Central to Rogers' personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept.This is defined as "the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself". The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud's psyche. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others. According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image. The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components: Self worth (or self-esteem) – what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. Self-image – How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality. At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image has an affect on how a person thinks feels and behaves in the world. Ideal self – This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc. Rogers based his personality development propositions on humanistic (personcentered) psychology and phenomenal field (subjective experience) theory. He believed that everyone exists in a constantly changing world of experience in which he/she is the center. A person reacts to changes in his/her phenomenal field in a holistic fashion . All behavior is motivated by self-actualizing tendencies, which drives a person to achieve at his/her highest level. As a result of these interactions with the environment and others, an individual forms a structure of the self—an organized, fluid, conceptual pattern of concepts and values related to the self. The Phenomenal Field and is common and conforming rather than creative (Maddi. contrary to expectations (Pearson. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfill his/her potential at each of these processes. Preponderance for organismic trust of their own judgments and choices. Tendency toward rich. leading to either disorganized and bizarre or organized and functional personalities. Higher levels of creativity and adaptability without necessarily conforming. Ryckmann (1993) otes that some studies have found non-defensive . 1972. The Good Life Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. The "maladjusted person" is the polar opposite of the fully functioning individual (who was introduced early in this essay). 1974. in which no preconceived conditions of worth are present. cited in Maddi. creative and able to live "the good life". achieving what he called the good life. The extent to which a person is forced to develop outside of true actualizing tendency determines personality incongruence—the gap between the real self and the ideal self. full lives with exciting and intense experiences. Extreme reliability and constructiveness in their dealings with others. 1996). must match or achieve those conditions to fully actualize. These principles existed in fluid processes rather than static states. is completely defense-free.The phenomenal field refers to a person's subjective reality that includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. Increasingly existential lifestyle in which each moment is appreciated and lived to its fullest. open to experience. The openness to experience characteristic has been supported (Coan. He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common: Growing openness to experiences and a lack of defensiveness toward anything new. However. In the development of the self-concept. 1969. The fully functioning person. People raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard. in which certain conditions of worth are laid out by others. The maladjusted individual is defensive. People raised in an environment of conditional positive regard. maintains rather than enhances his/her life. Incongruity grows or diminishes based on the conditionality level of positive regard and self-regard. 1996). some studies have found that openness to experience and organismic trusting did not intercorrelate. Greater freedom of choice and a lack of personal restrictions or rules. feels manipulated rather than free. 1996). in contrast. Empirical support for the fully functioning person is somewhat mixed. lives according to a preconceived plan. Rogers elevated the importance of positive regard or feedback. had the opportunity to fully actualize. cited in Maddi. These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience. leadership. If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school then this can obviously have bad results. when theorizing about all people. Although the CRs (such as salivation) studied in the laboratory may be trivial.people are more accepting of others and Maddi (1996) cites numerous studies that indicate selfaccepting people also appear to be more accepting of others. Rogers greatest contribution may lie in his encouraging a humane and ethical treatment of persons. an association forms between them. The observed CR (salivation. Maddi (1996) suggests these extreme characterizations of only two types may be due to this personality theory being secondary to a theory of therapy. Rogers' pervasive interest in therapy is what clearly differentiates him from Maslow. Here are two examples from the behaviour of our own species. politics and community health (Krebs & Blackman. Presumably. despite some similarities in their ideas. but it provides a useful index of the otherwise unobservable formation of an association. His personcentered therapy may well be his most influential contribution to psychology. two types are insufficient. education. It is appropriate for a theory of psychotherapy to concern itself with the two extremes of fullest functioning and maladjustment. Researchers have made extensive use of simple classical conditioning procedures as a sort of ‘test bed’ for developing theories of associative learning. The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those ofoperant conditioning. In my opinion. As a laboratory procedure. As a mechanism of behavioural adaptation. such as creating a school phobia . conflict resolution. It is somewhat puzzling given his humanistic emphasis on individuality. Carl Rogers was most interested in improving the human condition and applying his ideas. 1988). but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. Simply moving through the environment will expose the animal to sequences of events that go together. that Rogers describes only two extremes of people. However. the underlying process is fundamental to learning about the relationship among environmental events. their counterparts in the real world produce effects of major psychological significance. The person-centered approach has had impact on domains outside of therapy such as family life. the informal equivalent of sensory preconditioning will be occurring all the time as an animal goes about its normal everyday business. classical conditioning is an important process in its own right. and the associations that form among them will constitute an important piece of knowledge – a ‘map’ of its world. 3. Although the behavioural consequence of conditioning may appear to be merely the development of an anticipatory reflex. pecking. classical conditioning is important because it allows exploration of the nature of associative learning. or whatever) may not be of much interest in itself. approaching psychology as a human science rather than a natural science. 2. Some of these will be described in a later section of this chapter. Sensory preconditioning tells us that when neutral stimuli co-occur. Russian scientist. 21). many new conditioned responses can be learned. after time." the dogs had transferred the reflex to these events (Schwartz & Lacy. 1982. p. He could reliably predict that dogs would salivate when food was placed in the mouth through a reflex called the "salivary reflex" in digestion. What Pavlov discovered was first order conditioning. Whereas Pavlov and most of his contemporaries saw classical conditioning as learning that comes from exposing an organism to associations of environmental events. the unconditioned response. A. Rescorla emphasizes the fact that contiguity or a temporal relationship between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus is not enough for Pavlovian conditioning to occur. prefer to define it in more specific terms. . like R. He found that the results matched and the dogs had begun to salivate with the tone and without food (Schwartz & Lacy. the salivary reflex occurred even before the food was offered. Rescorla. to transfer to the neutral stimulus. the conditioned stimulus must relate some information about the unconditioned stimulus (Rescorla. 20-24). In this process. Modern classical conditioning. 1988. Pavlov continued experimenting with the dogs using a tone to signal for food. While studying digestive reflexes in dogs. The unconditioned stimulus no longer needs to be there for the response to occur in the presence of the formerly neutral stimulus. Pavlov. modern classical conditioning theorists. Given that this response is not natural and has to be learned. 1982. When another neutral stimulus is introduced and associated with the conditioned stimulus. the dogs began salivating simply at the door's sound and the attendant's presence. pp. Yet he soon realized that. Because the sound of the door and the sight of the attendant carrying the food "had repeatedly and reliably preceded the delivery of food to the mouth in the past. Now the second conditioned stimulus can cause the response without both the first conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. even further conditioning takes place. Second order conditioning.Classical Conditioning The Pavlovian experiment. The conditioned response trained to occur only after the conditioned stimulus now transfers to the neutral stimulus making it another conditioned stimulus. made the discovery that led to the real beginnings of behavioral theory. This usually temporal association causes the response to the unconditioned stimulus. 151-153). the response is now a conditioned response and the neutral stimulus is now a conditioned stimulus. an event that automatically or naturally causes a response. Thus. Instead. pp. a neutral stimulus that causes no natural response in an organism is associated with an unconditioned stimulus. Thus. and believed that only a few traits really define who we are. A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific.The importance of this distinction can be seen in the experimental work done by Kamin (1969) and his blocking effect. This is because complex behavior is broken down into smaller stimulus . He called these defining traits. In his experiment. rats were exposed to a tone followed by a shock. it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture. some would argue that the reductionist view lacks validity. the tone became a conditioned response. when the same rats were exposed to a tone and a light followed by a shock. and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. This was because the tone had already related the information of the shock's arrival. Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. a small number of traits that together dominate a person’s behavior. Critical Evaluation Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment. Yet. For example.000 traits Gordon Allport was one of the pioneers of formal personality psychology. and can be . Allport in 1936 went through a dictionary and picked out more than 4. It is more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture (environment). Pavlov (1902) showed how classical conditioning can be used to make dog salivate to the sound of a bell. and supports nurture over nature. Allport’s 4. However. This is because it's based on empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments. and is considered a trait theorist. However. The traits share the makeup of a personality. he was able to group them into three main categories. While these would make up the greater toolbox of Allport’s trait theory. Breaking complicated behaviors down to small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior. it can lead to incomplete explanations. whilst reductionism is useful.response units of behavior. no conditioning occurred with the light. Following Pavlovian conditioning principles.000 words that describe the human personality. Thus. Central Traits. Some psychologists argue that the situational variables (i. Another strength is that trait theory uses objective criteria for categorizing and measuring behavior. one central trait will emerge as a dominant force in a personality. which becomes a person’s defining personality trait that overshadows all others. These are aspects of a personality that may be situational. an extroverted individual is energized by social interactions and seeks out social situations. Strengths One strength of the trait perspective is its ability to categorize observable behaviors. intelligent or honest. but . such as disliking being in closed spaces or crowds.e. Self-report measures require that an individual be introspective enough to understand his or her own behavior. observing the behaviors of an individual over time and in various circumstances provides evidence for the personality traits categorized in trait theories. and about which traits cause which behaviors. Another limitation. Researchers have found that examining the aggregate behaviors of individuals provides a strong correlation with traits. Critics argue that traits do a poor job of predicting behavior in every situation. and criticism. but there is no indication as to why these traits interact in the way that they do. Along with this strength is the strength that trait theories were developed often independently of each other and using factor analysis to derive at a specific set of traits. He called this a Cardinal Trait. of trait theory is that is does not explain why an individual behaves as he or she does. often arrived at a similar set of traits through factor analysis. Limitations One criticism of the trait perspective lies in their predictive value. Coming in at a less influential level are Secondary Traits. while developing their theories independent of each other. Personal observations requires that an individual spend enough time observing someone else in a number of situations in order to be able to provide an accurate assessment of behaviors. Allport theorized that occasionally but notably. environmental factors) determine behavior. For example.. In other words. Another limitation of trait theory is that it requires personal observations or selfreport to measure.descriptions like shy. or of limited importance. Both of these measures are subject to observer bias and other forms of inaccuracy. not traits. Trait theorists. Finally. Trait theories provide information about people. other psychologists argue that a combination of traits and situational variables influence behavior. thinking. This is partly because we tend to notice people’s most outstanding characteristics (as opposed to ways in which they are just average) The Big Five These are known as the ‘Big Five’. long-term consistency in their particular ways of perceiving. Organised patterns of thought and feeling and behaviour. behaviour patterns and emotional patterns which defines personality Five Factors? When we describe someone’s personality. novelty. challenge and intellectual stimulation NEUROTICISM — the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions . Personality can be defined as consistency in a person’s way of being — that is. we use words which characterise whatever makes that person distinctive and perhaps even unique.trait theory does not offer any explanation for why this might occur or why the introvert would avoid such situations. energetic and sociable OPENNESS — the tendency to enjoy variety. acting and reacting as a person. It is this general predictability in individuals’ thought patterns. but they have been labelled as follows: EXTROVERSION — the tendency to be outgoing. Factor 2 and so on. We could simply call them Factor 1. Many studies show that we can include a sixth factor. called Honesty/Humility (or the H factor). they can identify 20-30 factors. or “facets”. compassionate and cooperative CONSCIENTIOUSNESS — the tendency to show self-discipline and selfcontrol The H Factor The five factors are not etched in stone. It depends upon your perspective on human nature. and their environments. If you believe in a mechanical universe in which people are merely puppets driven by their genes. however. Nature + Nurture Beyond all those one-sided psychological theories lies the general consensus: that our personality is built on a combination of conscious (voluntary) and unconscious (involuntary) factors. AGREEABLENESS — the tendency to be friendly. their brains. be very strict with the numbers and look for tight clusters between words which are strongly connected. then the personality . however. This is essentially a dimension of character maturity. When researchers do this. ranging from high selfishness to high integrity. Facets We could. the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. biological.is simply temperament: it’s a set of hard-wired behavioural tendencies forged by all those genetic. If you believe that the universe is a self-creating consciousness. then personality is more to do with character: a set of strengths and virtues. Continuous Reinforcement In continuous reinforcement. and sometimes struggles to get to grips with. that each individual develops through life. Each type of schedule imposes a rule or program that attempts to determine how and when a desired behavior occurs. Partial Reinforcement . Schedules vary from simple ratio and interval-based schedules to more complicated compound schedules that combine one or more simple strategies to manipulate behavior. A schedule of reinforcement is a tactic used in operant conditioning that influences how an operant response is learned and maintained. this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Behaviors are encouraged through the use of reinforcers. then personality is an individually-tailored vehicle for such exploration. Generally. discouraged through the use of punishments. reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule. exploring and expressing itself through the myriad forms of humanity and other creatures. and environmental factors. There are two types of reinforcement schedules: 1. and rendered extinct by the removal of a stimulus altogether. 2. Once the response if firmly attached. Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. as well as weaknesses and vices. If you believe that people can forge themselves to some extent. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement: 1. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval. 2. switching to a partial schedule is often preferable. This schedule produces a slow. and a third pellet after two bar presses. An example of this would be delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a one minute interval. but the response is more resistant to extinction. Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. this might involved delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press. Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.In partial reinforcement. but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. w behaviors. . a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Once the behavior has been learned. Choosing a Schedule Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. another pellet for the first response following a five minute interval. the response is reinforced only part of the time. steady rate of response. Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. In a lab setting. steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer. again after four bar presses. This schedule produces a high. and a third food pellet for the first response following a three minute interval. 4. 3. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. A symbolic model. A live model. which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. A verbal instructional model.There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. 2. satisfaction. 3. which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.' 3. Mental states are important to learning. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior. which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books. television programs. Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory. Intrinsic Reinforcement Bandura noted that external. 2. . and a sense of accomplishment. People can learn through observation. films. it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. While many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories. or online media. this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned. Observational Learning Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning: 1. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward. environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. . such as pride. Finally. First is the idea that people can learn through observation. basic anxiety (and therefore neurosis) could result from a variety of things including. you need to be paying attention. erratic behavior. lack of respect for the child's individual needs. but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. . Motivation: Finally. " . Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation. Retention can be affected by a number of factors. it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. According to Horney. in order for observational learning to be successful. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process: Attention: In order to learn. direct or indirect domination. too . disparaging attitudes. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. . Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information. indifference. For example. Anything that distracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. lack of real guidance. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective. so can observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement. if you see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time. you might start to show up a few minutes early each day. you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.The Modeling Process Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. shifting focus depending on internal and external factors. and meet the expectations of others. these individuals place an exaggerated importance on love and believe that having a partner will resolve all of life’s troubles. Horney outlined the 10 neurotic needs she had identified: 1. 1945). to please other people. indifferent. These 10 neurotic needs can be classed into three broad categories: 1. These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. The Neurotic Need for Affection and Approval This needs include the desires to be liked. Oftentimes. The Neurotic Need to Restrict One’s Life Within Narrow Borders . domineering. Well-adjusted individuals utilize all three of these strategies. and aloof. and so on and so on" (Horney. over-protection. too much or too little responsibility. 3. These individuals are often described as difficult. discrimination. turmoil. Needs that move you against others. These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others and are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love. These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. In her book Self-Analysis (1942). People with this type of need are extremely sensitive to rejection and criticism and fear the anger or hostility of others. creating conflict. and unkind.Neurotic people tend to utilize two or more of these ways of coping. Needs that move you away from others. 3. hostile atmosphere. isolatiofrom other children.much admiration or the absence of it. unkept promises. These individuals are often described as cold. 2. and confusion. The Neurotic Need for a Partner Who Will Take Over One’s Life These involve the need to be centered on a partner. Needs that move you towards others. lack of reliable warmth. injustice. having to take sides in parental disagreements. People with this need suffer extreme fear of being abandoned by their partner. it is the overuse of one or more of these interpersonal styles. 2. So what is it that makes these coping strategies neurotic? According to Horney. helplessness. money. They want to be admired based on this imagined self-view. These individuals often fear public embarrassment and loss of social status.Individuals with this need prefer to remain inconspicuous and unnoticed. These individuals fear failure and feel a constant need to accomplish more than other people and to top even their own earlier successes. The Neurotic Need for Prestige Individuals with a need for prestige value themselves in terms of public recognition and acclaim. 4. Material possessions. not upon how they really are. 5. professional accomplishments. 7. People with this need generally pride themselves in their ability to exploit other people and are often focused on manipulating others to obtain desired objectives. They usually praise strength. and will exploit or dominate other people. and loved ones are evaluated based upon prestige value. people push themselves to achieve greater and greater things as a result of basic insecurity. The Neurotic Need for Self-Sufficiency and Independence . and uncontrollable situations. despise weakness. 6. power. often making their own needs secondary and undervaluing their own talents and abilities. The Neurotic Need for Power Individuals with this need seek power for its own sake. personality characteristics. These people fear personal limitations. The Neurotic Need for Personal Achievement According to Horney. They avoid wishing for material things. including such things as ideas. The Neurotic Need to Exploit Others These individuals view others in terms of what can be gained through association with them. The Neurotic Need for Personal Admiration Individuals with a neurotic need for personal admiration are narcissistic and have an exaggerated self-perception. or sex. 8. They are undemanding and content with little. 9. A common feature of this neurotic need is searching for personal flaws in order to quickly change or cover up these perceived imperfections. distancing themselves from others in order to avoid being tied down or dependent upon other people.These individuals exhibit a “loner” mentality. The Neurotic Need for Perfection and Unassailability These individuals constantly strive for complete infallibility. 10. .