as well as explanations of why and how these rules were instituted. which means “three baskets”. Mahāsaṅghika. as Mahāyāna considers these The Pāli Tipitaka. The followers of Theravāda Buddhism take the scriptures known as the Pāli Canon as definitive and authoritative. the Dhammapada was championed as a unifying scripture. supporting material. and doctrinal clarification. Over the years. The Vinaya Pitaka contains disciplinary rules for the Buddhist monks and nuns. Dharmaguptaka. condensed 'study texts' were created that combined popular or influential scriptures into single volumes that could be studied by novice monks.1 Pāli Tipitaka 25 merely a preliminary.* [204] This could be considered misleading. into his 'Buddhist Bible' in the 1920s. In the Theravada tradition. and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. Other such efforts have persisted to present day. Dr. but a number of early schools had their own recensions of the Tipitaka featuring much of the same material. and . along with other classics of Eastern philosophy. Boudhanath. Kathmandu. the Sutta Pitaka. and not a core. some scholars have referred to the Vinaya Pitaka and the first four Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka as the common core of all Buddhist traditions. Unlike many religions. Babasaheb Ambedkar attempted to create a single. The Sutta Pitaka contains discourses ascribed to Gautama Buddha. closely related scriptures.1 Pāli Tipitaka Main article: Pāli Canon Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur. 7. which was criticized by Nagarjuna and is in fact opposed to early Buddhist thought)* [209] and the Mahayana sutras as authen. Hence the name Upāli recited the vinaya. Both the because human beings at the time could not understand sūtras and the vinaya of every Buddhist school contain them:* [210] a wide variety of elements including discourses on the Dharma. but is instead the collection of teachings that this school preserved from the early. the sravakas ('pupils'). some early els of spiritual understanding. most of which survive in Chinese designed for different types of persons and different levtranslation only. Ānanda. non-sectarian body of teachings.Only the Theravada school does not include the Matic teachings of Gautama Buddha. He states:“The Theravadins. cosmological Some of our sources maintain the authenand cosmogonical texts. very different —in fact seemingly older—ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior. or were preserved in non-human worlds was committed to text in the last century BCE. That path is named Mahākāśyapa (Pāli: Mahākassapa) presided..2 Mahayana sutras These texts are those held genuine by the later school.”* [208] 7. According to the Mahayana historians these texts were admittedly unknown to the early schools of Buddhists. stories of the Gautama Buddha's ticity of certain other texts not found in the previous lives. the first Buddhist council was held. canons of these schools (the early schools). a monk those who follow the bodhisattva path. the Buddha's personal Mahāyāna (lit. The explained as being built upon the motivation to libergoal of the council was to record the Buddha's teachings.* [207] The Mahayana sutras often claim to articulate the BudAccording to the scriptures. not one of the eighteen. Much of the material in the Canon is not specifically “Theravadin”. and claim they were hayana scriptures in its canon. the pejorative label Hinayana was applied by Mahayana supporters to those who rejected the Mahayana sutras.000 wood printing blocks. As the modern Ther- . and Bodhisattvas. Main article: Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are a very broad genre of Buddhist Approximately six hundred Mahayana sutras have survived in Sanskrit or in Chinese or Tibetan translations. According to Peter Harvey. then. 'Great Vehicle'. Some adherents of Mahayana accept both the early teachings (including in this the Sarvastivada Abhidharma. It was not until after the 5th century CE that the Mahayana sutras started to influence the behavior of mainstream Buddhists in India: “But outside of texts. Some of these had their roots in other scriptures composed in the 1st century BCE. attendant. but they were taught to various supernatural beings and then preserved in such places as the Dragon World. may have added texts to the Canon for some time. at least in India. scriptures that the Mahayana Buddhist tradition holds are original teachings of the Buddha.”* [211] These texts were apparently not universally accepted among Indian Buddhists when they appeared. an edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon carved and preserved in over 81. came from other Buddhas or was initially transmitted orally in form of chanting. The Tripiṭaka Koreana in South Korea. ate all living beings from unhappiness. According to some sources. it contains material at odds with later Theravadin orthodoxy. [The Buddha's] followers on earth. East Asian Buddhism recognizes some sutras regarded by scholars as of Chinese rather than Indian origin. In addition. but they do not appear to have tampered with what they already had from an earlier period. reserved for Buddha. and hence were not given them to remember. this record were transmitted in secret. had not been sufficiently advanced to understand them. scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures were composed from the 1st century CE onwards: “Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century”. soon after the death of the dha's deeper. the Great Vehicle). was called upon to recite the dhamma. the Mahayana sutras became the basis of the Tripitaka. and old and established Hinnayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported. which arrogated to itself the title of Mahayana. Generally. These According to Mahayana tradition. However. However. schools of Buddhism had five or seven pitakas.26 7 BUDDHIST TEXTS Mahīśāsaka schools. and various other subjects.* [211] five centuries after the historical Gautama Buddha. they had all been promulgated by the Buddha. commentaries on other teachings. more advanced doctrines. at exactly the same period. ”She notes that the term Śrāvakayāna was “the more politically correct and much more usual”term used by Mahāyānists.* [212] Jonathan Silk has argued that the term “Hinayana”was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion. 'Buddhas'.. On the other difference among the various religions of the world. Kōtoku-in in Japan Buddhism's emphasis on the Middle way not only provides a unique guideline for ethics but has also allowed Buddhism to peacefully coexist with various differing bepractices and mind trainings can effectively show us liefs. Also. as well as Western metaphysics. as well as em8. For example. For example: • Surya Das states: “For Buddhism is less a theology or religion than a promise that certain meditative • Damien Keown states: “Problems [. nor does it seek to define itself by reference to * hood'. in the modern era. From the very beginning it has also had philosophical elements. pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of For example: Buddhism: is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines 'a religion'. hand...] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. it is almost inevitable that jects of close study. Buddhism views activities that would be genand among the various schools of Buddhism itself.1 Is Buddhism a religion? 27 avada school is descended from a branch of Buddhism that diverged and established itself in Sri Lanka prior to the emergence of the Mahayana texts.. The Great Buddha of Kamakura. its moral and spirfrom suffering and confusion.8. is that Buddhism does not involve belief correctly indicates that the religion is characterized in a creator God who has control over human desby devotion to 'the Buddha'. scientific thought. Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of . with various tenets of Christianity—have been subengage with Buddhism. But Buddhism has never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. it took over 2. or 'buddhatiny. this label is seen as derogatory. Alan Wallace states: “When we in the West first ple.”* [218] pends upon how religion is defined. customs and institutions in countries where it has how to awaken our Buddha-nature and liberate us resided throughout its history. In addition. debate exists as to whether the Theravada were historically included in the hinayana designation... What is certain. Scholar Isabelle Onians asserts that although “the Mahāyāna . as Edward Conze has pointed out.” “the preponderance of this name in the secondary literature is far out of proportion to occurrences in the Indian texts. • Rupert Gethin states: “I am not concerned here to Many sources commonly refer to Buddhism as a religion. calling it simply a 'religion.”* [216] itual parallels with other systems of thought—for exam• B..”* [215] practices and rituals —as a legitimate. and is generally avoided.” [214] a creed. • Peter Harvey states:“The English term 'Buddhism' however. useful.'"* [217] There are differences of opinion on the question of whether or not Buddhism should be considered a religion.000 years and a couple of Western converts • Joseph Goldstein states: “Although there are many to Buddhism to provide it with a creed.* [213] 8 Comparative studies Buddhism provides many opportunities for comparative study with a diverse range of subjects.. erally understood as religious—such as devotional there is also a great deal in common. and even essential part of the practice and training that Other sources note that the answer to this question deleads to the cessation of suffering.1 Is Buddhism a religion? pirical and rational elements that may invite the term 'science. very occasionally referred contemptuously to earlier Buddhism as the Hinayāna. and did not refer to any definite grouping of Buddhists. the Buddhist concept we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apof dependent origination has been compared to modern ply it to Buddhism.'. the Inferior Way. and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories.”and “Buddhism does not have to be the problematic touchstone for a global concept of religion.. then you should realize that the path the Buddha taught is primarily a study of your own mind and a system for training your mind. It is not the monopoly of anybody.] Some have suggested that a new category – that of the 'non-theistic' religion – is needed to encompass Buddhism. Christian. nevertheless. The name one gives it is inessential. psychology. resembles other religions in depending on mystical notions. neurobiology and physics.. In these fields there are insights to share.. mainly in the fields of cosmology. This path is spiritual. Buddhism is the favorite example of scholars who have Some Marxist groups have criticized Buddhism for causing Tibet to have an undeveloped. Even the label 'Buddhism' which we give to the teaching of the Buddha is of little importance. As is well-known. Therefore.”* [220] • Ilkka Pyysiäinen states: “There are thus great difficulties involved in conceptualizing religion as belief in god(s).] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of religion. freedom.”* [222] • Walpola Rahula states: “The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy? It does not matter what you call it. Another possibility is that our original definition is simply too narrow. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. agrarian economy. with this conviction I try to have closer ties with scientists. from another viewpoint Buddhism is a science of mind and not a religion. though non-theistic.”* [web 24] 9 Criticism Main article: Criticism of Buddhism Czech Buddhists • The Dalai Lama states:“From one viewpoint.”* [221] • Martin Southwold states: “It is argued that Buddhism. for example. not heaven.* [web 25] 10 See also • Outline of Buddhism • Buddhism by country • Buddhism and science • Chinese folk religion • Easily confused Buddhist representations • Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand . do we mean by 'religion'? Most people would say that religion has something to do with belief in God. [. superhuman agents. In the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist. it is shown how this contributes to understanding the social functions of religions. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth... And it is deeply personal. Hindu nor Moslem. not salvation. Its goal is self-knowledge.28 10 ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things. not religious.”* [223] • Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche states: “If you are interested in 'meeting the Buddha' and following his example. By any other name would smell as sweet. What. The label is immaterial. then Buddhism cannot be a religion. [. Buddhism is a religion.* [219] SEE ALSO argued that we should find some other way of defining religion than the one based on the idea of belief in gods or superhuman beings. Buddhism can be a bridge between these two sides. although we intuitively think that some such beings. etc. and they produce harmful prejudices in men's minds. What's in a name? That which we call a rose. are essential in religion. and to a certain extent we can work together. [17] According to Masih:* [95] “Alongside Hinduism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times. It is independent of words or letters and transmitted apart from scriptural teaching. In particular.. 1997a). The cultural context.” * [88] [15] Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism. accusations.. when described as five realms. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [. same foods. [5] For clarification of translations.2.. According to this view. with whom they marry. practitioners of Zen believe that Enlightenment. Linji.. and that this is confirmed by Buddhaghosa..65 (e. Prebish:* [86]“Although a variety of Zen 'schools' developed in Japan. then begins a numbered list of doctrines over the following pages. including on p. 212 says: “Here are the theses of the Theravadins of the Mahavihara".. 244): “It presumes that sitting in meditation itself (i. that the realization attained is none other than the Buddha nature possessed by each sentient being . Thanissaro. they all emphasize Zen as a teaching that does not depend on sacred texts. same foods. (2009).g.. divisive speech.. and lies”) [11] Shaw also notes that discourses on meditation are addressed to “bhikkhave”.g.” . Retrieved November 26. Other “applications”of what might be termed “mundane dependent origination”include the nine-nidana scheme of Digha Nikaya 15 (e.” [19] Karel Werner:* [97]“Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' . see SN 12. from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition [2] Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms. same lifespan as the gods. they marry. 223: “There are only five destinies . Retrieved 19-072009. same lifespan as the petas. As for the Vepacittiparisa. in multiple discourses in chapter 12 of the Samyutta Nikaya—Nidana Vagga (e. and in some later literature. Hisamatsu states: “Linji indicates our true way of being in such direct expressions as 'True Person' and 'True Self'. Speaking of Zen in general. the kalakanjika asuras have the same colour. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. quarrels. Retrieved 19-07-2009. Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence. for instance. but a state that can occur instantly when we cut through the dense veil of mental and emotional obscurations. they have the same colour.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads. Jainism and Buddhism. [6] See the article Dukkha for further details and citations. Challenges to Brahmanism (6th – 2nd century BCE). 1997b) and the ten-nidana scheme of Samyutta Nikaya 12. [13] Prebish comments (op. that provides the potential for direct realization.. In Encyclopædia Britannica. So-called“transcendental dependent origination”(also involving twelve nidanas) is described in Samyutta Nikaya 12. same nourishment. Chapter 2 [9] Thanissaro Bhikkhu. [7] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations. the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm. Buddhist scholar Stephen Hodge writes: ".. zazen) is an expression of Buddha nature.e.”.. Hinduism: History of Hinduism: The Vedic period (2nd millennium – 7th century BCE). 1997c). In addition. 1995). the awakening of the Buddha-mind or Buddha-nature.” [18] Masih:* [96]“This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism. from Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition [16] Encyclopædia Britannica Online... It is just our direct awakening to Self . and disputes.] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith. cit. The Not-Self Strategy. is our natural state.”* [87] [14] Commenting on Rinzai Zen and its Chinese founder. See Point 3 – The Canon quote Thanissaro Bhikkhu draws attention to is the Sabbasava Sutta.. the section "The four truths" within that article provides a footnote showing variety of translations of these four statements. Buddhism doesn't really need scriptures.. p.. but that in this context the terms is more generic than simply (male) “monks”and refers to all practitioners. In Encyclopædia Britannica.g. same nourishment. conflicts.29 • Index of Buddhism-related articles • Indian religions • List of books related to Buddhism • List of Buddhist temples • Nonviolence 11 Notes [1]“Buddhism”. Enlightenment is not something that we must acquire a bit at a time. in early Buddhism. Thanissaro. see Bodhi. [8] Rahula: What the Buddha Taught.. [10] This twelve nidana scheme can be found. Early Hinduism (2nd century BCE – 4th century CE).* [85] [12] According to Charles S.g. [3] André Bareau: the top of p. with whom . Thanissaro.. but has been covered over by layers of negative emotions and distorted thoughts.”The method is to detach the mind from conceptual modes of thinking and perceive Reality directly. Digha Nikaya 15 describes an eleven-nidana scheme (starting with“feeling”) that leads to interpersonal suffering“the ( taking up of sticks and knives. see Dukkha#Translating the term dukkha.23 (e."(Translated from the French)* [33] [4] See the article Four Noble Truths for further details and citations. 2009. and Bhagu" in P. Dharmaguptaka and other schools. anuttaramyagakkhemam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe place. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahamini[32] According to Schmithausen. coming down from the pre-Vedic nonAryan time. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones of olden time. for the Chinese text from the Hou Hanshu.” have been incidental to early Buddhist soteriology. Retrieved 1907-2009. Japan.[30] A proponent of the second position is Ronald Davidsara are obscure. Encyclopedia of Religion. These concepts were certainly circuson. like that of the transmigration of soul. page 270 [43] (Harvey 1990). Furthermore. Korea. Angiraso. the cultural context. p. whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema.* [137] [23] Kashi Nath Upadhyaya: “The sudden appearance of this theory [of karma] in a full-fledged form is likely due... see chapter 2. p. Mulasarvastivada. Vâsettho. SN 2. Buddhism: The foundations of Buddhism. seeking the unsurpassable. men and women lay-followers. widespread and widely known become popular in short.* [119] the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter.166. (2)“The East Asian tradition of China. Warder* [subnote 1] [38]“Abhidhamma Pitaka. Mahisasaka. “the karma doctrine may cal thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions.(Gombrich. Yamataggi. the nirvana).30 11 NOTES [20] Flood:* [98]“The origin and doctrine of Karma and Sam. 1– 2.1984). but by practicing the fourth noble truth. immortality) [..35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram santivarapadam pariyesamano (searching for that which is beneficial.g. volume 54. even monks. also sometimes referred to as . but came from China.* [subnote 3] lating amongst sramanas. of non-brahmanical origin. 165. nuns. I have told to the monks.. and the matters that I have come to know fully as I was going along it. 2008 [39]“The most important evidence —in fact the only evidence —for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all.* [114]* [115] and the Chinese Agamas and other surviving portions of other early canons.” [26] Hāṇḍā: “Even so have I.. pp.K.. Vessâmitto.* [120] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich.* [179] [42] See Philosophy East and West. [28] Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of “liberating insight”by Lambert Schmithausen. and p. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE. 30.163. 235).* [117] the philological work on the four truths by K. 245 The Vinaya piṭakaṃ: one of the principle Buddhist holy scriptures .”* [112] [27] The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada. also sometimes referred to as 'eastern' Buddhism". de veloped specific and sophisticated ideas about the pro.[31] Well-known Jong.15. 105 [22] Govind Chandra Pande:* [100]“Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma. Kassapo. Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p. it is highly probable that it was derived from them. [25]“Atthako. Ultimate Reference Suite. monks.”* [138] [24] Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Volume 1 edited by Hermann Oldenberg [37] See Journal of the Pāli Text Society.] but one could say here that it is a negative term. [36] Charles Prebish (2005). and sukha and rati (happiness). well made manifest for gods and men. Vâmako. there was a small. footnote 3. satthi (welfare) is important in e.” [33] Majjhima Nikaya 36 [34] Vetter: [T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths.Along that have I done. best place of peace) and again MN 26 (passim).. “Councils: Buddhist Councils” .W. In Lindsay Jones. as used in Sn 439 and 956.”Encyclopædia Britannica.* [121] [29] Well-known proponents of the first position are A. also sometimes referred to as 'southern' Buddhism". and Vietnam. which culminates in right samadhi.”* [130] [21] Padmanabh S. Norman.”* [101] [35] Vetter: “I am especially thinking here of MN 26 (I p.”* [169] [40]“The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras”Warder* [171] [41] See Hill (2009). the eighfold path.12 or 2.. as already pointed out. (3)“The Tibetan tradition. Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. New York: Macmillan. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal. to an impact of the wandering muniand-shramana-cult. seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian.* [124]* [subnote 4] cess of transmigration. Jaini states:* [99] “Yajnavalkya's reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was.32. seen an ancient way. Gethin (1998).17 or Sn 269. and Jainism and Buddhism deproponent of the third position are J.R. this Brahma-faring brahmacharya that is prosperous and flourishing. in contrast to other places. 31 for a translation of it. and. Vâmadevo. volume XVI. identifies“three broad traditions”as: (1)“The Theravāda tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures. Bhâradvâjo.* [51] and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst. Harvey (1990/2007). [17] Buswell 2004. Japan. codified in fixed formulas. Donald. Robinson & Johnson (1970/1982). 143. 392–3. xx. xii. The Three Bodies of the Buddha: The Origin and Development of the Trikaya Theory. 6-7) writes: “As a matter of fact Buddhism in mainland India itself had all but ceased to exist by the thirteenth century CE. 275f. ed. 267. p. 10. [2] Richard Gombrich: “I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. 100-1. xxix: “c. although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha. p. printed ed. 27–28. 26–27. [3] Lopez 2001. p. 107. Princeton University Press.g. [5] Bronkhorst: “This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay find. in his 1970 publication “Indian Buddhism”. p. “East Asian Buddhism”and “Buddhism Comes West. “Chronology. [20] Armstrong 2004. page 279. of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha. 5. p. and of the main body of monastic rules.". if not impossible. [8] Powers. 111. p. 352. ed. 2006 canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha].”* [125] [6] Lopez: “The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult. De Jong: “It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [. the multi-dimensional classification in Encyclopedia of Religion* [193] [45] Cousins. p. [1] According to A. David Gordon (ed. Ithaca. Encyclopedia Britannica. finally. 1000-1200: Buddhism disappears as [an] organized religious force in India. 32: “…[T]he best we can say is that [the Buddha] was probably Enlightened between 550 and 450.”See also. transmitted and developed by his disciples and. “Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area”. although by that time it had spread to Tibet. 139-40. 21. [2] Roach 2011. Part Two is entitled “The Development of Buddhism Outside of India”with chapters on “The Buddhism of Southeast Asia”. [19] Carrithers 1986. 1984. Retrieved 6 March 2016. p. [14] Padmasambhava 2004. Subnotes [7] White. 36-8. 147. L.”* [126] [44] See e. and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. 239. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism (Rev.S. p.] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the [4] Lopez. Ithaca. p. Warder. ISBN 978-1-55939-282-2. Buswell (2003). Gombrich (1988/2002). It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself. [12] Robinson 1998. and. 1.”p. the four Nikāyas."<ref name='FOOTNOTEDavidson2003147'>Davidson 2003. 73–74.) (2000). Oxford: Routledge Curzon: pp. 82. p. 25. his publisher: “This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before th great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC.. pp. Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism (Rev.”* [51] [3] Ronald Davidson: “While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted.” Embree et al. p. [9]“Candles in the Dark: A New Spirit for a Plural World” by Barbara Sundberg Baudot. p305 [10] Powers. [5] Guang Xing (2005). [18] Lopez 1995. ISBN 0-691-05779-6. “Buddha: Founder of Buddhism”.1 and 85 [6] Gethin 1998. if any. more likely later rather than earlier. and Southeast Asia. Journal of Buddhist Ethics. Keown & Prebish (2004).W. pp. Tantra in Practice. pp. Penguin handbook of Living Religions. p. p. p."<ref name='FOOTNOTEWarder1999inside flap'>Warder. even if no success is guaranteed. New York: Snow Lion Publications. Introducing Buddhism. 415. Prebish & Keown. p. [23] Keown 2003. I. and. (1996). New York: Snow Lion Publications. By “the main edifice”I mean the collections of the main body of sermons. p.” 12 References [1] Wells 2008. pp. 177. China. to recover or reconstruct. 16. c. John (2007). p. & 1999 inside flap.q. 108 Fig. . Robinson & Johnson (1982) divide their book into two parts: Part One is entitled “The Buddhism of South Asia”(which pertains to Early Buddhism in India). [21] Gombrich 1988. Harper. [11] Williams 1998. Vol. ISBN 978-1-55939-282-2. [22] Kohn 1991. [46] Williams (2000.K.31 'northern' Buddhism. pp. [15] Harvey 2013. John (2007). See also. 49. ebook. [4] J. from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out. [16] Swearer 2004.). we have little confidence that much.). and. p. pp. [13] Harvey 2013. pp. (1958/1988).. 2005."<ref name='FOOTNOTEJong199325'>Jong 1993.* [115] According to Warder. 33. p. 51. p. 74. p. p. 37. p. 396. pp. [84] Keown 2007. 37. p. [51] Gombrich 1997. [60] Gyatso 1995. 708f. p. 781. pp. p. pp. [98] Flood 1996. p. [34] Buswell 2004. 107. [66] Carrithers 1986. [67] Wynne 2007. 161. [68] Gombrich 1988. 89. p. p. [33] Bareau 1955. p. 51. [90] Harvey 1990. p. p. p. p. 86. p. [28] Lopez 1995. 25. [85] Shaw 2006. p. [96] Masih 2000. p. 1–12. [61] Harvey 1990. p. [31] Buswell 2004. 56. 73. [30] Harvey 1990. 184. 77. [29] Keown 1996. 185. 8. 40. p. p. 144. 1–17. p. [55] Gyatso 1995. p. pp. 98. [78] McFarlane 2001. [86] Prebish 1993. pp. p. [88] Hisamatsu 2002. 34. p. 248. [26] Harvey 1990. p. 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