Beyond Gun Control

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/269863090 Beyond Gun Control: Examining Neoliberalism, Progun Politics and Gun Violence in the United States ARTICLE in THEORY IN ACTION · APRIL 2014 DOI: 10.3798/tia.1937-0237.14011 READS 149 2 AUTHORS, INCLUDING: Luigi Esposito Barry University 14 PUBLICATIONS 39 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Available from: Luigi Esposito Retrieved on: 31 December 2015 Theory in Action, Vol. 7, No. 2, April (© 2014) DOI:10.3798/tia.1937-0237.14011 Beyond Gun Control: Examining Neoliberalism, Pro-gun Politics and Gun Violence in the United States Luigi Esposito1 and Laura L. Finley2 Although the tragic shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary in Newtown, Connecticut prompted national debate about how to minimize gun violence, these exchanges have tended to focus almost exclusively on issues related to gun control. Our central point in this article is that these discussions have largely ignored the relevance of neoliberalism in terms of how this market ideology has, particularly since the 1980s, supported many of the values, perspectives, and behaviors that are central to America’s pro-gun culture and politics. We discuss how neoliberal ideology bolsters problematic pro-gun claims related to: (1) the dangers of “big government,” (2) the virtues of “rugged individualism” and self-reliance, and (3) gun violence as a personal problem involving evil, sick, or irresponsible individuals. We also address how the sort of hyper-masculine subject associated with pro-gun politics is compatible with (and reinforced by) the sorts of values and forms of agency encouraged within a neoliberal market society. We conclude by making the point that efforts to minimize gun violence must move beyond the issue of gun control and focus on challenging the neoliberal ideological forces and social structures that, among other things, erode social bonds, encourage hyper-individualism, and normalize a survival of the fittest ethic. [Article copies available for a fee from The Transformative Studies Institute. E-mail address: [email protected] Website: http://www.transformativestudies.org ©2014 by The Transformative Studies Institute. All rights reserved.] KEYWORDS: Neoliberalism, Gun Politics, American Gun Culture, Gun Violence, Gun Control, Masculinity. 1 Luigi Esposito, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Sociology and Criminology at Barry University in Miami Shores, FL. He has published numerous articles and chapters on issues related to race and ethnic relations, social theory, globalization, and ethics. His research has appeared in various professional journals, including The Sociological Quarterly, The Western Journal of Black Studies, Humanity and Society, Journal of Aging and Identity, Studies in Symbolic Interaction, and Perspectives on Global Development and Technology. He is co-editor (with Vicente Berdayes and John W. Murphy) of the book The Body in Human Inquiry: Interdisciplinary Explorations of Embodiment. (Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. 2004); and is also co-editor (with Laura Finley) of the book Grading the 44th President: A Report Card on Barack Obama's First Term as a Progressive Leader (Santa Barbara, CA; Praeger/ABC-CLIO). Address correspondence to: Luigi Esposito, Barry University, 11300 NE Second Avenue, Miami Shores, FL 33161; e-mail: [email protected]. 2 Laura Finley, Ph.D. is Assistant professor of Sociology and Criminology at Barry University in Miami Shores, FL. She has published several books and numerous articles on a variety of social issues. Dr. Finley also is also a community activist, serving with several non-profits to provide services to victims of domestic violence and essential human rights. Her current work is focused on peace education in colleges and universities. 1937-0229 ©2014 Transformative Studies Institute 74 Theory in Action INTRODUCTION The widely reported mass shootings of 2012 have once again reinvigorated the long-standing debate about gun control in the United States. Particularly in the wake of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, CT— which many have regarded as a “tipping point”— calls for stricter gun control seem more popular than ever (Hindman, 2012). Spurred by these developments, President Obama announced, in January of 2013, a series of legislative proposals and executive actions intended to tighten gun control and minimize gun violence (What’s in Obama’s Gun Control Proposals, 2013). At the same time, it is clear that a majority of Americans remain uncompromising about their right to own firearms. Indeed, shortly after the tragedy in Newtown, a Gallup poll found that opposition to ban handguns hit a record high, with 74 percent of Americans opposing such a ban (Saad, 2012). Furthermore, during the same period, gun dealers in various parts of the country reported record gun sales, particularly for AR-15s—the weapon used by Adam Lanza in the Newtown shooting (Shropshire, 2012). While much has been written about America’s “gun culture” and how this culture is tied to a long history of anti-statist individualism in the US, much less attention has been given to how this culture (i.e., the set of values and beliefs that underpin pro-gun/anti-gun control politics) has, especially in recent decades, been supported and reinforced by the prevailing market ideology commonly referred to as neoliberalism.3 This paper contributes to the existing literature by addressing directly how the legitimacy of pro-gun politics in this country, especially in recent years, has relied on specific beliefs and cultural tropes that are at the heart of 3 One notable exception is Jennifer Carlson’s (2012) article titled I Don’t Dial 911: American Gun Politics and the Problem of Policing, published in the British Journal of Criminology. The author of this article focuses mostly on public attitudes towards the police and the role of the state in law enforcement under neoliberalism. Specifically, she distinguishes between neoliberal gun politics, which emphasizes private solutions amid perceptions of state failure to protect people, and neo-radical gun politics, which emphasizes the need to protect oneself against the abuses of the state (i.e., the police). The author’s central point is that neoliberal l and neo-radical gun politics reflect “racialized [and gendered] understandings of the police under the War on Crime” (p. 1114). Another notable exception is a book titled Criminal Identities and Consumer Culture, authored by Steve Hall, Simon Wislow, and Craig Ancam (2005). This book focuses mostly on the influence of the neoliberal political economy on criminal careers. We believe the present article expands on these works by offering an in depth analysis on the link between neoliberal ideology and America’s pro-gun culture and politics, particularly as it relates to gun violence. 75 ). Efforts to promote this neoliberal vision of the world involve among other things. (2) America’s gun culture is tied to notions of selfreliance and “rugged individualism” that current neoliberal ideology associates with virtue and responsibility. including violence.e. etc. This is the position held by many members of the NRA. emphasizing personal responsibility instead of social justice. reinstating the ban on assault weapons. banning the possession of armorpiercing ammunition among civilians. supporters of neoliberalism envision an ideal universe as one consisting of autonomous.. we are referring to those who oppose virtually all gun controls recently proposed by the Obama administration (e.4 Widely regarded as the dominant political-economic paradigm of our time. and understands the state as a protector of the prevailing market order as opposed to a guarantor of social or economic justice. doing away with “big government” (otherwise known as a “nanny state”). After providing a general overview of neoliberalism within the context of the gun control debate. and treating social problems as personal issues.S. encourages a religious-like faith in the presumed powers of the free market to promote freedom and an optimal order. neoliberalism entails a view of the world that downplays the social realm and emphasizes the individual as the only viable unit of concern and analysis (e. This paper addresses how these typical neoliberal tenets are linked to (and support) pro-gun politics in the U.e.g. especially in recent years.Luigi Esposito and Laura L.g. increased regulations.. been invoked as a rhetorical tool to justify citizens’ right to defend their liberty and property against the presumed evils neoliberals associate with “big government” (i. being competitive and doing whatever is necessary to survive and thrive in a 4 It is clear that there are many variants of pro-gun politics and not all gun supporters agree in their positions (which can often be nuanced).. for purposes of this article. In effect. self-contained individuals freely pursuing their selfinterests with minimal political interventions. However. closing all gun show loopholes. 76 .). Finley neoliberalism. Esposito 2011). we address the following key points: (1) the quasi-sacred status accorded by many gun enthusiasts to the Second Amendment has.. requiring federal agencies to make relevant data available to the federal background check system. Neoliberalism stresses competitive individualism as a natural outgrowth of human freedom. (3) the sort of hyper-masculine subject associated with pro-gun politics—the type of individual prepared to take any measure. prioritizing the private realm over the public sphere. limiting the size of magazines/clips. etc. to protect “what is his”—is compatible with (and reinforced by) the sorts of values and forms of agency encouraged within a neoliberal market society (i. when we talk about pro-gun politics and pro-gun enthusiasts. tyrannical state intrusion on private lives. minimizing this problem would also have to include efforts to challenge the neoliberal worldview and structures that.Theory in Action “winner take all society”). AND TYRANNY In a 2003 article. FREEDOM. a majority tends to embrace a progressive understanding of government.e. NEOLIBERALISM. 2003. they believe that people— 77 . debates revolve around whether or not “more guns” produce more or less crime and violence). Specifically. erode social bonds. Considering that the estimated 300 million guns that currently exist in the United States will not disappear irrespective of whether or not stricter gun laws are passed. Without taking these opposing visions into account. Stated simply. has been dominated by what he calls the “tyranny of econometrics” (i. one might also argue that both sides of the gun control debate have very different understandings about the role of government in a free and democratic society.S. p. the debate ignores the crucial relevance of culture in shaping people’s attitudes about gun control.. while a majority of those who oppose gun control base their arguments on a more hierarchical and individualistic vision. Kahan suggests this focus on quantitative outcomes either ignores or trivializes how both sides of this debate are predicated on fundamentally different worldviews that shape and give coherence to their respective interpretations of “what America is and ought to be” (Kahan. This approach would include building a popular movement that challenges the societal conditions and ideological forces that promote gun violence. Consistent with Kahan’s analysis. thereby discouraging questions about the social dimension of this issue. and (4) unjustified gun violence is typically understood by many opponents of gun control and throughout much of the mainstream media as a personal trouble involving irresponsible. a focus on econometrics downplays how the majority of those who support gun control base their position on an egalitarian and solidaristic view of the world. Among those who support gun control. those who seek to minimize gun violence need to expand their critique. and normalize a “survival of the fittest” ethic. encourage hyper-individualism. Yale legal scholar and psychologist Dan M. among other things. Kahan argues that the ongoing debate about gun control in the U. We conclude by making the point that far from simply pushing for stricter gun controls. or sick individuals rather than a societal problem— a position that is consistent with the neoliberal tendency to personalize social problems. evil. 6). we argue that a more holistic approach to minimizing gun violence is needed. Specifically. Developed in opposition to Keynesianism and similar theories calling for a regulated economy and a strong welfare state. Minimizing government and handing over as much of the economy and society in general to the private sector is thus a central objective in the neoliberal agenda. can be a potentially benevolent mechanism that works to create a better society for all. At its most basic. is far more than simply a body of policy prescriptions. in this respect. political. is what promotes an optimal society. challenge societal injustices. this latter position—which has dominated social. according to neoliberals. individuals are rational actors who constantly makes calculations of what will serve them best.g. government is invariably the enemy and can therefore never be trusted to promote the well-being of the populace. Centralized state planning. by freely pursuing their 78 . It is within the private realm that persons have the freedom to act in their self-interest as they “see fit. privatization. Giroux 2008. and cultural discourse in the United States—has been bolstered and reinforced by the market ideology often referred to as neoliberalism. the architects of neoliberalism. most social or economic objectives are best achieved by individuals operating within the private realm (e.” Neoliberalism. which include economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman. For over three decades. hierarchy is simply a natural product of freedom and it is really up to individuals to look after their own interests—including their personal safety. under conditions of freedom. Having unrestricted (or minimally restricted) access to firearms as a way to protect oneself and one’s family should thus be a fundamental right. as opposed to a central authority. is burdened by a series of bureaucratic restraints that compromise efficiency. Friedman and Friedman 1980. Therefore. This shift presumably promotes an efficient order of autonomous individuals who. Finley through activism and direct participation—can harness the power of government to advance human freedom. and protect the common good (Esposito and Finley 2012). Self-reliant individuals competing in a free market.Luigi Esposito and Laura L.. Harvey 2005. Friedman 1982). Neoliberalism. rather than relying on the state. Klein 2007. understand the free market as a quasi-infallible mechanism for organizing social life (e. Government. and liberalization.g. however.. in this sense. neoliberalism is typically associated with pro-market policies such as de-regulation. Among many of those in this latter camp. This position stands in sharp contrast to the vision espoused by a majority who oppose gun control. draws from classical liberal principles and emphasizes that. According to this viewpoint. particularly within the social and economic realms (Harvey 2005) . Esposito 2011). the side of government in charge of securing social needs and the public good ) is downplayed in favor of the “right hand” or “masculine” side of the state (i. Friedrich Hayek.. In a neoliberal universe. 2). To use gendered imagery first employed by Pierre Bourdieu and further developed by Loic Waquant (2010). Whatever troubles individuals might face are regarded as direct results of bad personal choices. Solutions to virtually all problems thus involve making the proper personal adjustments that will produce better results.. In fact. a perceived attack on gun rights by the federal government has. are able to meet their own needs and control their own destinies. mobilize the state on behalf of market agendas. As discussed by Soss. personal responsibility and self-reliance are the sine qua non of liberty (Soss. neoliberalism constitutes a “movement to integrate state and market operations. any attempt by the state to intervene in the interest of resolving specific social problems is viewed as suspect. Although neoliberalism draws from classical liberalism and neoclassical economics. been understood as a clear sign that people in this country are facing the threat of tyranny. This includes the state itself. rather than the “guardian of the public interest.e..e. On the other hand.” In effect. This 79 . any efforts by the government to reduce inequalities or to advance objectives related to social or economic justice are regarded by neoliberals as incompatible with a free society. The neoliberal emphasis on personal liberty is at the heart of this tendency. or some other type of personal deficiency. under neoliberalism the “left hand” or “feminine” side of the state (i. Fording and Schram (2009. Fording and Schram. for example. p. 2009). Giroux 2008). poor moral judgment. what makes this perspective unique (and particularly radical) is its effort to extend the logic of the market to virtually every sphere of social life (Esposito 2011). weakness of character.Theory in Action preferences.” the state under neoliberalism is transformed into a servant of the market (e. By emphasizing this so-called “masculine” side of the state. any project that intrudes on the private/personal realm in the interest of achieving a “social” objective is assumed by neoliberals to be an artificial imposition that threatens a free society. the side that neglects social welfare and focuses on issues like penal policy and national security). emphasized that concepts such as social or economic justice are empty abstractions that justify government tyranny and violate personal autonomy. Among millions of Americans. in recent decades.g. and reconfigure the state on market terms. see also Hall. it was during the Reagan administration’s neoliberal restructuring of the “American political. the modern Second Amendment/Pro-gun Movement gained momentum in the mid-20th century as a backlash against the advances made by the Feminist and Civil Rights Movements (e. by the 1970s. As has been widely documented. rabid individualism. Burbick 2006. These fears. economic attainment. Indeed. To a large extent..g. Klein 2012.. 2006). p. it is also worth noting that he did support gun control legislation after he left public office. 80 . and cultural landscape” that this country witnessed an increase in gun violence and especially a rise in mass shootings. there has been a dismantling of community in favor of a hyperindividualized type of liberty in which the unrestrained pursuit of selfgain is valued over everything else (e.5 As Reagan’s neoliberal reforms gutted the welfare state and the idea of self-reliance became promulgated as synonymous with a free society. neoliberalism gained prominence under the Reagan administration. By the early 1980s. are also what.. Giroux 2008. according to various critics. combined with laws such as the Gun Control Act of 1968. Esposito. Finley perceived threat is at the heart of the so-called Second Amendment Movement (e.g. success became increasingly “defined in terms of power.. Burbick. at least in part. and social status” (Klein 2012. Reagan supported the Brady Bill in 1993 and the Federal Assault Weapons Ban in 1994 (see Garret 2013). and Ancram 2005). 156). economic. and narcissism (e. this trend continues to this day. Connel 2005. prompted the radicalization of the National Rifle Association (NRA). 2011). NEOLIBERALISM AND THE SECOND AMENDMENT According to various commentators. the Second Amendment became a tool to defend White male privilege against the threat of an activist government (what by the 1980s become widely known as the “nanny state”) that supported feminist ideals and coddled racial minorities and other presumably “undeserving” groups..g. Interestingly. extreme competition. the NRA “underwent a political revolution” and went from being primarily a sports organization to a far right pro-gun lobby (e.g. promoted an apathetic society where social bonds became increasingly eroded and replaced by hedonistic materialism. in the 1990s.Luigi Esposito and Laura L. Melzer 2009). Ansell 2001).g. Indeed. 5 There should be little doubt that Reagan was a pro-gun president. All these measures. since the Reagan era. although President Reagan is often celebrated among conservatives as a staunch supporter of the Second Amendment. Winlow. However. Specifically. — millions of Americans regard this as a shift to “socialism. In recent months. in his recent book titled America Disarmed..S. to some extent. strengthening the nation’s safety net for the needy. is believed by millions of Americans to be currently under attack. millions of Americans who embrace the neoliberal emphasis on individual liberty over everything else have become particularly suspicious about the U. millions of Americans believe that Obama’s policies are paving the “road to serfdom” feared by Hayek (1944). government under President Obama. In short.g. signing the Recovery Act. as Obama Sr. argues that President Obama is the most anti-Second Amendment president the country has ever seen. LaPierre even suggests that Obama’s own father— an alleged “anti-Western Communist”— might have shaped his presumably fanatical anti-gun/anti-Second Amendment stance.g. Even a cursory reading of some of the statements put out by the NRA and other pro-gun groups—particularly against President Obama— clearly reveals this sentiment. the Second Amendment. which is often regarded by the pro-gun/anti-gun control community as a requisite for freedom and the primary basis for all other individual rights. shown more willingness than many previous presidents to deploy the power of the state to promote a variety of social and economic objectives—e. self-reliance. CEO of the NRA.. a strengthened federal gun trafficking statute. limits on assault weapons and high-capacity magazines -. For example. “favored the kind of oppressive discriminatory 6 It should be noted that in June of 2013. LaPierre associates the president’s presumably anti-gun zealotry to allegations that Obama has been profoundly influenced by supporters of communism such as Frank Marshall Davis and other alleged sympathizers of totalitarian governments. Because the president has.”6 Stated simply.Theory in Action In recent years. and the free market.” Consistent with neoliberal philosophy. calls for tighter gun control among President Obama and other people in government (e. 81 . virtually all of Obama’s gun control proposals-expanded background checks. passing Healthcare Reform. etc. Wayne LaPierre (2011).failed to receive the necessary 60 votes to prevent a filibuster in the US Senate. Senator Dianne Feinstein’s proposal to re-instate a federal ban on assault weapons) have further reinforced fears of tyranny and government intrusion on Americans’ “private lives. a large segment of the American electorate believes that Obama’s presumably interventionist policies signify the onset of a growing state apparatus (an unprecedented “big government”) whose influence will gradually seep into every facet of social life and undermine personal liberty. of course.8 and $52. by encouraging fear that “Obama will take our guns. since these deals are part of the NRA’s 501(c)4 affiliate.Luigi Esposito and Laura L. the NRA is primarily a front group for the nation’s gun manufacturers. Considering all this. As suggested by Dreier (2013): On its website. As Fang (2012) notes: Fear that the government will disallow guns has resulted in Americans flocking to stores to stock up on weapons—lots of them. the National Rifle Association claims that it is not affiliated with any firearm or ammunition manufacturers or with any businesses that deal in guns and ammunition. gun sales across the country are going through the roof…In Tennessee. 2011. Other NRA corporate fundraising initiatives also allow customers to make donations to the NRA at the time of purchase. Finley government that almost necessarily requires a disarmed populace” (LaPierre. not its’ 501(c)3 status. even mandate contributions for every purchase. as a number of recent reports have documented. notes that between 2005 and 2010.6 million in contributions from corporate partners. the funds can be spent on political advertisements and for lobbying for gun-friendly legislation (Fang. a fact not widely known by the public. This is a lie. Walmart has reportedly run out of semiautomatic rifles in five states. for example. like Sturm. The NRA. From Alaska to Florida. Namely. Important to note is that this fear of tyranny promoted by LaPierre and the NRA in general has undoubtedly benefitted the gun industry. p. the argument can be made that the fear tactics used by the NRA are consistent with what Naomi Klein describes in her book The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. In fact. And.” the NRA manipulates public opinion to push a neoliberal agenda associated with de-regulation that benefits the gun industry. the NRA itself benefits financially from gun and ammunition sales. Interestingly. the NRA received somewhere between $19. Roger & Co. 265).. Sugarmann (2012). Some. importantly. The NRA receives a dollar for every gun or package of ammunition sold at participating stores. officials say gun purchases likely hit an all-time high. is not alone in 82 . most of which (74%) are gun or ammunitions manufacturers or producers of other shootingrelated products. 2012). consider recent statements made by Representative Steve Stockman of Texas. Stockman announced in a press release that President Obama’s intention to issue executive orders on gun control constitute an “existential threat to this nation. another Texas state legislator. Referring to the alleged menace of gun control.7 According to various writers. also go beyond a racial issue. the world is changing around them. it is about the government’s ability to demand submission of the people. law abiding citizens without any viable means of protecting themselves against criminals 7 As a prime example of this.” as any attack on the Second Amendment strips the populace from their ability to protect themselves against tyranny. On this point. Tom Diaz. this fear of disarmament and tyranny are also typically racialized in that they are often expressions of “anxieties associated with White men’s declining status” (Carlson. however. 2013). recently announced plans to file a bill that would make it a felony for any federal agent to come into the state of Texas to enforce any federal ban against semi-automatic rifles or high capacity magazines. recently noted the following in an interview: If you look at where these guns are sold. Forbes magazine’s Lawrence Hunter (2012) recently wrote: It’s not really about the guns. this is primarily a Red State phenomenon. 1113). Furthermore. 2013). Gun control is part and parcel of the ongoing collectivist effort to eviscerate individual sovereignty and replace it with dependence upon and allegiance to the state. Steve Toth. The gun industry's consumers are afraid. media pundits. author of several books about the gun industry. and at anti-gun control rallies. 2012. is not simply a threat to White privilege and gun ownership but the future of freedom itself. according to many gun supporters. Another related narrative used among gun supporters to oppose gun controls is that such measures leave responsible. 83 . if such a federal ban would ever pass (see Rosenthal. NRA President Wayne LaPierre talks often in terms of race and ethnicity. which are overwhelmingly attended by White men. These fears. People are driven by a fear of the other. p. what is at stake. In January of 2013. and they think guns will protect their way of life (Winston & Graham.Theory in Action promoting this sort of fear mongering. Indeed. Similar arguments about Obama’s and other politicians’ proposed gun controls being an attempt to disarm Americans in an effort to institute a tyrannical “big government” have been made in recent months by various public officials. AND NEOLIBERAL VIRTUE RUGGED In a neoliberal world. This ideal version of a neoliberal subject is consistent with the notion of “rugged individualism”—i. along with the fact that fear of crime in the U.” In contrast. Finley and/or violent predators. Among many in the pro-gun community. a virtuous citizen is one that is self-reliant. In his book Gun Crusaders. Consistent with the neoliberal claim that government is inept. Indeed. this common argument is predicated on the idea that the state (this includes the police and other law enforcement agencies) is inefficient and thus largely incapable of protecting citizens (see Carlson 2012)..S.g. is expressed in behavior aimed at meeting one’s personal needs and resolving one’s own personal problems. Scott Melzer interviews members of the NRA and described the following: [A] do-it-it-yourself attitude is the basic philosophy of most NRA members. especially from government. This same ideology is also what has encouraged and glamorized the sort of rugged individualism that is at the heart of pro-gun politics. encourages an insistence among millions of Americans to want easy access to guns as a way to protect themselves. but also as a moral being (Soss. LOOKING OUT FOR ONESELF: GUNS. Shelden. the type of individual who embodies the American pioneer ethic. This distrust of government. Need protection? Buy a gun and learn to shoot. Disarming the public is thus akin to a proverbial “throwing the lambs to the wolves” scenario.Luigi Esposito and Laura L. support for this neoliberal tendency to associate virtue with rugged individualism and to emphasize private/personal solutions to all social problems is easily discernible. those who rely on welfare assistance and other “government hand-outs” are regarded as morally corrupt individuals who live off tax payers and lack proper values. This logic fits perfectly with (and is reinforced by) neoliberal ideology and its emphasis on private solutions to all problems.. INDIVIDUALISM. therefore. is out of proportion to actual crime rates (e. Personal virtue and responsibility. Fording. and Schram 2009.e. steps up to any challenge. and demands or expects as little as possible from others. 2010). Can’t 84 . and their property. Not earning enough money to make ends meet? Work harder. 4). any person who fails to display these qualities is assumed to fail not only as an economic actor. p. assumes personal responsibility for his/her own problems. and lifts him/herself “up by his/her boot straps. their families. At most. Instead. safety. McChesney 1999). As is well known. all individuals are assumed to be autarkic subjects concerned almost exclusively with their own private lives. Giroux 2008).g. Not only freedom but democracy is assumed to be synonymous with self-reliance. there should be little doubt that the logic behind pro-gun/ anti-gun control politics—much like the logic advanced by neoliberal ideology— presupposes an “every person to him/herself” type of order as normal and even virtuous.g. p. Yet because of the emphasis on self-interest/self-reliance. A country whose citizens have to rely on government for personal safety or basic needs is a country that is lazy and apathetic.Theory in Action afford child care or health care? Don’t expect government to bail you out. Far from supporting freedom and democracy. While those who support the Second Amendment emphasize the individual’s right to own firearms in order to protect his/her personal liberty. critics argue that what easily results from this social imagery is a depoliticized citizenry that is anathema to an effective democracy (e. 28). and ultimately undemocratic (Melzer. 2009. this right ignores the fact that individuals are also members of a community.. And while ardent Second Amendment supporters might argue that guns are a tool to protect human life. neoliberalism attenuates democracy by giving individuals a green light to prioritize their self-serving interest over those of a community (e. armed individuals might decide to take “heroic” action and come to the rescue of others during incidents such as mass shootings (much like neoliberals suggest that private charity should replace the welfare state as the primary mechanism for dealing with 85 . therefore. More specifically. or property. The fanatical-like zeal with which many gun supporters prioritize Second Amendment rights over all other rights is consistent with this tendency. Freedom and self-reliance are indivisible. an emphasis on the individual’s right to own firearms overlooks how that right might infringe on other people’s right to live without fear of unprovoked gun violence or unintended gun-related tragedies. a viable democracy requires that people have a strong sense of connection to their fellow citizens. Both neoliberal and pro-gun philosophy reinforce one another in that both presuppose an atomistic view of the world in which people are not understood as part of an interconnected community. The parallel between Neoliberal ideology and what Melzer described as the “do-it-yourself” philosophy embraced by members of the NRA cannot be clearer.. Consistent with C. and others have noted. This behavior parallels the sort of agency encouraged in a neoliberal market society. and I want to talk to you about something personal…your safety. gives citizens the following message: I’m Sheriff David Clarke. 2013). according to many gun supporters. gender is not innate but instead something that is nurtured throughout the life course and via numerous institutions. 2006). MASCULINITY. NEOLIBERALISM. Messerschmidt and Connell (2005).Luigi Esposito and Laura L. AND GUNS As Messerschmidt (1993). Rather than supporting measures that might minimize violence by addressing its root causes. Although the Sheriff invites law-abiding community members to be “partners” in the fight against crime. Can I count on you? (quoted in Cirilli. both over other men as well as over women (Katz. what is ultimately proposed is an every person to him/herself type of crime control. people are encouraged to be personally responsible for their own safety. hide under the bed. As an example of this. That is. men learn that to “do masculinity” means to act aggressively. Accordingly. aggression. This sort of virtue is also gendered and associated most closely with dominant American understandings of masculinity. but are you prepared? Consider taking a certified safety course in handling a firearm so you can defend yourself until we get there. and encourage men to exert dominance. but the individual’s right to own firearms supersedes any communal/societal concern associated with gun violence. or you can fight back. We’re partners now. Katz (2006). Finley people in need). Mcpherson’s (1962) notion of “possessive individualism. it is ultimately the responsibility of mature. sane individuals to take the necessary measures to protect themselves and their families against this presumed reality. It’s no longer a spectator sport…. Male gender norms generally promote risk-taking.You can beg for mercy from a violent criminal.” subjects under 86 . owning a firearm and being competent at using them becomes a requisite for being a virtuous and responsible member of society.B. David Clarke. Violence. Therefore. consider a recent radio advertisement in which Milwaukee County Sheriff. simply calling 911 and waiting is no longer your best option…. You have a duty to protect yourself and your family. is an unavoidable fact of human life and getting increasingly worse (a common assumption not supported by the evidence). —decided to “strike back” against a society that they. believe has not only emasculated them but deprived them of the privileges they feel are rightfully theirs (particularly as White men). however. noting that guns were a central tool in his hypermasculine posturing. Pinker’s (1997) anthropological work expresses the connections between mass violence and masculinity. marginalized. Examinations of the actions of mass shooters provide support for Pinker’s work. For example. and sense of self-worth. and it remains the dominant form of masculinity in the United States. This idea also receives support from a Mother Jones study which found that of the 62 mass shootings that occurred in the U. as men.” etc. Namely. having 87 . in his interviews with more than 400 young men for his book Guyland. this sort of response is often motivated by a sense of entitlement. this also suggests that individuals must constantly protect—through virtually any means necessary— their possessions from others. fighting back against anyone who challenges them was deemed to be normal and appropriate. Similarly. McPherson’s notion of possessive individualism is consistent with what Messerschmidt and Connell (2005) call hegemonic masculinity.” These men feel as though they have lost their dignity and masculinity. in one way or another –through having experienced being bullied. Kellner (2008) discusses the dossier that Virginia Tech shoot Seung-Hui Cho sent to media outlets in advance of the shooting. Because a neoliberal market society is structured around relations of ultra-competition. and the only way to respond—and therefore restore their masculine pride—is to act out in a violent and spectacular fashion. ego. According to Tim Wise (2012).Theory in Action neoliberalism are encouraged to “exercise their domination over things” in the form of ownership or possession. He and Kellner (2008) referred to the perpetrators as “men amok. the fact that the overwhelming majority of these mass shootings have been carried out by White men might have something to do with what he calls the “pathology of privilege” (2012). made to feel as if they did not “belong. Because they were entitled to feel like real men.S since 1982. In this context. “possessions” might refer not only to material goods but also to one’s family. Kimmel (2009 ) described a strong sense of entitlement among his respondents. 61 have been perpetrated by (mostly White) men. Far from simply self-defense or coming to the aid of others. many of these men have. Documents show that Cho had felt emasculated and had thus become infatuated with guns right before the shooting. Hegemonic masculinity tells men that they are of most value when they stand up for themselves and those they care for against either physical or verbal attacks. The U. and went to the gym to “immerse himself in ultramasculinist gun culture” (Kellner. As Shirch (2012.Luigi Esposito and Laura L. 2008. 2008). Men all over the world are too often rewarded and even urged by the media to demonstrate their masculinity by brandishing weapons. 88 . one’s family. according to some reports. media stumbles over its analysis of mental illness. Although Cho was Asian and therefore removed from the sense of entitlement associated with “White privilege. This is entirely consistent with the neoliberal emphasis on extreme competition and self-reliance. and attacking those who had slighted them (Kellner. who have decided that the way to assert their faltering sense of manhood and get the respect they have been denied is to go out and shoot somebody. p. the rage of young men brought up to prove their masculinity through violence and threats. Columbine shooter Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold were. and one’s domain. It is clear that in the U. wrote: The killers have been shown to be young men riddled with shame and humiliation.S. Similarly. In another example of how neoliberalism promotes violence by supporting hegemonic masculinity. often bitterly misogynistic and homophobic.S. New York Times columnist Bob Herbert (2007). the ideal of “real” manhood is very much tied to violence and defending oneself.. about the care we put into constructing the foundations of our society. inspired by a perceived attack on his manhood. to a large extent. But it is a collective mistake to keep reliving this national nightmare and not ask questions about the quality of our policy-making. online) explains. bullied by hyper-masculine jocks and therefore sought to recuperate their manly images through ultraviolence—amassing an arsenal of weapons. Cho bought ammunition on the Internet. 2008. 49). practiced at a shooting range. 44). Finley purchased one from a local store and another on the internet.” it is obvious his actions were. in explaining the actions of several mass shooters. conservative pundits argued that the students and faculty at Virginia Tech were “wussified” because they succumbed to the fire power of Seung-Hui Cho and allegedly did not “fight back” (cited in Kellner. p. The responsibility for pulling the trigger was one man. played up the link between guns and masculinity in its tag line. White men (Wise. members of the NRA and other pro-gun advocates do often point to violent movies and video games as factors that might encourage violent behavior. The man in question will then have to defend himself.visitors of bushmaster. 2012)..” As noted earlier. gun manufacturers have. NEOLIBERALISM AND THE PERSONALIZATION OF GUN VIOLENCE Because neoliberals give ontological privilege to the individual over any notion of “society” or community. and their Man Card. However. then the government can almost be seen as emasculating. they are worthy of retaining their card (Gray. Rather than trying to address how persons who carry out gun violence do so within a specific cultural. 2012).S. these arguments typically fail to take into account the wider social. Upon successful completion.223-calibre semi-automatic Bushmaster rifle that Adam Lanza used. have not experienced gun violence with nearly the same 89 .. it follows that social problems are typically understood as personal matters. To be sure. sought to exploit the fears of men— in particular. by answering a series of questions geared towards proving indeed. gun in hand. soldiers use in Afghanistan and Iraq. where violent video games and movies are also popular. in recent years. and cultural forces that might make people receptive to violent forms of entertainment in the first place. “Consider your man-card reissued” (Gray. The Man Card is valid for one year. economic. economic. Visitors can also call into question or even revoke the Man Card of friends they feel have betrayed their manhood. 2012). Bushmaster Firearms issued a press release in 2010 in which the company described how one becomes a “card-carrying man.Theory in Action If it is masculine to act violently. Further. A recent advertisement for the .” It stated: . and social context that might shape their motivations to engage in such acts. they will be issued a temporary Man Card to proudly display to friends and family. as it takes the place of the individual man to “take care of his own business.com will have to prove they're a man by answering a series of manhood questions. This neoliberal tendency is consistent with how many pro-gun/anti-gun control supporters understand gun violence. there is a tendency to look for the “cause” of such behavior inside the individual actor. these arguments fail to address why other developed societies. which is the civilian version of the weapons U. even when environmental issues are considered when trying to explain violence. parents not ensuring that their firearms are out of the reach of their children or mentally unstable family members. A much more common approach among many members of the NRA and other pro-gun supporters is to explain unprovoked gun violence and gun-related tragedies as the result of irresponsible gun ownership (e. to a large degree. For example. GUN VIOLENCE AND “EVIL” Explanations predicated on the idea of innately “evil” people wanting to do harm to others are quite common in the aftermath of mass shootings and other forms of gun violence. “On the one-week anniversary of America's second-most lethal school shooting.Luigi Esposito and Laura L.. the impenetrable killer's victims numbered 27. Adam Lanza) fits this pattern. Aurora. might be related to the sort of apathy.” 90 . blamed for her son’s actions. blaming gun violence on violent movies and video games implies that everything else in society is okay. Thus. etc. in the aftermath of the tragedies at Newtown. As described by Lionel Shriver (2012).S. Nancy Lanza was. But even omitting his suicide. local politicians. and Milwaukee. so much scorn was directed posthumously towards Nancy Lanza that she was often not even counted among the dead.). Indeed. Yet outside of blaming violent forms of entertainment and pointing to a lack of mental health services (which is discussed in more detail later).S. these factors are typically seen by most gun supporters (and much of the mass media) as ancillary to some deep aberration or pathology within the individual. In fact. particularly as it relates to mass shootings. bells tolled across the nation – 26 times. social isolation. how gun violence in the U. and even the president of the United 8 The treatment of Nancy Lanza (the mother of Sandy Hook shooter. Finley frequency or deadly results as in the U. More importantly. not much is offered in terms of addressing the social dimension of gun violence. Furthermore. Throughout much of the blogosphere and mass media coverage of the Sandy Hook tragedy. gun violence is understood as the doing of individuals who are evil or mentally unstable. countless media commentators. individuals not adhering to gun safety rules.g. this presumed lack of “personal responsibility” made her own death at the hands of her son unworthy of public sympathy.8 Even more typically. The fact that she kept guns in the house when she had a mentally unstable son living with her was regarded as irresponsible. and devaluation of human life that is encouraged by the “survival of the fittest” ethos that characterizes the prevailing neoliberal market economy in this country is typically ignored. the notion of “evil” as a “cause” of unnecessary gun violence is a “dead-end” that permits no further questions. Attributing gun violence to individual “evil doers” is thus a position that discourages the possibility of engaging in a fruitful dialogue and developing meaningful solutions to this problem. so evil. 2012). 2012).” Because pure evil exists. moral agents who are willing and equipped with the proper tools (i. firearms) to battle evil. political. Yet when it comes to the most beloved. at a press conference. and the monsters and predators of this world know it and exploit it. As discussed Jesse Roche (2013). for example. By attributing the issue of mass shootings to individuals “possessed by voices” and “driven by demons. those who support more gun controls are.” this sort of argument decontextualizes gun violence and (here again) ignores or downplays the social. A few days later. 91 . whether intended or not.. the NRA addressed the dangers of gun control and the need to do away with the current tendency to keep schools as “gun free zones” by declaring the following: We care about the President.Theory in Action States employed the word “evil” to explain these events. and economic forces underlying this problem. At the Sandy Hook vigil on December 16. cultural. That must change now! The truth is that our society is populated by an unknown number of genuine monsters—people so deranged. 2012. President Obama referred to the tragedy as an act of “unconscionable evil” (President Obama’s Speech at Prayer Vigil. They walk among us every day. Guns. what are needed are sane. so we protect him with armed Secret Service agents. emphasis added. enablers of evil. The statement above presupposes a Manichean view of the world in which mass shootings are the work of “genuine monsters. innocent and vulnerable members of the American family— our children—we as a society leave them utterly defenseless.e. therefore. Members of Congress work in offices surrounded by armed Capitol Police officers. And does anybody really believe that the next Adam Lanza isn't planning his attack on a school he's already identified at this very moment? (NRA Press Release. so possessed by voices and driven by demons that no sane person can possibly ever comprehend them. are the antidote to evil! Based on this sort of dualistic logic. for the past several years. To illustrate this tendency as it 92 . flaws. Wright Mills referred to as exercising a “sociological imagination’) has become almost unimaginable. These types of events. habits..Luigi Esposito and Laura L. psychopaths) also falls into the trap of personalizing a much wider social problem that transcends mental health. as a recent Gallup poll shows. that the U. Like the idea of “evil. While a scarcity of mental health services is certainly a pertinent issue and has. the sort of individualistic worldview encouraged by neoliberal ideology has become so deeply entrenched in the United States that addressing the link between the personal and the social (what C. attributing gun violence. 2013). is more likely to minimize tragedies like that witnessed in Newtown by addressing the country’s mental health crisis rather than focusing on banning the sale of assault weapons (Warner 2012). This typical narrative is at least partly what drives a majority of Americans to believe. insane. frustrations. to sick individuals (e.” the notion that random gun violence is the product of an untreated “sick mind” is also a dead-end explanation that discourages meaningful questions and dialogue (Roche. that society is a meaningless abstraction and that “only individuals matter. And while there should be little doubt that some individuals. or abnormal. Here again. this position ignores society and conforms to Margaret Thatcher’s now famous quote that has become emblematic of the neoliberal worldview—i. explaining such violence by invoking terms such as “psychopaths” (or “evil”) ensures the type of sensationalism that generates high ratings—a primary objective among profit-driven news corporations that are in constant competition for viewers. and the public at large. therefore. and tendencies in relation to the wider society in which they live. are assumed to result when such individuals are not given the proper mental health treatment.e.” Also consistent with the demands of a neoliberal market society. particularly mass shootings.. explaining gun violence solely in terms of “abnormal individuals” dismisses how all people develop their desires. associating the problem of gun violence exclusively to psychopaths and other pathological individuals exonerates the type of society that produces such individuals in the first place. Indeed.S. Despite all this. might indeed benefit from treatment. been part of the neoliberal agenda to defund government programs. Finley GUN VIOLENCE AND MENTAL HEALTH Another related tendency among politicians and the mass media is to explain mass shootings and other forms of unprovoked gun violence as tragic incidents carried out by individuals who are sick.g. S.S. guns were used in 11.Theory in Action pertains to gun violence. online) asks his readers to do the following: Ask yourself if you can imagine. By pointing to gun violence as the work of “evil doers” or “psychopaths. it is important to remember that gun violence is not anomalous but rather a normative feature of American life. possibly even for cowardice.422 homicides in 2011—that is over 30 people in the U. dominated as it is by the logic of psychopaths and evil monsters. pointing to a “few bad apples” as the culprits of gun violence diverts attention away from the need for a deeper critique that might call for substantial societal changes. have captured the attention of the nation and the world. In today’s media environment. TOWARDS A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF GUN VIOLENCE IN THE U. particularly if those answers do not require any radical shifts in the ways most people live and understand the world—shifts that might compromise the interests of politicians and corporations. It is indeed easier (not to mention profitable and politically expedient) to emphasize “ready-made answers” to complex problems. the suggestion that society might have culpability in recent mass shootings is unthinkable. at this point in time. It’s also far easier to pretend to address the problem by fortifying society with prayer and/or guns. In short.. Jesse Roche (2013.S. what is too often missing from these discussions is a critical understanding of the 93 . While recent mass shootings in the U. being murdered with a gun every day (CDC 2012). And while it is undeniable that gun violence is related to weak gun controls and a lack of mental health services.” the message is ultimately conveyed that these dangerous individuals are anomalies in a society that is otherwise decent and fundamentally sound. particularly in Newtown. to grasp the logic inherent in evil and [criminal pathology]. any politician suggesting that we ask the question whether society itself might be responsible for producing [young people] who go to school with a premeditated intent to kill? They would be laughed off the air and blamed for shirking their duty. from victims to mere spectators. Those in positions of authority seem to believe that it’s easier for everyone. According to data published by the Centers for Disease Control. pp. Under these conditions. and self-gain. respectable. because materialism is exalted under neoliberalism. by emphasizing de-regulation and the pursuit of profit/personal gain as the linchpin of freedom. involves a constant struggle whereby persons must “outdo’ one another to get the things that they want or need. human life under neoliberalism becomes largely disposable. Indeed.” It is precisely this breakdown of community that has also led to declining levels of empathy (particularly among young people) in the United States for the past 30 years (Zaki. neoliberalism has promoted what Charles Derber (2004. 89) “these things are supposed to tell others. It is within this sort of social context that various forms of gun related homicides—including 94 . competition. whether or not we are successful.” Attaining material things. since the early 1980s. 2011). or wearing a certain brand of clothes are commonly seen as indicators of a person’s worth and status. and desirable. and by normalizing and rewarding self-centered behavior.” they lose the basic connection and sense of caring that sustains human communities. outside the most powerful/privileged individuals. for example. driving a certain type of car. living in a certain type of house. p. and well-being with the purchasing of material possessions. 27) has described as a “sociopathic society”— one that is “marked by a collapse of moral order that results from the breakdown of community and the failure of institutions responsible for inspiring moral vision and enforcing robust moral codes. neoliberalism breeds a society of alienated persons who (perhaps outside the few individuals closest to them) see others as little more than objects. As discussed by Henry Giroux (2004). As famously described by Erich Fromm (2005. Finley institutional and ideological forces that create a context in which so many people are willing and ready to kill or harm one another. By encouraging attitudes and behavioral tendencies related to extreme individualism. As this paper has made clear.Luigi Esposito and Laura L. however. happiness. Thus. 2012). when human beings are reduced to “things. p. people become largely “incapable of loving” (Choi and Semm. hypermasculinity. anything outside the material realm—including human life itself—is devalued. neoliberalism has been a central factor in creating such a context. The point. therefore. Furthermore. as well as ourselves. As discussed by Pérez and Esposito (2010. moreover. 15-31). to a large extent. is that largely because of this cut-throat materialization of social life. associates personal success. people living in a neoliberal market society are encouraged—through a host of institutions including the advertising industry and the entertainment industry—to embrace a hyper-consumer culture that. Others. are either an impediment to one’s self-serving ends or a means towards fulfilling those ends. Jesse Roche (2012. over 78 percent of homicides involved non-strangers—i. Therefore. can actually make violence (including gun violence) more likely. Of all females in particular killed with firearms. under certain conditions promoted by neoliberalism.S. in which we feel fortunate just to have a job to pay the bills. an erosion of decent paying jobs (mostly semi95 . taking a gun and shooting into society is a clear expression of trying to break through to some reality beyond what. Department of Justice. for many. the hyper-masculinity endorsed by neoliberalism encourages men to see themselves as entitled to power and control. among other outcomes. in such a world.” too many people feel irrelevant and incapable of making any significant difference in the world. As noted earlier. in which we have little say or power to change the way our massive society operates. it seems intimacy is not an antidote to violence. do not involve random shooters killing strangers but rather individuals killing others they know.. Another issue to consider that is too often ignored in mainstream discussions of gun violence is how this violence might have a lot to do with a sense of powerlessness that many people feel in a neoliberal market society. since the neoliberal restructuring of the U. According to the U. that the majority of gun related homicides in the U. in which most of us passively watch world events unfold like a football game. almost two-thirds were killed by their intimate partners (When Men Murder Women. incidents of gun violence—particularly mass shootings—might often be violent outbursts against a society that makes most people feel insignificant and impotent! It is also important to note. might be a way of reclaiming some modicum of control (what sociologists refer to as a “sense of mastery”) over events and outcomes. 2004).e. from 1980-2008. incidents of gun violence. particularly those related to mass shootings. relatives. however. In short.S. Moreover. there has been.Theory in Action mass shootings—and other forms of violence become predictable outcomes. Because social ties are weakened and citizens are typically reduced to “consumers. Considering these figures. friends. 2011). and.S. is a stifling vacuum chamber of everyday life. 2006). economy in the early 1980s. online) astutely explains this as follows: In a world in which most of us live relatively isolated lives from our neighbors and families. or acquaintances—and over half of these homicides were gun related (Cooper and Smith. which is the basis of abusive relationships (Katz. however.g. can never be thoroughly understood and hence minimizing this problem will be unlikely. but also align itself with other anti-neoliberal movements that are calling for systemic social and economic changes. as well as a shift in the values. challenging 96 . the availability of firearms will invariably produce tragic results.Luigi Esposito and Laura L... stagnant wages. What is also needed is a popular movement that will not only challenge the pro-gun lobby and push for more gun control. and has been closely correlated with domestic and other forms of interpersonal violence (e. Recent mass shootings have galvanized the public’s attention to gun violence. financial insecurity (Rosen 2011). dialogue and interpersonal understanding is replaced by fear and cynicism.S culture is beyond the scope of this article. CONCLUSION: BEYOND GUN CONTROL Although a full examination of what must be done to challenge the sort of neoliberal logic that is so deeply engrained in U. 2009). individuals typically live under a stifling state of fear and anxiety. and attitudes that shape our relations and the way most Americans live their lives. These conditions are at least partly responsible for increasing levels of stress (Jayson 2012). cannot remain focused solely on tweaking gun laws (although this is obviously important). Finley skilled manufacturing jobs that have been transferred overseas to cheaper labor markets). because the sort of “rugged” or ‘possessive” individualism emphasized in a neoliberal society is also typically gendered. the sort of extreme individualism——which many regard as part of some inevitable “human nature”— that is encouraged by neoliberalism and is at the heart of America’s gun culture must be exposed as thoroughly contingent and antithetical to a free and safe society. and the cutting of public expenditure for social services. First. all of which has a significant effect on intimate/family relations. in the sort of social Darwinian world encouraged by neoliberalism. Under these sorts of conditions. These efforts. we offer here a few brief suggestions. Without taking all these factors into account. peaceful societies that nourish strong social bonds among people and foster interpersonal trust and recognition.g. Indeed. the issue of gun violence in the U. Second. loss of work benefits. The point is not to abandon individualism in favor of abstract collectivism but rather to promote awareness about the fact that without stable. norms. and worker dissatisfaction (Saad 2012). Renzetti.S. particularly for the needy (e. and this might constitute a strategic moment for taking action to minimize this violence. Klein 2012). Giroux (2013. Efforts must be made to expand such initiatives so as to normalize a radically different. of course.” This tendency. conversations about gun violence must begin to examine how the NRA and the gun industry benefits from neoliberalism.” Fourth. families. online) explains this as follows: Neoliberalism leads to social policies structured around the criminalization of social problems and everyday life. anti-violent form of masculinity. not only overlooks the web of social relations and meanings that propel individuals’ action but also invites a punitive approach to social problems that is discriminatory and anathema to democracy. etc.— to promote a sense of community and interconnectedness. The public must be informed about the power of the gun industry and the NRA. To think of this issue more holistically. those who seek to minimize gun violence must also avoid the neoliberal tendency to personalize this issue. and other institutions—that are designed to rethink masculinity and encourage a process of re-socialization into more inclusive and egalitarian definitions of manhood that do not emphasize dominance and violence.” is instead playing on racist 97 . or ideologies and books that glorify war and the warrior” (p. Any meaningful discussion about gun violence must reject the neoliberal tendency to pathologize perpetrators as “sick” or “evil. begin in homes and schools and would include a “critique of media. churches. Third. 152). artifacts like toys. This would. while claiming to be a “civil rights organization. what might be needed is a shift in social logic that deviates from the neoliberal assumption that “only individuals matter. In her book The Bully Society. This governing-through-crime model produces a highly authoritarian and mechanistic approach to addressing social problems that often focuses on the poor and minorities. Jessie Klein (2012) also addresses various initiatives—in schools. rather than considering the larger complex of social and structural forces that fuels violence in the first place. sports organizations. We must continue to pull back the curtains and reveal that the NRA. Many authors and media critics. have provided important critiques and developed tools to assist with this re-education. like Jackson Katz. and places undue emphasis on personal security. as Kellner (2008) explains. In effect. the media. more efforts must be made—in schools.Theory in Action current gender norms that tell boys and men that violence is synonymous with masculinity is another important step. promotes highly repressive policies. and social and economic justice. (2012). attempts at minimizing this problem will not likely be very effective. such as Moms Demand Action. It is for this reason that an effective anti. 2013 from http://www. Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) from producing data about which guns are linked to particular crime scenes is another important step in allowing the public to make informed choices about guns (Diaz. Gun Show Nation: Violence and Values in American History and Society. have been created to exert pressure on Congress to pass stronger gun controls. (2012). Amy E. 2013) and how the NRA’s lobbying efforts have helped craft pro-gun legislation that lines the industries pockets (Dreier. Ultimately.e. 2013) are imperative. 11131132. which prohibits the Bureau of Alcohol. In a recent article.Luigi Esposito and Laura L.gov/nchs/fastats/homicide. solidarity.org/10. Retrieved on March 27. bringing these sorts of reforms to fruition requires a strong popular movement. societal conditions. Burbick. Faststats.1093/bjc/azs039 Centers for Disease Control. Ansell (Ed. Joan. In Amy E.doi. reciprocity. British Journal of Criminology. Finally. Unraveling the Right: The New Conservatism in American Thought and Politics (pp. so as to inspire more people not simply to “agree” with more gun controls but to take an activist stance against the various institutional and ideological forces that promote gun violence. such as the NRA. those who seek to challenge the pro-gun lobby must work on improving their strategy and narrative. Finley fears to promote its agenda (Diaz.). Boulder: Westview Press. 52. REFERENCES Ansell. Books and reports that uncover the lucrative ties between gun manufacturers and the NRA (i. 173-191).cdc. Kristin A. Carlson. and underlying value systems that promotes gun violence. The Color of America’s Culture War. 2013). Diaz. among other things.S. This must obviously change! While various post-Newtown groups. 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