Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017Q.1 Give answers to the following short questions. (1) The Personal Qualities of a Teacher Here I want to try to give you an answer to the question: What personal qualities are desirable in a teacher? Probably no two people would draw up exactly similar lists, but I think the following would be generally accepted. First, the teacher's personality should be pleasantly live and attractive. This does not rule out people who are physically plain, or even ugly, because many such have great personal charm. But it does rule out such types as the over-excitable, melancholy, frigid, sarcastic, cynical, frustrated, and over-bearing: I would say too, that it excludes all of dull or purely negative personality. I still stick to what I said in my earlier book: that school children probably 'suffer more from bores than from brutes'. Secondly, it is not merely desirable but essential for a teacher to have a genuine capacity for sympathy - in the literal meaning of that word; a capacity to tune in to the minds and feelings of other people, especially, since most teachers are school teachers, to the minds and feelings of children. Closely related with this is the capacity to be tolerant - not, indeed, of what is wrong, but of the frailty and immaturity of human nature which induce people, and again especially children, to make mistakes. Thirdly, I hold it essential for a teacher to be both intellectually and morally honest. This does not mean being a plaster saint. It means that he will be aware of his intellectual strengths, and limitations, and will have thought about and decided upon the moral principles by which his life shall be guided. There is no contradiction in my going on to say that a teacher should be a bit of an actor. That is part of the technique of teaching, which demands that every now and then a teacher should be able to put on an act - to enliven a lesson, correct a fault, or award praise. Children, especially young children, live in a world that is rather larger than life. A teacher must remain mentally alert. He will not get into the profession if of low intelligence, but it is all too easy, even for people of above-average intelligence, to stagnate intellectually and that means to deteriorate intellectually. A teacher must be quick to adapt himself to any situation, however improbable (they happen!) and able to improvise, if necessary at less than a moment's notice. (Here I should stress that I use 'he' and 'his' throughout the book simply as a matter of convention and convenience.) On the other hand, a teacher must be capable of infinite patience. This, I may say, is largely a matter of self-discipline and self-training; we are none of us born like that. He must be pretty resilient; teaching makes great demands on nervous energy. And he should be able to take in his stride the innumerable petty irritations any adult dealing with children has to endure. Finally, I think a teacher should have the kind of mind which always wants to go on learning. Teaching is a job at which one will never be perfect; there is always something more to learn about it. There are three principal objects of study: the subject, or subjects, which the teacher is teaching; the methods by which they can best be taught to the particular pupils in the classes he is teaching; and - by far the most important - the children, young people, or adults to whom they are to be taught. The two cardinal principles of British education today are that education is education of the whole person, and that it is best acquired through full and active co-operation between two persons, the teacher and the learner. 1 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 The Professional Qualities of a Teacher A great teacher is one a student remembers and cherishes forever. Teachers have long-lasting impacts on the lives of their students, and the greatest teachers inspire students toward greatness. To be successful, a great teacher must have: 1. An Engaging Personality and Teaching Style A great teacher is very engaging and holds the attention of students in all discussions. 2. Clear Objectives for Lessons A great teacher establishes clear objectives for each lesson and works to meet those specific objectives during each class. 3. Effective Discipline Skills A great teacher has effective discipline skills and can promote positive behaviors and change in the classroom. 4. Good Classroom Management Skills A great teacher has good classroom management skills and can ensure good student behavior, effective study and work habits, and an overall sense of respect in the classroom. 5. Good Communication with Parents A great teacher maintains open communication with parents and keeps them informed of what is going on in the classroom as far as curriculum, discipline, and other issues. They make themselves available for phone calls, meetings, and email. 6. High Expectations A great teacher has high expectations of their students and encourages everyone to always work at their best level. 7. Knowledge of Curriculum and Standards A great teacher has thorough knowledge of the school's curriculum and other standards they must uphold in the classroom. They ensure their teaching meets those standards. 8. Knowledge of Subject Matter This may seem obvious, but is sometimes overlooked. A great teacher has incredible knowledge of and enthusiasm for the subject matter they are teaching. They are prepared to answer questions and keep the material interesting for the students. 9. Passion for Children and Teaching A great teacher is passionate about teaching and working with children. They are excited about influencing students' lives and understand the impact they have. 10. Strong Rapport with Students A great teacher develops a strong rapport with students and establishes trusting relationships. (2) What is a case method? The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. A teaching case is a rich narrative in which individuals or groups must make a decision or solve a problem. A teaching case is not a "case study" of the type used in academic research. Teaching cases provide information, but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is the work done by students during the classroom discussion. 2 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 (3) Define and compare active learning and Cooperative Learning. Active learning is any teaching method that gets students actively involved; cooperative learning is one variety of active learning which structures students into groups with defined roles for each student and a task for the group to accomplish. Lecture-based library instruction is often unsuccessful for many reasons, including poor student attention, simplified examples, and too much material presented at one time. Active and/or cooperative teaching techniques involve the students in the class and increase retention of information following the class period. Active learning techniques are easier to apply and take less class time, while cooperative learning techniques require more advance planning and may take an entire class period. Choosing a teaching technique must be done carefully, with an understanding of the goals of the class session. Several possible goals are detailed, along with suggested techniques for meeting each one. (4) What is lesson planning? Write down the five merits of lesson planning for the teachers. Lesson planning is one of the most crucial parts of your work in the classroom: Get it right, and it’s a great day of teaching. Get it wrong, and the lesson feels painfully long for both you and your students. Building technology into your lesson can be even more cumbersome, particularly as teachers and students transition to a more technology-centered learning environment. Setting classroom norms can take time. The five merits of lesson planning for the teachers 1.Sharing The power to share lesson plans in the cloud lets teachers adapt and improve their efforts in a classroom quicker than they could in the past. Before cloud sharing, exchanging lesso n plans included a hassle-filled morning at the copy machine or extensive hand-written notes. Today, student information systems allow teachers to collaborate on a larger repository of ideas that are proven and tested in the real world. Administrators can also access lessons and communicate with teachers directly. Teachers can also share lessons with colleagues and save lesson plans to a template collection, for easy reuse in the future. 2. Access Speaking of home computers, lots of teachers have a computer at home that they might prefer to use instead of bringing home their school-provided laptop. Of course, this is only possible if they have access to school information at home. Storing school information in the cloud allows teachers and staff the freedom to work on school- related tasks from any device, not just school-provided laptops. In addition to the increased ability to collaborate (see #1), teachers have access to all their information via the cloud and can work from their preferred device regardless of location. 3 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 3. Efficiency As Teach Thought points out, if your current lesson plan system isn’t making teacher's lives easier, it might be time for an upgrade. For example, if your school is considering moving from an on- premises system to the cloud, the new tools should enable users to do a better job with less effort. This includes reducing word processing time and duplicated work by keeping records and planning enclosed within the same system. Moving lessons and other digital resources to the cloud can also make schoolwork more efficient for students. When worksheets are available as downloads from a central location, students don’t have to worry about leaving important papers at school – they can just print out a new copy from their home computer. And once students are comfortable with this system, teachers won’t have to print as many assignments and waste as much paper at school. 4. Security Lots of teachers rely on their home computers to prepare lesson plans and information for their students, and use email or a USB drive to transfer that information to their devices at school. But what if one of those devices is lost, stolen or damaged? The lack of a dedicated, device -independent backup could cost hours of work and cause massive stress and frustration. Cloud wards notes that you don’t have to worry about losing data to a faulty device in a cloud- based system because everything is backed up offsite. Also, concerns about accessing sensitive information are reduced since a username and password are required to get access to the cloud backup service. You can also set additional passwords on individual folders or place restrictions on what people can do with the contents for added security. 5. Flexibility Teachers often find themselves spending more time on a lesson than they intended to. Sometimes an unexpected event or delay can require "bumping" large portions of their lesson plans around on the schedule. Good systems make it easy to extend lessons, move plans around, and push the lessons that follow down automatically with a few clicks. Flexibility can also refer to various calendar viewing and date selection options, such as monthly, weekly, daily and list views. (5) Define the term inquiry approach; enlist the methods that come under the umbrella of this approach. Inquiry is a dynamic process of being open to wonder and puzzlement and coming to know and understand the world. As such, it is a stance that pervades all aspects of life and is essential to the way in which knowledge is created. Inquiry is based on the belief that understanding is constructed in the process of people working and conversing together as they pose and solve the problems; make discoveries and rigorously testing the discoveries that arise in the course of shared activity. 4 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 Inquiry is a study into a worthy question, issue, problem or idea. It is the authentic, real work that that someone in the community might tackle. It is the type of work that those working in the disciplines actually undertake to create or build knowledge. Therefore, inquiry involves serious engagement and investigation and the active creation and testing of new knowledge. There are several dimensions of inquiry: • Authenticity ✓ The inquiry study emanates from a question, problem or exploration that has meaning to the students. ✓ An adult at work or in the community might actually tackle the question, problem, issue or exploration posed by the task/s. ✓ The inquiry study originates with an issue, problem, question, exploration or topic that provides opportunities to create or produce something that contributes to the world’s knowledge. ✓ The task/s require/s a variety of roles or perspectives. • Academic Rigor ✓ The inquiry study leads students to build knowledge that leads to deep understanding. ✓ Students are provided with multiple, flexible ways to approach the problem, issue or question under study that use methods of inquiry central to the disciplines that underpin the problem, issue or question. ✓ The inquiry study encourages students to develop habits of mind that encourage them to ask questions of ▪ Evidence (how do we know what we know?) ▪ Viewpoint (who is speaking?) ▪ Pattern and connection (what causes what?) ▪ Supposition (how might things have been different?) ▪ why it matters (who cares) • Assessment ✓ On-going assessment is woven into the design of the inquiry study providing timely descriptive feedback and utilizes a range of methods, including peer and self evaluation. Assessment guides student learning and teacher’s instructional planning. ✓ The study provides opportunities for students to reflect on their learning using clear criteria that they helped to set. The students use these reflections to set learning goals, establish next steps and develop effective learning strategies. ✓ Teachers, peers, adults from outside the classroom and the student are involved in the assessment of the work. • Beyond The School ✓ The study requires students to address a semi-structured question, issue or problem, relevant to curriculum outcomes, but grounded in the life and work beyond the school. ✓ The study requires students to develop organizational and self management skills in order to complete the study. ✓ The study leads students to acquire and use competencies expected in high performance work organizations (eg. team work, problem solving, communications, decision making and project management). 5 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 • Use of Digital Technologies ✓ Technology is used in a purposeful manner that demonstrates an appreciation of new ways of thinking and doing. The technology is essential in accomplishing the task. ✓ The study requires students to determine which technologies are most appropriate to the task. ✓ The study requires students to conduct research, share information, make decisions, solve problems, create meaning and communicate with various audiences inside and outside the classroom. ✓ The study makes excellent use digital resources. ✓ Students and parents have on-going, online access to the study as it develops. ✓ The study requires sophisticated use of multimedia/hypermedia software, video, conferencing, simulation, databases, programming, etc. • Active Exploration ✓ The study requires students to spend significant amounts of time doing field work, design work, labs, interviews, studio work, construction, etc. ✓ The study requires students to engage in real, authentic investigations using a variety of media, methods and sources. ✓ The study requires students to communicate what they are learning with a variety of audiences through presentation, exhibition, website, wiki, blog, etc. • Connecting With Expertise ✓ The study requires students to observe and interact with adults with relevant expertise and experience in a variety of situations. ✓ The study requires students to work closely with and get to know at least one adult other than their teacher. ✓ The tasks are designed in collaboration with expertise, either directly or indirectly. The inquiry requires adults to collaborate with one another and with students on the design and assessment of the inquiry work. • Elaborated Communication ✓ Students have extended opportunities to support, challenge, and respond to each other’s ideas as they negotiate a collective understanding of relevant concepts. Students have opportunities to negotiate the flow of conversation within small and large group discussions. ✓ Students have opportunities to choose forms of expression to express their understanding. ✓ The inquiry provides opportunities for students to communicate what they are learning with a variety of audiences. Q.2 Define and explain the concept of effective teaching. Highlight the principles of effective teaching. Effective teaching is more than just the successful transference of knowledge and skill or application around a particular topic. Effective teaching ensures that this surface approach to learning is replaced by deeper, student driven approaches to learning that analyses, develop, create and demonstrate understanding. Students need to initiate learning and maintain engagement during learning in their development as independent lifelong learners. Principles of effective teaching: Principle 1: Care about helping your kids to do the best that they can Effective teachers are passionate about helping their students to learn. They form warm and caring 6 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 relationships with their students. However, they also set high expectations, and they demand that their students meet them. This leads to a situation where the teacher and the students are working together towards a common goal – helping every child to learn as much as they can. Principle 2: Understand but don’t excuse your students Effective teachers seek to understand their students, but so do most teachers. The difference is that effective teachers still expect each of their students to behave and to achieve well. Effective teachers use their understanding to adjust their approach to teaching, but they did not use it to excuse misbehavior, poor effort or a lack of real academic progress. Principle 3: Be clear about what you want your students to learn Effective teachers are clear about what they want their students to learn and they share this with their students. Everyone understands what success entails. Effective teachers also know where students are currently at in this area. They then work towards developing the understanding and skills their students need to demonstrate that they have mastered the material. Principle 4: Disseminate surface knowledge and promote deep learning Effective teachers want their students to be able to think critically and to develop a deep understanding of the material being taught in class. However, they recognize developing this deep understanding requires sharing a foundational set of knowledge and skills. Armed with this foundation, teachers can help students to develop a deep understanding of the topic at hand. Principle 5: Gradually release responsibility for learning Effective teachers do not ask their students to perform tasks that they have not shown their students how to do. Rather, they start by modeling what students need to do. They then ask their students to have a go themselves, while being available to help as needed. Only when students are ready, do they ask their students to perform the tasks on their own. Finally, they offer ongoing cumulative practice, spaced out over time, to help students retain what they have learned. Principle 6: Give your students feedback Effective teachers give students dollops of feedback. This feedback tells students how they are going and gives them information about how they could improve. Without feedback, students are likely to continue holding misconceptions and making errors. Feedback allows students to adjust their understanding and efforts before it is too late. Principle 7: Involve students in learning from each other Effective teachers’ supplement teacher-led, individual learning, with activities that involve students in learning from each other. When done well, strategies such as cooperative learning, competition and peer tutoring can be quite powerful. Yet, these activities must be carefully structured and used in conjunction with more traditional teaching. 7 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 Principle 8: Manage your students’ behavior Effective teachers know that students’ behavior can help or hinder how much students learn in the classroom. They implement strategies that nurture positive behavior and minimize misbehavior. They are consciously aware of what is going in the classroom, and they nip problems in the bud before quickly returning the focus to the lesson at hand. Finally, they follow up on more serious misbehavior and help students to change any entrenched bad habits. Principle 9: Evaluate the impact you are having on your students Effective teachers regularly assess student progress, and they then use this insight to evaluate the impact they are having on their students. If what they are doing is working, they continue to use or even make more use of a particular approach. If what they are doing is not having the desired impact (even for just one student), they reflect on and refine what they are doing until they are getting the results they want. Principle 10: Continue learning ways that you can be of even more help to more students Effective teachers love learning and are always seeking to improve their own practices. They seek out evidence-based insights, and they are happy to challenge their existing beliefs about teaching. However, they are also critical of mindless innovation, innovation for the sake of it, and innovation that adopts practices that are not supported by research. You can use these principles of effective teaching to reflect on your own practice, to discuss effective teaching with colleagues or evaluate particular programs/approaches you are considering. Q.3 What is Ganges’ framework for instructional development? Gagne created a nine-step process that detailed each element required for effective learning. The model is useful for all types of learning, but this article focuses on applying it to training your team in a work environment. Benefits of Gagne's Model Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning model gives trainers and educators a checklist to use before they engage in teaching or training activities. Each step highlights a form of communication that aids the learning process. When each step is completed in turn, learners are much more likely to be engaged and to retain the information or skills that they're being taught. If you use this approach before any type of training session or presentation, you'll remember how to structure your session so that your people get the best possible learning experience. Using the Tool We'll now look at each of the nine levels, and provide example of how you can apply each step in your own situation. Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception) Start the learning experience by gaining the attention of your audience. This change in stimulus alerts the group that learning will soon take place. 8 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy) Next, you must ensure that your team knows what they need to learn, and that they understand why they're about to learn this new information. Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval) When your people learn something new, match the new information with related information or topics they've learned in the past. Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception) Present the new information to the group in an effective manner. Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding) To help your team learn and retain the information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate the information that you're trying to convey. Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding) At this stage, you need to ensure that your people can demonstrate their knowledge of what you've taught them. The way that they show this depends on what they're learning. Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement) After your team demonstrates their knowledge, provide feedback and reinforce any points as necessary. Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval) Your team should be able to complete a test, or other measurement tool, to show that they've learned the material or skill effectively. Team members should complete this test independently, without any help or coaching from you. Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization) In this last stage, your team members show that they've retained information by transferring their new knowledge or skill to situations that are different from the ones you've trained them on. Comparing With Other Training Models Gagne's Nine Levels of Learning provide a useful approach that helps managers and structure the learning process. Each different stage complements the others, and by working through all nine levels, you can help to ensure that your team fully understands and retains information. Although Gagne's model is different from other popular training models, you can still combine it with other methods. A good example is 4MAT , a training method that helps you to structure your approach so that people with different learning styles will learn just as effectively as everyone else. (Our article on 4MAT also explains common learning styles – Kolb's, and Honey and Mumford's are particularly respected.) The ARCS model is also a good learning method to use with Gagne's model. ARCS focuses on motivation and making sure that learners understand the benefits of the new skill or information. Since this is step 2 in Gagne's model, the ARCS model can help you to understand better how to increase your team's motivation and engagement with the training. 9 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q.4 Why is outlining of goals/objectives necessary before planning a lesson? How are objectives stated in behavioral terms? Goals and objectives are important to strategic planning because they turn the mission and vision into specific measurable targets. Goals and objectives are concrete and help translate the mission and vision into reality. ♦ Goals are the ends toward which a program or problem solution is directed. Goals are outcome statements to guide implementation of the strategy (i.e., the tactics of what is planned to be done). While goals tend to be general or broad and ambitious, they also must be clear and realistic in order to clarify the team's direction and gain support of other stakeholders. ♦ Objectives are more detailed than goals and explain how goals will be accomplished. Objectives detail the activities that must be completed to achieve the goal. An example of a goal is-to successfully reintegrate released offenders back into society by severing ties with gangs. The objectives might be: (1) develop anti-gang campaign and (2) 50 percent of offenders will sever ties with gangs in the first year. The goal is a broad statement of a changeable condition, one many community members could identify with. The objectives then provide specific direction and approaches. The objectives are measurable and realistic. When setting goals it is important to create ones that range from the comfortable to the challenging. A challenging goal is often referred to as a “stretch goal” and is designed to inspire a reach beyond where we normally would expect to achieve. The significance of setting a stretch goal is that it provides focus and generates energy. How are objectives stated in behavioral terms? A behavioral objective is a learning outcome stated in measurable terms, which gives direction to the learner’s experience and becomes the basis for student evaluation. Objectives may vary in several respects. They may be general or specific, concrete or abstract, cognitive, affective, or psychomotor. Cognitive objectives emphasize intellectual outcomes, such as knowledge, understanding, and thinking skills. Affective objectives emphasize feeling and emotion, such as interests, values, attitudes, appreciation, and methods of adjustment. Psychomotor objectives emphasize motor skills, such as physical assessment skills and administration of chemotherapy. Points in writing behavioral objectives: 1. Begin each behavioral objective with a verb. The critical aspect of any behavioral objective is the verb selected to indicate expected behavior from learning activities. 2. State each objective in terms of learner performance. A behavioral objective is one that is considered to be observable and measurable. Behavior is generally construed to be an action of an individual that can be seen, felt, or heard by another person. 3. State each objective so that it includes only one general learning outcome. Examples of objectives At the graduate level of nursing education, it is expected that learning objectives will be general, abstract, and cognitive or affective. Examples of appropriate objectives for graduate students are as follows: • Cognitive: Create an assessment tool based on a nursing theory for patients experiencing pain. • Cognitive: Evaluate the usefulness of nursing research in clinical practice. • Affective: Accept professional responsibility for change in problem clinical situations. 10 Malik Kashif Masood 8601 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q.5 Define and describe the term motivation. What are different types of motivation? Discuss in detail. The term motivation is derived from the Latin verb mover (to move). The idea of movement is reflected in such commonsense ideas about motivation as something that gets us going, keeps us working, and helps us complete tasks. Yet there are many definitions of motivation and much disagreement over its precise nature. These differences in the nature and operation of motivation are apparent in the various theories we cover in this text. For now, we will say that motivation has been conceptualized in varied ways including inner forces, enduring traits, behavioral responses to stimuli, and sets of beliefs and affects. The different types of motivation 1: INTRINSIC MOTIVATION When the source of the motivation is from within the person himself/herself or the activity itself. 2: EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION When that which motivates a person is someone or something outside himself/herself. 3: TYPE OF MOTIVATION WHICH IS MORE BENEFICIAL Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive present. Intrinsic motivation is more beneficial than extrinsic motivation. 4: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION External motivation in the form of rewards, incentives or punishment. Extrinsic motivation is necessary to develop the love for learning among poorly motivated students. 5: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Hopefully the students develop the genuine love for learning and become intrinsically motivated in the process. It is expected, however, that these extrinsic motivational factors be gradually replaced internal motivation. 6: THE ROLE OF EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION We may begin employing extrinsic motivation at the start but this should fade away as the students get intrinsically motivated themselves. 11 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q. No1 : Explain the nature and scope of measurement, assessment and evolution. Highlight the important characteristics of classroom assessment. Measurement, assessment, and evaluation mean very different things, and yet most of my students were unable to adequately explain the differences. So, in keeping with the ADPRIMA approach to explaining things in as straightforward and meaningful a way as possible, here are what I think are useful descriptions of these three fundamental terms. These are personal opinions, but they have worked for me for many years. They have operational utility, and therefore may also be useful for your purposes. Measurement: refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object are determined. One exception seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the IQ of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such things as attitudes or preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we generally use some standard instrument to determine how big, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is. Standard instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. We measure to obtain information about what is. Such information may or may not be useful, depending on the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them. There are few such instruments in the social sciences that approach the validity and reliability of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a classroom is in terms of square feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a thermometer, and we use Ohm meters to determine the voltage, amperage, and resistance in a circuit. In all of these examples, we are not assessing anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some established rule or standard. Assessment is therefore quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very different purposes. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA for the behavioral verb measure is: To apply a standard scale or measuring device to an object, series of objects, events, or conditions, according to practices accepted by those who are skilled in the use of the device or scale. Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. In other words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit. We assess progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we assess verbal and quantitative skills through such instruments as the SAT and GRE. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test or assess to determine whether or not an objective or goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward. Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that we make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows. In the section on this site on behavioral verbs, to assess means To stipulate the conditions by which the behavior specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such stipulations are usually in the form of written descriptions. Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that is designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation. Generally, any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information regarding the worthiness, 1 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has been made. For example, I often ask my students if they wanted to determine the temperature of the classroom they would need to get a thermometer and take several readings at different spots, and perhaps average the readings. That is simple measuring. The average temperature tells us nothing about whether or not it is appropriate for learning. In order to do that, students would have to be polled in some reliable and valid way. That polling process is what evaluation is all about. A classroom average temperature of 75 degrees is simply information. It is the context of the temperature for a particular purpose that provides the criteria for evaluation. A temperature of 75 degrees may not be very good for some students, while for others, it is ideal for learning. We evaluate every day. Teachers, in particular, are constantly evaluating students, and such evaluations are usually done in the context of comparisons between what was intended (learning, progress, behavior) and what was obtained. When used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA site for the behavioral verb evaluate is: To classify objects, situations, people, conditions, etc., according to defined criteria of quality. Indication of quality must be given in the defined criteria of each class category. Evaluation differs from general classification only in this respect. To sum up, we measure distance, we assess learning, and we evaluate results in terms of some set of criteria. These three terms are certainly connected, but it is useful to think of them as separate but connected ideas and processes. Here is a great link that offers different ideas about these three terms, with well-written explanations. Unfortunately, most information on the Internet concerning this topic amounts to little more than advertisements for services. Important characteristics of classroom assessment . Assessment for learning is a key element of teaching if you want your students to improve. As we said before Assessment for learning is aimed at helping you with your planning after you have identified your students’ strengths, weaknesses, their needs, their motivation and their learning styles. 1: Sharing learning objectives with students At the beginning of every lesson you should share the teaching-learning objectives with your students so that they know what they are supposed to be able to achieve by the end of the lesson. I like to have general objectives displayed during the whole lesson at the top left corner of my board so that I can refer to them any time during the lesson. However I also have a set of differentiated objectives on what I called a SMART setting slide that is a Self-Target-Setting slide where students choose their targets according to their levels and abilities. These objectives targets will then be reviewed at the end of the lesson during the plenary. You will use these objectives for questioning and feedback. For example: “What were the objectives today? Have you reached your target? Which activity has helped you most? 2: Developing students’ awareness about their aims and the standards Not only is it important to define the objectives of the lesson with your students, it is also crucial to explain to them how they will meet these objectives. Students need to be aware of the type of criteria that will allow them to achieve their targets. If you are expecting your students to write a long piece of extended writing you need to model and demonstrate what you are expecting by showing them an example of this writing. Once they have produced their piece of work you may want to use these as examples and why not as displays to show others the expectations. 3: Involve your students in their learning They need to know that they are responsible for their learning and progress. Consequently they need to be given opportunities to talk about their targets, the activities in the lesson and they should be able to express themselves about any point they have found difficult. For this reason you should always allow 2 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 five minutes at least at the end of your lesson to review the objectives and ask them which activity was helpful for them and which activity they found difficult. We often rush at the end of our lessons but these five minutes thinking time where students reflect on their work is important so that they can decide of the next step for their learning. 4: Constructive feedback Every type of feedback is valuable to motivate our learners to improve. Whether written or oral feedback, these comments will help students acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses and will help them to identify which steps they need to take to improve. These feedbacks however need to tell what was done well by the students but it should also explain to them how it could have been even better. Feedback have to point out on the positive side of learning to develop students’ self confidence and self- esteem as consent negative feedback can be damaging for learning and they can even have a bigger impact on the long-term on students’ personality. 5: Reflection for improvement At the end of unit or term when we give our students some assessment tasks, students need to be clear on what skills are going to be assessed and they need to know the criteria against which they are going to get assessed. After the exam, reflection again is vital to decide on the future steps both for students and teachers. Both need to understand what went well in the teaching-learning process and what could be improved and how. Q No.2 : Explain the bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational objectives and why objectives are important for test development give examples ? Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning learning is a psychological process. Thus, the assessment of learning, of necessity, requires the assessment of various psychological processes. In developing assessment tools (tests) it is important that we first have an understanding of these psychological processes and how to go about measuring them. Although there are many psychological models for the process of learning, for this workbook we have chosen Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy as a useful tool. In Bloom’s taxonomy there are three fundamental learning domains: Cognitive, Psychomotor, and Affective. Affective: learning of beliefs, attitudes, and values. Psychomotor learning of physical movements such as ballet steps, how to pitch a curve ball, how to drill out a cavity in a molar, etc. Cognitive learning of information and the processes of dealing with that information. There are six levels of Cognitive Learning as specified by Bloom: 1. Basic Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation 3 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Generally it can be said that the first category, Knowledge, is information-oriented as it stresses the ability to recall existing knowledge. The other five categories can be termed “Process oriented” because they entail more sophisticated learner behaviors and competencies that require increasing degrees of understanding. The following are brief definitions of these six levels with a suggestion as to how to assess this level of learning. Basic Knowledge: To recall and memorize - Assess by direct questions. The object is to test the students' ability to recall facts, to identify and repeat the information provided. Comprehension: To translate from one form to another - Assess by having students' 1) restate material in their own words, 2) reorder or extrapolate ideas, predict or estimate. Assessments must provide evidence that the students have some understanding or comprehension of what they are saying. Application: To apply or use information in a new situation - Assess by presenting students with a unique situation (i.e. one not identical to that used during instruction) and have them apply their knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure. Analysis: To examine a concept and break it down into its parts - Assess by presenting students with a unique situation of the same type but not identical to that used during instruction, and have them analyze the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem. Synthesis: To put information together in a unique or novel way to solve a problem - Assess by presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used during instruction, and have them solve a problem by selecting and using appropriate information. Evaluation: To make quantitative or qualitative judgments using standards of appraisal - Assess by presenting the students with a situation which includes both a problem and a solution to the problem and have them justify or critique the solution. The Importance of Learning Objectives Learning objectives are a critical component of instruction. They have two important functions: 1. Provide course developers guidance on selecting suitable: 1. instructional materials; 2. teaching methods, including learning activities and use of technology; 3. Assessment methods. 2. Help students focus on what they are expected to learn, and understand how they will be assessed. This is why we always emphasize that learning objectives should be specific and measurable. The example below demonstrates good alignment of learning objectives, learning activities, and assessments. It shows us how a clearly stated learning objective can help an instructor create appropriate learning activities to help students acquire the desired skills and select good assessment tools to evaluate students' achievement. 4 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Learning objectives are guides to: 1. Selection of content 2. Development of an instructional strategy. 3. Development and selection of instructional materials. 4. Construction of tests and other instruments for assessing and then evaluating student learning outcomes. How do you write a Learning Objective? In writing a Learning Objective: 1. Focus on student Performance not teacher performance. 2. Focus on product - not process. 3. Focus on terminal behavior - not subject matter. 4. Include only one general learning outcome in each objective. A learning objective is a statement describing a competency or performance capability to be acquired by the learner. There are three characteristics essential to insuring clear statements of objectives. Behavior - First, an objective must describe the competency to be learned in performance terms. The choice of a verb is all-important here. Such frequently used terms as know, understand, grasp, and appreciate do not meet this requirement. If the verb used in stating an objective identifies an observable student behavior, then the basis for a clear statement is established. In addition, the type or level of learning must be identified. See Section II for a description of the types of learning and their levels. Criterion - Second, an objective should make clear how well a learner must perform to be judged adequate. This can be done with a statement indicating a degree of accuracy, a quantity or proportion of correct responses or the like. Conditions - Third, an objective should describe the conditions under which the learner will be expected to perform in the evaluation situation. What tools, references, or other aids will be provided or denied should be made clear. Sometimes, one or even two of these elements will be easily implied by a simple statement. Other times, however, it may be necessary to clearly specify in detail each element of the objective. The following is an example of a completed learning objective: Checklist for Writing a Specific Instructional Objective 1. Begin each statement of a specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite, observable behavior. (See the Table of Process Oriented Learner Behaviors below.) 2. Make sure that each statement meets all three of the criteria for a good learning objective: observable behavior, the conditions under which the student will be expected to perform, and the criteria to be used for evaluation of the student's performance. 3. Be sure to include complex objectives (appreciation, problem-solving, etc.) when they are appropriate. Guides or aids to writing learning objectives: Educators and psychologists concerned with learning theory have given considerable thought to the various types of learning that take place in schools. Probably the most comprehensive and widely known analysis of objectives is the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Benjamin Bloom and others. Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a consistent means of developing the single most powerful tool in instruction and the assessment of student learning outcomes - the learning or performance objective. The Taxonomy distinguishes between three major categories of objectives termed the COGNITIVE DOMAIN, the PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, and the AFFECTIVE DOMAIN. 5 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 It is generally the Cognitive Learning Domain that is of primary concern in higher education. If we assume that faculty is more concerned with process and problem solving activities, then the categories of the Taxonomy are most valuable in suggesting various kinds of behavior to use as objectives. The following list of process-oriented behaviors, which are related to the six categories of the Taxonomy, should serve as a useful guide to faculty preparing objectives. For a more complete table of words for describing learner behaviors see “Instrumentation of Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies for the Writing of Educational Objectives. Q No.3 Compare and contrast the characteristics of criterion and Norm referenced Tests. Also highlight its utilization in teaching learning process. Criterion Referenced Test A criterion-referenced assessment is one in which students’ are scored based on how well they know a standard or set of standards. In this type of assessment a student is only compared to themselves, it doesn’t matter how other students perform. There are many advantages of criterion referenced tests, particularly for special education. First, students are only tested on their knowledge of specific goals or standards. For example, if you had taught a lesson on adding fractions, you will give the student a test on adding fractions. If he or she scores 85% that means that that particular student has learned 85% of that goal. If a student does not score particularly well, then the teacher can adjust their instruction accordingly. Another benefit is that if students do not seem to master a particular standard, the teacher will be able to go back and teach that standard again until the student performs better. Let’s say that we taught a lesson on Fahrenheit and Celsius. A student understands Fahrenheit, as shown on an assessment, but their knowledge of Celsius isn’t so good. The teacher then can go back and teach Celsius again. In special education it is nice because we have the freedom to spend more time on specific content and not worry so much about meeting the state standards. For special educators we have to focus our teaching based on the students’ IEP’s. Being able to focus our instruction based on the students’ needs is another benefit of criterion-referenced assessment. The students need to make progress toward their annual goals and objectives and the use of this type of assessment allows for that because again their scores are compared only to how they perform. Another good reason to using criterion-referenced assessments in special education is that it only tests students on what they can do. Tests like the SAT’s, which are norm-referenced, score students in relation to how they score against other people. For students with special needs, norm-referenced assessments do not tell teachers much about their abilities because the material is higher than their level. Criterion-referenced assessments are needs based, meaning the tests are created with what the students’ needs are. If a student really needs to improve their knowledge of proper nouns, then a test will be created on proper nouns. Teachers can also create their own tests, which are criterion-referenced as well. Also, tests that come with textbooks are also criterion-referenced because they only test on specific areas of knowledge. When discussing the advantages of criterion referenced tests, it is also important to mention that since students are only judged against themselves, they have a better chance of scoring high, which will help improve their self-esteem as well. Studies show that students with special needs tend to have lower self-esteem. Any way that we can help students feel better about themselves is a great opportunity. One thing to remember is that each student is an individual and is different. By using criterion- referenced assessments in your classroom, you can meet the individual needs of the students and 6 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 differentiate your assessments with the sole purpose of helping the students achieve to their fullest potential. Norm Referenced Test Norm-referenced tests are a form of standardized testing that compares "normal" skill levels to those of individual students of the same age. By comparing students to one another, it is possible to determine whether, how, and to what a degree a particular student is ahead of or behind the norm. These tests help to diagnose learning disorders and also help special education teachers and other professionals develop appropriate program planning for students with disabilities. Norm-referenced tests are developed by creating the test items and then administering the test to a group of students that will be used as the basis of comparison. Statistical methods are used to determine how raw scores will be interpreted and what performance levels are assigned to each score. Examples of Norm Tests IQ tests are one well-known form of norm testing. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Stanford Benet-Intelligence Scale, formerly known as the Benet-Simon Test, are examples of individualized intelligence tests. The WISC test includes language-, symbol-, and performance-based questions while the Stanford-Benet test helps to diagnose students with cognitive disabilities. Individualized achievement tests help school personnel measure student's academic abilities. Examples of such tests are the Peabody Individual Achievement Test, the Woodcock Johnson Test of Achievement and the Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills. Collectively, these tests assess skills such as the ability to match pictures and letters and more complicated reading and math skills. Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced There are several advantages to teaching based on criterion-referenced. First and foremost, students learn based on their needs. Teachers can give the students a needs assessment to see what they need to learn and then establish goals and objectives based on what their needs are. Another advantage is that students are only compared to themselves. Their grades are solely dependent based on how they perform against their goals and objectives. Instead of comparing students to other students their same age, they are just compared to their prior performance. Many students with disabilities are not at grade level, so why would it be fair to ask them to perform at the same level as their typical aged peers. Studying and practicing their own goals and objectives is another advantage to criterion-referenced instruction. Students do not have to study every single little detail, they only study for goals and objectives that they have not yet mastered. A fourth advantage is that criterion-reference instruction is IEP based. IEP’s are developed based on the needs of the students with which goals and objectives are formed. These goals and objectives are what the teachers then use to create lesson plans for the students. As goals are mastered, they are changed with the needs of the student. Another advantage is that students are expected to achieve realistic goals. The whole concept of criterion-based instruction centers around what the students need. Only achievable goals will be set for the student. When students reach their goals, they feel a sense of accomplishment, which will encourage them to keep trying their best and will eventually, lead to better scores. 7 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Tests based on the student’s needs are known as criterion-referenced assessment. These tests are the formed based on the goals and objectives for the students. The students will not have to take the same tests as everyone else in their class. It is almost as if they are taking a test just for them. If they do not do well, then the teaching would begin again. If students do well on their test, then it is time to work on new goals and objectives. As you can see from all the advantages that are listed, students only progress once they have mastered a concept. They are not just pushed through to get through the content. If they master a concept quickly, they move on, if not, they spend more time on that concept. Although this can be tricky for the teacher in planning a variety of lesson and changing lesson plans based on the student’s needs, the students will get more out of their education since it based solely on what they need. The whole concept of criterion-referenced instruction means that teaching the students comes away from grade-level content to content based on what the students need. Q No.4 Elaborate the different techniques for the measurement of attitude of the learners by providing examples. Why attitude measurement is important for the teachers in teaching learning process? Classroom behavior is one of the trickiest issues teachers face today. Disruptive behavior results in lost curriculum time and creates a classroom environment that is not always conducive to learning. One key to nipping behavioral problems in the bud is to promote positive behavior before problems arise. This takes some planning, but the following article will provide you with practical tips to help you lay a foundation for positive classroom behavior. It probably won't surprise you that classroom control/discipline is rated among the top four challenges teachers face in public schools today. In fact, almost half the teachers polled said that discipline was a serious problem in their schools. Not surprisingly, when the public was polled on the same issues, they ranked classroom control/discipline as the number one challenge. Unfortunately, teachers face not only the challenge of managing their students' behavior while teaching the curriculum. They also face many conflicting theories about how to manage it: logical consequences, behavior management and assertive discipline, to name just a few. Of course, there is no one "correct" way to encourage positive classroom behavior. But if you begin with a good foundation, it is possible. Here are a few time-tested suggestions that can help you build that foundation. Think About Your Approach Take some time to think about the strategies you plan to use to encourage positive classroom behavior. Clarifying your strategies will make it easier for you to lead the class confidently and effectively. Visualize Possible Challenges Imagine possible classroom challenges and review your strategies for dealing with them. Having clear-cut strategies will help keep you grounded when these challenges do arise. Make Your Expectations Clear from the Beginning Make sure that students know what you expect of them. The classroom rules you present should be positive, specific and concise. You may wish to post them in the classroom or distribute them for students to sign. You should also spell out what will happen if students do not meet expectations. 8 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Model Positive Behavior Occasionally, you may have to remind yourself to follow your own rules. For example, if you ask students not to drink beverages in class, refrain from keeping a cup of coffee on your desk, even if you do not drink it during class. Encourage, Encourage, Encourage When you praise students who are excelling, don't forget to encourage those who are trying, but struggling. These students often lack confidence and need more positive reinforcement. Show Respect Showing respect for your students includes listening to their needs and preserving their dignity. It also means living up to their expectations of you, such as greeting them at the beginning of class or returning corrected homework in a timely fashion. Be Consistent Be sure to address student behavior in a consistent manner. Be wary of shifting strategies when misbehavior occurs. To students, this may show a lack of decisiveness. Find a strategy you like and stick with it. Keep Students Busy and Challenged Busy students are far less likely to exhibit disruptive behavior. Be sure that students are working at appropriate levels; boredom and frustration often lead to students' acting out. Listen to Students' Suggestions When building your foundation, you may be able to draw from students' and other teachers' past classroom experiences. Ask students to make suggestions about what should be expected of them and how misbehavior should be addressed. Students are often more responsive to rules they helped create. Creating an environment in which students know and follow the rules is challenging, but not impossible. With a little patience and perseverance, you can lay a foundation for respect and positive behavior in your classroom that lasts all year. Positive discipline is a more effective way to manage misbehaving students in the classroom, rather than using punishment or rewards. It allows students to learn and adapt their behaviors to meet expectations in the classroom, while simultaneously teaching them how to make better choices in their path to adulthood. Classroom Discipline If a student misbehaves in the classroom, a teacher must have a few techniques that they can use to reduce or eliminate the unwanted behavior. From misbehaving in the classroom to not doing the assigned work, there are many ways to deal with unwanted behavior including punishment, discipline, or even using rewards. However, the most effective method for dealing with students that are misbehaving in the classroom is using positive discipline. According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, there are many types of positive discipline, and whatever technique is used to prevent or reduce misbehavior will only be effective if: • Both the student and teacher understand what the problem behavior is and what the expected consequence is for the misbehavior • The appropriate consequence is consistently applied every time the misbehavior occurs • The manner you deliver the technique matters (calm versus aggressive) • It gives the students a reason for a specific consequence to help them learn 9 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 In most cases, using punishment or rewards is not needed, as the majority of problems or misbehaviors can be dealt with using positive discipline. Difference between Punishment and Positive Discipline The meaning of punishment is simple - it's an action or penalty that is imposed on a student for misbehaving or breaking a rule. However, the impact on students can be very detrimental, from inducing physical or emotional pain to not being effective in reducing future misbehaviors. Punishment is used to control the behavior of students, in two different ways: • Negative discipline involves verbal disapproval and reprimands • Corporal punishment involves severe emotional or physical pain Alternatively, positive discipline is the practice of training or teaching a student to obey the code of behavior or rules in both the short and long term. Instead of controlling the behavior of students, teachers can use positive discipline to develop a child's behaviors through self-control and making positive choices. According to Teachers Unite, which is a movement of public school teachers fighting for social justice, punitive punishment toward students — suspensions, aggressive policing and reactive strategies — go against human rights and fail to address the real problem. However, preventative and constructive approaches that use positive discipline create a positive school atmosphere and also teaches students conflict resolution and behavior skills. In the end, positive discipline can help shape a child, by using encouragement rather than meaningless and even painful consequences, like punishment. Positive Discipline Techniques There are tons of techniques that teachers can use to reinforce good behavior with positive discipline, including: 1. Set the classroom rules at the start of the year 2. Have consistent expectations 3. Set goals at the beginning of class 4. Appropriate behavior should be reinforced 5. Remain neutral during conflicts 6. Search for the root cause of the misbehavior 7. Student dignity matters 8. Create individual plans for students 9. Use Praise 10. Model appropriate behaviors 11. Provide students with different choices 12. Remove objects in the environment that cause distractions 13. Listen to students Using these positive discipline techniques will help teachers maintain a positive atmosphere and support an inclusive learning environment. In fact, when addressing a specific child, it is important for teachers to work closely with the caregivers and the student to develop a positive discipline plan that works. One of the most critical parts of positive discipline is to help students learn the new behaviors that meet expectations in the classroom, home and elsewhere. Using Rewards and Privileges Another alternative to punishment and positive discipline is the use of rewards and privileges for good behavior in the classroom. A reward system can be put in place to encourage good behavior in 10 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 students that are misbehaving, from helping out other students to raising their hand instead of blurting out the answer. On the other hand, a system that uses privileges, such as being able to go to class without an adult, focuses on good behavior over a period of time and accumulating points toward a certain privilege. However, using rewards and privileges in the long term can lead to negative outcomes, like rewarding students just for participating. To avoid a reliance on a rewards system, positive discipline uses positive and negative consequences to help students learn. Benefits of Positive Discipline Using positive discipline techniques can help teachers overcome the many challenges in the classroom and help students learn and make better choices in the future. In fact, using positive discipline in the classroom not only increases academic success in the classroom but provides many other benefits, including: • Students show respect for the teacher • Students are on task and engaged • Less disciplinary measures are needed • Fewer suspension and expulsions • Students see rules as fair • Attendance improves These are just a few of the benefits that can be seen from using positive discipline techniques in the classroom. On top of this, the benefits also extend beyond the classroom, into the home life, sports and social environment of the student, from being more respectful to everyone to understanding the social norms in different situations. Q No.5 Compare and contrast the easy and objective type tests in the light of its construction, use and marking. Introduction to Essay Test: The essay tests are still commonly used tools of evaluation, despite the increasingly wider applicability of the short answer and objective type questions. There are certain outcomes of learning (e.g., organizing, summarizing, integrating ideas and expressing in one’s own way) which cannot be satisfactorily measured through objective type tests. The importance of essay tests lies in the measurement of such instructional outcomes. An essay test may give full freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The required response may vary in length. An essay type question requires the pupil to plan his own answer and to explain it in his own words. The pupil exercises considerable freedom to select, organize and present his ideas. Essay type tests provide a better indication of pupil’s real achievement in learning. The answers provide a clue to nature and quality of the pupil’s thought process. That is, we can assess how the pupil presents his ideas (whether his manner of presentation is coherent, logical and systematic) and how he concludes. In other words, the answer of the pupil reveals the structure, dynamics and functioning of pupil’s mental life. The essay questions are generally thought to be the traditional type of questions which demand lengthy answers. They are not amenable to objective scoring as they give scope for halo-effect, inter-examiner variability and intra-examiner variability in scoring. 11 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 Introduction to Objective tests Objective tests measure both your ability to remember facts and figures and your understanding of course materials. These tests are often designed to make you think independently, so don't count on recognizing the right answer. Instead, prepare yourself for high level critical reasoning and making fine discriminations to determine the best answer. The most common objective test questions are multiple- choice, true false, and matching items. Doing well on these questions requires that you not only master the information but also interpret the test maker’s intentions. Objective tests require a user to choose or provide a response to a question whose correct answer is predetermined. Such a question might require a student to : • select a solution from a set of choices (MCQ, true-false, matching) • identify an object or position (graphical hotspot) or • supply brief numeric or text responses (text input) Because the correct answers to objective test questions are pre-determined, they are well suited to the many forms of CAA that involve automated marking. The electronic marking of the responses is completely non-subjective as no judgment has to be made on the correctness or otherwise of an answer at the time of marking. However, it is worth noting that in terms of in-built bias, an objective test is only as objective as the test's designer makes it. The tutorial below offers an introduction to a selection of question types in popular use with advice on construction and best practice. As the question type most commonly associated with CAA is multiple choice, particular emphasis has been given to this and should be viewed first. The principles detailed within that section should however, be of use when considering other types. A Comparison of a Multiple Choice and an Essay Test Below is a guideline prepared by iwriteessays.com on the difference between an essay exam and a multiple-choice test. Below is a comparison of Essays vs. Multiple-Choice Exams. 1. Preparation Preparing for a multiple-choice test is an easy task that requires the writer to identify important information when he/she see it. An essay exam requires that the writer gather enough knowledge on the subject matter; such the writer can be able to answer to answer any prompt questions with a detailed explanation of ideas. 2. Speed It is very easy for you to complete a multiple-choice essay in a short time be it you know the answers or not. However, you should not ignore the intensity of your essay exam. The writer should make sure that he organizes his thoughts in order. In addition, you should be aware of your handwriting if you want your teacher to read and understand your essay. It is useless for the writer to write an essay that is not readable. Smudging If your multiple-choice exam is in the form of a fill-in-the-bubble sheet, it is not advisable to use pencils because they increase the chances of smudging. Smudging is disadvantageous because it complicates the functioning of the electronic-grading-robot. 12 Malik Kashif Masood 8602 Assignment Autumn 2017 A lucky instance includes that when your teacher will allow you to use a pen in the essay exam. Pens ensure you produce a clean paper that is appealing to the eye. However it the teacher does not permit the use of a pen, be careful not mess your essay paper through smudging. Creativity An essay exam gives you the chance of presenting your ideas creatively using language, constructive sentences that express the meaning of your thesis. With a multiple-choice test, you have the limitation of expressing your ideas creatively by sacrificing your scores in order to decorate patterns on your sheet. Hard questions For a multiple-choice test, you can guess answers if you not have an idea of what the right answer might be. On the other hand, for an essay exam, you can construct a sensible and convincing answer even if you do not have an idea of the main topic. Giving Up It is practically hard to give up in a multiple-choice test, since you can decide to assign randomly a choice to every question and chances are minimal that you will get below average marks. Giving up in essay exams a hard alternative for any student . The student will be in a tough dilemma as to writing either repetitive phrases or handing in a blank paper 13 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q No.1 Analyze various definitions of curriculum and discuss the main principals of curriculum development in the light of definitions. Definition of curriculum: The word curriculum has been originated from Latin meaning course. It has been derived from curro’ or‘ curree’ which means to run or move quickly. Simply curriculum can be defined as: The set of courses, coursework, and their content, offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard. Kerr defines curriculum as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school”. Regan’s definition of curriculum is, ” The curriculum is all the experiences of a child under direction of the school. Curriculum refers to the means and materials with which students will interact for the purpose of achieving identified educational outcomes. Other definitions of curriculum by famous authors are: Curriculum is that series of things which children and youth must do and experience by way of developing abilities to do the things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what adults should be. (Bobbit (1918) Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as “the planned and guided learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence” . Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society. Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school. Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: what knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? How should the young acquire them? Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a program of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present professional practice”. There are some other Experts define the curriculum with the different ways : 1: According to Nichols, Shidaker, Johnson, & Singer (2006) that Curriculum is an area of education that is characterized by a lack of agreement about its definition and nature. 1 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 2: According to Wortham (2006) that Curriculum is a planned set of course that is presented to teachers to arrange teaching and learning in certain level of ages. 3: According to Nation & Macalister (2010) define Curriculum as a guidance in designing courses that consists of outer cyrcle namely Principles, Environment, and needs that involve practical and theoretical considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. Inner cyrcle that consists of goals and its center, contents and sequences, format and presentation, monitoring and assessment. 4: According to Cattington (2010), curriculum (or curriculum standards) to refer to the standards, benchmarks, and outcomes that delineate the content to be taught and learned in science classrooms. 5: According to Slattery (2006) Curriculum should be developed time by times to the postmodern curriculum that is radically eclectic, determined in the context of relatedness, recursive in its complexity, autobiographically intuitive, aesthetically inter subjective, embodied, phenomenological, experiential, simultaneously quantum and cosmic, hopeful in its constructive dimension, radical in its deconstructive movement, liberating in its post structural intents, empowering in its spirituality, ironic in its kaleidoscopic sensibilities, and ultimately, a hermeneutic search for greater understanding that motivates and satisfies us on the journey. 6: According to Lake and Winter bottom (2010) in Kattington (2010), Curriculum is a set of rule that benefits students by providing them with practice in both content and social curriculum through the use of active learning, exploration of interests, civic responsibility, character building, and recognizing and helping the community. 7: According to Dat (no year) in Tomlinson (2008 Ed) impled that curriculum requires too much to be accomplished within a unit and that their students want a more manageable and realistic learning goal. Main principles of curriculum development The main principles of curriculum construction may be mentioned as under: 1. Principle of Child Centeredness. As modern education is child-centred the curriculum should also be child-centred. It should be based on the child's needs, interests, abilities, aptitude, age level and circumstances. The child should be central figure in any scheme of curriculum construction. In fact, curriculum is meant to bring about the development of the child in the desired direction so that he is able to adjust well in life. Highlights Principles of Curriculum Construction are: 1. Principle of Child Centeredness ; 2. Principle of Community Centeredness ; 3. Principle of Activity Centeredness ; 4. Principle of Variety ; 5. Principle of Co-ordinations and Integration; 6. Principle of Conservation; 7. Principle of Creativity; 8. Principle of Forward. Looking; 9. Principle of Flexibility; 10. Principle of Balance; 11. Principle of Utility. 2. Principle of Community Centeredness. Though the child's development and growth is the main consideration of curriculum construction, yet his social behavior is also to be suitably developed, both the individual development and the social development of the child deserve equal attention. He is to live in and for the society. 2 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 Therefore, his needs and desires must be in conformity with the needs and desires of the society in which he is to live. The values, attitudes and skills that are prevailing in the community must be reflected in the curriculum. However, the society is not static. It is dynamic. Its needs and requirements are changing with the rapid developments taking place in all fields. While working for the development, this factor cannot be ignored. 3. Principle of Activity Centeredness. The curriculum should centre round the multifarious activities of pupils. It should provide well selected activities according to the general interests and developmental stages of children. It should provide constructive, creative and project activities. For small children, play activities should also be provided.! The purposeful activities both in the class-room and outside the class-room should be provided. It is through a net work of activities that the desired experiences can be provided and consequently desirable behavioral changes can be brought about in children. 4. Principle of Variety. The curriculum should be broad-based so as to accommodate the needs of varied categories of pupils, so that they are able to take up subjects and participate in activities according their capacities and interests. The needs of pupils also change from place to place. For example, the pupils in rural areas, urban areas, and hilly areas will have different needs. The needs of boys and girls are also different. So these considerations should be reflected in the curriculum. 5. Principle of Co-ordination and Integration. Of course, the pupils are to be provided with selected experiences through various subjects and activities but these must be well integrated. Various subjects and activities have to serve the same ultimate purpose, the achievement of the aims of education. The activities and subjects should not be put in after-tight compartments but these should be inter-related and well integrated so as to develop the whole child. 6. Principles of Conservation. One of the main functions of education is to preserve and transmit our cultural heritage. This is essential for human progress. Culture consists of traditions, customs, attitudes, skills, conduct, values and knowledge. However, the curriculum framers must make a suitable selection of the elements of culture, keeping n view their educational value and the developmental stage of pupils. 7. Principle of Creativity. The conservation of culture helps to sustain the society. The culture should not be simply transmitted but also enriched. There should be provision in the curriculum to develop he creative powers of the child so that he becomes a contributory member society. Reymont says, "In curriculum that is suited to the needs of today and of the future, there must be definitely creative subjects." 8. Principle of Forward Looking. Education is to enable the child to lead a successful social life. So the curriculum should not cater to the present needs of the child alone. The needs of his future life should also be considered. The curriculum should also include knowledge, skills, experiences, influences etc. which will develop in the child abilities and power to make effective adjustments in the later life. 9. Principle of Flexibility. In our age, rapid developments are taking place in various fields. Consequently the needs of society are hanging. The content of curriculum cannot be same for all times to come. It should not be static. It must be dynamic and change with the changing times. It should reflect the latest trends in the field of education and psychology. 3 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 10. Principle of Balance. The curriculum must maintain a balance between subjects and activities, between direct and indirect experiences, between academic and vocational education, between compulsory and optional subjects, between formal and informal education, between individual and social aims of education etc. 11. Principle of Utility. Curriculum should be useful rather than ornamental. It should not only include subjects which owe their place in it to tradition. The curriculum must have practical utility for students. So there should be some provision for technical and vocational education in the curriculum. The various principles of curriculum construction should be kept in mind. Various regional and national conditions should also be considered. It fact, all considerations which will help in achieving the aims of education should be given due consideration. Q No.2 Analyze the causes which led the colonial British Government to frame a curriculum in the sub continent. Discuss their consequences on education system of Pakistan. Education policy of the British: In pre-British days Hindus and Muslims were educated through Pathsala and Madrassa respectively. Britishers showed no interest in advancement of learning in the first stage of their rule in India. Some of the Britishers in personal endeavor and for political gain showed some interest in spreading education. Warren Hastings, Governor-General of Bengal showed keen interest in spreading oriental education in which effort Jonathan Duncan, Nathan Hal head, Sir William Jones, joined hands. Sir William Jones, the Justice Calcutta High Court, established Asiatic Society at Calcutta (1784 A.D.). Here they started research on oriental education and culture. At the time of Lord Wellesley Fort William College was established (1800 A.D.). Here the British Civilians were taught Indian languages, laws, customs, religion, geography etc. By endeavor of Wilkins Jones, Colebrook, William Carey this oriental education got a foothold. Endeavour of the Christian Missionaries: British colonial ruler did not show any interest in education. The Christian Missionaries were the first to come forward. The Baptist Missionary William Carey came to India in the year 1793 A.D. He along with his friends established Baptist Mission in Serampore (1800 A.D.). By their enthusiasm many primary schools came up in nearly places. They established a printing press and stilled printing booklets in Bengali. Carry translated the Ramayana in English (1800 A.D.) By his inspiration the Bible was translated in different Indian languages and Halhead’s Bengali Grammar’s new edition was published. By their zeal an English school was established in Serampore in 1818 A.D. That is now known as Serampore College. Personal Endeavour: At that time by the attempt of few liberal Indians and foreigners non-government schools were founded to spread English education. Out of them most memorable were Raja Rammohan Roy, Raja Radhakanta Deb, Tejchandra Rai Bahadur of Burdwan, David Hare, the watchmaker of Scotland. Raja Rammohan Roy was the father of modern India. By his own endeavor he established Anglo Hindu School in 1815 A.D. By personal endeavor two English schools were founded in Chinsurah (1800 A.D.) and Bhawanipur (1848 A.D). Few energetic Indians and high-minded English civilians came forward to establish Hindu College in Calcutta in the year 1817 A.D. This is now the famous Presidency College. 4 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 Endeavour of the government: In the Charter Act of 1813, Rupees one lakhs per year was sanctioned for advancement of education in India. Now there was a debate about the line of expenditure of this amount. Some said that it should go for oriental education; the others said that the sum was to be spent for English education. Raja Rammohan Roy was in favour of spending the money in western education. But that was not done. The General Committee of Public Instruction (1823 A.D.) decided to spend the money on oriental studies. In 1823 A.D. the decision was taken to establish a Sanskrit College at Calcutta. Rammohan opposed this decision. During the rule of Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835 A.D.) there was change in government’s education policy. He appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay, a renowned educationist, the chairman of the Committee of Public Instruction. At that time the committee was divided in the issue of Oriental or European education. Princep, Colebrook, Wilson were the supporters of Oriental education. They were known as Orientalist. But people like T.B. Macaulay were the supporters of European education. He had with him Alexander Duff, Sanders, Colvin etc. at his side. They became known as Anglicists. Macaulay presented a proposal of advancement of English education in 1835 A.D. This was known as Macaulay minutes. He expressed his strong opinion in favour of English education, as he thought that oriental culture was defective, unholy and corrupted. He thought that it would be better to give proper teaching to a small number of upper and middle-class students as a law of infiltration it would reach to more number of people. This law was known as infiltration theory. He opined that a shelf of Europeans library was equal to the whole literature of India and Arab. Practically, this opinion was the result of his complete ignorance and blind nationalism. He wanted to create a good number of black Europeans who would support the British government. The government approved the Macaulay proposal and after that by the government the education English language and science started spreading very quickly. It was in the same year (1835 A.D.) Calcutta Medical College and Elphinstone College at Bombay were established. During the time of Lord Auckland (1836-1842 A.D.) government sanctioned more money for propagating Anglicized education. In 1842, the Public Instruction Committee was rejected and Council of Education was formed. Few Indian members were taken in this Council. Charles Wood’s recommendation in the question of spreading of higher education was very important. He was the Chairman of the Board of Control. His proposal about education was known as Wood’s dispatch. He gave instruction to regularize the education system from primary stage to University level. He also instructed to educate pupils in both English and Vernacular. By his recommendation Education Department was established. In 1857 A.D. Calcutta, Bombay and Madras Universities were established. British effects on Pakistan education The system of education followed in colonial India was introduced by the British primarily for producing clerks and subordinates who were necessary for carrying on the administration of the country in a colonial set up12. This system of education was designed by Lord Macaulay. Essence of this system is better explained in the words of Lord Macaulay himself, "we want Indians in color but Englishmen in taste and aptitude.” At least, that was the objective in the initial stages after replacement of Persian by English as the court language in 1835. 5 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 In order to objectively evaluate the education system of Pakistan, it is imperative to understand the pros and cons of the existing system and view the progress/ changes which were made in the last six decades. Despite the colossal problems which Pakistan faced on the eve of independence, the educational aspect was given the foremost priority and an all Pakistan Educational Conference was convened in November 1947, to consider the re-organization of the educational system. Later, in 1952, a six year National Plan of Educational Development for Pakistan was prepared. From 1958-1970, student unrest and politicization of educational institutions were the major problems which Pakistan faced. Special commissions were set up to improve the standard of education. However, system of education did not emphasize moral, religious and ideological aspects. One of the major causes of dismal performance in the education sector was that meager resources were allocated for the development of education. The period from 1970-1978 saw nationalization of all educational institutions. Adult literacy drive was initiated as well13. An effort was made to bring uniformity in the curriculum and method of teaching in Madrassas, government schools and private educational institutions. The establishment of Universities Grant Commission and National Book Foundation were the major achievements of this period. However, education system suffered due to political instability and economic crisis which Pakistan faced. From 1979-1989, the Afghan war and subsequent drive of Islamization affected the system of education as well. During this era, major changes in syllabi were made. Maddrasa education was encouraged and learning of Arabic was made compulsory upto class VIII. Efforts were made to orientate the system of education towards ideological moorings and subjects of Pakistan Studies and Islamiat were made compulsory upto intermediate level. However, parallel system of education such as curricula of English medicum schools continued. On the whole, preferred goals of education were not fully realized. From 1990-9/11, economic stagnation and political instability were major banes in the development of education in Pakistan. Education further deteriorated with the increasing disparity among social classes. The number of educational institutions could not commensurate the population exodus and lack of will to introduce reforms at the government level compounded the problems. Self-finance scheme was introduced which further commercialized the education. From 9/11 to present, major reforms were introduced in the system of education. Efforts were made to de-nationalize the institutions and the private sector was encouraged to establish schools, colleges and even universities and professional colleges. Syllabi have been revised and certain radical changes made in subjects of history, Islamiat, geography, English and Urdu. Some of the changes are highly controversial and have off set the ideological course of our system of education. Our system of education instead of emphasizing on inculcation of values, discipline, social/ civic responsibility and socio-economic productivity stimulates partisan and class difference and churns out educated illiterates. The educatin system, as a whole, faces a set of complex specific problems. First it is an imposed system which has not been evolved through a gradual process. Second, the educational system in Pakistan ignores grooming aspect of students as productive and useful members of a modern society. Third, this system neither segregated students as per psycho – social and socio- economic requirements of our nation nor it identifies the talent of students for specialization. Fourth, our curriculum still remains confused. We are undecided whether we should encourage scientific and technical education or promote studies of humanities. We are also unclear whether to emphasise on ideology and values or promulgate liberality. Language remains another problem and we have no clear idea whether to continue with English media or not. Fifth, linkages between primary, secondary and higher education are not existent. Number of subjects has not been rationalized at various levels over 6 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 burdening the memories of students. Sixth, our system of education does not promote/ encourage original thinking. Seventh, System of examination, though has been changed, stifle initiative and experimentation. Students and teachers focus on achieving higher pass percentage rather than emphasis on learning and bringing out hidden qualities and talent14. Eighth, our educational system lacks in quality as well as quantity. Involvement of private sector has generated commercialization in education and has added to class difference. Ninth lack of trained teachers adds to the inadequacies of our educational system15. Tenth, there is a painful lack of educational environment in our country. Teachers as well as students are content as much of superficial knowledge from textbooks as possible that they can pour it out on the examination paper. Moreover, social knowledge is necessary for intelligent and efficient social service and education should infuse this knowledge and endeavor to make the students efficient members of the society. Sociology and other social sciences are not very popular subjects in education of all the classes. Eleventh, vocational and technical training are other areas which are ignored in our educational system. It has no strategy what so ever, to utilize the vast human capital by imparting education which make pupils self sustaining. Twelfth, shortage of instructional facilities like proper school buildings, laboratories, libraries and equipment is major impediment in promoting conducive environment for learning. Thirteenth, misplaced priorities at policy planning level is another grey area affecting progress in the field of education16. Fourteenth, system being followed at primary level does not cater for inculcating objective thinking and power of reasoning in the young pupil. Moreover, rampant poverty results into large number of dropouts at this level. Fifteenth, our secondary education is purposeless and cumbersome. It neither prepares students to take on higher education nor gives him opportune economic self sufficiency17. Finally, wide gap in the classes of society is applicable to our education system. We have sophisticated English medium private schools for rich and influential, the ordinary government schools for middle and lower middle class and Maddrassas for poor as well as religious minded people. Q No.3 compare and contract different foundations of curriculum development. How does culture and society influence? Discuss. Philosophical foundation Curriculum decisions involve a wide range of considerations that anchor on several issues in education. These issues include the purpose of learning, sources of the subject matter, the nature of teaching/learning process, characteristics of the leaner, among others (Ekanem, & Ekefre, 2014). These decisions are based or anchored on certain fundamental beliefs that spring from one’s philosophy of education. This is what made it possible for philosophy to be viewed or taken as one of the foundations of curriculum. The various philosophical thoughts that influence curriculum are Idealism, Realism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, perennialism and Deconstructionism. Alistair (2000) argues that there is no curriculum that does not draw inspiration from these philosophical schools of thoughts. Philosophy helps us to handle our own personal system of beliefs and values, that is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we actually define what is important to us. Since philosophical issues have always influenced society and our institutions of learning, the study and understanding of philosophy of education in relation to curriculum development becomes vital and imperative. Basically, philosophy of education does influence, and to a greater extent determines our educational decisions and alternatives. This is because; those that are responsible for curricular decisions need be clear about what the belief or their belief system is. This is based on the fact that unclear or confused beliefs will definitely lead to unclear and confusing curricular (Ekanem, 2013). One vital step in developing a personal philosophy of education is to understand the several alternatives that others have developed over the years. The function of philosophy can be seen or taken as the tap root or the starting point in curriculum development. Apart from philosophy being the source 7 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 of curriculum, it plays other functions in curriculum development. This can be seen in the view of Dewey (1916), when he contends that “philosophy may… be defined as the general theory of education”. He further stated that “the business of philosophy is to provide the framework for the aims and method of schools. From the Deweyian perspective, philosophy provides a form of generalized meaning and understanding of our lives (as cited in Ekanem, &Ekefre, 2014). In a similar argument Tyler (1949)asserts that “The educational and social philosophy to which the school is committed can serve as the first screen for developing the social program… philosophy attempts to define the nature of the good life and a good society… educational philosophies in democratic society are likely to emphasize strongly democratic values in schools.” Despite the fact that philosophy is not the beginning or starting point of Tyler’s curriculum, there exists a strong interaction on an equal basis with other criteria, but he seems to have given prominence to philosophy in the development of educational purposes. Thus, according to such views, philosophy throws a light and shows a way on what destiny our education should inspire to achieve. Historical foundation History is the creation resulting from human activities through participating in different events. In order to be certain with what will happen in the future, one has to trace back of what transpired in the past. Hence, historical foundation of curriculum addresses different phases of human development. Students recognize that events in culture and personal issues take place continually. The number of events and issues we face is so overwhelming at times that we often don’t know how to make sense out of what is taking place. The study of history can help students gain perspective on events and issues they face. The ability to break down and analyze events is an important step in critical thinking. From historical foundation of curriculum therefore, a study on politics, economics, geography, agriculture, religion and socio cultural practices are expounded to be certain with the past and predetermine the future for the well- being of the society. Curriculum developers always ensure the historical perspective is well reflected when designing curriculum in order to capture not only the local flavor but also global historical views. Psychological foundation Learning theories have much to offer on the psychological aspect as a crucial discipline of curriculum formation. It is the work of psychology to determine what age a child is ready to learn and under what conditions. The study by Syomwene, Kitainge, and Mwaka, (2013) concluded psychology as the study of human development physically and intellectually right from conception to adulthood. Educational Psychology as a discipline is concerned with the question of how people learn (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human life so as to be able to understand and predict behavior (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992). Educational Psychology as a discipline advances principles of teaching and learning that influence teacher-student behavior within the context of the curriculum. This is because psychology is the unifying element in the learning process. For example John Dewey, a renowned educationist acknowledges that psychology is the understanding of how the individual learner interacts with objects and persons in the environment. The quality of this interaction determines the amount and type of learning. Sociological foundation Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting society. People today are vocal in expressing their views and are eager in seeing their opinions influence what is going on in school. With advancements in information and communication technology, people 8 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 are talking and sharing views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools. Culture and society influence on curriculum development The relationship between education and society is dynamic and interactive. Education not only reflects a society but is an influence in shaping its development. It helps to equip children to share in the benefits of the society in which they live and to contribute effectively to that society’s sustenance and evolution. The curriculum reflects the educational, cultural, social and economic aspirations and concerns of the society. It also takes cognizance of the changing nature of knowledge and society and caters for the needs of individual children in adjusting to such change. The social influences and importance of these influences are factors in the curriculum development process ( Akhtar, 2004). The curriculum development process can be improved by following ways with consideration the factors influencing on the process: Need based analysis of curriculum, what are societal needs of students ? What is the requirement of institutions? Which types of skills are incorporated in the student? How can be bridge the gaps between the theory and real life situation? Taking feedback of stakeholders is one of curriculum development strategy, Use of technology for fulfillment of demands of stakeholders; Revision of curriculum is done for each five years, etc. The seminars, panel discussions, orientation programs and workshops must be arranged for involvement of teacher as curriculum developer Curriculum developers must follow some of the principles of curriculum development such as conservative principle, forward looking principle, creation principle, activity principle, child centered principle, flexibility principle, leisure principle, character building principle, and dignity of labour principle. Also the principles of maturity, preparation for real life, linking with life, individual difference, loyalties, core or common subjects, all round development of body, mind and spirit, democracy, Islamic, socialism etc. Q No.4 Discuss the criteria of content selection. Write the necessity of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum. The term curriculum is viewed in two different ways: the micro and the macro. The micro curriculum refers to subjects, while the macro curriculum refers to curricular programs. For example, the subject biology is a micro curriculum while BS in Civil Engineering is a macro curriculum. What do the micro and the macro curriculum contain? The following criteria discuss the content of these two levels of the curriculum. Seven Criteria for the Selection of Subject-matter or Content of the Curriculum The 7 criteria below can be utilized in the selection of subject matter for micro curriculum, and for the content, subjects needed for the curricular program or course, of the macro curriculum. 1. Self-sufficiency To help learners attain maximum self-sufficiency at the most economical manner is the main guiding principle for subject matter or content selection (Scheffler, 1970) as cited by Bilbao et al., (2008). Economy of learning refers to less teaching effort and less use of educational resources; but students gain more results. They are able to cope up with the learning outcomes effectively. This means that students should be given chance to experiment, observe, and do field study. This allows them to learn independently. With this principle in mind, I suggest that for a high school curriculum or preparatory year, there should be a one day independent learning activity each week. However, this should be carefully planned by the teacher. When the students return, they should present outputs from the activity. 9 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 2. Significance The subject matter or content is significant if it is selected and organized for the development of learning activities, skills, processes, and attitude. It also develops the three domains of learning namely the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills, and considers the cultural aspects of the learners. Particularly, if your students come from different cultural backgrounds and races, the subject matter must be culture-sensitive. In short, select a content or subject matter that can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum. 3. Validity Validity refers to the authenticity of the subject matter or content you selected. Make sure that the topics are not obsolete. For example, do not include typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be about the computer or Information Technology (IT). Thus, there is a need to check regularly the subject matter or contents of the curriculum, and replace it if necessary. Do not wait for another 5 years in order to change it. Modern curriculum experts are after current trends, relevance and authenticity of the curriculum; otherwise, your school or country will be left behind. 4. Interest This criterion is true to learner-centered curriculum. Students learn best if the subject matter is meaningful to them. It becomes meaningful if they are interested in it. But if the curriculum is subject- centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the pacing schedule religiously and teach only what is in the book. This may somehow explain why many fail in the subject. 5. Utility Another criterion is the usefulness of the content or subject matter. Students think that a subject matter or some subjects are not important to them. They view it useless. As a result, they don’t study. Here are the questions that students often ask: Will I need the subject in my job? Will it give meaning to my life? Will it develop my potentials? Will it solve my problem? Will it be part of the test? Will I have a passing mark if I learn it? Students only value the subject matter or content if it is useful to them. 6. Learn ability The subject matter or content must be within the schema of the learners. It should be within their experiences. Teachers should apply theories on psychology of learning in order to know how subjects are presented, sequenced, and organized to maximize the learning capacity of the students. 7. Feasibility It means that the subject matter can be fully implemented. It should consider the real situation of the school, the government, and the society, in general. Students must learn within the allowable time and the use of resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish. For example, you have only one week to finish the unit but then, the activities may take a month for the students to complete it. This is not feasible. 10 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 Do not offer a computer subject if there is no even electricity in the area or there are no computers at all. Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are experts in that area. For example, do not offer English for Business Communication if there is no teacher to handle it. Also, there is a need to consider the nature of the learners. The organization and design of the subject matter or content must be appropriate to the nature of students. So, it would be better if students in a subject-centered curriculum (with pacing schedule that must be religiously implemented every week) be grouped homogenously; otherwise, many will flunk in that subject. In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high school are not directly involved in the selection of subject-matter because there are already lesson plans made by the Department of Education. All they have to do is to follow it. However, they can also customize the lessons if their department heads or principals will allow them. As regards macro curriculum, the Commission on Higher Education sets guidelines and policies on what subjects should be offered as minimum requirements for the course. Then, the Curriculum Development Committee will take charge of the selection, organization and implementation of the curriculum with the approval of the Academic Council. The Curriculum Development Committee headed by the Director of Curriculum Development sees to it that the selection of the subject-matter and the subjects for a curricular program be examined and scrutinized using the 7 criteria mentioned above. But, this is not the end of the process yet! Selection of the subject matter or content of the micro and macro curriculum is only one of the considerations in designing the curriculum. Necessity of evaluation for the improvement of curriculum. Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development. This information may pertain to the program as a complete entity or only to some of its components. Evaluation also implies the selection of criteria, collection and analysis of data. It includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a programme and procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all means of ascertaining the results of construction. Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum development. It is a continuous activity and not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its own entity. The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of the curriculum itself is the curriculum appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is being used? Are the instructional methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is the content the best that could be selected? Are the materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and the best available for the purpose envisaged? Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation 1. To determine the outcomes of a program. 2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a program. 3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content. 11 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement. 5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques. Types of Curriculum Evaluation According to Screven, following are the 3 main types Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the educational program. The merits of a program are evaluated during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide information to the program developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the program. Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a curriculum are evaluated on the basis of its stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and put into operations. Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either for placement of students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school), or to discover the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study. Q No.5 What are the various approaches to content organization which one is the suited for content organization in Pakistan and why? Approaches to curriculum 1. Subject-centered approach 2. Learner-centered approach 3. Teacher-centered approach 4. Problem- centered approach Subject centered The Subject-Centered Curriculum is the traditional model that was laid out by Ralph Tyler in 1949 in his seminal book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Also called the Knowledge-Centered Curriculum, it is the most widely-used method of instruction. The knowledge-centered curriculum is an academic curriculum where students are expected to acquire knowledge of their world as a foundation for their adult life. This type of curriculum lays greater emphasis on the subjects themselves rather than on the children. Students are expected to gain mastery of subject matters from academic disciplines that have been predetermined by a panel of experts. These are prescribed for the students without much regard to their actual interest or point of view. The curriculum is organized around content units and the sequence of what is taught follows the logic of the subject matter. Knowledge and skills are taught sequentially over time and students have to remember these for the purpose of examination or an interview for a white-collar job. The teacher in a subject-based curriculum is seen as a scholar who will be using a variety of teaching strategies to share their knowledge. A report by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills emphasizes on the necessity of teacher-led instruction to help students gain knowledge and be able to build upon it in an organized manner. As regards the environment in which the subject- based curriculum takes place, it is the traditional school classroom where discipline is maintained and students are often expected to remain seated at their desks. There is a clear academic focus and stress is laid only on intellectual development. This type of curriculum ignores altogether the personal and social development of the child Assessment within a subject-centred curriculum takes the form of formal examinations and standards-based assessment. With these, teachers and students are able to evaluate the progress made. In addition, program administrators can use the results of traditional tests to justify their programs' achievements. In a 2004 study on core knowledge curriculum and school performance, Wedman & Waigandt found a strong correlation between students enrolled in the Core Knowledge 12 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 program and high test scores in all subjects regardless of ethnic or economic profiles. The longer the students were enrolled in the program the more they outperformed their peers enrolled in non- Core Knowledge schools. What Is A Learner Centered Approach? In a nutshell, a learner centered approach is one where the complete eLearning experience is focused on the learners. For example, the courses need to be very user-friendly, so that learners can navigate the course without any difficulty. They should be able to easily access the content of their choice, and skip the sections they are not interested in. Likewise, learners should find the courses relevant to their challenges and learning needs. The courses should include real life examples that learners can relate to. 7 Advantages of A Learner Centered Approach In eLearning 1: Improves participation. The first step towards the success of any eLearning program is participation. A learner centered approach addresses all the essential needs of learners, ensuring learners get a personalized and convenient eLearning experience. For example, if a certain learner group prefers games and exercises, the courses should be made more interactive. Similarly, if learners are more likely to access the course content on tablets or mobiles, the courses should be designed to support this need. Due to the minute attention paid to learner’s needs, learner centered courses ensure greater participation in eLearning. 2: Improves retention of knowledge. Given that a learner centered approach places high emphasis on relevance and engagement, it greatly influences learners’ interest levels. The learner centered approach shifts the focus from traditional eLearning, which emphasized only on graphs and PowerPoint slides, to eLearning with more engaging and simulating content. For example, if you are developing a course for engineers, the course should have real life scenarios that are relevant to their day-to-day problems. Also, the course will have certain elements, which will make them use the knowledge they may have acquired previously. This way, learners will retain the knowledge better as opposed to a plain eLearning course with a lot of theoretical knowledge. 3: Boosts performance at work. A typical learner centered eLearning course will have a lot of scenarios, case studies, role plays, etc. For example, if an organization is training its employees on quality guidelines or industry best practices, a learner centered course with a lot of engaging and interactive content will help learners grasp the content more effectively. This way, learners are more likely to apply their learning at work, leading to improved on-the-job performance. 4: Develops problem-solving skills. A learner centered eLearning course has a lot of real life examples, including games, quizzes, and challenges. For example, the course may have challenges and games involving real life problems, which will force learners to think of solutions. This kind of training develops problem-solving skills, which is useful when learners encounter similar problems at work. 5: Fosters collaborative learning. Learner centered courses provide the opportunity to foster collaborative learning. You should design eLearning courses in such a way that learners have to involve their peers/superiors in completing the course. Alternatively, the courses should have certain group exercises, which makes learners come together to solve problems, and thereby share learning. This approach not only encourages collaboration but also fosters teamwork. 13 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 6: Makes learning more fun. Use of games and stories in eLearning makes learning more fun. A learner centered approach provides a lot of choices to learners. For example, if a particular course involves research, learners should be given choices of topics for research. Likewise, learner centered eLearning courses use lots of different mediums, such as videos, podcasts, practical assignments, etc. With these elements, learning is no longer perceived as boring and monotonous. 7: Facilitates personalized learning. All learners do not have the same learning needs. Some may just like to understand the basics of a concept, while some may like to understand a course in detail. Also, some learners may already have some knowledge about a topic, whereas some of them will be entirely new to the concept. A traditional eLearning course will treat all learners the same way, and may not respond to the needs of different types of learners. Things are different with learner centered eLearning courses. In such courses, developers may include supplementary material with messages like “Click here to know more” or “Here’s a refresher course”. The additional material makes learning more effective. To conclude, as opposed to other approaches, such as a content centered eLearning or a teacher centered eLearning, a learner centered approach provides many more benefits. Teacher-centered approach A teaching method where the teacher is in actively involved in teaching while the learners are in a passive, receptive mode listening as the teacher teaches. In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. The teacher talks, while the students exclusively listen. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information onto their students. In this approach, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments. Direct Instruction • Direct instruction is the primary teaching strategy under the Teacher- Centered Approach, in that teachers and professors are the sole supplier of knowledge and information. • Direct instruction is effective in teaching basic and fundamental skills across all content areas. Characteristics 1. Teacher talk exceeds student talk during instruction. 2. Instruction occurs frequently with the whole class; small-group or individual instruction occurs less often. 3. Use of class time is largely determined by the teacher. 4. The teachers rely heavily upon the textbook to guide curricular and instructional decision making. 5. The classroom furniture is usually arranged into rows of desks or chairs facing a chalkboard with a teacher’s desk nearby. Benefits of Teacher-Centered Learning 1. Expert Knowledge 2. Planning and Execution 3. Discipline 4. Evaluation and Assessment 14 Malik Kashif Masood 8603 Assignment Autumn 2017 Problem-centered or society-centered A third type of curriculum design is society-centered. As the name suggests, the curriculum content is heavily loaded with societal concerns, problems, and issues. One such design is aimed at making the students adapt to the changes in society and to solve societal problems within their level of capabilities. Another contemporary view of the society-centered design is based on the reconstructivist philosophy of education. This curriculum design is aimed at making the school, the teachers, and the students the agents of social change. Hence, curriculum content is heavy with present and future problems of the society and with contemporary building processes to enable learners to plan and realize societal improvement at the local and global levels. Among the traditional curriculum designs, the traditional design, particularly thebroad field, is the most popular not only in the Philippines but in most parts of the world. The popularity of the said curriculum design will continue although curriculum content is bound to undergo changes. A practical guide for curriculum developers in the context of community concerns should be formulated to help them become socially responsible, proactive individuals (Reyes, 2000). 15 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q No.1 what are sources of knowledge? Define scientific method and describe its different steps. Human beings are always inquisitive to understand causes and consequences of happening or not happening of something or event or phenomenon and to predict their occurrence and extent in failure. The answer to interrogative queries like what, when, how, who, whom, and how much are some of the understanding that generated knowledge among human beings. Some of the understanding comes in a natural way while other comes through the complex procedure of investigation. There are four methods of knowing or understandings. 1. Tenacity 2. Authority 3. Scientific method. 4. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach. 1. Tenacity In this method, people know something to be true simply because a lot of people believe it to be true. The more it is so, the more valid the truth becomes. 2. Authority In this method, if a well-respected person or an authoritative source says that something is so, then it must be so. 3. Institution, Prior method/ Rational Approach. This method is based on the notion that people will reach the truth because their nature inclination will be to do so. It is based on the notion that intuitive proposition should agree with reason and not necessarily with experiences. It might thus be termed as Rational Approach. Believing a fact in the background of socio-economical and cultural aspect is the main 4. Scientific method. This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate conclusion of every man shall be same. This is the most important and latest method understanding or knowing. In this method, truths are not ascertained by beliefs but by something upon which thinking have no effects. The method deals with real things whose characterized are entirely independently of our opinions about them. The ultimate conclusion of every man shall be same. Self-correction and objectivity are two main characteristics of this method that distinguished it from other methods. Personal beliefs, perceptions, biases, values, attitudes, and emotional have no place in this methods. Main characteristics of the Scientific method. 1. Verifiability. 2. Generality: 3. Predictability. 4. Objectivity. 5. System. 1. Verifiability. The conclusion drawn through a scientific method is subjected to verification at any time. The proposition is that the phenomenon under investigation must be capable of being observed and measured. For instance, a man’s order of preference of various jobs although incapable of being observed can still be verified by means of an interview. 1 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 2. Generality: Laws derived through scientific method are universal in their application. They are not limited to individual objects or individual groups of objects. The relationship discovered through these individual groups should be applicable to the whole group called a universe. But, because of heterogeneous nature of the social phenomenon, complete, universality is rarely achieved in social sciences and the fact observed or laws formulated in social sciences are valid only under given a condition. The results through scientific method can be predicted with sufficient accuracy. For example, one can say with certainty that if water is heated to 100oC, it will vaporize and if it is cooled to 0oC, it will turn to ice. Predictability is fixed on two factors fixing of relationships between the causes and the effect and the stability of causative factors. Predictability depends on one hand upon the nature of the phenomenon and the other hand upon the knowledge of various causative factors. However, people do not acknowledge productivity in the social phenomenon as a part of scientific method. 3. Objectivity. The results obtained through a scientific method should be free from investigator’s own views. The main criterion of objectivity is that all people should arrive at the same conclusion about something of the phenomenon. For example, When we say that coal is black, it is the objective statement because coal will appear black to all people but when we say coal is useful mineral, the statement may not be objective for everyone may not agree with the statement. Objectivity is essential for verification. It permits repetition of observations under practically identical observation by many observers. The expected answer to research series are the objectives of the study.If the problem has been stated in negative sentences, then their counter statements I,e positive sentences are the objectives of the study. For example, if the problem is stated as: is A deteriorating? Then the research objectivity may be stated as Whether A will be improved. The convergent point of the objective statement is the goal of the study. In scientific studies, the objectivity is stated as- 1. Broad objective. 2. Specific objective 1. Broad objective. The broad objective is the broad perspective of the study. 2. Specific objective Specific objectives are stated to specific the specific observation to be made in the study. They are stated in number preferably in sequential order. 4: System In every scientific study, there is an accepted mode of investigation. The results arrived by means of a haphazard method, even true, cannot be called scientific because it accuracy is purely accidental. Scientific studies. Scientific studies have passed the different stage of evolution and the methods of scientific analysis have been made more and more refined with the growth of scientific studies. 2 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Aspects of the Scientific method. Every Scientific method of investigation is composed of two aspects. 1. Technical Aspects. 2. Logical Aspects. 1. Technical Aspects. This aspect deals with the collection of information (data and manipulates of a phenomenon to allow an objectivity observation. 2. Logical aspects. This method comes at the time of generalization of drawing of inference on the basis of collection information. Technical methods are different in different sciences and there are hardly a few persons who have mastered the technical methods of more than one science or a group or connected science. In general, a method of investigation applied to a particular branch of knowledge consists of following two basic aspects. The general part or the basis rules of investigation which is common to all types of scientific investigations. The applied to part or technical part that permits to the particular science alone. In the second part of the investigation, that needed specialized knowledge. The accepted mode of investigation is called system or formally and rigorous of the investigation. Q No.2 Discuss the concept of educational research. Also examine the need and importance of research in education. NEED OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH 1. Education today is child centered. All round development of the personality of the child is one of the important goals of education. Educational research is needed to solve various problems related to measurement, evaluation and development of personality of the child. 2. The meaning we give to education today is more vast and complex. It is a cluster of difficult trades, an aggregate of processes based on specific techniques and action with individuals and groups, that is organized, planned, controlled and evaluated. In order to solve the complexity of relationships and processes a considerable research in education is needed. 3. Education is both science and art. As science it is based on theories, laws and principles and as art it is an activity and an application which requires skills and training. In order to make an effective application of the laws and principles and to provide training in skills and techniques educational research is needed. Educational research is of much significance to improve the art of teaching to make the students learn effectively. 4. The advancement that the material world has made has given rise to problems of terrorism, threats and clashes to the modern world. Education is a process of socialization which can meet the challenge of increasing contradiction and belligerency. A continuous research is needed to solve this complex social problem. 7. Educational research affects personality of the researcher. It teaches him ‘how to solve problems to realize truth.’ he is not liable to accept the findings of others unless he tests them. 8. It is needed to make education administration efficient and effective. It helps in decision making. 9. Educational research is needed for a teacher to improve his teaching, his methodology, his skills, his planning and to make him up to date in information and knowledge. 3 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Importance of research in education. As earlier said, research is important in all fields, in the similar manner, the importance of research in education is very vital. This is because of various reasons like: 1. It is a systematic analysis: In education, research is essential as it gives the systematic analysis of the topic. Also the objectives are clearly defined through the research process. One needs to study in a systematic and controlled manner, and this is exactly what the research work provides an individual. 2. Leads to great observations: In the field of education, the research helps in coming to one conclusion. That conclusion can be achieved by observing the facts and figures in depth. So, such in depth knowledge is provided by following various research methods only. So, this way, research also assists in leading to greater observations. 3. Results in predications, theories and many principles: The researchers come up with the valid predictions, theories and great results through the observations, hypothesis and the research queries. So, this way also it helps researchers to come up with the great conclusions. 4. Improving practices: The educational research is important for the students to improve practices and at the same time, it helps in improving those individuals who really wish to bring improvement in those practices. So, this way educational research helps in overall improvement of the individual. Be it a student or any teacher who is researching on some topic, it is of great help to them. It acts as a lighthouse and empowers the individual. 5. Develops new understanding related to the learning, teaching etc: The educators are benefited through various research as it helps them in having a better understanding of the subject. Along with this, it develops greater understanding related to the teaching, learning and other educational administration. The new knowledge further helps in improving educational practices of the teachers and the professors. 6. Helps in initiating the action: The research you do should result in performing some action or practice. So, the research should aim to produce the highest result which complements the study. Also, you should make sure your study ensures the applicable findings so as to match the result. Research helps in performing well and also sheds away all the problems. This way, you are able to understand the role of research which further helps in decision making process. 7. Helps in decision making: The good research requires proper time and effort. It prepares the person in taking essential decisions which further necessitates the same from all the participants involved in the process. For better results, it is important for the participants to consider the required consequences and all the risks involved in the whole process. 8. Brings consistency in the work: 4 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 When the work is done with full in depth analysis, it tends to be right and accurate. The process of research help brings consistency in the work, which lessens the flaws and mistakes in the final outcome of the process. The consistency is needed in all sorts of work or you might have to end up getting wrong and inaccurate result. The research takes lots of time and effort, so it is the duty of the researcher to be specific and sure with the facts so that the end result is clean and without any silly mistakes. 9. Motivates others: The educational research builds patience because it is a lengthy process. In order to get fruitful results, you need to build patience and only then you will be able to motivate others. Also, if your research is full of right facts and figures, it will ultimately motivate others. Not just this, an accurate research assists in enhancing the reader’s knowledge which might not be possible for any other person. So, above are some of the benefits which research provides in the field of education. Every kind of research, every kind of method has been always useful and gives a positive result. In case, you find something fishy during the research work, it is advisable to consult someone superior to you, or some expert. Research is useful in all the fields and is used by all the departments, whether public or private. The research work is done by all age groups, whether the students or the teachers and even the humankind in order to understand the society, its rules and other policies. Q No.3 Explain different types of researches on the basis of method and explain them with suitable examples. Research can be divided on the basis of different approaches & Methods. On the basis of method research has the following types. Historical Research Historical research is that type in which the facts are collected from past events. In this type of research historical approaches are used for preparing data in order to solve a problematic situation. Descriptive Research In descriptive research a researcher observe a problem and write an article about its causes and effects. It is the personal ideas of a researcher. He writes a story which gives knowledge about the root causes of problems. It’s also show causal and effect relationship. Ex-post-Facto Research In this type of research a researcher study the varying influence of two identical factors. It studies the influence of cause-effect & effect-cause upon each other. Two variables are used in this research. One is called independent while other is called dependent variable. If we want to see the impact of Arabic & English education in the future, a careful study of past events is required because it depends on past knowledge. In simple words in this research the investigator bring over the past study, identifies the present and make planning for future. Experimental Research Experimental research is based on experiments. It this type of research the two variables, i.e. independent & dependent are taken and their critical examination is carried out. These are observed, tested and verified in case of validity. Experimental research may be conduct in laboratory or field. 5 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Field Study Field study is the practical work in a given area. A research gees to the field and observes the problematic situation and then makes a design of its collected data. This type of data would be more accurate due to the self-observation of the researcher and its participation in community. Pure research a. Also called as the fundamental or the theoretical research. b. Is basic and original. c. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory. d. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists. e. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking formally of implementing it in practice based on the honesty, love and integrity of the researcher for discovering the truth. Applied research a. Based on the concept of the pure research. b. Is problem oriented. c. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems. d. Provides evidence of usefulness to society. e. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory. f. Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research. g. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions. h. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization. Exploratory research a. Involves exploring a general aspect. b. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known. c. Follows a very formal approach of research. d. Helps in exploring new ideas. e. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely. f. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study. Descriptive research a. simplest form of research. b. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research. c. It involves a mutual effort. d. Helps in identifying various features of a problem. e. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable and the problems in which valid standards can be developed for standards. f. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations. g. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research. h. It consumes a lot of time. i. It is not directed by hypothesis. Diagnostic study a. Quite similar to the descriptive research. b. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems. 6 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 c. Related to causal relations. d. It is directed by hypothesis. e. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced. Evaluation study a. Form of applied research. b. Studies the development project. c. Gives access to social or economical programmes. d. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity. Action research a. Type of evaluation study. b. Is a concurrent evaluation study. Q No. 4 Define historical research. Elaborate concept of criticism with examples. Historical research Research is the formal, systematic application of scientific method to the study of problems’ (Gay, Mills & Airasian; 2009). Types of research 1. Historical research 2. Qualitative research 3. Descriptive research 4. Co-relational research 5. Causal-comparative research 6. Experimental research Historical Research Wiersma(1986) defines historical research in this way, it is a process of critical inquiry into past events, in order to produce an accurate description and interpretation of those events. The Steps of historical research 1. Identification of the research problem(including formulation of hypothesis/questions 2. Systematic collection & evaluation of data 3. Synthesis of information(including confirmation/disconfirmation of hypothesis) 4. Interpreting and drawing conclusions Definition of a problem Historical research problems are identified in the same way as problems of other types of research. It is much better to study in-depth a well-defined problem with one or more specific well stated questions or hypotheses, then to investigate either too broadly stated problems or a problem for which insufficient data are available(Gay,1997). Systematic collection & evaluation of data The sources of historical information are commonly classified as primary or secondary. ‘Primary sources are firsthand access of the events or experience under study; secondary sources are accounts at least one level removed from the event or experience’(Wiersma, 1996). 7 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Collection and evaluation of source material According to Wiersma(1986) a basic rule of historical research is to use primary sources whenever it is possible to locate them. Historical evidence is derived from historical data by the process of criticism, which is of two types; external and internal. External Criticism External Criticism in historical research evaluates the validity of the document-this is, where, when and by whom it was produced’ (Wiersma, 1986, p.223). Internal criticism Internal Criticism evaluates the meaning, accuracy and trustworthiness of the content of the document’ (Wiersoma, 1886, p.224). Synthesis of information Wiersma (1986), states that central ideas or concepts must be pulled together and continuity between them is developed. As substantial period of time-say, several years-is covered by the research study, the ideas can often be organized chronologically. Interpretation and formulating conclusions The final step of historical research methodology is characterized by decision making about the research problem. At the final step conclusions are formulated, and any hypothesis introduced earlier is either supported or rejected. Advantages of Historical research: 1. Many current educational practices, theories and issues can be better understood in the light of past experiences. 2. Researchers can apply scientific objectivity in attempting to determine exactly what did happen in the past. 3. If well-done, this research involves systematic, objective data collection and analysis. Disadvantages of Historical research: 1. In conducting historical research, the researcher canneither manipulate nor control any of the variables. 2. There is no way, historical researcher can affect events of the past. 3. Historical research can’t collect data by administering instruments. 4. Historical research is limited to whatever data are available. 5. Historical research excessively relies on secondary source of data. Some examples of problems in historical research ✓ Essays written by elementary school children during the Civil War ✓ Attendee record from two different school districts over a 40-years period ✓ High school graduation diplomas from the 1920s Conclusion 1. Historical research is necessary to define the situations of the past and its meaning in the light of the present problem. 2. It can provide a perspective for decision making about educational problems, and it assists in understanding why things are as they are. 8 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 3. Educational reform and even social reform are functions often served by historical research. 4. Issues are often better understood and probably better dealt with-if the historical perspective is known. Q. No.5 Define descriptive research, what are its major forms? Strengthen your answer with the example of survey studies, and interrelationship studies. What is Descriptive Research? Descriptive research is conclusive in nature, as opposed to exploratory. This means that descriptive research gathers quantifiable information that can be used for statistical inference on your target audience through data analysis. As a consequence this type of research takes the form of closed-ended questions, which limits its ability to provide unique insights. However, used properly it can help an organization better define and measure the significance of something about a group of respondents and the population they represent. When it comes to online surveying, descriptive is by far the most commonly used form of research. Most often, organizations will use it as a method to reveal and measure the strength of a target group’s opinion, attitude, or behavior with regards to a given subject. But another common use of descriptive research would be the surveying of demographical traits in a certain group (age, income, marital status, gender, etc.). This information could then be studied at face value, measuring trends over time, or for more advanced data analysis like drawing correlations, segmentation, benchmarking and other statistical techniques. There are three main types of descriptive methods: Observational methods, case-study methods and survey methods. This article will briefly describe each of these methods, their advantages, and their drawbacks. This may help you better understand research findings, whether reported in the mainstream media, or when reading a research study on your own. Observational Method With the observational method (sometimes referred to as field observation) animal and human behavior is closely observed. There are two main categories of the observational method — naturalistic observation and laboratory observation. The biggest advantage of the naturalistic method of research is that researchers view participants in their natural environments. This leads to greater ecological validity than laboratory observation, proponents say. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be used in real-life situations. Proponents of laboratory observation often suggest that due to more control in the laboratory, the results found when using laboratory observation are more meaningful than those obtained with naturalistic observation. Laboratory observations are usually less time-consuming and cheaper than naturalistic observations. Of course, both naturalistic and laboratory observation are important in regard to the advancement of scientific knowledge. Case Study Method Case study research involves an in-depth study of an individual or group of individuals. Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions. There are two serious problems with case studies — expectancy effects and atypical individuals. Expectancy effects include the experimenter’s underlying biases that might affect the actions taken 9 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 while conducting research. These biases can lead to misrepresenting participants’ descriptions. Describing atypical individuals may lead to poor generalizations and detract from external validity. Survey Method In survey method research, participants answer questions administered through interviews or questionnaires. After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given. In order for the survey to be both reliable and valid it is important that the questions are constructed properly. Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend. Another consideration when designing questions is whether to include open-ended, closed-ended, partially open-ended, or rating-scale questions (for a detailed discussion refers to Jackson, 2009). Advantages and disadvantages can be found with each type: Open-ended questions allow for a greater variety of responses from participants but are difficult to analyze statistically because the data must be coded or reduced in some manner. Closed-ended questions are easy to analyze statistically, but they seriously limit the responses that participants can give. Many researchers prefer to use a Likert-type scale because it’s very easy to analyze statistically. (Jackson, 2009, p. 89) In addition to the methods listed above some individuals also include qualitative (as a distinct method) and archival methods when discussing descriptive research methods. It is important to emphasize that descriptive research methods can only describe a set of observations or the data collected. It cannot draw conclusions from that data about which way the relationship goes — Does A cause B, or does B cause A? Unfortunately, in many studies published today, researchers forget this fundamental limitation of their research and suggest their data can actually demonstrate or “suggest” causal relationships. Nothing could be further from the truth. Survey research Survey research is sometimes regarded as an easy research approach. However, as with any other research approach and method, it is easy to conduct a survey of poor quality rather than one of high quality and real value. This paper provides a checklist of good practice in the conduct and reporting of survey research. Its purpose is to assist the novice researcher to produce survey work to a high standard, meaning a standard at which the results will be regarded as credible. The paper first provides an overview of the approach and then guides the reader step-by-step through the processes of data collection, data analysis, and reporting. It is not intended to provide a manual of how to conduct a survey, but rather to identify common pitfalls and oversights to be avoided by researchers if their work is to be valid and credible. What is survey research? Survey research is common in studies of health and health services, although its roots lie in the social surveys conducted in Victorian Britain by social reformers to collect information on poverty and working class life (e.g. Charles Booth and Joseph Rowntree ), and indeed survey research remains most used in applied social research. The term ‘survey’ is used in a variety of ways, but generally refers to the selection of a relatively large sample of people from a pre-determined population (the ‘population of interest’; this is the wider group of people in whom the researcher is interested in a particular study), followed by the collection of a relatively small amount of data from those individuals. The researcher therefore uses information from a sample of individuals to make some inference about the wider population. 10 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Data are collected in a standardized form. This is usually, but not necessarily, done by means of a questionnaire or interview. Surveys are designed to provide a ‘snapshot of how things are at a specific time. There is no attempt to control conditions or manipulate variables; surveys do not allocate participants into groups or vary the treatment they receive. Surveys are well suited to descriptive studies, but can also be used to explore aspects of a situation, or to seek explanation and provide data for testing hypotheses. It is important to recognize that ‘the survey approach is a research strategy, not a research method. As with any research approach, a choice of methods is available and the one most appropriate to the individual project should be used. This paper will discuss the most popular methods employed in survey research, with an emphasis upon difficulties commonly encountered when using these methods. Descriptive research Descriptive research is a most basic type of enquiry that aims to observe (gather information on) certain phenomena, typically at a single point in time: the ‘cross-sectional’ survey. The aim is to examine a situation by describing important factors associated with that situation, such as demographic, socio- economic, and health characteristics, events, behaviors, attitudes, experiences, and knowledge. Descriptive studies are used to estimate specific parameters in a population (e.g. the prevalence of infant breast feeding) and to describe associations (e.g. the association between infant breast feeding and maternal age). Analytical studies Analytical studies go beyond simple description; their intention is to illuminate a specific problem through focused data analysis, typically by looking at the effect of one set of variables upon another set. These are longitudinal studies, in which data are collected at more than one point in time with the aim of illuminating the direction of observed associations. Data may be collected from the same sample on each occasion (cohort or panel studies) or from a different sample at each point in time (trend studies). Evaluation research This form of research collects data to ascertain the effects of a planned change. Advantages and disadvantages of survey research Advantages: 1. The research produces data based on real-world observations (empirical data). 2. The breadth of coverage of many people or events means that it is more likely than some other approaches to obtain data based on a representative sample, and can therefore be generalizablel to a population. 3. Surveys can produce a large amount of data in a short time for a fairly low cost. Researchers can therefore set a finite time-span for a project, which can assist in planning and delivering end results. Disadvantages: 1. The significance of the data can become neglected if the researcher focuses too much on the range of coverage to the exclusion of an adequate account of the implications of those data for relevant issues, problems, or theories. 2. The data that are produced are likely to lack details or depth on the topic being investigated. 3. Securing a high response rate to a survey can be hard to control, particularly when it is carried out by post, but is also difficult when the survey is carried out face-to-face or over the telephone. 11 Malik Kashif Masood 8604 Assignment Autumn 2017 Essential steps in survey research Research question Good research has the characteristic that its purpose is to address a single clear and explicit research question; conversely, the end product of a study that aims to answer a number of diverse questions is often weak. Weakest of all, however, are those studies that have no research question at all and whose design simply is to collect a wide range of data and then to ‘trawl’ the data looking for ‘interesting’ or ‘significant’ associations. This is a trap novice researchers in particular fall into. Therefore, in developing a research question, the following aspects should be considered: 1. Be knowledgeable about the area you wish to research. 2. Widen the base of your experience, explore related areas, and talk to other researchers and practitioners in the field you are surveying. 3. Consider using techniques for enhancing creativity, for example brainstorming ideas. 4. Avoid the pitfalls of: allowing a decision regarding methods to decide the questions to be asked; posing research questions that cannot be answered; asking questions that have already been answered satisfactorily. Research methods The survey approach can employ a range of methods to answer the research question. Common survey methods include postal questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews. Postal questionnaires This method involves sending questionnaires to a large sample of people covering a wide geographical area. Postal questionnaires are usually received ‘cold’, without any previous contact between researcher and respondent. The response rate for this type of method is usually low, ∼20%, depending on the content and length of the questionnaire. As response rates are low, a large sample is required when using postal questionnaires, for two main reasons: first, to ensure that the demographic profile of survey respondents reflects that of the survey population; and secondly, to provide a sufficiently large data set for analysis. Face-to-face interviews Face-to-face interviews involve the researcher approaching respondents personally, either in the street or by calling at people’s homes. The researcher then asks the respondent a series of questions and notes their responses. The response rate is often higher than that of postal questionnaires as the researcher has the opportunity to sell the research to a potential respondent. Face-to-face interviewing is a more costly and time-consuming method than the postal survey, however the researcher can select the sample of respondents in order to balance the demographic profile of the sample. Telephone interviews Telephone surveys, like face-to-face interviews, allow a two-way interaction between researcher and respondent. Telephone surveys are quicker and cheaper than face-to-face interviewing. Whilst resulting in a higher response rate than postal surveys, telephone surveys often attract a higher level of refusals than face-to-face interviews as people feel less inhibited about refusing to take part when approached over the telephone. 12 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 Q.1 Describe the scope of administration in the educational context. How the principles of administration can be applied in educational institutions to improve the system of education in Pakistan. Education administrators are employed in universities and colleges, schools, preschools, and daycare centers. They manage routine activities and provide instructional leadership at these institutions. They may also be employed at businesses, museums, correctional facilities, and community service organizations to direct their educational programs. What does an Education Administrator do? School administrators work in every level of education. They may direct programming, hire and supervise staff, manage budgets, and make decisions that affect the academic community. They are also in charge of developing a direction and mission for the facility at which they work. The actual specific job functions for an education administrator will vary depending on the institution of employment. For schools, this job is usually the role of a principal or assistant principal. For private schools and businesses, the job may be as a director of programs or head master. Libraries and museums often employ administrators as instruction coordinators. For colleges and universities, education administrators are employed at all levels of the management structure — as admissions officers, department heads, and as deans and provosts. Making policies and procedures and setting educational aims and standards is the responsibility of an education administrator. They act as a supervisor for managers and support other faculty, such as librarians, coaches, teachers, and aids. In small organizations, such as a daycare, there may be only one administrator in charge of all these duties. At larger institutions, such as universities or large school systems, several administrators share the workload, each having a specific responsibility. Education administrator's responsibilities include: 1. handling relations with parents, students, employers, and the community 2. managing budgets and ensuring financial systems are followed 3. overseeing record-keeping 4. managing student services such as guidance programs 5. training, supervising, and motivating faculty including teachers and auxiliary staff 6. working on committees including academic boards, governing bodies and task groups 7. assisting with recruitment, public or alumni relations and marketing activities 8. providing administrative support to an academic team of lecturers, tutors or teachers 9. drafting and interpreting regulations and dealing with queries and complaints procedures 10. maintaining high levels of quality assurance, including course evaluation and course approval procedures 11. contributing to policy and planning 12. purchasing goods and equipment, as required, and processing invoices 13. liaising with partner institutions, other institutions, external agencies, government departments and prospective students 14. organizing and facilitating a variety of educational or social activities What is the workplace of an Education Administrator like? Education administrators are employed by public and private schools, school districts, colleges, and universities to plan and oversee educational policies. Administrators are also hired by private preschools, museums, and libraries to manage curricula and educational programs. 1 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 Day-to-day activities of education administrators generally include meetings with teachers, parents, and school staff. Work is completed in an office environment, with paperwork often being necessary. While the job has a typical work day and work week, after-hours meetings and attendance at school events is often necessary. Ways to improve the structure of Pakistan’s education system Universal primary education in Pakistan is contingent on several factors, such as the existence of cost- effective schools, better curricula, and awareness among parents, especially in rural areas, of the importance of education. However, the single most important factor in getting children to complete primary school is improving the structure of Pakistan’s school system. Currently, there exist many obstacles on the road to a smoothly functioning system. These include political interference, corruption, over-centralization, a lack of school autonomy, underdeveloped managerial capacity and poor information systems. However, there are five institutional reforms that can help improve Pakistan’s educational structure so that it can achieve the goal of universal primary education. The first reform is the decentralization of decision-making, which improves education administration. Presently, Pakistan educational system is highly centralized even though it is widely understood that basic education is better provided in a system that is administered at the district and village level. A highly centralized system does not respond as effectively to local needs. The bureaucracy interferes with the flow of resources and information. It also means higher level administrators have less time to devote to important issues like program design, implementation, and monitoring. This decentralization means governments must develop partnerships with communities, NGOs, and the private sector to delegate responsibility effectively in order to achieve universal primary education. A second step necessary for improving the system is greater autonomy for the schools. Currently, school principals have a limited decision-making capacity. In addition, schools do not have control over issues like curriculum, teacher appointment, discipline, and evaluation. There are virtually no opportunities for local staff development programs or resource mobilization. By giving schools more independence, principals would have the authority to appoint personnel and determine crucial issues that affect the day-to-day affairs of schools. Principals, not upper-level bureaucrats, are in a better position to make these decisions since they deal with the daily realities of school life. A third important reform is providing better support to, supervision of, and coordination of the school system at the district and provincial level. By making the district the key level for planning and management, state-level and central education bodies can focus more on policy-making, resource management and regulation. One way to do this is by promoting good principals and teachers at the school level to enhance the institutional capacity of district level organizations. The lack of sufficient manpower is the most serious problem at the district and sub-district level. A fourth necessary reform is to encourage decision-making be based on educational, not political, considerations. At present, politicians hand out teaching jobs as patronage appointments. Federal and provincial funds provided for education sometimes remain unused, especially in rural areas, since feudal landowners are opposed to educating “their” people. The final necessary reform is to expand the information and research base of education in Pakistan. Effective management and administration of the education system depends on the quality of the information system. Without reliable information, decision-makers cannot improve education policy and programs at the national, district and school levels. 2 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 One way of collecting reliable information about the state of education is to conduct standardized testing that measures student performance against national curriculum goals. These can be used to compare learning achievement across schools, districts and regions over time. There is also a need for better research. Pakistan currently has one institution that conducts research on educational issues, the Academy of Educational Planning and Management, which conducts research on basic education. However, its abilities are hampered by inadequate funds, no institutionalized basis for collecting, processing and analyzing data, no technical support staff and little influence in policy making. Q.2 what are the major differences between administration and management in the context of a school? Compare the concept of Islamic administration and the general concept of administration. Meaning of Educational Administration Educational Administration is a discipline within the study of education that examines the administrative theory and practice of education in general and educational institutions and educators in particular. The field ideally distinguishes itself from administration and management through its adherence to guiding principles of educational philosophy. The concept of educational administration may not be totally different from what we are familiar with in the concept of administration. Education at different levels has its objectives; the most important of the objectives that cut across all the levels of education is teaching and learning. It is the function of the school to produce educated and enlightened human beings who would be able to contribute positively to the development of the society. This formed the opinion of Olaniyi (2000) who describes school as a social institution which does not exist in a vacuum. He said further that a school is a micro-community, existing within a macro community to mould the habits, interest, attitudes and feelings of children and transmit from one generation to another. The school also comprises certain personnel i.e. teaching and non-teaching staff as well as the students. These human resources in the school work with some materials, such as instructional materials, equipment, and financial resources in order to achieve the objectives of the school. Administration is very germane to the realization of the school’s objectives – indeed; the success of the school system depends largely on the administration of the school it handled. The teachers, students, non-teaching staff and resources must be efficiently arranged, monitored and controlled, so that they would work harmoniously according to (educational plan). Even the National Policy on Education emphasizes the success of the entire educational system on proper planning, efficient administration and adequate funding. School administration is the process by which principles, methods and practices of administration are applied in educational institutions to establish, maintain and develop such institutions in line with the goals of the institutions. Akinwumi & Jayeoba (2004) define school administration as the scientific organization of human and material resources and programs available for education and using them systematically and meticulously to achieve educational goals. Basically, educational administration implies the arrangement of the human and material resources and program available for education and carefully using them systematically for the achievement of educational objectives. Functions of School Administrators Obemeata (1984) referred to a school head as an administrator who is responsible for running a school and also responsible for policy decisions, and determining the direction and objectives of the school. The function of a school head, according to Obemeata, is more than mere controlling the staff of the school, its finances and curriculum; it also includes the management of resources towards the achievement of educational goal. Fadipe (1990) however, highlighted the major functions of the school head as: 3 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 interpretation of policy, execution of instructional programs and the selection, induction and retention of personnel, and in Cranston (2002), the duties of the school administrators include: the demonstration of a variety of management and leadership abilities and, making complex decisions in collaboration with other staff in the school. The function of the school administrators could be summarized as follows: 1. production and management of resources (human and materials) needed to support organizations and its program 2. supervision of instructional activities in the school system 3. obtaining and training personnel 4. providing leadership for curriculum 5. maintaining peaceful co-existence between the school, the community and the external agencies 6. influencing staff behavior 7. discerning and influencing the development of goals and policies 8. evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency or otherwise of the school 9. initiating work activities 10. grouping the tasks into activities 11. defining the task to be done 12. taking remedial action if the objectives are not being met 13. Supplying incentives to stimulate productivity. Some differences between administration and management 1. The difference between administration and management is rather very thin. However while management is the process of working with and through groups or individuals to accomplish organizational goals, administration is concerned with directing and controlling life in a social system. 2. The second difference is that administration deals with establishing a policy that guides decision-making laws and regulations. Management deals with implementation of laws and regulations. Educational administration and educational management From the above definition, it is quite clear that educational administration and educational management are applied fields of study. Educational management is an applied field of management. One can therefore deduce that educational management refers to the application of theory and practice of management to the field of education or educational institutions. The same concept applies to education administration. According to Okumbe (1999), educational administration is a process of acquiring and allocating resources for the achievement of predetermined educational goals. Educational administration is the operation and management of learning institutions such as public schools, child care centers, colleges and universities. From small preschools to prestigious universities, educational administrators manage organizational structure, administrative processes and educational programming. Because it involves children, educational administration contains a wide range of ethical standards and customary practices. Islamic Administration of Education Education is the foundation upon which Islamic society is built, and it is the division that makes the Muslims differ in their lives from the rest of the paths of disbelief. The previous Ba'athist and Shi'a governments tried to deviate the Muslim generation from their path through their educational programs that concord with their governments and political whims. 4 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 The programs focused on glorifying the ruling authorities and discarding differences between sects, stripping Sunnis of their identity. And among the most important of their goals were: 1. Focusing on glorifying and eternalising the leaders and taking refuge in God and inserting them into hidden shirk [idolatry] through immortalising ephemeral, temporary personalities. 2. Spreading the aims of their parties and their ideas whilst distancing the nurtured from Islamic thought, because the ruling party considers itself the pulse of society and the symbol of its endurance, while Islamic principles are for the mosque only and between man and his Lord with severe proceedings against all those who tried to do away with party thinking or modify it. 3. Discarding the difference with the disbelieving sects, and considering co-existence with them as the true societal bond that the Ummah [Islamic nation] must operate in accordance with in order to preserve its goals, while in reality protection is implemented for the rights of all the communities of disbelief while oppressing the Sunnis and their principles. 4. Spreading the culture of moral dissolution by promoting it through expressions of civilization and exchanges of cultures with the West. And thus it was that the Ummah entered into labyrinths of confusion that made it forget its glory, its strength and its past, while the prior Islamic Caliphates were portrayed as being a foreign occupation that arose on the basis of ignorance and the decline of the Ummah and nationalism. And among the aims of the Islamic program in the Islamic State: 1. Implanting Islamic values in society as well as sound, Shari'i societal manners and customs. 2. Correcting the erroneous narrations that the prior programs had implanted about the prior Caliphs and Imams. 3. Developing Islamic society on the basis of manners and on a Shari'i and thought basis. 4. Raising a knowledgeable Islamic generation capable of bearing the Ummah and its future without needing the expertise of the West. So it is also that the Islamic school is one of the houses of worship, whose aims are confined to acquiring knowledge also, but also it is an educational nurturing ground that raises the individual with comprehensive development of mind and body. And in it there should be training facilities for mind, body and vocation, as successful programs cannot rely on what is written between the lines, without practical training on all given subjects. Also it is the case that the interest in the Arabic language and its use in daily life for the individual is an important matter in the Islamic State as is distancing from vulgar expressions that were put forward in society in a well-considered plan to guarantee the forgetting of the Islamic identity for society. The general concept of administration Meaning: Educational Administration is regarded as the process of integrating the appropriate human and material resources that are made available and made effective for achieving the purposes of a program of an educational institution. The term “Administration” doesn’t refer to any single process or act. It is like a broad umbrella encompassing a number of processes such as: planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the performance. The same situation occurs in the field of educational administration. The concept of educational administration is applicable in case of an educational organization which has certain purposes or goals to fulfill. In order to achieve these purposes or goals, the head of the educational organization plans carefully various programmes and activities. Here the educational organization may be a school, college or university. The head of the school/college/university organizes these programmes and activities with co- 5 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 operation from other teachers, parents and students. She/he motivates them and co- ordinates the efforts of teachers as well as directs and exercises control over them. He/She evaluates their performance and progress in achieving the purposes of the programme. He provides feedback to them and brings modification, if required in the plans and programmes of the school or college or university. So the totality of these processes which are directed towards realizing or achieving the purposes or goals of the school/college/university is called educational administration. Basic Functions of Educational Administration: The prime concern of administration of any programme is proper accomplishment of the pre-fixed purposes and goals. This becomes possible through adequate utilization of both human and material resources with the purpose of bringing qualitative improvement of the programme. For this there is the necessity of different aspects of management which are accepted as the functions of administration. In order to simplify it we can be said here that proper management of a programme needs various aspects that are regarded as the functions of administration. These are: 1. Planning 2. Organizing 3. Directing 4. Coordinating 5. Supervising 6. Controlling and 7. Evaluating In the field of educational administration, the educational authority as the administrative authority exercises its functions in relation to the above mentioned aspects. But it is essential to mention that the functions of educational administration can be studied under two major perspectives. One is in general perspective and the other is in contextual perspective. Let us discuss these functions one by one. Q.3 Discuss the application of fundamental principles of management in the context of Pakistani elementary school level. Identify the problems of management in public sector schools of Pakistan. Principles of School Management 1. The policies of the school have been developed according to educational principles, government policies and the goals of elementary school education. 2. Reinforce administrative organization, maintain job responsibilities and boost work efficiency. 3. Follow a democratic approach, make personnel, funds, opinions, rewards and punishment public in an attempt to lead the school toward united and harmonious direction. 4. Strengthen personnel management, increase employees’ motivation. Look, listen and understand more. Promote a focus on mobile management. 5. Emphasize delicate campus planning, improve working environment, and inspire employees’ professional spirit. 6. Encourage in-service teacher education to improve teaching methods and counseling skills in order to more effectively implement educational functions. 7. To respect and serve rather than manage 8. Focus on teachers’ sense of honor and responsibility 9. Focus on research, experimentation, innovation and the teaching profession. Invigorate teachers’ spirit and stimulate educational renovation. 6 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 10. Enhance teaching equipment and make good use of social resources in order to create modern well- developed citizens. 11. Incorporate the five main themes of education, and teach students in accordance with their aptitudes to maximize their talents. 12. Focus on the planning and delivery of special education services. 13. Strengthen life education, moral education, and traffic safety education in order to develop a harmonious atmosphere. 14. Develop good relationships with communities, make use of social resources, and continue school development in order to make the school a center of community development. Principles of Management What is principle? It is a generation that is widely accepted as true system. Principles always are to be considered helpful for several reasons. First: They help to make more accurate decision, applying in any situation and eliminating guesswork. Second: it saves time. Principles provide guidelines for actions. Third: principles enable the people to pass information from one generation to another. There are few Principles which are to be adapted in management. 1. Planning Principles 1. Principle of the Primary Objectives 2. Principle of adequate alternative 3. Principle of contingencies 2. Organizing Principles 1. Unity of Command principle 2. Adequacy of authority principle 3. Scalar (chain-of-command) principle 3. Staffing Principles 1. Principle of developing a successor 2. Principle of manager evaluation 3. Principle of management development 4. Directing Principles 1. Principle of harmony of objective 2. Principle of manager’s example 3. Principle of motivation 5. Controlling Principles 1. Principle of standards 2. Principle of measurement of performance against standards 3. Principle of corrective action Issues Related to Privately Managed Institution It is undeniable that the role of private sector is pivotal in all spheres of life without any exception. It has improved quality and quantity of education too. This sector has actually sharing the state burden as well as social burden. Currently the growth of private sectors in education is tremendous; a regulatory control can streamline and improve the academic and structural improvement. Society at large has welcomed its role and functioning. The severe criticism by the society is on fee structure which is going up with price hike. It is true but the problem lies with the facilities as what they provide is never beyond their fee limit. Secondly the access to education by poor students is a very serious issue, it is needed to have legal framework for matching the facilities with fee ratio and poor student admission. With all 7 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 these things these schools manages their resources and they do not take grant from the state. The state itself or the provinces do not developed or designed any type of thing to regulate fee structure and it is imperative to find ways and means that could attract private investors at one side and at other there should be a mechanism to provide relief to the poorer families. Danish schools system is an appreciable effort by the provincial government for inducting poor but talented student in a world class institution. These private schools have more attraction as they claim to have English as a medium of instruction but actually they run it with mixture of first and foreign language. In the policy 1979 Urdu was adopted as medium of instruction in schools which later on changed and English has been made a medium of instruction. This switching over must be stopped and state should decide once and for all about it. Some of the schools are still following Cambridge education system and their students appear in O, and A level examination which also creates a class distinction in the society. The concept of universalisation of education cannot be realized until and unless private sectors schools are allowed to set up and expand their networks in other areas. Another allegation is that these schools are mostly set up in urban area while they are needed in rural areas but we can see that this trend has changed and now there many schools which are opening their campuses in urban areas too. The allegation about serving elite class purpose is again baseless as many schools are set up in less developed areas and current studies of World Bank show that there is huge difference in students’ academic quality among private and public schools as the private sector performance is three times higher than the public sector. The selection is another objection but I believe that courses are selected on the basis of quality only. The text books published by the board are in poor quality in material and contents whereas foreign author and publisher books are far better than them. A regulatory body just as NACTE should be established to monitor the teaching learning process with course contents and curriculum development comparing it with advanced countries for improvement and enhancement. Q.4 Discuss the concept of education planning. Critically compare the utility of different approaches to educational planning. Concept of education planning. Planning 1. Adesina (1990) defines planning as ‘a way of projecting our intentions, that is, a method of deciding what we want to accomplish’. 2. Ejiogu (1990) holds that ‘to plan, means to project, forecast, design or make or chart our course’. From these views, it can be summarized that ‘planning refers to the act of deciding in advance what is to be done, how and when to do it, where and who is to do it in order to achieve the goals or objectives of the system’. • A plan is a detailed scheme, program or method worked out before hand for the purpose of achieving a set objective. There are three basic elements in a plan, it deals with the future involves action and identifies who is to implement the future action. • Planning bridges the gap between where we are and where we want to be. Educational Planning • Educational planning can be defined as ‘the process of setting out in advance, strategies, policies, procedures, programmes and standards through which an educational objective (or set of objectives) can be achieved’. • Educational planning is a detailed and systematic process: it just does not happen by chance. • It is goal-oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational objectives. 8 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 THE EDUCATIONALPLANNING PROCESS 1. Plan survey and deliberations 2. Definition of goals and objectives 3. Programs design and specification 4. Program provision; 5. Implementation and control; 6. Plan Evaluation and plan regeneration (Peretomode, 1991). Characteristics of Educational Planning • Primacy of Planning Planning is the first step in management. It takes precedence over all the other managerial functions. Everybody plans even though not everybody plans well. As a teacher, you plan your lessons before you go to teach them. • Planning is pervasive: By this, we mean that planning cuts across all levels of management and all the other managerial functions. Whether at the primary, secondary or university level of education, planning is done. For example the managerial functions of organizing, staffing, etc involve some planning. • Planning is Mission - Oriented: Planning involves the mapping out or charting of activities in such a way that it helps to satisfy human wants. Thus, planning is goal-directed i.e. planning is directed at achieving a specified goal or a set of goals. • Planning is Future-Oriented. Planning as said earlier on, is a process of deciding in advance what should be done in future, how it is to be done, who will do it, when and where to do it. This process takes into consideration past trends and present experiences in order to project into the future. USESOF EDUCATIONALPLANNING • Identification of Objectives and strategies: By this we mean that educational planning helps in identifying and defining the objectives and the strategies, programmes, procedures, policies and standards which education needs to be more effective and efficient. • Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources: By scarce resources, we mean the limited resources which are available to satisfy our wants (needs). • Educational Planning aids decision making: Educational Planning helps decision makers at all levels to reach a better and well informed decision THE NEED OF EDUCATIONALPLANNING • Resources are limited: Thus the need to determine in advance a program of action for the attainment of the goal within a given time. • To achieve maximum effectiveness, efficiency: Adequate plans help to direct and co-ordinate the actions of employees in order to achieve maximum effectiveness, efficiency and productivity. • Help in administrative decisions: Planning is necessary for administrative decisions in education, for it aims at putting into action what educators deems to achieve. • Clear choices: Planning enables a nation to make its choices clear in terms of the aim and objectives. 9 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 • Optimum Utilization of Resources: Educational plans are designed to avoid imbalances and enormous wastes and replenish the steadily aggravated shortage of teachers. Different approaches to educational planning. 1. SOCIAL DEMAND APPROACH The first approach, which may be called the social method is in general use, but is scarcely a method at all, and is a starting point from which improvements must be devised. This method takes educational needs in terms of the current demand for education at the different levels and projects them on the basis of population increase, age distribution, long-term national or social goals (inarticulate or defined) and on the basis of what is known about state and consumer preferences for education. Among such goals and preferences are universal literacy, universal compulsory primary education, and cultural objectives. The stress is upon education as social infra-structure for development purposes, and as an end in itself. The financial implications of these targets are then considered. The usual result is that the funds required for the educational expansion are found to be larger than those available either to launch or to sustain it, on the basis of projections of national income and revenue. A compromise is struck, and what is deemed to be a feasible plan emerges, cut down to the funds expected to be available. This is the traditional approach, and may work satisfactorily in high-income countries, although even in these, concern over flagging rates of growth and ever-increasing competition in export markets is leading to increased emphasis on the contribution of education to technological progress and productive efficiency. 2. MANPOWER REQUIREMENT APPROACH The second approach, which we may call the manpower approach, is based on the fact that, as we saw earlier, the main link of education with economic development is through the knowledge and skills it produces in the labor force. To the extent that the educational system produces qualified people in the right numbers and places, the major part of the economic and social contribution of educational planning is achieved, provided that in so doing the educational system has not consumed so great a proportion of resources as to set back the development plan itself. Various methods exist of estimating future manpower requirements and the demand they will make on the education system. But various difficulties hamper this approach as Professor Harbison recognizes. First, manpower forecasts can seldom be made with reliability beyond short-term periods of five to eight years. The time perspective required by educational planning as a whole is fifteen to twenty years, though it is possible to influence over shorter periods the supply in the ‘pipe-line’. Secondly, the educational component of different occupations changes with technological progress and the rise of educational standards. 3. EDUCATION-OUTPUT RATIO METHOD The third method is based on the capital-output ratio approach and might be called the education- output ratio method. It relates the stock of educated people and the flow of children and students completing education at the different levels directly to the national output of goods and services without passing through the intervening stage of making manpower forecasts. A series of linear equations are set up relating the stock of persons who have completed a given level of education, and the number of students at each level, to the aggregate volume of production. These equations will show how the structure of the educational system should change with different growth rates of the economy. This method is developed by Professor Tinbergen. Every method has its difficulties and limitations. The problem here is that assumptions have to be made about teacher-student ratios and about the adequacy of the relations of the education ‘mix’ to the product ‘mix’ at the base from which the projection is made. If these assumptions are incorrectly made they will invalidate the conclusions. Further, the differences of rates of growth in the different economic sectors, and increases of productivity, need to be included. The range of assumptions as to the technical coefficients is very wide. 10 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 None the less this method, used with good informed judgment, is a useful exercise to be set alongside the other approaches. 4. AGGREGATE METHOD The fourth is the aggregate method. This method tries to relate educational needs to the whole demand of society for education rather than to the level of output or to manpower, and is based on norms and patterns which emerge from an empirical study of the educational situation in countries at different stages of development. Among them are (a) The proportion of GNP devoted to education globally and (if possible) by sector; (b) The proportion of public expenditure devoted to education and its different sectors; (c) The proportion of over-all investment devoted to education; (d) The proportion of the population enrolled at the different educational levels; (e) The above information corrected by estimates of wastage; (f) The proportions of the school-age and student population enrolled at different levels. 5. COMPREHENSIVE APPROACH Fifth, there is what we may call the human resources assessment approach which is a comprehensive one. It was developed by Professor Harbison. It starts from the position that education is one of the main sources of human resource formation, other sources being measures in the fields of manpower, employment, training and health. The strategy of human resource development consists of integrating these factors with general economic and social development planning. It takes into consideration such factors as the scale of development feasible considering the availability of specialized manpower, the scale of development needed to absorb the backlog of unemployed and the new entrants to the labor force, the extent of in-service training in industry, the pattern of investment priorities envisaged in the plan and the broad economic, social and educational goals of development planning. Q.5 Explain the nature and characteristics of supervision in detail. Compare the basic objectives of supervision with administration. Meaning of Supervision: In the modern educational system expansion of education relies on increasing number of educational institutions, teachers and students as well as providing all sort of facilities which are essential for proper progress of education. It will never be sufficient if we will not yield or achieve our returns or results to an adequate extent in qualitative perspective. From this description it is quite evident that quality assurance of education at any level is the prime concern of the modem educational practices. For this there is the need of quantitative expansion as well as qualitative improvement of education at all levels. This will be determined by the very concept, supervision. Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement of teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors of all types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the professional staff or among the community participants. Scope of Educational Supervision: 1. Educational process: The scope of modern supervision extends to the entire educative process or the whole teaching-learning situation. The various elements of this situation in order of their importance may be categorized as the learners, the teachers, the curriculum and the socio-physical environment. 2. Provision and Management of Teaching-Learning: Educational administration provides and manages these various elements of the teaching-learning situation and the business of educational supervision is 11 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 to assess continuously their adequacy and to bring about necessary improvement of course, within reasonable and realistic limits. 3. Educational activities: the scope of educational supervision extends to all the areas of educational activity with the larger purpose of improving the product of education through the upgrading to the quality of instruction and other school practices. Principles of Educational Supervision: 1. Functionally related to Administration: Even though supervision is assigned quite specific tasks within the area of administration it is considered an integral part of it. Supervision must be primarily a non-managerial service within the total responsibilities of administration. It is clear that two are closely and functionally related. Good administration and good supervision both have the some function. 2. Based on Philosophy: This means that the policies, plans, purposes, values and meaning of supervision should be determined by the philosophy or the way of life of the society whose education is to be undertaken. 3. Scientific: All activities, plans, procedures and techniques should be based on the scientific attitude and method. Supervision should emphasis experimentation, observation and inference, objectivity and reliability. It should utilize the finding of research, standardized tests and statistical analysis. 4. Creative: supervision should promote free expression among all persons participating in the group discussion for problem-solving. Creativity means offering new suggestions, devising new procedures inventing and producing new things; and all these are necessary for development and progress. 5. Progressive: this means that supervision should aim at the promotion of pupils’ and teachers’ growth and through them the improvement of society. Supervision should coordinate, and integrate all available resources, materials and efforts. It should develop those conditions of satisfaction and security which release the spirit of creativity and joy of achievement. Characteristics of Educational Supervision: 1. It is creative and dynamic expert technical service. 2. It provides leadership with extra knowledge and superior skills. 3. It promotes cooperative educational effort in a friendly atmosphere. 4. It gives coordination, direction and guidance to teachers’ activities. 5. It improves instruction and teaching-learning process. 6. It helps achievement of appropriate educational aims and objectives. Compare the basic objectives of supervision with administration Both, educational supervision and administration are part of the educational system and they complement each other. Although it is commonly understood that administration encompasses supervision, they have different purposes. In order to evaluate the differences between them, it is necessary to clear up what they are. But first, it is important to understand that schools at any level are organizations. Organizations are functional structures established to achieve goals. To be able to achieve them, they must rely on several people who are part of it. Administrators and supervisors are some of them. Through their activities, duties and tasks they achieve the goals and quality work determines quality results. It is also well known that organizations have an undeniable impact in human life. The main differences between educational administration and supervision are related to their scope and goals. Administrators organize and control the resources, represent and guide the instructional communities. Supervisors visit, diagnose, evaluate and survey instructional methods, teachers and learners, as well as overall climate. Although educational supervision and administration differ in many ways and may vary for different educational systems, there are some common features and goal they both share. Both of them try to deliver and improve the education in general with the best conditions. 12 Malik Kashif Masood 8605 Assignment Autumn 2017 13 Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 1 Q.1 a) Explain the concept of social interaction. Social interaction is the basis of the whole social order. Social group is the product of social interaction. There is interaction among animals and birds also. It is the real foundation of all social processes, structure, social groups and functions. In sociology interaction is the gate of its knowledge. First you should aware that What is an interaction in sociology? It is a social process between two or more than two persons. It is always reciprocal in nature. It can be called a stimulus-response condition among the individuals. It is like a bandied ball against a wall. When two persons talk with each other or respond to each other on telephone or internet, develop correspondence through letter, there is an interaction. A mother suckling milk to her child, there is interaction between mother and her child. A doctor attends a patient, a customer buys a thing from a shopkeeper and a passenger gets ticket from the booking clerk. It means interaction is social relationship among the individuals. It. is a sort of action and reaction position among the people. Definition of Social Interaction Dawson and Gettyes define Social Interaction as "it is a process by which men interpenetrate the minds of each other". According to Merrill, "Social-interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in a meaningful contact, as a result of which their behavior is modified however slightly." According to Corkiness. "Social interaction is such a process which influences the overt behavior or state of mind of the individuals." Social interaction is an event which changes the behavior and attitude of the interacting persons. It is a social relationship among at least two persons. It changes the societal conditions of life of the people. Interaction is the soul of social life and relationship. It produces group which is the foundation stone of society. Elements of Social Interaction The following are the elements of social interaction: 1. Two or more than two persons 2. Reciprocal relationship among them 3. Influence on the event, behavior, brain of the persons. These three conditions interrelate the people among themselves and convert them into social groups. Types of Social Interaction According to Young and Mack there are two types of social interaction between people and societies. Direct or Physical Interaction: it involves physical action among the individuals. Beating, biting, thrashing, pulling, pushing, killing, scratching, boxing, wrestling, kissing etc. are the examples of direct interaction. Two teams playing match and a war between the forces of two countries are also examples of this interaction. This Types influences other by physical action in different ways. Symbolic Interaction: There are different types of relationships between people. It involves the use of language and symbols. It means communication through a common language is symbolic process. This is the most common method of human societies. Human beings convey their ideas through language and it is completed by reciprocal response. The methods of communication devised by man are sharp and effective than these of animals. All cultures develop, expand and change only through language symbolic interaction. Without language no culture can live. There is no culture in animals due to the fact that there is no common language among them. Through language man stores its previous experiences and transmits them to the following generation with a change. What are the Forms of Social Interaction in a Society Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 2 It is found in various forms among human societies Between individual and individual: It is the interaction between at least two persons. The doctor and the patient, the mother and the child, the customer and the shopkeeper are the various examples in this case. Between individual and group: It operates between one person and more. A teacher teaching his class a speaker addressing the audience, an Imam leading prayers are its common examples. Between group and group: This is found between two groups of people like two teams playing match, two forces fighting against each other, two delegates discussing an issue. Between individuals and culture: This form is found when the people listen to radio, see television, read newspaper enjoy pictures and observe exhibitions. Radio, T.V. cinema, newspapers, books, exhibitions, theatre, drama, circus, fairs and other socio- cultural activities are included in the Culture of a society. People have social interaction and social relationship with these media of mass communication and get social change in their life. The people change these media as they require on the other hand. In this way reciprocal process between the people and the culture goes on. 2. b) How can a teacher help in promoting social interaction among students? The following tips are offered in an effort to provide teachers with suggestions on how they might contribute to the improvement of the social interactions among students with behavioral disorders and their peers: 1. Focus on teaching and modeling social and emotional learning strategies that encourage reflection and self-awareness. Encourage students to consider how individual actions and words have consequences. Through various modeling opportunities, assist in developing students’ ability to take different perspectives and viewpoints. Teach students to think through situations and/or challenges by rehearsing various outcomes. 2. Teach problem-solving and conflict resolution skills. Many students with behavioral disorders have deficits in executive functioning skills and require step-by-step instruction in problem-solving activities. Teachers should take the role of a coach and assist students in a problem-solving process. Teach students to identify the problem and brainstorm various solutions, and identify the solution he will use. 3. Create opportunities to practice effective social skills both individually and in groups. Model effective social skills in the classroom through praise, positive reinforcement, and correction and redirection of inappropriate behaviors. Provide role-play scenarios that build social skills. 4. Adjust instructional strategies to address social skills deficits. Teachers should provide structure and organization within the classroom. The arrangement of the physical environment should be effective. Clearly stated instructional objectives and behavioral expectations should be provided throughout lessons and social interactions. Providing simulated real-life challenges that students might encounter at school, home, and in the community is essential to placing social skills in practical contexts. 5. Tailor social skill interventions to individual student needs. Utilize various data collection strategies to collect behavioral information (e, g., screeners, observations of student in various settings, parent information, diagnostic information, student interviews, etc.) and use the results when deciding which interventions to use. Investigate strategies designed to meet particular social skills deficits and ensure the intervention is implemented with fidelity (e.g., the frequency, duration, and intensity of the intervention delivery meets set criteria). 6. Practice Communication Skills. Model and provide opportunities to practice effective communication skills. Teach students how to listen to others and waiting to talk, taking turns in a conversation, suggesting an idea, providing praise to others, saying thank-you, and apologizing. Communication skills can be taught through role play, games, and practice. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 3 7. Utilize collaborative learning environments. Incorporate collaborative learning activities within the curriculum to encourage social interaction. Utilizing collaborative groups will allow students to practice and observe appropriate social interactions with peer. 8. Get parents involved! Obtain parental input regarding the student’s social interactions. Converse and collaborate with parents to develop a plan that can be used at home and in school. 9. Be Creative!! Utilize various forms of media when teaching social skills. Allow students to read books about various conflict situations and verbally discuss solutions. Employ €œI Love Lucy€• or other media clips and instruct students to view and critique the social interactions among the characters. Verbally discuss the characters’ interactions and discuss better behavior choices. Q.2 a) Discuss the important of cultural diversity in a society. b) Highlight the role of cultural diversity in Pakistani society. Human beings are extremely diverse in very many ways. People differ in opinions, race, nationality, gender, age, sexuality, ethnicity, class, religion, lifestyle and so much more, yet at the very basic we are all human species. Ideally, all people feel pain and joy despite the differences. Today, the changes in time and technology have made it extremely impossible for any group of people to live without interacting with others outside their group. Often people of different cultural and geographical backgrounds meet in international conferences, education exchange programs, sports, etc. Sadly, the history of mankind discriminating against each other based on cultural differences has been with us for ages. So many people have died or have been denied their rights because of individual greed. Properties and economies have also been destroyed due to lack of understanding. Unfortunately, some of these occurrences are visible even today, perpetuated by people who little understand the importance of the uniqueness of our diversity. Little do they know that: 1. Diversity creates richness in opinion. Some problems cannot be solved by a homogenous group of people. The complexity of challenges facing the world today requires the input people from different cultural backgrounds if we are to succeed. A diverse group will offer fresh ideas to solve problems. Diverse groups have often been found to be creative and thus producing better solutions to problems. 2. Diversity makes us compassionate about others When we interact and try to understand others, we will not judge them. This instead makes us compassionate about others. We are then able to love and help one another. Compassion allows us to empathize with others and realize that all human beings are the same. Hatred amongst people of cultural differences only makes us resentful and full of hunger, and often denying us the opportunity to live life to the fullest. 3. Diversity is a growing trend Today there is no country in the world that has only natives living there. Each and every day, millions of people are moving from a part of the world to another. Most people are in such of better opportunities, education and lifestyle. In the process people of different cultural backgrounds often find themselves going to the same schools, working in the same office and so much more. As citizens of this world, we are therefore left with no choice other than to embrace our diversity. Children have to be taught to live and respect people who are different from them in some way so that the world would be a peaceful place to live. 4. Diversity opens up new market opportunities Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 4 Through diversity, entrepreneurs have been able to reach new markets. Today we have multinationals setting up offices in different parts of the world of which it would not be possible without embracing diversity. This further creates employment opportunities for people in those parts of the world. Highlight the role of cultural diversity in Pakistani society. Literature: Pakistani literature originates from when Pakistan gained its nationhood as a sovereign state in 1947. The common and shared tradition of Urdu literature and English literature of South Asia was inherited by the new state. Over a period of time, a body of literature unique to Pakistan has emerged in nearly all major Pakistani languages, including Urdu, English, Punjabi, Pushto, Seraiki, Balochi, and Sindhi. Poetry: Poetry is a highly respected art and profession in Pakistan. The pre-eminent form of poetry in Pakistan almost always originates in Persian, due in part to the long standing affiliation the region had with the Persian Empire. The enthusiasm for poetry exists at a regional level as well, with nearly all of Pakistan's provincial languages continuing the legacy. Since the independence of the country in 1947 and establishment of Urdu as the national language, poetry is written in that language as well. The Urdu language has a rich tradition of poetry and includes the famous poets Dr Allama Iqbal national poet, Mirza Ghalib, Faiz Ahmad Faiz, Ahmad Faraz, Jazib Qureshi and Ahmad Nadeem Qasimi. Apart from Urdu poetry, Pakistani poetry also has blends of other regional languages. Balochi, Sindhi, Punjabi, Seraiki, and Pashto poetry have all incorporated and influenced Pakistani poetry. Poetry in the form of marsia Salam and naath is also very popular among many Pakistanis. Performing arts: Music: Pakistani music is represented by a wide variety of forms. It ranges from traditional styles such as Qawwali and Ghazal to more modern forms that fuse traditional Pakistani music with Western music. Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was internationally renowned for creating a form of music which synchronized Qawwali with western music. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being film music and Urdu and Punjabi pop music. There are also the diverse traditions of folk music, as well as modern styles, with rock bands such as Call being recognized internationally. Music Stars of Pakistan are Noor Jaha, Rahat Fateh Ali Khan. Recreation and sports: The official national sport of Pakistan is field hockey with squash and cricket also very popular. The national cricket team has won the Cricket World Cup once (in 1992), were runners-up once (in 1999), and co-hosted the games twice (in 1987 and 1996). Additionally, they have also won the ICC World Twenty20 once (in 2009), and were runners-up (in 2007). The team has also won the Australasia Cup in 1986, 1990, and 1994. Ramadan: The holiest month of the Islamic Calendar, which is a month of fasting from sunrise to sunset and self discipline, it is widely observed in Pakistan. Muslim Pakistanis (about 97% of the population) fast, attend mosques with increased frequency, and recite Quran. Special foods are cooked in greater quantities, parties are held, and special accommodation is made by workplaces and educational institutes. Eid celebrations: The two Eids, Eid ul-Fitr and Eid ul-Adha, commemorate the passing of the month of fasting, Ramadan, and the willingness of Ibrahim to sacrifice his son Ishmael for God. On these days, there are national holidays and many festivals and events take place to celebrate Eid. As Pakistan is a Muslim state, there are three days off for all businesses and government offices. On the night before Eid, people search for the new moon to mark the end of Ramadan and arrival of Eid ul- Fitr. The day starts with morning prayers, then returning home for a large breakfast with family members. The day is spent visiting relatives and friends and sharing gifts and sweets with everyone. During the evening Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 5 people hit the town for some partying, going to restaurants or relaxing in city parks. On Eid ul-Fitr, money is given for charity and as gifts to young children. On Eid ul-Adha, people may also distribute meat to relatives and neighbors and donate food for charity. Q.3 a) Describe the information of groups and principles of group dynamics. b) Evaluate the effect s of school on the formation of students’ behavior. What is Group Dynamics? Anyone who has been involved in a task force, an athletic team, a committee or even a book club is familiar with aspects of Group Dynamics. You probably belong to several formal or informal groups and see the principles of this scientific focus at work, though you may not recognize the individual components of group behavior. Scientists have studied groups for a long time, however, and have identified several interesting and defining characteristics of the way groups form and interact. Defining Group Dynamics A definition found on Wikipedia says this: It is a “system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group or between social groups.” In other words, it is the study of the behavior of individuals in groups, how they become members and how they react to others in the group. The study is based in both psychology and sociology. What is involved in the Study? Nineteenth century psychologist Wilhelm Wundt was one of the fathers of the study of groups. He believed that groups possessed “phenomena” that did not exist in an individual. Some of the traits he identified are common language, customs and religion. At the core of the study is the concept that groups cannot be understood by merely studying individual members. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Other components that develop within a group are “public knowledge” and a group mind. Groups seem to form when there is a common bond like a goal or a shared identity. Artists, for instance, form guilds and bridge players form clubs. The first condition that must exist in a group is the assembly of two or more people. Groups form because of social cohesion, the attraction between members or because of social identity, for instance as football fans, members of a labor union or church committees. Once formed, groups identify a leader. In formal groups like a trial jury this is a defined role. In informal groups one person usually emerges as the stronger personality. Group members form alliances within the group and the group itself adopts accepted behavior norms. If there is a positive dynamic, they will accomplish their goals, even if those are simply to play cards. Sometimes a group mindset emerges that is different from what individual members may think. In the old west, lynch mobs formed as temporary groups with leaders and accepted normal behavior that deviated from that outside the group. Why Study Group Behavior? Understanding groups can help governments predict how communicable diseases will spread and foresee and prepare for societal trends. The website MindTools.com identifies practical uses for the study in business too. Corporations often have teams of managers or others that are assigned to work on significant issues. Understanding the dynamics of such a group helps businesses identify strong leaders, avoid “negators” who criticize everyone and “blockers” who dominate discussion and create distractions. Groups that have positive dynamics function better and are more creative. Another concept relevant to the study of groups is intradynamics, or how groups relate to one another. This is especially important in a business application, for instance in the way management and employee groups interact. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 6 There are other applications for the study of groups as well. Advertising industries and housing developers benefit from the understanding of how social groups act, as do governments trying to predict emigration from a war zone. The study of Group Dynamics is relevant in every society and wherever groups of people gather. Evaluate the effect s of school on the formation of students’ behavior. While you've been the primary teacher in your child's life for the first few years, it's time to broaden his horizons and let others help him develop into the smart, confident and respectful adult you know he'll become one day. While the school's first responsibility to its students may be academic, the job doesn't end there. When you send your youngster off to school, think about all the ways the staff and students influence your child. According to Irene Shere, Director of the Early Childhood Consultation Center, "The way that teachers interact with children and the way that teachers encourage interactions between children affect each child's development in important ways." Academic Potential Ideally, the school's role is to bring each student to her individual, maximum academic potential. While its effectiveness may vary from school to school, it's not enough to teach the ABCs and 123s and call it a day. A significant amount of schoolwork throughout the grades is dedicated to helping children become expert problem solvers and solution-seekers, skills that will come in handy in just about every personal and professional aspect of a child's adult life. Therefore, in addition to an academic skill, problem solving is an essential life skill. It's "the ability to analyze a situation, propose a solution and, should that solution not work, be able to re-strategize to try again," according to Shere. The problem-solving mentality encourages kids to keep trying, even after flunking the latest math test. They will push and persist because that mentality also dictates that there is a solution; it just hasn't been found yet. and that sounds like a challenge. Social Skills He's got straight A's across the board. But without some healthy social skills, your youngster won't make it through his first job interview, and he'll probably be going stag when prom night rolls around. The school plays an important role in helping children learn to interact positively with their peers and teachers. They learn about healthy relationship skills and develop them further through interactions, both in the classroom and on the playground. According to Shere, "The emotional and social maturity of a child provides the important underpinnings for child development in all other areas.When educators ignore children's emotional and social development, this can often lead to adults who are very academically gifted but who struggle in their daily lives due to lack of self-esteem and/or social skills." Children spend a large portion of their day at school, and it's vital that a school's curriculum is designed to help its students form solid social relationships or to "connect with other children and adults in a caring and empathetic manner." Character Building and Self Concept Now that he's getting straight A's and he snagged that first job, it's time to focus on his character and his values. Character building is not an alternative to academic achievement, but rather an essential adjunct of it. Just as the school provides lessons on reading, writing and arithmetic, from the very beginning it also focuses on helping kids learn about compassion, respect, empathy and integrity. At first it begins with basic lessons like "raise your hand to speak" and "keep your hands to yourself." Later, it develops into argumentative debates about moral and social issues. By the time your child graduates high school, he should have a fairly firm grasp on his own beliefs, values and how he views himself. If he feels he's an inept communicator, it's unlikely he'll pursue a career in law or public speaking. It is this understanding of who he is and what he values that will help determine his academic, professional and personal pursuits. Q.4 a) Explain the functions of different agencies in socialization. b) Determine the role and responsibilities of teacher in socialization. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 7 In general, it may be said that the total society is the agency for socialization and that each person with whom one comes into contact and interact is in some way an agent of socialization. Socialization is found in all interactions but the most influential interaction occurs in particular groups which are referred to as agencies of socialization. The oblivious beginning of the process for the new-born child is-his immediate family group, but this is soon extended to many other groups. Other than the family, the most important are the schools, the peer groups (friends circle) and the mass media. The family: The child’s first world is that of his family. It is a world in itself, in which the child learns to live, to move and to have his being. Within it, not only the biological tasks of birth, protection and feeding take place, but also develop those first and intimate associations with persons of different ages and sexes which form the basis of the child’s personality development. The family is the primary agency of socialization. It is here that the child develops an initial sense of self and habit-training—eating, sleeping etc. To a very large extent, the indoctrination of the child, whether in primitive or modem complex society, occurs within the circle of the primary family group. The child’s first human relationships are with the immediate members of his family—mother or nurse, siblings, father and other close relatives. Here, he experiences love, cooperation, authority, direction and protection. Language (a particular dialect) is also learnt from family in childhood. People’s perceptions of behavior appropriate of their sex are the result of socialization and major part of this is learnt in the family. As the primary agents of childhood socialization, parents play a critical role in guiding children into their gender roles deemed appropriate in a society. They continue to teach gender role behavior either consciously or unconsciously, throughout childhood. Families also teach children values they will hold throughout life. They frequently adopt their parents’ attitudes not only about work but also about the importance of education, patriotism and religion. School: After family the educational institutions take over the charge of socialization. In some societies (simple non- literate societies), socialization takes place almost entirely within the family but in highly complex societies children are also socialized by the educational system. Schools not only teach reading, writing and other basic skills, they also teach students to develop themselves, to discipline themselves, to cooperate with others, to obey rules and to test their achievements through competition. Schools teach sets of expectations about the work, profession or occupations they will follow when they mature. Schools have the formal responsibility of imparting knowledge in those disciplines which are most central to adult functioning in our society. It has been said that learning at home is on a personal, emotional level, whereas learning at school is basically intellectual. Peer group: Besides the world of family and school fellows, the peer group (the people of their own age and similar social status) and playmates highly influence the process of socialization. In the peer group, the young child learns to confirm to the accepted ways of a group and to appreciate the fact that social life is based on rules. Peer group becomes significant others in the terminology of G.H. Mead for the young child. Peer group socialization has been increasing day by day these days. Young people today spend considerable time with one another outside home and family. Young people living in cities or suburbs and who have access to automobiles spend a great deal of time together away from their families. Studies show that they create their own unique sub-cultures—the college campus culture, the drug culture, motorcycle cults, athletic group culture etc. Peer groups serve a valuable function by assisting the transition to adult responsibilities. Teenagers imitate their friends in part because the peer group maintains a meaningful system of rewards and punishments. The group may encourage a young person to follow pursuits that society considers admirable. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 8 On the other hand, the group may encourage someone to violate the culture’s norms and values by driving recklessly, shoplifting, stealing automobiles, engaging in acts of vandalism and the like. Some studies of deviant behavior show that the peer group influence to cultivate behavior patterns is more than the family. Mass media: From early forms of print technology to electronic communication (radio, TV, etc.), the media is playing a central role in shaping the personality of the individuals. Since the last century, technological innovations such as radio, motion pictures, recorded music and television have become important agents of socialization. Television, in particular, is a critical force in the socialization of children almost all over the new world. According to a study conducted in America, the average young person (between the ages of 6 and 18) spends more time watching the ‘tube’ (15,000 to 16,000 hours) than studying in school. Apart from sleeping, watching television is the most time-consuming activity of young people. Relative to other agents of socialization discussed above, such as family, peer group and school, TV has certain distinctive characteristics. It permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex forms of learning. Watching TV is a passive experience. Psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner (1970) has expressed concern about the ‘insidious influence’ of TV in encouraging children to forsake human interaction for passive viewing. Workplace: A fundamental aspect of human socialization involves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation. Occupational socialization cannot be separated from the socialization experience that occurs during childhood and adolescence. We are mostly exposed to occupational roles through observing the work of our parents, of people whom we meet while they are performing their duties, and of people portrayed in the media. The state: Social scientists have increasingly recognized the importance of the state as an agent of socialization because of its growing impact on the life cycle. The protective functions, which were previously performed by family members, have steadily been taken over by outside agencies such as hospitals, health clinics and insurance companies. Thus, the state has become a provider of child care, which gives it a new and direct role in the socialization of infants and young children. Not only this, as a citizen, the life of a person is greatly influenced by national interests. For example, labor unions and political parties serve as intermediaries between the individual and the state. By regulating the life cycle to some degree, the state shapes the station process by influencing our views of appropriate behavior at particular ages. Determine the role and responsibilities of teacher in socialization Though there are various agents which have great influence upon the social development of child. But still teacher and school also have effective role to be played in order to develop the balanced personality of a child. Social Development of Child and Teacher The followings are some suggestions which a teacher must keep in mind in relation to the process of social development of child in educational context. Teachers and parents should encourage their students and children to mix up with other cultural students and children in order to learn the social ethics and values of their culture. That will have a better ground for children to have social awareness, adjustment and will develop positive attitude towards other cultures and communities. When dealing with students teachers should be unbiased towards any particular culture and language. That will influence the students I positive manner or future social development. Social interaction should be encouraged in the context of school that could be done through organizing debates, games, and other co-curricular activities. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 9 In order to develop social development students should be exposed to outdoor social events. Like cultural and social exhibitions, study tours to some famous cities in order to know the cultural pattern and life style of the different people Historical stories should be taught to the students in order to develop some basic social qualities like sacrifice, loyalty, courage etc. There should be close cooperation between teachers and parents about the social activities of a child. In this regard parents- teacher meetings can play effective role. From time t time important and famous personalities should be incited to school assembly in order to motivate the students for social service and role. Teachers should educate the students and inform the students about various social festivals and celebrations in order to highlight the importance of social events. Teachers should also be informed about the social events, evils, crimes which are creating social disturbance. And how to eradicate the social evils. It is also the responsibility of the teachers to inform the students about all the social developments, with critical evaluation in order to evaluate the negative and positive impacts of these developments. It is vital to keep the children busy and excited in what they are involved in. It is just as important for a teacher to be extremely organized. Children rely on the consistency of schedules. Children will be happier and feel safe and secure in their school surroundings when their daily schedule is better organized. Being organized creates a comfortable and social environment. It is the teacher’s responsibility to nourish a child’s cognitive and physical needs. Children need to run and play as well as learn the ability to sit and work. They need to know and understand boundaries and respect for others. Children also need time during their schedule where they have freedom to do whatever they choose to do without being told by a teacher. This is time allowed where children get to explore and play either by themselves, side by side with other children, or play by interacting with each other. Teachers must allow children to have this non-direction play time. All of these tools aid as in building structures for a healthy social life Q.5 a) Discuss the role of religious groups in influencing social behavior. b) Explain the importance of economic, political and educational institutions in the society? In general, religions set out to be idealistic, to achieve common good and encourage their members to be better people. On the surface, they provide a vehicle for individuals to account for things which otherwise would be unexplainable and offer a safety valve for the relief of guilt. They also provide a framework that serves as a code of behaviour. They do this via the mechanisms of commandments and sin. The latter can be defined as behaviour proscribed by a religion. Many religions notionally encourage believers to consider those who are less well off than themselves. All these attributes operate at the level of the individual, which many may argue is the correct level for religious activity. So much for the good news. Now for the bad news, which unfortunately outweighs the good news be a considerable amount. As has been discussed above, religions have the societal effect of dividing people into "us" and "them". This unfortunately has the same characteristics as any other form of discrimination, such as racialism . It becomes easy to consider "us" as the righteous and "them" as unrighteous. When things go wrong, when there is friction between communities, the unbelievers become an easy target for blame. It is easy to become self- righteous and look down upon those we consider to be inferior. These feelings are not of course, stated aims of religious leaders, but they do gain strength in an environment where there is fear and a lack of understanding. Wherever there is a dispute between factions of society, whether it be of a racial, nationalistic or class-based nature, religion is often brought into the equation to recruit support from within a religious base, whether or not that support is justified. Indeed, religion becomes the embodiment of evil, quite contrary to its original intent. At both the societal and individual level, religion also has another considerable consequence. Because it depends on a belief in the divine, it encourages a belief in divine intervention. It is somehow thought that prayer to the divinity will change the course of events. In that respect it is a substitute for action and Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 10 decision. Sometimes prayer can be used to gain personal fortitude to resist fear, which can be beneficial on occasions. However, the use of prayer can also take the form of wishing ill to others, effectively acting as a curse. It is thought that the divinity will vent anger on those who are judged to be oppressors or sinners. This is a short step from believing that the cause justifies evil in the name of the divinity. It also reinforces the attitude that there is no need to understand or be awed by things that are beyond our comprehension. So, instead of seeing beauty in creation without a deity, only impossible chaos can be seen. Such an attitude reinforces the belief in a deity. Thus religion has become a self-reinforcing mental prison. Religion can also be used as a tool of suppression. It is easy to maintain order and nullify dissent by citing religious grounds. It is often used to pour scorn on those who do not believe, so that when individuals question the right to govern, the right to interpret religion or the existence of the deity, indignant repugnance is generated in those who are in a position to impose censorship. Often this can be achieved by simple peer group pressure. Religious "ethics" are cited in support of many spurious theories and taboos. The basis of many of these is that the life force is somehow holy, that life is the sole preserve of the deity. Such is the arbitrary nature of the arguments that, even within a single sect of a single religion, there will be theological disagreements about what is ethical and what is unethical. Because secular laws are believed to be made with religious principles underpinning them, it is easy for the judiciary to fall into the trap of condemning individuals to cruelty and inhumanity in the belief that it is ethical to do so. The importance of economic institutions in the society Economics is the study of how societies, governments, businesses, households, and individuals allocate their scarce resources. Our discipline has two important features. First, we develop conceptual models of behavior to predict responses to changes in policy and market conditions. Second, we use rigorous statistical analysis to investigate these changes. Economists are well known for advising the president and congress on economic issues, formulating policies at the Federal Reserve Bank, and analyzing economic conditions for investment banks, brokerage houses, real estate companies, and other private sector businesses. They also contribute to the development of many other public policies including health care, welfare, and school reform and efforts to reduce inequality, pollution and crime. The study of economics can also provide valuable knowledge for making decisions in everyday life. It offers a tool with which to approach questions about the desirability of a particular financial investment opportunity, whether or not to attend college or graduate school, the benefits and costs of alternative careers, and the likely impacts of public policies including universal health care and a higher minimum wage. 1. Students interested in one or two economics courses Those planning to work in the health care sector may want to learn health economics, and we have a course that focuses on that field. Similarly, we have courses on law and economics, economics of education, and economic history for students in other departments or schools who would like to explore the economics perspective as a complement to their main field of study. These courses require only one semester of introductory microeconomics as a prerequisite and are well-suited for non-majors who seek to supplement their major with related courses of study or simply have interest in these areas. 2. Students interested in minoring in economics Other students might want to minor in economics. Economics offers a good complement to finance majors and others in the CBA, as well as LAS students majoring in political science, sociology, mathematics, and other areas. Premeds and College of Engineering students also often find the minor both interesting and valuable. 3. Prospective majors Of course economics majors can also take the courses described above as part of their plan of study. Majors gain a much deeper understanding of economic theory and have the opportunity to apply economics principles to a number of areas including finance, urban economics, labor economics, and international trade. We have a mix of mathematically intensive courses for those who enjoy the challenges of formal modeling and more applied courses that do not require calculus and focus on public policies and business. Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 11 The importance of political institutions in the society Political Institutions, in Brief Political institutions and systems have a direct impact on the business environment and activities of a country. For example, a political system that is straightforward and evolving when it comes to political participation of the people and laser-focused on the well-being of its citizens contributes to positive economic growth in its region. Every society must have a type of political system so it may allocate resources and ongoing procedures appropriately. Along the same concept, a political institution sets the rules in which an orderly society obeys and ultimately decides and administers the laws for those that do not obey appropriately. Extended Definition The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy, culture and additional social concepts. The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few simple core concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but most tend to surround concepts of: Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members of a state, typically through elected representatives. Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch. Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a queen. The authority, also known as a crown, is typically inherited. Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy. Often, an authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed. Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and decisions with absolute power, disregarding input from others. The Function of a Political System 1. To maintain integration of society by determining norms. 2. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, religious systems necessary for achieving collective (political) goals. 3. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats. In modern day society in the United States, for example, the main function of the two core political parties are seen as a way to represent interest groups, represent constituents and to create policies while minimizing choices. Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for people to understand and engage with. The importance of educational institutions in the society An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools, childcare, primary-elementary schools, secondary-high schools, and universities. They provide a large variety of learning environments and learning spaces. Education plays a great role in the life of everyone all through the life. Getting proper education is very necessary to get success and happy life just like food is necessary for healthy body. It is very important to live luxurious and better life. It develops personality of the people, provides physical and mental standard and transforms people’s living status. It promotes the feeling of physical, mental and social well being by providing better life. Good education is constructive in nature which constructs our future forever. It helps a person to improve his/her status of mind, body and spirit. It provides us lots of confidence by giving us bulk of knowledge in many field. It is a single and vital way to the success as well as personal growth. The more knowledge we get, we grow and develop more in the life. Being well educated never only means to earn certificates and good salary from the recognized and reputed organisation companies or institutions however it also means to be a good and social person in the life. It helps us to determine whether something Malik Kashif Masood 8606 Assignment Autumn 2017 12 is good or bad for us and other persons related to us. The first purpose of getting good education is being good citizen and then being successful in personal and professional life. We are incomplete without a good education because education makes us right thinker and correct decision maker. In such a competitive world, education has become a necessity for human beings after food, clothe and shelter. It is able to provide solutions to all problems; it promotes good habits and awareness about corruption, terrorism, and other social issues among us. Education is the most important tool offers inner and outer strength to a person. Education is the fundamental rights of everyone and capable of bringing any desired change and upliftment in the human mind and society.