Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Biological Psychology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biopsycho Review Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review Sylvia D. Kreibig ∗ Department of Psychology, University of Geneva and Swiss Center for Affective Sciences, Geneva, Switzerland a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity is viewed as a major component of the emotion response in many recent theories of emotion. Positions on the degree of specificity of ANS activation in emotion, however, greatly diverge, ranging from undifferentiated arousal, over acknowledgment of strong response idiosyncrasies, to highly specific predictions of autonomic response patterns for certain emotions. A review of 134 publications that report experimental investigations of emotional effects on peripheral physiological responding in healthy individuals suggests considerable ANS response specificity in emotion when considering subtypes of distinct emotions. The importance of sound terminology of investigated affective states as well as of choice of physiological measures in assessing ANS reactivity is discussed. © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Article history: Received 26 June 2009 Accepted 10 March 2010 Available online 4 April 2010 Keywords: Emotion Autonomic nervous system Emotional response specificity Autonomic response organization Cardiovascular system Respiratory system Electrodermal system Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1. Current positions on autonomic responding in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2. Physical components of autonomic responding in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3. Conceptual levels of autonomic response organization in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Empirical findings of ANS activity in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. The negative emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1. Anger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2. Anxiety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3. Disgust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.4. Embarrassment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.5. Fear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.6. Sadness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. The positive emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1. Affection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2. Amusement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3. Contentment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4. Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5. Joy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6. Pleasure, anticipatory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7. Pride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8. Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Emotions without clear valence connotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1. Surprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2. Suspense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 395 396 396 397 400 400 403 403 404 404 405 406 406 406 406 406 407 407 407 408 408 408 408 2. ∗ Present address: Department of Psychology, 450 Serra Mall, Bldg 420, Stanford, CA 94305, United States. E-mail addresses:
[email protected],
[email protected]. 0301-0511/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010 S.D. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 395 3. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. Autonomic responding in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1. Summary of empirical emotion effects and their relation to models of autonomic response organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2. Measures of autonomic activation components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3. Emotion terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1. Feeling changes without concomitant autonomic changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2. Autonomic changes without concomitant feeling changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3. Decoupling of subsystems in emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix A. Overview of reviewed studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 408 408 409 410 410 410 410 411 411 411 416 1. Introduction Autonomic responding in emotion has been an active research topic since, almost a century ago, Walter Cannon (1915) first studied the physiology of emotion (Brown and Fee, 2002; Dale, 1947). Still, there is no scientific consensus on whether there exists a relation between emotion and the organization of autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity and, if so, in what form. The various positions, which contemporary researchers hold on this topic, are first addressed in this article, before turning to the physical components—or the hardware—of autonomic responding in emotion. Next, a brief overview of the various theories and models that have been suggested to explain and identify mechanisms of autonomic response organization in emotion is given. The center part of this article consists of a review of the empirical basis for the postulate of emotion-specific ANS activity, considering 134 experimental studies on ANS activity in emotion. The next section summarizes and discusses how empirical emotion effects relate to models of autonomic response organization, points to the importance of choosing adequate measures of autonomic activation components, and addresses the issue of emotion terminology. A final section considers boundary conditions of the definition of emotion employed in the present article and its implications for identifying emotion-specific ANS activation. 1.1. Current positions on autonomic responding in emotion Contemporary researchers in the field of emotion hold contrary positions on the topic of ANS activation in emotion. At one extreme, Feldman-Barrett (2006, p. 41), for example, stated that “it is not possible to confidently claim that there are kinds of emotion with unique and invariant autonomic signatures,” but rather that configurations follow general conditions of threat and challenge and positive versus negative affect. Feldman-Barrett named three points of critique regarding the evidence for autonomic differences between emotions: first, the high heterogeneity of effects in meta-analytical studies (e.g., Cacioppo et al., 2000) is interpreted to suggest the presence of moderator variables in the relation of emotion and ANS activity; second, autonomic differences that do emerge between specific emotions are viewed to be along lines of dimensional differentiation; and third, ANS activity is said to be “mobilized in response to the metabolic demands associated with actual behavior [. . .] or expected behavior” (p. 41) and because different behaviors have been shown neither to be emotion-specific nor to be context-invariant (e.g., Lang et al., 1990), FeldmanBarrett views emotion-specific autonomic patterns as a priori improbable. An intermediate position is suggested by meta-analyses of physiological responding in emotion (Cacioppo et al., 1997, 2000) that report some degree of autonomic emotion specificity. Besides certain reliable differences between specific emotions, Cacioppo et al. also noted context-specific effects of ANS activity in emo- tion (i.e., according to different induction paradigms). Moreover, valence-specific patterning was found to be more consistent than emotion-specific patterning: negative emotions were associated with stronger autonomic responses than positive emotions (cf. Taylor, 1991). However, only one positive emotion, happiness, which subsumed joy, was used in the meta-analysis. This unequal representation of merely one positive as contrasted to a sample of five negative emotions may significantly bias the kind of distinction discerned. Due to a limited number of studies considered, a restricted range of physiological variables (only cardiovascular and electrodermal, but no respiratory measures), and the univariate nature of the meta-analytic approach, such results give only an imperfect answer to the question of autonomic patterning in emotion. Authors of review articles thus typically acknowledge that discrete emotions may still differ in autonomic patterns even if they do not differ in single variables (Larsen et al., 2008; Mauss and Robinson, 2009). Diametrically opposed to Feldman-Barrett’s (2006) position, Stemmler (2009) argued why the ANS should not convey specific activation patterns for emotions, if those have specific functions for human adaptation. Stemmler (2004, 2009) reasoned that emotions have distinct goals and therefore require differentiated autonomic activity for body protection and behavior preparation. Autonomic activity for behavior preparation is physiological activation that occurs before any behavior has been initiated that itself engages the ANS according to behavioral demands. Such autonomic activity has even been reported in experimentally paralyzed animals (Bandler et al., 2000), underlining that it is not merely overt behavior that causes this activity. This also resonates with Brener’s (1987) notion of “preparation for energy mobilization,” which contrasts to Obrist’s (1981) view of ANS activity as a component of the motoric response. Stemmler (2004) reported on a meta-analysis on autonomic responding in fear and anger—two emotions that are believed to share similar valence and arousal characteristics—in which he found considerable specificity between the two. Taking a functional approach to autonomic responding in emotion, Stemmler (2003, 2004) stressed the importance of studying autonomic regulation patterns in emotion rather than single response measures. According to the view that the central nervous system (CNS) is organized to produce integrated responses rather than single, isolated changes (Hilton, 1975), any variable which can be described or measured independently is constituent of several such patterns. Only when considering comprehensive arrays of physiological measures can such regulation patterns be discerned. Stemmler (2009) stressed that this should include variables that indicate both specific and unspecific effects of emotion. Unspecific emotion effects distinguish between control and emotion conditions, but not between emotions, whereas specific emotion effects distinguish between emotions. The pool, from which indicators of independent autonomic activation components can be drawn, is considered in the subsequent section. such that individual systemic circuits or other effector units are independently activated (Folkow. p. Here. that process inputs from the external environment. Measures of respiratory activity may thus yield additional information on ANS functioning in emotion to that indicated by cardiovascular and electrodermal measures. The originally assumed functional unity of the sympathoadreno-medullary system is now known to consist of two separately controlled system parts—a direct-nervous and an adrenomedullary hormonal one—that under most situations have different functional roles (Folkow.. Folkow. the latter independently modifies important metabolic functions. reversed the causality of emotion and bodily responding. 1927). contemporary physiologists see considerable room for such organization (Bandler et al. suprasegmental integration higher in the brain stem is required for regulation of functions such as respiration.g. p. protective agents. in turn. Pools of sympathetic neurons can be selectively engaged. and a means of removing waste by-products (e. on which an organizing principle of autonomic responding in emotion may operate. these are models that see the organizing principle of autonomic responding in emotion in the structure and functioning of the ANS or in the functioning of transmitter substances..3. 1970. the question remains how autonomic response organization in emotion might be achieved. Conceptual levels of autonomic response organization in emotion William James is often credited for originating the idea of peripheral physiological response specificity in emotion (e. 250). 2000. and yet [. for example. these models place particular emphasis on the functioning of psychological appraisal modules and associative networks as a general organizing principle of autonomic responding in emotion. reflecting the infinitely nuanced nature of emotional life.g. 2000). emphasis in original). governed by certain cortical areas. Feldman and Ellenberger. In this context. 2007). There moreover exist important interactions of the respiratory system with the cardiovascular system. close interactions between the central and autonomic nervous systems exist in various ways. see also Levenson. More complex integrating systems in the hypothalamus influence the brain stem autonomic subsystems. 2003. It is of note that from a component-view of emotion (Scherer. Table 1 shows how the various theories map onto different conceptual levels that span from the physiological over the behavioral to the psychological level.e. which are modulated by respiratory effects. as well as various propositions for general organizing principles of autonomic responding in emotion.g. 1988). Thus. 1. comprehensive assessment of cardiovascular. p. 1890. Rather. p.. 1992b. A second class of models is based on brain–behavior interactions and views the organizing principle of autonomic responding in emotion in the functioning of brain–behavioral systems and refined behavioral modes.2. anterior cingulate. 1939). this issue. James’ claims associated with his peripheral perception theory of emotion were met with differentiated reactions—they instigated critique (most prominently the five-point rebuttal by Cannon. with very little or no cross-talk between them (Jänig and McLachlan. these co-exist in a rather disjunct fashion. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 1. As detailed in Kreibig (in press). see also Damasio. . central autonomic network. rapid. swallowing. 1998. Finally. where massive and generalized sympatho-adrenal system activation can occur. CAN. Taylor et al. as . without clear empirical rejection of one or the other. Thayer and Lane. see also Friedman. like the somatic nervous system. Jänig and Häbler.g.. 448) that may explain physiological response specificity in emotion. 2000. blood pressure. Even more so. Whereas segmental autonomic reflexes are coordinated by the spinal cord. Benarroch. which draw on a basic physiological systems level. 1916). Central coordination of autonomic activity represents a cornerstone of current views of integrated nervous system functioning (cf. and pupillary movement. 2000). involuntary. electrodermal. Although a number of different models have been proposed since then. i. and autonomous control). attested by the phenomenon of respiratory sinus arrhythmia (Grossman and Taylor. 2000. A first class of models is identified. automatic. The inclusion of respiratory measures under autonomic measures also deserves some comment here.. 1988. the cardiorespiratory control system can be viewed as one functional unit as it pursues the common aim of providing the tissues with oxygen. In some emergency situations. A third class of models centers on psychological processes of meaning assessment and memory retrieval. and respiratory measures can provide complementary information on ANS functioning in emotion. A detailed discussion of the various models on each level can be found in Kreibig (in press). nutrients.. Acknowledging a high degree of idiosyncrasy in emotion. particularly the insular. to say the very least. Angell. Thus. the perceived pattern of somatovisceral activation. This high degree of specificity in ANS organization is needed for precise neural regulation of homeostatic and protective body functioning during different adaptive challenges in a continuously changing environment. 1927). the various models of autonomic responding in emotion can be organized by recognizing that these models address different conceptual levels. support (e. 2005). Jänig. emotions may provide quick and reliable responses to recurrent life challenges. 520. and often highly differentiated adjustments. But still. Still. James recognized limits to bodily variations in emotion: “the symptoms of the angers and of the fears of different men still preserve enough functional resemblance. Ellsworth.. 520). 1994. the two parts may also mutually support each other. . models on different levels have complementary value. 1999). 2000.a. Jänig and Häbler. and ventromedial prefrontal cortices as well as the central nucleus of the amygdala. each organ and tissue is innervated by distinct sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways. the ANS is integrated at all levels of nervous activity. respiratory measures are important in the interpretation of effects of ANS functioning indicated by cardiovascular measures. Poon and Siniaia. 2009). Research over the past 50 years has invalidated the view that the sympathetic devision of the ANS functions in an ‘all-or-none’ fashion without distinction between different effector organs (Cannon. Respiratory activity evidences effects of autonomic control as well as significant independent contribution of peripheral and central chemoreceptors sensitive to CO2 (Wilhelm et al. Physical components of autonomic responding in emotion Although physiologists at the beginning of the last century characterized the ANS as too slow and undifferentiated to quickly produce highly organized response patterns in emotion (Cannon. James’s (1884) proposal that the feeling component of emotion derives from bodily sensations. In contrast. Whereas the former executes precise. 2000). James believed that the physiological responses were “almost infinitely numerous and subtle” (1884. James stated “that the symptoms of the same emotion vary from one man to another. Fehr and Stern.. in the midst of their diversity to lead us to call them by identical names” (1894. Unlike the original conceptualization of the ANS as functioning independently of the rest of the nervous system (e. as.D. Many of the activities of the hypothalamus are. 1993. Thus. 2000).] the emotion has them for its cause” (1894. for a historical overview).396 S. 1999. James thus strongly argued for “a deductive or generative principle” (James. models on the same conceptual level rival each other. fundamental adjustments of the organism to its environment can only be attained by the concerted coordination and integration of somatic and autonomic activities from the highest level of neurological activity in the cortex down to the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system. 1987. control groups of these studies were. A tag cloud is a visualization of word frequency in a given database as a weighted list. Emotion was thus conceptualized as a multicomponent response to an emotionally potent antecedent event. (1986). 1a). For the present purpose. healthy individuals or unregulated responding. 2003). 180-. PsycARTICLES. It will be seen in the discussion section how these models fit with the empirical findings that are presented next. 2002) Bradley and Lang (2000). Publications were included in the final selection if data from an original experiment were reported. and PubMed was conducted with the following search terms: [emotion] and [autonomic nervous system or cardiovascular or cardiac or heart or respiration or respiratory or electrodermal or skin conductance] References of such identified publications were additionally screened for further research reports falling under the specified criteria. using different kinds of emotion induction paradigms (Fig. Vingerhoets (1985).or 10-s intervals and 120-. Gendolla and Wright (2005). included (i. and quantified physiological variables according to different averaging durations (Fig. Izard. (1997) Porges (1995). 1994. Corr (2008). Ellsworth and Scherer (2003). Terms such as mood or affect were considered synonymous with emotion. Lang and Bradley (this issue). if only reporting valence and/or arousal contrasts or only coding according to positive/negative affectivity).net/). in press). in which emotions were manipulated and ANS measures were assessed during emotional responding. 2001. Publications were moreover excluded if not measuring physiological activity during the period of emotional responding. and physiological activation. (2000). respectively). The absolute frequency of tag occurrence is visualized with font size. 2. Vingerhoets et al. Davidson (1998).S. Articles were also excluded if. Cloninger (1987). Experiments involving patient groups and/or emotion regulation were excluded. applying only basic validity and reliability criteria to study selection. 2001. Mausfeld. Gray and McNaughton (2000) Folkow (2000). To cover both the psychological and medical literature. 1987).1 (Appendix). 2003). Fig.. Hess (1957) Berntson et al. Lang et al. (1991) Ax (1953). a composite score was formed and only this measure was reported. 2004). Tag clouds were created with the Wordle. regression or pattern classification were not considered). 2007) Beauchaine (2001).net web application (http://www. 1927) Kling (1933). Bernard and Bandler (1998). discrete emotion theory (Ekman.e. Porges (2001. focusing on effects of experimentally manipulated emotions on ANS responding in healthy individuals. Fanselow (1994). Because the present review aimed at surveying the extent to which autonomic effects of emotion are reported in research studies. Smith and Kirby. causing changes in subjective feeling quality. (1954) Stemmler (2003. as well as appraisal models of emotion (Scherer. a qualitative review of research findings was carried out. Funkenstein et al. Russell.g. Bandler et al.1 were used as tags (drawn from individual columns). (2003). 2009) Blascovich and Katkin (1993). tag clouds were created. Response measures are most often averaged over 60. disgust.or 30-s intervals. 1 presents an illustration of the relative number of studies that investigated different emotions (Fig. expressive behavior. Stemmler (2009) Bandler and Shipley (1994). Lang. picture viewing. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Table 1 Conceptual levels of autonomic response organization in emotion (Kreibig. and happiness. or 300-s intervals. Emotion.. fear. Lang et al. 1999. (2000) Gellhorn (1964. real-life manipulations.wordle. covering definitions of dimensional models of emotion (Bradley and Lang. Empirical findings of ANS activity in emotion To what extent are postulated differences between emotion reflected in empirical data on ANS functioning? To address this question. Keay and Bandler (2001. or not reporting analyses pertinent to the present review (e. Gray (1982. It is noted that studies were coded for averaging period because it was hypothesized that this factor might influ- . was broadly defined. Wright and Kirby (2001) Lang (1979. 1c). Scherer (1984. Gendolla (2004). 1965. (1997) they address different levels of response organization (cf. followed by personalized recall. Psychological level Functioning of appraisal modules Componential process model Specific cardiovascular appraisal hypotheses Functioning of Associative Networks Bio-informational theory of emotional imagery Brain–behavioral level Functioning of brain–behavioral systems Behavioral coping Dual-system models Polyvagal theory Reinforcement sensitivity theory Functioning of behavioral modes Basic modes of defensive coping Modes of defensive coping and environmental demands Predator imminence model Peripheral physiological level Functioning of autonomic systems Undifferentiated sympathetic activation Parasympathetic activation Sympathetic versus parasympathetic response dominance Autonomic space Functioning of transmitter substances Catecholamine hypothesis Receptor-types hypothesis Cannon (1915. Publications were also excluded if no specific emotion label was provided or if no specific emotion contrasts were tested (e. A detailed account of the studies included in the present review can be found in Table A.. 2004. 1970). Porges et al. Craske (1999). for this purpose.or event-related change of subjective feeling (see the concluding section for boundary conditions for such a conceptualization of emotion). (1996).D. and standardized imagery. It can be seen from these illustrations. This literature search resulted in the identification of 134 publications. that the emotions most often investigated are anger. Sartory (1993) Obrist (1981). Miltner et al. however. if the experimental manipulation targeted a stimulus. other common averaging intervals are 1/2. an exhaustive literature search using the databases PsycINFO. Blascovich et al. an inclusive approach was chosen.g. 2000. coding labels in Table A. Schneiderman and McCabe (1989) Bradley and Lang (2000). 2009) 397 Ellsworth (1994). Fowles (1980). 1993). 1998). 1992). 1b). Wright (1996. sadness. To summarize this information. instead of individual physiological variables. not reporting data from an original experiment. Experimental manipulations most often utilize film clips for emotion induction. D. 1. (c). .398 S. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Fig. Illustration of relative frequency of investigated emotions (a). Figures were simplified by omitting low-frequency words. emotion induction methods (b). and averaging duration for physiological variables. (e) fear (threat). skin conductance level is the response variable most often reported. For the positive emotions. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 399 ence the reported pattern of physiological responses. For respiratory measures. heart rate is the indicator most often reported. anger in defense of other. and finger temperature. performance anxiety. food-related disgust). Reports of physiological responses in emotions were coded according to the emotion label provided by the authors and sub- sequently grouped together based on synonymous expressions drawn from Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2009). 2.D. (d) embarrassment (social anxiety. heart rate variability. For electrodermal measures. 2d). Fig. duty cycle. 2 provides an illustration of the relative number of studies that have used different cardiovascular (Fig. six negative and eight positive emotion groups. happiness in response to slapstick comedy). agitation). Figures were simplified by omitting low-frequency words. anger in self-defense. Over all autonomic measures. respiration rate is the most often reported index together with respiratory period and respiratory depth as well as tidal volume. (b) amusement (humor. tenderness. 2c) measures as well as their overall usage (Fig. and respiratory variability. respiratory (Fig. these were: (a) anger (approach-oriented anger. social rejection). These figures show that heart rate is the cardiovascular response variable most often reported. Illustration of relative frequency of use of ANS measures as indicated by relative font size.S. or electrodermal (Fig. and two emotion groups without clear valence connotation were identified (labels subsequently listed in parentheses were considered synonymous). however. shame. For the negative emotions. followed by skin conductance response rate and skin conductance response amplitude. withdrawal-oriented anger. (c) disgust (disease-related disgust. these were: (a) affection (love. Thus. dejection. This effect was. not observed in the present data and is thus not further considered here. (f) sadness (achievement failure. mirth. 2a). depression). Fig. 2b). sympathy). indignation). (b) anxiety (dental anxiety. other popular cardiovascular measures include systolic and diastolic blood pressure. . followed by skin conductance level and other cardiovascular variables. the results of different studies were not integrated using a weighing procedure that considers sample size. with at least three studies indicating the same response direction. peacefulness. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Fig. (g) pride. (b) suspense. relaxation). Direction of change in ANS activity was coded as change from baseline or.1. and thus power of a study. and standard deviation. (Continued ). particularly faster breathing. Subsequent sections present a summary of findings of autonomic emotion responses reported in studies described in Table A. if present.1.1. calmness. these were: (a) surprise (wonder). a modal response pattern was defined as the response direction reported by the majority of studies (unweighted). The negative emotions 2. (f) anticipatory pleasure (appetite. . Table 3 gives abbreviations. full names. from a neutral comparison condition. serenity. Modal response patterns for each emotion are summarized in Table 2. For the emotions without clear valence connotation.400 S. (e) joy (elation).1). mean. thus. (d) happiness (except happiness in response to slapstick comedy). (c) contentment (pleasure. 2. sexual arousal). (h) relief (safety). 2.1 (numbers in brackets refer to the study number in Table A.D. Rather. Anger Physiological responding in anger-eliciting contexts of harassment or personalized recall describe a modal response pattern of reciprocal sympathetic activation and increased respiratory activity. It should be stressed that the current review is of qualitative nature. and near-synonymous expressions of autonomic measures used in the following. to organize and integrate the different findings reported in the various studies. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Note. see Table 3. Arrows in parentheses indicate tentative response direction. decreased (↓). insp – respiratory inspiration time. exp – respiratory expiration time. var – respiratory variability. Arrows indicate increased (↑). with at least three studies indicating the same response direction. S. For abbreviations of other physiological measures. based on fewer than three studies. depth – respiratory depth. or both increases and decreases between studies (↓↑). 401 . *Modal responses were defined as the response direction reported by the majority of studies (unweighted).D. Abbreviations: pause – respiratory pause time.Table 2 Overview of modal* ANS responses found for reviewed emotions. or no change in activation from baseline (−). 14. 36. and increased TPR. that did not assess all indices. DBP. . and synonymous expressions of autonomic measures used in studies on emotion. 104]. 37. evoked) SYDER skin potential forms Skin conductance response amplitude (spontaneous) Near-synonymous expression Cardiac output * BSA (CI) 1/Interbeat interval (IBI) Stroke index * BSA (SI) End-tidal fractional CO2 concentration (FETCO2 ) 1/Total respiratory cycle duration (Ttot ) Respiration depth (RD). 35. but no increase in HR and SV (stressful interview) [2] as well as increased HR. 89]. increased SBP and DBP. 87. 113.D. 80. Increased SBP. 131. accompanied either by increased SV and CO [51. i. 107. DBP.. SBP. 63.402 S. and unchanged TPR (personalized recall) [106] have also been reported.e. 123. 55. the anger response is characterized by ␣. decreased SV and increased CO [88. full names. decreased SV and unchanged CO [83. 128. 54]. 130. 119. 25. or decreased SV and CO (“anger out”. 29. SV.and -adrenergically mediated cardiovascular effects: increased HR. Abbreviation Cardiovascular measures CO DBP EPA EPTT FPA FPTT FT HI HR HRV CVT HF LF LF/HF MF MSD MSSD pNN50 RMSSD RSA SDNN SDSD VLF HT LVET MAP PEP PWA SBF SBP SV TPR TWA Respiratory measures FRC I/E ratio HV pCO2 Pe Pi RC/Vt RD/Ttot Ros RR SaO2 Te Ti Ti /Ttot Ve Ve /Te Vi Vi /Ti Vm Vt Vt /Ti Vt V Electrodermal measures nSRR OPD SCL SCR SYDER SRA Full name Cardiac output Diastolic blood pressure Ear pulse amplitude Ear pulse transit time Finger pulse amplitude Finger pulse transit time Finger temperature Heather index Heart rate Heart rate variability Coefficient of temporal variability High frequency spectral HRV (RSA) Low frequency spectral HRV Low frequency/high frequency ratio Mid-frequency spectral HRV Mean difference between successive RR intervals Mean square of successive RR interval differences Percentage of successive normal sinus RR intervals >50 ms Root-mean-square of successive normal sinus RR interval differences Respiratory sinus arrhythmia Standard deviation of the normal-to-normal intervals Standard deviation of successive differences Very low frequency spectral HRV Forehead temperature Left ventricular ejection time Mean arterial pressure Preejection period P-wave amplitude Skin blood flow Systolic blood pressure Stroke volume Total peripheral resistance T-wave amplitude Functional residual capacity Inspiratory/expiratory ratio Hyperventilation End-tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure Post-expiratory pause time Post-inspiratory pause time Percentage of rib cage contribution to Vt Amount of respiratory work (depth divided by breath cycle duration) Oscillatory resistance Respiration rate Transcutaneous oxygen saturation Expiratory time Inspiratory time Inspiratory duty cycle Expiratory volume Expiratory flow rate or expiratory drive Inspiratory volume Inspiratory flow rate or inspiratory drive Minute ventilation Tidal volume Mean inspiratory flow rate Tidal volume variability Nonspecific skin conductance response rate Ohmic Perturbation Duration index Skin conductance level Skin conductance response (amplitude. produce partial replications [7. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Table 3 Abbreviations. CO. and TPR. real-life 111]. anger directed outward away from the self) [40. imagery-task 105. 96. typically uncalibrated ribcage measurements in arbitrary units In particular. 90. Other studies. CO. Specifically. tornado. an effect which is cholinergically mediated. decreased end-tidal pCO2 [30. 121]. HR acceleration has also been reported in the context of personalized recall [73. RMSSD [87. and decreased TPR [2. increased Pi [15]. 104] and FT [7.g.g. HR deceleration. 111]. 2008). 111]. where unchanged HR [13] or decreased HR and increased SCR [17] has been reported. This response pattern is further characterized as an ␣. 109. decreased HRV (spectral RSA [82]. SV. LVET. 2. increased electrodermal activity. RMSSD. 59. 118]).g. and increased variability of respiratory amplitude [90] have been found. 13. DBP. Moreover. 99]. while withdrawal-oriented anger showed decreased HR [110]. contamination-related disgust is associated with HR acceleration [3. 74. 129]. 118]. A striking exception to this otherwise classic pattern of reciprocal sympathetic activation and parasympathetic deactivation for anxiety constitutes a study of picture viewing (e. 118] as well as decreased FPTT and EPTT [118]. which are differentiated by motivational direction that appears to influence the heart rate and ␣-adrenergic response. or unchanged FT [89] point to vasoconstrictive effects in the periphery and local increases of circulation in the face. SCL decreases instead of an increase. 107. injections. 21. 121]. spectral RSA [77]. findings indicate increased respiratory activity. 14. a response pattern labeled “anger in” (i. 106.g. 1981). 127].. unchanged [75]. 90. increased [34]. pictures of a snake. (b) disgust elicited in relation to mutilation. increased HT [109.2. Similarly. and TPR) or in anxiety research (e. 75] (although decreased FT has also been reported for anger in DFA [73]). 111] and LVET [81. an effect that reflects -adrenergically mediated vasodilation in contrast to ␣-adrenergically mediated vasoconstriction (Cohen and Coffman. Sherwood. increased SCL [7. this response pattern may be taken as suggestive of a fear response rather than an anger response (see discussion of fear responses associated with decreased HR. 40]. 1989). 1981. 1981. 93. 111. Similarly. this study suggests a pattern of reciprocal parasympathetic activation and decreased respiratory activity for anxiety. maggots on food. 74.and -adrenergically affected measures of sympathetic functioning.S. 82. which show increased CO. Rowell. and increased FRC. 13. and MAP and shortened PEP in a film study of anger [81].. 110. CO. 111. Finally. shortened Ti and Te . which typically show decreased HRV. 93]. This finding may point to the fact that motivational direction influences the heart rate response in anger. 115]). and increased oxygen consumption [30]. as well as decreased Vt [12. 111].. decreased Vm . 83. 37.. and a trend of increased Ttot associated with increased Te and decreased Ti .g. increased Ros [93]. additionally implicating sympathetic effects at the eccrine sweat glands. increased Ros [93]. increased SBP [2. knife. shortened Te and decreased I/E-ratio [80]. Increased HR. physiological response associated with vomiting. film viewing for anger elicitation differs in resulting in decreased HR in the presence of decreased HRV (MSD [21]). respiratory measures of sighing or carbon-dioxide blood levels). Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 403 134]. 81. reports on anxiety indicate increased HR [2.D.1. accompanied by increased PEP and LVET. higher sigh frequency during relief than tension has also been found [127]). particularly decreased inspiration (cf. SDNN [113]). facial expressions of expelling food). 17. 110]). 121].g. 123]. Apparent overlaps with the abovereviewed anger response on certain response variables will have to be addressed in future research that will need to fill gaps of measures that are either predominantly assessed in anger research (e. decreased HT [7. 34. 30.and -adrenergically mediated response by measures indicating shortened PEP [54. anxiety has been almost unanimously characterized by sympathetic activation and vagal deactivation. Cardiac parasympathetic inhibition is indicated by decreased HRV (MSD [21]. 20. together with faster and shallower breathing. and shortened FPTT [75. pictures of dirty toilets. Similarly. physiological responding to picture viewing of facial emotional expressions of anger diverges such that HR decelerates instead of an acceleration. FT [32. below). injury. and HRV (spectral RSA) increases instead of a decrease or no change [28. 80. 75. Specifically. 75. decreased CO distinguishes disgust in general from the other negative emotions. increased HI [81. These findings suggest that various subforms of anger may exist. 89] or films [63] where disgust-type . cockroaches. 73. and increased HT [91]. SBP. particularly faster breathing. and faster breathing. threat of shock [12. Because emotional responses to anger expressions that signal threat have been related to fear. Stemmler and colleagues (2007) demonstrated that approach-oriented anger was characterized by unchanged HR. 2.e. accompanied by increased HRV (peak-valley RSA). Anxiety Using predominantly experimental paradigms that incorporate an anticipatory component (e. as is typical for mobilization for action (Obrist. All these response patterns point to response fractionation across organ systems (Lacey.1. 49.3. 123] or unchanged FPA [75]. Specifically. but decreased levels of TPR have also been reported under conditions of experimenter harassment in accompaniment of a friend [71]. unchanged SV [2. decreased FPA [29. characterized by a pattern of sympathetic cardiac deactivation. unchanged SBP and DBP. foul smells. has also been found in the context of music-induced agitation [84]. anger directed toward the self) is characterized by increased HR.. decreased FPA [12. DBP. 97]. 98. 98. but decreased DBP and MAP was found in the context of emotional step walking [105]. and forearm blood flow. 65. Other exceptions that do not fully support a pattern of reciprocal sympathetic activation for anxiety include results from a threatof-shock context. 93]). SBP.. MSD. 80. instead of decreased. and increased R–Z time [110]. Schneiderman and McCabe. 35. Respiratory variables indicate increased RR due to decreased Ti and Te [12. characterized by sympathetic–parasympathetic co-activation and faster breathing. decreased FT [91. Along these lines. HI. lower TWA [110. shark. 87. 118. increased nSRR [7. SDNN [90]. a pattern of reciprocal inhibition. increased DBP [84. 111]. increased sigh frequency and Vt variability [12] (however. MAP. TPR decreased in association with increased HR. peak-valley RSA [84]) as well as increased LF and LF/HF [82]. 82. In particular. Disgust Disgust-related autonomic responding falls into two partially overlapping patterns: (a) disgust elicited in relation to contamination and pollution (e. 1967). 97. unchanged vagal activation. 31. 121]. 111. or attack [94]): this study reports HR deceleration. 84] and increased CO [2]. others have found unchanged HRV (peak-valley and spectral RSA. 106. and blood (e. Two exceptions to the modal response pattern of reciprocal sympathetic activation in anger are noteworthy: first. Thus. 111]. 77. CO. mutilation scenes. ␣. 20. speech preparation [82. such as PEP. 84. and an unspecific small increase in Ros . For respiratory variables. increased HR and SBP. and CO. 110. 128] or no change from baseline [32. 107]. unchanged [14] or increased RR [7.. 118] or unchanged DBP and TPR [2]. SV. or decreased [15] respiratory depth. Reports include moreover increased electrodermal activity (increased SCR and nSRR [12] and increased SCL [12. bloody injuries). pointing to sympathetic–parasympathetic cardiac deactivation that may rather indicate passive sensory intake (Obrist. 87. Increased HRV sets contamination-related disgust apart from most other negative emotions. SV. 1986). responding to material that features expressions of anger differs from responding to harassing material. Reports furthermore indicate increased electrodermal activity (increased SCR [29]. A second deviation from the modal response pattern in anger is evident in the absence of ␣-adrenergic vasoconstrictive effects in several studies: directed facial action (DFA) of anger is characterized by increased. LVET. although increased respiratory duration [94] or no change [108] have also been reported. a pattern of reciprocal inhibition. was induced. 114].and contaminationrelated disgust. Similarly. as well as increased MAP [21. Palomba et al. increased myocardial contractility. decreased HRV (peak-valley RSA). Whereas this response pattern largely overlaps with those of anger and anxiety reviewed above. Various of the studies investigating fear report increased HR [5. real-life .4. 65. were non-differentially accompanied by increased SBP. 106. 94]). or music. This response pattern is furthermore characterized by increased HRV (SDNN [63]. decreased FPA [44. contaminationrelated disgust has been characterized by decreased Ti and increased or no change in Te [14. vasoconstriction. A number of studies report increased HR together with indicators of increased vasoconstriction: decreased FT [32. Fear Laboratory fear inductions typically use presentation of threatening pictures. increased HRV (spectral RSA) and decreased LF/HF has also been reported [108]). disgust is consistently reported to be nondifferentially associated with increased electrodermal activity. (2000) note that HR reduction occurred between the first and the last interval of a 132-s film. and increased [104.g. 44. decreased FPA [67. and decreased FPTT [75]. particularly faster breathing based on decreased expiratory time. on the other hand. some have reported unchanged DBP [exercise 105. 46. Vt /Ti [vomiting clip 15]. standardized imagery or personalized recall. whereas it increased in anger. however. peripheral resistance typically decreased in fear. 73]. 74. was characterized by HR deceleration [9. 81. and increased electrodermal activity. 80. mutilation. decreased TPR [87. resulting in decreased carbon dioxide blood levels.g. and decreased EPTT [64] (see. a pattern that replicated in a second study [52]. 111]. 32. 126]. 49. 89] or. 62. Winton et al. This response pattern is furthermore characterized by no change in HRV (RMSSD [99]. studies consistently indicate broad sympathetic activation and vagal withdrawal. increased FT [32. 46. much remains to be done in future research. 87.. HR increase cooccurs with increased myocardial contractility: increased ejection speed [111]. 26. 108. 75. and decreased SV [89. 21. 111] or unchanged LVET [81]. 94]. indicating a slow late deceleration [85]. unchanged or even decreased skin conductance has been reported in response to contamination pictures [22] and no change in nSRR has been reported in response to film clips depicting contamination-related material [66]. imagery 105. 110. picture viewing. 24. In summary. 23. decreased Vt . 109] (see. 108]. 75].. and MAP [21. 69. 46. and increased SCL [56]. 62. 96. but returned to baseline levels during the second minute. Vm [14. shortened PEP [64. and personalized recall). 89] or no change in blood pressure [99]. that may contribute to decreased Ti /Ttot and Vt /Ti [15]. 85]. Vm . 89. 104. 75. 79.versus contamination-related disgust has also been reported [16.e. 74. 111]. accompanied by decreased PEP. 111] (however. watching a video of oneself singing. 111]. 87. Studies inducing embarrassment in particular report increased HR [4. 81. Vt . and real-life manipulations (e. Increased TWA [85] and no change in SV and TPR [99] have also been found for mutilation-related disgust. Mutilation-related disgust. As the empirical basis for the physiological response pattern of embarrassment is scant. Still. 104. increased nSRR [60. 115. 75]. CO [99]. 22]). small SCR. not clear whether in fact fear. 74. vomiting clip 15. Overall. indicating a general arousal response. 89. see [81] for a report of decreased HI). 18. or decreased CO [81] have been reported. decreased respiratory volume (e. 111]. 69]. or rather surprise. i. increased SBP and DBP [52]. 106.g. and increased Ros [94]. decreased PEP. 44. 110. 108. 110. Due to the nature of the manipulation. Notably. Other than decreased Vt [69] for mutilation-related disgust. whereas picture viewing of disgust-expressing faces has been reported to elicit relatively short OPD. used a sudden backward-tilting chair [11]. LVET. Moreover. peak-valley RSA [94]). 2. followed by an early onset of a second deceleration [133]. Harris (2001) reports that HR rose significantly during the first minute of watching an embarrassing film of oneself singing. 56]. 2. 130]. imminent threat of electric short circuit). 69. 64. 114]. increased FPTT [46. Across paradigms (e. Electrodermal activity is furthermore characterized by long-duration SCR [3] in response to disgust-eliciting odorants. and decreased facial blood flow and velocity [108]. decreased [106. 106. 133]. 60. (1984) describe a triphasic response pattern of HR change that was characterized by an early deceleration. 8] or increased electrodermal activity in single measures (increased SCR [24]. 85. as indicated by increased SCR [18. RMSSD [99]. more often. a brief and dampened acceleration. In distinction to the physiological response to anger. 64. Furthermore. Embarrassment Inducing embarrassment by experimenter humiliation. DFA. 70. as well as larger variability in Te . 119] and decreased MAP [exercise 105]. Reports on vascular resistance indicate either increased TPR [81. unchanged [89]. This response is accompanied by decreased cardiac vagal influence and increased respiratory activity. 69. 34. Responses in these variables do not seem to fall into a coherent pattern. 99]. and increased HI [110. 67. These are associated with consequent changes in cardiac pump function: increased [7. suggesting sympathetic–parasympathetic coactivation. 69. 99. 106.D. this study is not considered here. 75. 46. 72. 52. the relatively small number of studies as well as the limited number of response variables assessed highlights the importance for future research to test specific physiological differences between negative emotions. the distinction between contamination versus injury disgust appears to be important in determining the specific type of disgust response and will need to be more systematically investigated in future research.1. film clips. 15. 111]. 107.1. 44. 46. no effect on CO. 54. positive skin potentials of rapid increase and slow decrease [24] or a delayed SCR of medium response size and slow rise time [132]. 24.5. generally no change in respiratory timing [9. 106. suggesting decreased cardiac and increased electrodermal sympathetic control together with unchanged vagal influence (increased SCR for mutilation. 104] or decreased SV [64. DBP. 133] or a depressed phasic HR response [70].. film clips. and increased TPR [54]. More complete patterned responses are derived from studies that assessed combinations of cardiovascular and/or cardiorespiratory parameters. however. however [67] for a report of increased FPTT and EPTT). 111]. increased nSRR [65]. because confounds caused by the change in body posture complicate interpretation of results. One of the earliest attempts to induce fear in the laboratory. Porges’ RSA [9]. As a notable exception. although increased HR and unchanged SCL [124] and unchanged nSRR [66] have also been reported). Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 remained unspecified.. torture clip 15] or volume parameters [46] is reported (see also [34]). 73. studies on fear point to broad sympathetic activation. or imagery. decreased FT [24. decreased FPTT [75. one study [22] reported non-differential HR deceleration for both contamination and mutilation pictures that was largest compared to all other affective categories. in response to picture viewing. Increased HR and increased blood pressure have also been variously reported: increased SBP and DBP [7.404 S. SCL [48. or no effect on CO and FT [89]. Increased sympathetic cardiac control is furthermore indicated by increased PWA and decreased TWA [85. 23. however [74] for a report of increased FT). it is. 75. 111]. including cardiac acceleration. 85. 107. increased TPR. increased SCL [132]) or in coassessment (nSRR [35. and increased SCL [21. 110. 89. There is a general effect of increased RR in disgust [15. peak-valley RSA [85]. 109. 99. 110. no change in EPTT [46]. Both response patterns. such as facial blushing in embarrassment. 81. while others report increased RR [86. DBP. Only a few studies report HR deceleration in the context of laboratory fear elicitation: decreased HR along with signs of increased vasoconstriction (decreased FPA and EPTT. and increased [83] or decreased PEP and LVET [106].S.g. 21. decreased HRV (spectral RSA [103]).6. (1996). 75]. which partially overlaps with the physiological response of crying sadness. or predominantly decreased Te and unchanged Ti . announcement of uncontrollable event. shortened FPTT and increased FPA [75]. These studies associate uncoupled sympathetic activation with crying sadness. which partially overlaps with the physiological response to non-crying sadness. 1999. Furthermore. 90. 86. the activating/crying sadness response largely overlaps with that of. . Some studies using films for sadness induction report increased HR [63. 122]. in phobias. although no effect on nSRR has also been reported [66]). Only small increases in HR and SBP and unchanged DBP have also been reported [105]. RMSSD [49]). predominantly reported in studies using DFA. see [114] for increased SCL and unchanged nSRR. or increased RR. smaller increases in RR. and standardized imagery. In contrast. and either both decreased Ti and Te [14. 122].. associated with decreased EPA. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 405 111]. spectral RSA [90. 116]. anxiety—a point that will be returned to below. 107. although some report unchanged HRV (peak-valley RSA [67. 126].g. Further studies report HR increases together with increased respiratory activity. as well as music excerpts. increased EPTT and FPTT. increased nSRR [87. reported in the majority of studies using film material. unchanged [51. and increased RR and respiratory depth [75] or decreased RR. 89. personalized recall. angry face. 112. and increased Ros [93]. RMSSD [42. increased [103] or decreased respiratory depth [45]. In some studies. attack [10. increased [51] or unchanged CO [83. and increased Pi [14].1.” characterized by immobilization rather than an active coping response that leads to sympathetic inhibition (see also the above discussion of outliers for anger and anxiety). A distinct charac- teristic of deactivating/non-crying sadness to all other negative emotions is the decrease in electrodermal activity. Vagal withdrawal is evidenced in decreased HRV (MSD [21]. FPTT. 89] or decreased SV [83. Volumetric measures moreover indicate increased respiratory volume [34. DFA has been found to consistently prompt increased HR [14. 106]. 126. 67. 43. as also indicated by increased Ti /Ttot and I/E-ratio [33. For HRV. the deactivating sadness response. as indicated by decreased RR and increased pCO2 [64]. associated with decreased electrodermal activity (decreased SCL and smaller nSRR [45. unchanged [74]. which constitute a good model to study the type of fear with high immediate threat characteristics (e. 122]. 111]. SDNN [90]. is characterized by sympathetic withdrawal. unchanged [64] or decreased DBP and MAP [21]. 113. decreased FPA. increased respiratory activity (increased RR and RD [45.. Fanselow. 126]). Similarly. 83. 86. decreased HR and increased SCR was reported in response to picture presentation of snakes and spiders [27] or other threatening material (e. Respiration was characterized by increased respiration period and increased variability in respiration period [90]. showing the funeral and burial of the US President—material that might have elicited nostalgia or mixed emotions of both sadness and anger. 67. however. Te . leading to higher imminence of threat (Bradley and Lang. increased SCL [21. 85. 64]. 130]). 1994. 115] or unchanged [77] SCL as well as increased SBP. 32. 116] (although see [39] for report of unchanged HR). Averill (1969) also reported decreased HR and SCL. 75] or decreased respiratory volume [14. 76]. It is possible that these latter fear paradigms elicited a stronger degree of self-involvement. 120. Craske. decreased HR. 34. 119]. a correlation of increased HRV with increased sadness intensity is. The activating sadness response. however. FT [68] or unchanged HR and FPTT [100]. Ti . aimed gun. Wilhelm and Roth. increased nSRR and unchanged SCL [101]. associated with decreased FPA. exhibited decreased HR. decreased SCL. for example. sad participants who did not cry while watching the film clip.. no change (spectral RSA [98]. The activating response contrasts with a deactivating sadness response. 120. 64. 47. 106]. On the other hand. or increases (peak-valley RSA [90]) were found. 43. increased HRV (MSD [21]. Lang et al. 116]. and increased RR [68. which partially overlaps with the physiological response of crying sadness. together with increased SBP. longer PEP [64. Some studies report decreased respiratory activity [47]. 1998). increased SCL [74]. Specifically. FPA. such findings will need to be contrasted with such intense fear responses as found. 78. decreased HR and unchanged HRV (SDNN) has been reported in children watching a film clip that portrayed Snow White running through a dark haunted forest [113]. and TPR [51. 34. In contrast. and Vt . 87. which report a pattern of decreased cardiac activation and decreased electrodermal activity: decreased HR [6. 22]). decreased SCL has been similarly found for fear induced by music excerpts [67]. 78]. 106]. This response pattern is found in the large majority of studies using film clips for sadness induction. and increased Pi and FRC [14] is reported. Only a few studies considered mediating variables. and non-differentially increased RD [45]. associated with increased SCL. unchanged FT. 114. FPA. With respect to the activating response in sadness. increased electrodermal activity (nSRR [65. 18. for example. 101]). such as increased variability of respiratory amplitude [90] or increased variability in pCO2 and Vi /Ti [121]. and sudden outage of light [109]). however. The already above-mentioned increase in electrodermal activity was also found in numerous of these multi-measure studies (increased SCR [7. 47. unchanged HRV (spectral RSA) and Vt [103]. 75. spectral RSA [77]). 100]. for participants who cried in response to a sadnessinducing film clip. also reported). decreases (MSD. Gas exchange analysis indicates decreased pCO2 [64.D. 89. 93. and FT [39. 1997). 64. 49. spectral RSA [78]) or unchanged HRV (SDNN [113]. MSSD [111]. 110]. and unchanged RR and respiratory irregularity. 102. However. sadness elicited by personalized recall is characterized by increased HR associated with increased [32. unchanged SBP. decreased electrodermal activity (SCR [18]. 64]. and some studies using film material. 111. decreased HRV (spectral RSA) and unchanged LF [126] or increased HRV (SDNN [63]). unchanged FPTT) has been found in response to a film clip eliciting fear of falling [39]. Parsing reports of physiological response patterns of sadness that were not analyzed according to cry-status suggests two broad classes of physiological activity in sadness—an activating response and a deactivating response. 103]). 64. 74. 100]. 80. 98. characterize the emotion they investigated as high-arousal sadness and report increased HR [4]. and decreased FPA and FT [45]. 68. studies unanimously report increased HR. and increased HT has been found in a real-life induction context (radio play. 111. is characterized by increased cardiovascular sympathetic control and changed respiratory activity. 111. increased nSRR. spectral RSA [64]) and unchanged LF [126]. as elicited by a film clip on the aftermath of the assassination of John F. 2000. FT has been reported to remain unchanged [89] or to decrease [98]. peak-valley RSA [90]. 117. SCL [68. Kennedy [6]. 122]. which partially overlaps with the physiological response of non-crying sadness. DBP. Sadness Inspecting the activation components reported for sadness reveals a heterogeneous pattern of sympathetic–parasympathetic coactivation. 103]. such as cry-status [45. DBP [76]. 120. whereas sympathetic–parasympathetic withdrawal appears to be characteristic of non-crying sadness. 31. increased [73]. 73. SCL [21. 85. Allen et al. FT. and [64] for increased nSRR). 42. such that participants were further along the “fear continuum. 85]. 2. increased variability of respiratory parameters has been noted. examining social rejection and achievement failure. and increased Vm [64]. including measures of breathing rhythm: increased RR [7. 80. or decreased FT [32]. Vm . unchanged CO. tenderness. Vt . 57]. Amusement Laboratory elicitation of amusement has almost exclusively employed film clips. 105. vasodilation. 122] or increased Vt [120]. increased TPR [53]. response variables point to increased cardiac vagal control. an unspecific increase in SCL [115]. and cholinergically mediated sympathetic activation and mild cardiac vagal activation. while at . 75]. 57. Happiness Happiness has been induced with various emotion elicitation paradigms. Te [94. Increased HR and decreased nSRR has also been reported [35]. It may be that such distinctions as anticipatory sadness (i. Ti . soldiers in action. The positive emotions 2. unchanged Ros and SCR (depressing picture content. Overall. TPR. 2. decreased Ti . 122]. with the activating pattern occurring predominantly in response to film clips that depict scenes related to impending loss. whereas both share cardiac vagal activation. To allow a clearer picture of the type of autonomic activation associated with sadness. 55. increased respiratory irregularity [6]. 65]. Te . and increased RR [85]. increased electrodermal activity.D. spectral RSA [26]). increased HRV (SDNN [63]. 90. decreased Vt [94. however. DBP.2. 2. 122] or only small HR increases [124]. MAP [21. increased variation in Te . and increased Pi and variability of Te .e. 128]) or personalized recall [25. Te . 115]. 93. increased LVET and unchanged FPA.4. no conclusive statement on the type of response pattern can be made. Music-induced sadness is similarly reported to be characterized by decreased HR associated with decreased RR and increased Te [33]. 58.1. or moderately increased RR. worry or anticipation of loss) as contrasted to acute sadness in the experience of loss or grieving in the aftermath of a loss play a role in addition to cry-status in differentiating physiological responses in sadness (Barr-Zisowitz. Picture viewing for sadness induction has been reported to lead to increased HR and Ros . Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Such cardiovascular deactivation has also been found in an exercise paradigm for emotion induction [exercise 105]. inconsistencies of the response pattern noted by various studies will have to be addressed in future research. and Vt /Ti [15]. Increased electrodermal activity is shown in increased SCR [18]. as evidenced in increased RR [6. Moderate increases in HR. MAP [50]) or increases (SBP.2. Compared to the physiological response to amusement. as well as decreased [120] or unchanged Vt [122]. unchanged HRV (peak-valley RSA) and ventilation (depressing picture content. soft music [83. 105]. unchanged SCL [41. 84. decreased cardiovascular. increased RD [47].2. 58. some have reported unchanged SRA [50] and nSRR [66] or even decreased electrodermal activity (SCL and nSRR [6. Blood pressure remains unchanged (SBP [6. and Vt /Ti [15]. Although all film clips depicted comedic material.. in an emotion self-generation task. Decreased RR has been reported together with increased HRV (peak-valley RSA [94]). 55. and Pe [84]. 117]. 57. together with sympathetic cardiac -adrenergic deactivation in amusement. Sadness elicited in the context of standardized imagery is similarly reported to be characterized by decreased HR [41. Using music excerpts for emotion induction [84]. EPTT. Another study [30] also reports of decreased ventilation. 112]. the physiological response to contentment appears to have a stronger sympathetically deactivating component. and MAP compared to a neutral comparison condition. or acceleration [6. have been reported to be associated with decreased HR (similar to sadness [31]). unchanged HRV (peak-valley RSA). 31] or personalized recall [115]. 62. As this overview shows. 2000. Ti /Ttot . Taken together. and decreased SV has been reported for relaxation imagery [83]. SBP. 105]. Similarly. or a man talking to his dying sister (cf. 73. 63. 2. unchanged LF/HF [26]. respiratory. DBP. HRV (peak-valley RSA). 94]. and Pi has been found. 2004). 105. personalized recall [77. or a duck in oil [94]). HR is the most variable response component. a young boy crying over his father’s death. it will be important for future research to consider cry-status in analyzing physiological responses. increased Ros [93]. Studies on the physiological response of contentment indicate HR deceleration [21. increased Ti and Te .2. and decreased HRV (peak-valley RSA). and decreased FPA and unchanged FT [6] have also been reported. DBP. decreased oxygen consumption. 67. 116]. the physiological response pattern of contentment is similar to a relaxation response. More consistently. 94. and Vm [94]. 74.. 124]. scenes of catastrophe. 37. Vm . 53]. plane crash.406 S. 120. or dead animals [92]).g.and -adrenergically mediated influences. only two studies used alternative paradigms (picture viewing [62] or personalized recall [37]. no change [47. helplessness. and increased pCO2 [120. 2. with reports of deceleration [18. vascular ␣-adrenergic. 126]. increased Ti . several response components emerge. Respiratory activity is increased. and electrodermal activation is suggestive of decreased ␣-. Kreibig. 116. and decreased variation in Vt . 53. increased Ttot . 120] or unchanged Ti and Te [122].2. Unchanged I/E ratio and moderately increased respiratory work. 85. and increased pCO2 in the context of hypnosis. Affection Love. 112]). 93. 122] or unchanged HR [25. a husband waiting for the result of his wife’s operation. the deactivating pattern occurs predominantly in response to film clips that depict scenes related to a loss that has occurred. wood fire. 1975). increased nSRR [6. and FT [47. standardized imagery (e. MAP [21]). SCR. and increased pCO2 [120. depth. and increased Ti /Ttot . or sympathy evoked by film clips [15. Moreover. 26. music [33. still. Because of the few studies that have investigated physiological responding in affection-related emotions. 84]. This response pattern points to a differentiated sympathetic activation state of decreased ␣. DBP [6]. 57. and rate has also been reported [34]. or pictures [59]. 122. and increased PEP and decreased CO [53] are reported. together with increased RR. book reading. Contrasting contents related to the activating and deactivating sadness responses suggests a differentiation according to imminence of loss. increased TWA. 89. 50. Ti . unchanged HR and decreased SCL for sadness has been reported [55]. Further studies are. see also [38]). and positive SP (pictures of sad facial expressions [24]). decreased RR and RD [67]. such as individuals coping with cancer or Alzheimer’s. standardized imagery [41]. -adrenergically. and increased respiratory activity. MSD [21]. war victim. 85. 50]. such as a mother at her daughter’s funeral. 62. Increased vasoconstriction is indicated by decreased FPA. smallest SCR.2.3. in which sadness was the only emotion that evidenced decreases in HR. 122] as well as unchanged Ros . SBP. decreased HR. and decreased SCL [21. such as cemetery. DBP. 85] or unchanged SCL [79]. Seligman. PEP. Contentment Studies on psychophysiological effects of contentment or pleasure have particularly relied on film clips displaying nature scenes [21. On the other hand. and increased SCL [37. 47. or decreased HRV (MSD [21]). 79]. and electrodermal activity. decreased SBP. needed to clarify the exact nature of autonomic and respiratory activity in contentment. resulting in decreased RR. care should be taken to distinguish between anticipatory and acute sadness. 47. decreased FT. film clips [100. Still. Vt . Ti . unchanged [61] or increased RR. FPTT. including DFA [14. such as hospital patients. or the death of Bambi’s mother. 116]. associated with decreased Te . respiratory. 21. 113. Vt . The autonomic response pattern of happiness is characterized by increased cardiac activity due to vagal withdrawal. 61. Vm . CO. increased nSRR [35]. as well as increased SBP. Vt .2. Decreased HR and increased SCL have been found in response to pictures of happy faces [28]. whereas it is distinguished from these by peripheral vasodilation. 59. 130. 55. Imagining material that relates to anticipatory pleasure. further research is strongly needed. 100]. 61. unchanged [75]. SBP.g. decreased Ti and Te [14. water slide.2. Joy Laboratory joy elicitation has particularly relied on standardized imagery [35. 128. and respiratory deactivation. unchanged HRV (SDNN [113]. 75. 109. and TPR [54]. standardized imagery [35. or increased SBP and unchanged DBP or MAP [106. 75. Decreased cardiac activity (decreased HR and slightly increased HRV. including increased FT [74. or unchanged Ti .g. Ros . Decreased HR has also been found in response to a film depicting a figure skater winning an Olympic gold medal [49]. Looking at material that relates to anticipatory pleasure is associated with decreased HR [10.7. DBP. unchanged SBP and DBP [84]). 119. Physiological responses of anticipatory pleasure appear to be grouped according to type of task. increased -adrenergic. 120. and a small increase in HR together with unchanged PEP. decreased PEP and LVET. 134]. 115]. These studies report decreased HR and unchanged HRV (RMSSD [49]). 75. Happiness shares with various negative emotions a central cardiac activation component due to vagal withdrawal. 84]. increased electrodermal activity. 94] and increased SCR [10. A few exceptions are of note that occurred in happiness induction with visual material. increased depth [75] or decreased depth [14. 2. Lang et al. peakvalley RSA) and decreased respiratory activity (decreased RR. Decreased HR and SCL have been found in children in response to a happy scene in the film Bambi [112]. 130]. 94] or film clips [49. Decreased cardiovascular activity as expressed in decreased HR and unchanged SBP and DBP have been reported in response to a film clip depicting a joyful mother–daughter interaction [131]. 84]. 79. Ti . followed by an increase. 119]. 131]: instead of the typical increase in HR. 70] (although small or unchanged SCR have also been reported [18. Some studies have also used picture viewing (e.5. Specifically. 84]. MAP [67. 2005). 94]) and increased SCL [23] together with increased FT [18] and increased HRV (peak-valley RSA). increased cholinergic sympathetic influence. 55. 90. 61. 35. sky divers. and unchanged Ros [94]. Whereas all other positive emotions are characterized by decreased -adrenergic sympathetic influence.2. awaiting confirmation by further investi- gations. and respiratory variability has been reported in the context of presenting an erotic film clip [1]—notably.. 113] or unchanged HR [33. 126] and increased nSRR [61. 23. accompanied by reports of either unchanged SCL [124. Vasodilation is moreover reported. Pleasure. the physiological response to happiness includes increased HR [14.D. For an emotion amalgam of joy and pride elicited in the context of a computer game [125]. both studies included only male participants. these studies report decreased or unchanged HR.6. joy. or increased PEP and TPR. Increased electrodermal activity is shown in increased SCL [74.g. and a second decrease in FPTT. or the Velten method [19]. 122. and unchanged LF [126]. These results may suggest an activation pattern of decreased -adrenergic cardiovascular activity. decreased ␣-adrenergic. personalized recall [115]. 67]. 75. decreased RR. 2. recall visualizing 131]. and increased HR after onset of the event. expression of appreciation and reward by experimenter [119]). joy appears to be characterized by increased -adrenergic sympathetic activation. 84. Te . Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 407 the same time cholinergically-mediated effects are increased. or decreased FPA [67. 94. happy teens. 133]. SCL. 70. Effects on respiratory activity show increased RR [119]. Vt . 22. due to the small number of studies that investigated pride. increased SBP. respectively). 100] or unchanged RR [59]. such as pictures of smiling faces in the event of winning or losing a game (Vrticka et al.’ For certain of the above cases. and lesser shortening [75] or increase of FPTT and EPTT [67. an autonomic response component that has been associated with increased motivational engagement (Wright. and increased Ti and Te ) have been reported in [94] for happiness elicited with pictures from the International Affective Picture System (e. no change in HR. decreased HR in anticipation of the event. RR. 124. 90]). 23]) and physiological activation when emotionally evocative material is imagined (e. 2009). and increased cholinergically mediated sympathetic influence as well as increased respiratory activity may be concluded. mildly increased SCR. On the other hand. decreased FT. peak-valley RSA [92]) or decreased HRV (spectral RSA [59.. Certain emotional stimuli may also derive special meaning from the context in which they occur.. increased Pi and FRC [14]. Overall. imagery 105]. 70. increased Vt /Ti . decreased Te . in contrast. DBP [61. 67. contentment. 90. i. 77] or decreased SCL [67].. In particular. and increased Ros [92]. and unchanged CO have also been reported [89].. 109] (however. indicating physiological deactivation when emotionally evocative material is visually presented (e. 2. increased [109]. and MAP [83. 33. 1996). family. Increased respiratory activity is evidenced in increased RR [14. However. and increased RR together with decreased pCO2 . Furthermore.g.. faces [129]). roller coaster. 89. DBP. such as pictures [28. and unchanged CO [83]. reports indicate increased blood pressure (increased SBP. DBP.. SCR. Pride Laboratory induction of pride has used film clips [49]. and unchanged vagal control in pride. 22. MAP [exercise 105]. is associated with increased HR [35. 115. . decreased Pe [84]. 77. 84. picture viewing [18. decreased SV. as well as faster rise in FT at low difficulty levels. 94] or film clips [1. SBP. DBP. an initial deceleration. 122]). as contrasted to stronger decrease in FT at high difficulty levels has been reported. the physiological response pattern of joy was generally characterized by increased HR. an autonomic response pattern of increased cardiac vagal control. 89. Ti . Increased PEP and unchanged LVET and SV has been furthermore found [84]. 90. 122]. 126]. Some studies also reported unchanged SCL [41. As an exception. 41. 105. 77. anticipatory The emotion complex “anticipatory pleasure” here considers both appetite [18] and sexual arousal [1. Using the Velten method for joy induction [19]. however. Increased TPR. excitement. decreased respiratory variability of period and amplitude [90]. and unchanged HT.S. increased SBP. 134] and personalized recall [83. 120. recall visualizing 131] (although decreased HR has been reported in [67]). and unchanged CO and TPR [106]. Taken together. real-life manipulations (e. 74. these studies suggest that visual material that relates to anticipatory pleasure elicits increased cardiac vagal control. This variance may point to the fact that a relatively wide range of positive emotions is commonly subsumed under the umbrella term ‘happiness. and unchanged respiratory variability [33]. 23. 128. 92. imagined material that relates to anticipatory pleasure elicits increased cardiac activation (either via increased sympathetic or decreased parasympathetic influence) and increased respiratory activity.g. The physiological response pattern of joy was further characterized by increased HRV (SDNN [63]). 130] or increased SCL [129] as well as increased nSRR [35. a label such as admiration. decreased DBP.. peak-valley [67. co-occurring with increased vagal activation in the response pattern of joy. and Vt [120. unchanged FRC. increased HR and increased SCR has been reported in the context of presenting erotic pictures [133] and increased HR. decreased SV. unchanged or decreased FT have been reported in [89] and [67]. 18. HRV. Te . 84. increased SCL [49. and MAP has been reported. or pride may be a more appropriate descriptor. or real-life manipulations of experimenter praise [54].e. 122]. 106] for emotion induction. and increased sigh frequency [127]).1. that—albeit its overall similarity to that of fear—makes it distinct. 13]). 74] .. has been found to be associated with decreased HR. 2000). Sokolov. and may be taken to suggest vagal mediation (cf. happiness) or unsuccessful outcome (acute sadness)—whereas emotions that are related to increased cardiac contractility (anger. contentment. but see Contrada. pointing to decreased left ventricular contractility that indicates decreased -adrenergic sympathetic activation. this issue. affection. and increased FPA [12. and fear) may be summarized as an active coping response to aversive situations (Obrist. 1992. p. as indicated by increased HRV (see also predictions of PNS involvement in disgust. 1992). 1981. 1991.1. Schneiderman and McCabe.2. 2001. numerous conclusions remain tentative at best. only direction. 17]. and decreased Vt variability as well as decreased sigh frequency [12]. the physiological response to relief shows decreased electrodermal and respiratory activation. whereas it was increased for mutilation-related disgust and contentment. Moreover. This pattern of results supports previous statements that PNS activity may play a role in both pleasant and unpleasant emotions (e. as indicated by increased PEP. Emotions without clear valence connotation 2. 2. In line with this. Relief Conceptualizing the absence of danger in a threat-of-shock paradigm as relief (e. decreased [32] or increased FT [24. unchanged respiratory timing and volume parameters [14]. and increased Ti /Ttot [15]. and suspense—emotions that all involve an element of passivity. 2001. decreased SCL [12. decreased Te . Decreased blood . amusement. was coded (cf.3. these emotions have all been related to approach motivation—with either successful (amusement. 1995.. unchanged Vi excluding sighs. Folkow. Similar to sadness. The empirical review compiled a large database that can be drawn on to evaluate such statements. contentment was the only emotion that evidenced increased LVET. the only negative emotion with conclusive data on increased cardiac vagal influence.. 1975. the physiological response to relief is marked by moderate cardiovascular changes (mild HR acceleration [17]. 1989) or be located on a dimension of avoidance. were identified in the introduction and the complementary nature of these approaches was pointed out. 3. but not magnitude of response. 32.408 S. thus.3. Including the literature on unexpected stimulus presentation (Epstein et al. 1983. such studies characterize the physiological response to relief by decreased sympathetic vascular and electrodermal influence and decreased respiratory activity. with the exception of anger that has been suggested to be associated with approach motivation (Carver. a number of assumptions had to be made in order to code and classify the large variety of studies. Contamination-related disgust was. Also.g. Levenson.. MAP) and increased pulse transit time. Effects of decreased -adrenergic activation in certain approach-related emotions are also evident in peripheral cardiovascular measures. acute sadness.1. Gellhorn. 2. Discussion ANS activity is viewed as a major component of the emotion response in many recent theories of emotion (see Table 1). 1976. Table 2 may serve as an instructive guide for future research of specific emotion contrasts and autonomic parameters that demand further empirical study. increased Vt . There is moreover a decrease in respiratory activity (decreased RR. embarrassment. Harmon-Jones et al. Siddle et al. 3. imminent-threat fear. anxiety. Different levels. non-crying sadness. Vt /Ti . joy) as well as for surprise. 1970. decreased electrodermal reactivity is typically reported (decreased SCR reactivity [12. was found to be decreased in both anger and fear. decreased nSRR [12]. 20]). Table 2 presents a sum- mary of the modal response pattern found for each emotion. induced in the context of film clips. increased nSRR and SCL [57.. 2005). Pe . visual anticipatory pleasure. or unchanged HR [13]. with decreased blood pressure (SBP. indicating decreased cardiac sympathetic influence in the latter. For positive emotions. Roseman. on which an organizing principle of autonomic responding in emotion might be located. 74]. 2005. TWA. Siddle. Qiyuan et al. 1985. Vingerhoets.g. Notably. fear. In particular. HR decreased in mutilation-related disgust. Notably. contaminationrelated disgust. Kling. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 2. operationalization of which varied greatly across studies (see Kreibig et al. 2009). 1968). This choice was made because quantification of response magnitude ultimately depends on the type of baseline or comparison condition used. As is true for the largest part of physiological responding in positive emotion. In that way. increased sigh frequency has also been reported for conditions of relief in animal experiments (Soltysik and Jelen. Surprise Surprise has been reported to be associated with short-duration SCR [3] of medium response size and characterized by rapid increase and rapid return [24]. 2000). Summary of empirical emotion effects and their relation to models of autonomic response organization A number of notable differences between emotions emerged: HR was increased for negative (anger. Decreased HR in mutilation-related disgust and contentment may thus be caused by sympathetic withdrawal rather than parasympathetic influences (see also decreased LF/HF in mutilation disgust). While the physiological response to suspense clearly differs from that to surprise by cardiorespiratory measures. and happiness.D. What is the empirical evidence for positions of various degrees of ANS specificity in emotion? 3. 2001). both specificity and similarity of autonomic activity in emotion was shown.3. only further research will allow firm conclusions. but see the distinction of ‘moving against’ and ‘moving toward’. Finally.1. Te . whereas HRV was decreased in happiness and visual anticipatory pleasure. embarrassment. increased SCL [74]. 2001. 1990) may prove more conclusive. 230) pointed out a “decided inspiratory pause” of the characteristic breathing curve of wonder. disgust. as the number of studies reporting effects on certain parameters remains limited. which is a distinguishing characteristic of relief to all other positive emotions. 58] as well as increased RR. Porges. Suspense Suspense. Niepel. 1985).. 1933). crying sadness) and positive emotions (imagined anticipatory pleasure. and variability of Te . decreases in cardiac contractility were present in acute sadness. Autonomic responding in emotion With the chosen approach. happiness. further research will have to address whether suspense constitutes a separate emotion class or whether it may be subsumed under anxiety (see Nomikos et al. or increased Vi including sighs. for issues of physiological response quantification in emotion in relation to baseline choice). associated with increased Ti . Likewise. increased HR [14. No uniform response pattern can be derived due to the limited number of studies investigating surprise. however.8.. 1985) and the orienting reflex (Siddle and Heron. Vlemincx et al.2. The large scope of this review necessitated a considerable degree of abstraction. Acute sadness may be characterized by increased cardiac vagal influence as well.. an index of sympathetic influence on the heart (Furedy et al. or decreased RR and increased respiratory depth [34]. 1988. an assumption that remains to be clarified in future research. Woody and Teachman.. increased HRV was present in amusement and joy. Feleky (1916.. DBP. Decreased activation was found for acute sadness. 1. 2003.” Thus. 1894). which increased in anger.e. as far back as William James (1884. a wide dynamic range. was moreover reported for anxiety. 1991. neither emotion is characterized by an urge for action. In contrast. small rate of change) that is characteristic of nonreciprocal modes of activation. passivity is the shared motivational state.. embarrassment. visual anticipatory pleasure. 2008). together with increased breathing frequency and increased Ti /Ttot . For contaminationrelated disgust. and surprise. Remarkably. and increased PEP in amusement. . Measures such as PEP and RSA that have been shown to be indicative of -adrenergic sympathetic and vagal influence on the heart. whereas it decreased in fear. All other emotions were accompanied by increased electrodermal activity.. 1970) might have been the result of having such different types of sadness as crying versus noncrying sadness or anticipatory versus acute sadness in mind. However. and decreased electrodermal activity. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 409 pressure moreover occurred in contentment. psychophysiological responses in sadness-inducing contexts were characterized by decreased FPA. A marked inspiratory pause was present in anger. Stemmler. viz. 2004). and imagined anticipatory pleasure. for a discussion of commonalities between anxiety. 1998). Lang et al. anticipatory sadness. whereas shallow breathing occurs in anxiety. “the outcome has already occurred and there is nothing more to be done about it.. (1991. although skin temperature generally decreased for different types of sadness. p. Differential association of sadness or grief with either predominant SNS (Averill. as the physiological adjustments that are elicited by emotion consist of an integrated pattern of responses. Investigations of ANS responding in emotion have long been impeded by the exclusive use of “convenience measures. it decreases in happiness. amusement. and surprise have been reported by Kreibig et al. contentment. 1993. This may point to a shared dimension of anticipation of harm or loss. whereas increased pCO2 was reported for acute sadness and contentment. which notably occurs during the expiratory part of breathing. indices should optimally be derived from the same functional dimension of the target organ. Decreases in electrodermal activity were present but in a few emotions. Ti and Ti /Ttot were also decreased in amusement. high replicability of autonomic response patterns would speak for high directional stability. 2000..S. relief is experienced after a threat has passed. both increased Ti and increased Te .e. 1993) or shared core processes (see Berridge. happiness. Because the heart is dually innervated by the SNS and PNS that speed or slow HR either in coupled (reciprocal. 1999... 1991. Larger pulse amplitude was present for anticipated sadness as well as for relief. eccrine.” such as HR and electrodermal activity.. as would be postulated by a basic coping strategies approach (compare to the physiological response pattern of vomiting. Moreover. Decreased pCO2 . consistent with the notion of emotion causing an increase in action tendency (Brehm. Fast deep breathing has been found for non-crying sadness that may function as an expressive emotion regulation strategy to actively suppress crying—a hypothesis that needs to be addressed in future research. but rather ask whether and in which way emotions differ in terms of activation components of the ANS (e. Stemmler. HR is not informative of the respective branch’s influence upon cardiac functioning (Berntson et al. Stemmler et al. resulting in a general slowing of breathing. and anticipatory pleasure. namely non-crying sadness. Emotional activation was moreover shown to be related to notable differences in respiratory activity. disgust. 1991). Berntson et al. respiratory timing parameters indicated faster breathing with increased expiratory and decreased inspiratory duration. with decreased PEP in contamination-related disgust. Berntson et al. It may be asked whether such positive emotions as amusement. Slow deep breathing has been found for relief. pride).” Hence.. 1989. p. it is important to judiciously select a sufficient number of response measures to allow for the response pattern and its variations to be identified (Hilton. in particular within replication studies of emotions (Berntson et al. respectively. Frijda. Schneiderman and McCabe. Across response systems. Fear and anger were similar in a number of parameters. 2009)—regarding TPR. and contentment is experienced when one has attained a satisfactory outcome. whereas amusement and contaminationrelated disgust were remarkably similar with respect to changes indicated by respiratory variables as well as vagal indicators. 1975. coactivated. as sole indicators of the activation state of the organism (notably 23 of the publications included in the present review). or coinhibited) or uncoupled modes. fear. joy.. All three emotions are characterized by increased electrodermal activity and faster breathing. and high response lability that is characteristic of reciprocal modes of activation. Sherwood. 7) pointed out. Stemmler. the two differed on -adrenergic cardiac activation. (this issue). certain types of sadness. as discussed in more detail below. anticipatory sadness showed a reversed response pattern that was remarkably similar to that of anxiety in a number of measures. As an exception. as well as anticipatory pleasure. 1964. 1986). 1999. contamination-related disgust. whereas in amusement and joy HRV increases. The present review suggests that. 1993). acute sadness. nonmonotonic response functions). and relief. a restricted dynamic range. which has been proposed to reflect cognitively or emotionally mediated motor preparation (Fredrikson et al. occurred in contentment. such as the cardiovascular and electrodermal. 483) pointed out that “even chronotropic and inotropic influences on the heart ..2. Measures of autonomic activation components Scientific investigation should not stop at the question of whether emotions differ physiologically.g. and lengthening of pulse transit time in happiness. Consequently. 1968) or PNS activation (Gellhorn. and may function to expel foul smell and related agents that the organism might have inhaled. Low replicability of autonomic response patterns of certain emotions may indicate low directional stability (i. Funkenstein et al. 1953. The decrease in electrodermal activity may in turn be taken as indicative of a decrease of motor preparation in the former emotions: sadness is typically experienced under conditions when a loss has occurred that cannot be undone. and respiratory responses. skin conductance cannot function as the sole indicator of sympathetic activity since directional fractionation between response systems. Current models of autonomic control may moreover serve as a guide for interpreting findings of autonomic measures. Of note. These constellations may suggest variations according to basic motivational features such as valence and arousal (Bradley and Lang. In addition. Similarly nuanced physiological response differences between interest. In contrast. though differed—as predicted by the catecholamine hypothesis (Ax. pride. As Brehm (1999. rather. is known to exist (Lacey. fear was the only emotion in the present review that evidenced a decrease in TPR. but shallower in happiness.D. fear. increased pulse transit time. 3. 1967). possibly reflecting effects of laughing on respiration. and joy differ physiologically. are mediated by separate efferent pathways that may be subject to differential central control. This expiratory shift is also indicated in decreased Ti /Ttot . joy. 1991. indicating hyperventilation. All other emotions were characterized either by increased (anger. desire). which is deeper in amusement. complex emotion syndromes of highly specific and regionally organized regulation patterns have been described that include various quantifiable cardiovascular. happiness) or unchanged TPR (mutilation-related disgust. fear. are more informative and should thus be preferred. and low response lability (i. and relief. Amusement and happiness share a lengthening of PEP that is less clear in joy. . . 1954. 1993). the type of affect manipulated within the context of such studies is labeled ‘mood. Gray and McNaughton. Typically. ranging between eight and ten minutes. 2005). Feeling changes without concomitant autonomic changes A large body of literature reports on feeling changes in the absence of effects on autonomic responding. Apparent inconsistencies previously noted regarding autonomic activity in emotion (e. Stemmler. 2002). such as in emotion elicitation by subliminal stimulus presentation. and after emotion. whereas moods have immediate effects on subjective feeling state and facial expression. Once a behavioral reaction has been initiated. 2001). Whereas shame is typically instigated by personal failure. feeling. Gendolla and Brinkmann. 2000. 2004). it is therefore of utmost importance to distinguish mood from emotion in order to know when to expect autonomic effects and when not. it is moreover important to place expected or observed effects on a sound conceptual basis. moods do not have specific and stable motivational functions. although they are both related to threat appraisals. When addressing affective effects on ANS activity. and skin conductance level or spontaneous response rate has been found in the context of disguised mood manipulations. Boundary conditions The present review focused on the relation between emotion and ANS activity. 3. Emotion was defined as a multi-component response to an emotionally potent antecedent event. 1999) or may be altogether based on two distinct behavioral systems (e. autonomic effects are typically absent during mood induction.. but only informational function. Another important differentiation that could not be given due account in the above review of research findings is the distinction of shame and embarrassment (Lewis and Granic. Roseman et al.. 1994). e.. However. 2006) may thus be accounted for by conceptualizing “modal emotions” (Scherer. i.e. see also the concept of the ‘as-if body loop. 1985) may serve as a general guide of how to label different experimental emotion conditions. ambient temperature.. 1997. 1993. Moreover. i.. and physiological activation. or odors (Kiecolt-Glaser et al. 1994. appear under a number of different names. the importance of a clear and generally agreed upon terminology for labeling emotions cannot be stressed enough. just as autonomic changes may occur without concomitant feeling changes. condition-sensitive. 2008). (b) effects of the emotional context include organismic. Lazarus. serenity. autobiographic recall (e. 2008). and relaxation. 1982. Similarly. autonomic activation in subsequent task performance is moderated by mood. respectively. (c) effects of the emotion proper reflect specific physiological adaptations with the function to protect the organism through autonomic reflexes and to prepare the organism for consequent behavior. embarrassment is more related to social exposure. motivating to remove the object of anger or to escape from the object of fear. Thus. Gendolla.e.g.2.1. No change from baseline activation of systolic and diastolic blood pressure. 1996. such as emotion regulation. and autonomic changes are discussed. Moreover. 1893. Feldman-Barrett. 1991. Barr-Zisowitz. Scherer. unconscious emotions (presence of physiological effects. 1991) with its various specific. helplessness. they do influence effort investment in subsequent behavior. 1999). Gray. decoupling of subsystems may occur.2. 1984. Unlike emotions that are associated with specific motivational functions. On the other hand.g. Silvestrini and Gendolla. Autonomic changes without concomitant feeling changes Reviewed results of effects of emotion on autonomic activity necessarily underly a specific measurement model. core relational themes.. and psychological factors affect physiological activation before. peacefulness.2. Roseman. However.. under which different subtypes of that emotion exist. not experienced in simultaneous awareness of its causes (Frijda. 3. Seligman. 2001. emotions might be grouped together in functional complexes under an abstract theme (cf. such as pleasure.. 2001.3. or cognitive demands. amusement and happiness are both emotions related to a pleasurable experience.’ referring to a diffuse and long-lasting affective state that is not object-related. heart rate. behavioral. given the specific momentary situational allowances and constraints on the emotional behavioral response. that are not in the service of emotion. however. 2004): (a) effects of the nonemotional context include posture. three major factors have been recognized that influence physiological responding (Stemmler et al. it is important to distinguish between such emotions as fear and anxiety. To disentangle the potential confounding context effects from emotional effects on physiological activation. with film excerpts (e. Smith and Ellsworth. 1975). representing context-independent effects . 1982. behavioral. 1988. related to small but important differences in appraisal outcomes.D. constraining the physiological effects that the other components may exert.. expressive behavior. For example. anticipatory states of fear (anxiety) and sadness (anticipatory sadness). Part of noted inconsistencies can be attributed to a lax and indistinct use of emotion labels for describing investigated emotions. that were here distinguished from other forms of fear and sadness. Both share an uncertainty about the kind of harm and what can be done to prevent a fatal outcome (cf. 1984. In that sense. the low-arousal positive emotions. representing context-dependent effects of emotion that may be variable across situations. for a discussion of types of sadness). 2003. 2000).. might be regrouped into a category of worry or mental distress resulting from concern for an impending or anticipated painful experience of harm or loss.g. boundary conditions of the relation between emotion and autonomic activity and their implications for our understanding of emotion. Emotion terminology In measuring autonomic responding in emotion. 1994.1. Still. Appraisal models that present prescriptive appraisal–emotion mappings (e. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 3. there is no one-to-one relationship between emotion and changes in autonomic activation: feeling changes may occur without concomitant autonomic changes. or low response system coherence due to some intervening process.2. here subsumed under the label of contentment. 2003. the physiological activity is in the service of that behavior and no longer reflects predominantly effects of emotion (Levenson. 2000. 2000. Craske. Emotions are typically assumed to influence the ANS during a relatively brief period of time in the range of seconds to only a few minutes (Ekman. causing changes in subjective feeling quality. Tangney et al. music excerpts (e. often caused by a deed of good fortune external to one’s proper control (Aristotle. Gendolla and Krüsken.g.. whereas happiness refers to feelings of well-being or a pleasurable or satisfying experience.g. The ANS is not exclusively servant to emotion. 3. Gendolla and Krüsken. Veenhoven.g. Teroni and Deonna. producing a complex amalgam of effects on physiological activity. ongoing motor activity. but absence of conscious feel- ings). the present review assumed that study participants can faithfully report on their emotional state. calmness.’ Damasio. Schwarz and Clore. during.. implementations. 1999) as umbrella terms. and mental demands of enacting the emotion.410 S. 2007). refers to appealing to the sense of humor and should be reserved to such emotion inductions as those using slapstick comedy. In this context.g. with the direction of effect depending on perceived difficulty level of the task (Gendolla. but differ on the dimension of threat imminence (Barlow. such as performing a task. To conclude. Amusement.. however. cutting across linguistically-defined boundaries (cf. Non-emotional physical. Stemmler. Although moods have thus no direct impact on behavior. 2001) or “emotion families” (Ekman. 1991). DBP. 2008). respiratory variability. DBP. FT. Blatz 1996 2001 2006 1925 30 42 48 18 Fear Disgust Sexual arousal. Thanks also to research assistant Nora Meier for assisting in the literature search. happiness. DBP. social rejection Goal conduciveness. sadness organization is properly tested. respiratory variability RR. FPA RR. nSRR.. For progress in the understanding of the functional organization of ANS activity in emotion. which are expected to be stable across situations. TWA. pCO2 . FT. threat Fear Real-life (harassment. dejection.3. the emotion signature proper.g. 2001). such as with respect to awareness of emotional responses (Koole. depression Anger. Data presented in this table were also used to generate the tag clouds. 2002. Aue et al. in case of varying averaging periods due to different stimulus presentation lengths. LF. RD nSRR 15. Only if the hypothesis of autonomic response Table A. HR. be elicited by subliminally presented stimuli that do not enter conscious awareness (e. FPA. sadness. Acknowledgements Sylvia D. % thoracic Vt SRA. may influence subsystem coherence in various ways. SYDER 0. although other subsystems. relevance.. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 411 of emotion. & Öhman. Stemmler. Friedman for helpful comments on earlier versions of this manuscript.g. Emotion regulation. 2007. It is hoped that this will pave the road to arriving at James’ (1890) call for a generative principle that can summarize and account for the varieties of emotion. Appendix A. under which people do not report and/or are not aware of an emotional experience. SV. 120. physiological activation. Flykt.S.. and Tom Cochrane as well as two anonymous reviewers and special issue editor Bruce H. Allen et al. HRV (CVT). Ti /Ttot . FT. more than one number is indicated. Pe . 1 2 Authors Adamson et al. Decoupling of subsystems in emotion To demarcate emotion from other physical and psychological influences on ANS activity. Mauss et al.1 Overview of studies on effects of emotion on autonomic nervous system activity. HRV (RSA (HF).g. Reisenzein. Levenson. verify the specific type of emotion elicited as well as individual variations when analyzing autonomic parameters that need to be selected such that they allow differentiation of the various activation components of the ANS. Vm . Baldaro et al. palm temp. arm temp. SBP. 360 7 Ax 1953 43 Anger. FT HR. Te . been noted in some studies (e. Ti /Ttot . 2000. CA 94305. 3 Alaoui-Ismaïli et al. Wilson.. and behavioral tendency indicate occurrence of emotion (cf. Experimental paradigm Film clips Stress-interview Cardiovascular HR. Ruch. although feelings are often and typically conscious. Overview of reviewed studies Table A. the mean averaging duration rounded to the next full minute is indicated. in case of different averages for different physiological variables. No.1 provides an overview of the studies considered in the present review. can valid inferences be drawn. SBP. Pi .. 1995). such as facial expression. CO. Only the third component of the model. 1988. threat of short-circuit) Film clips Film clips Picture viewing (IAPS) Real-life (sudden backward-tilting chair) Threat of shock nSRR.edu/∼skreibig. Stanford. This research was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation (PBGEP1-125914) as well as by the National Center of Competence in Research (NCCR) Affective Sciences financed by the Swiss National Science Foundation (51NF40-104897) and hosted by the University of Geneva.D. face temp. Averaging period is the time segment over which averages for physiological variables were calculated. Averill 1997 44 odorants RR OPD. Lundqvist. subsystem synchronization has been proposed as a distinctive feature of emotion (Scherer. 2009). SBP. moreover. as one prominent process in this regard. FPTT. fear. future researchers will have to closely scrutinize and. Winkielman and Berridge. HR HR. 2003.2. sigh frequency. however. 2005. if possible. SBF HR HR.. Carlsson. SCL 300 . Coherence constraints between response systems of emotion have. HRV (RSA (Porges)) HR HR Respiratory RR Electrodermal nSRR Averaging period (in s) 30. is expected to allow statistical identification of specific. sigh Vt . Such dissociation among different measures of emotion may be relatively normal rather than reflecting aberrant functioning. LF/HF. RSA (Porges).. anxiety. conditions may arise. disgust. Thus. HR. DBP. unconscious emotions. Wiens et al. Vt . face temp. Collecting valid data on autonomic responding in emotion has been and remains to be a challenge to emotion research (e. Year 1972 1962 N 10 30 Emotion labels Sexual arousal Anger. 2003). Bernat et al. TPR HR. The table moreover indicates the type of emotion induction method as well as assessed physiological measures (grouped into cardiovascular. Stanford University. 2006 42 Anxiety HR. 3. Klaus Scherer. Öhman. SBP. 2007. This table can be downloaded as a text file from http://www. Adsett et al. 240 inst. VLF). threat Mirth. & Ingvar. 2001). Vi /Ti . surprise Achievement failure.5 4 5 6 1996 2007 1969 100 42 54 Standardized imagery Picture viewing (IAPS) Film clips 30 1. and electrodermal). Emotions can. Emotions were coded according to the emotion labels provided by the authors. Kreibig is now at the Department of Psychology. non-overlapping emotion responses (Stemmler et al. Ti .stanford. SCR 6 RR SCR RR 120 600 6 12 Blechert et al. Esteves. SV. I thank Guido Gendolla. 5 RR. fear 8 9 10 11 Baldaro et al. 2004). respiratory. 5 HR IBI. FRC Ttot . RD . happiness.5. Dimberg Dimberg and Thunberg Drummond 1976 2004 1986 2007 1999 20 26 (control) 28 28 (control) 19 (control) Amusement. DBP. Pi . EPTT. Pe . 2001 2008 2006 1993 1996 95 49 (control) 40 16 23 22 (Control) 34 Disgust Dental anxiety Appetite. fear. laughter. pCO2 SCL SCR SCR SCR 120 120 1 1. surprise Anger. Pi . 30 33 Etzel et al. forehead PA RR. mirth Mirth Standardized imagery. respiratory variability 10. 65 35 Fiorito and Simons Foster et al. Ti . SBP. SCL 60 Picture viewing (IAPS) film clips Picture viewing (faces) Personalized recall Film clips Picture viewing Picture viewing (faces) Real-life (harassment) Hypnosis SCR SCL RR OPD. Vt . wonder Anger. 2001 2003 10 23 Anger. sexual arousal Anger Film clips Directed facial action.D. Te . EPTT. Ekman et al. sexual arousal. sadness Elation. amusement. SCR. fear. sadness. Gilissen et al. SDSD. Te . 5 15 30 Dudley 1964 10 31 32 Eisenberg et al. Britton et al. HRV (SDNN.1 (Continued) No. FPTT. personalized recall Film clips Real-life (harassment) Standardized imagery Film clips Film clips Film clips Film clips Film clips HR 20 HR SCL 30? HR HR SCL SCL 30 30? 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 Fredrickson and Levenson Funkenstein et al. fear. disgust. palm temp. 2006 13 (18) HR. SBP. anxiety. contentment. 1994 31 (control) 36 1999 36 37 38 Foster and Webster Foster et al.5 60 0. Te . TPR HR HRV (RMSSD) HRV (RMSSD) IBI. Vm . RD/Ttot nSRR 1. disgust. RSA (peak-valley)) 34 Feleky 1916 6 Personalized recall Ttot . happiness. duration 0. FT HR. DBP. sadness Anger. standardized imagery. Collet et al. RC/Vt . Chan and Lovibond Christie and Friedman Codispoti and De Cesarei Codispoti et al. 5. FPA HR. 1988 1983 82 16 Anger. sexual arousal Anger. respiratory variability (RR). depression. HRV (RSA (HF). sadness Anger Happiness. HRV (MSD). surprise Fear. threat Disgust. FPA.5 10. disgust. 13 14 Authors Bloom and Trautt Boiten Year 1977 1996 N 64 16 S. contentment. personalized recall Musical excerpts HR HR. Brown et al. SBP. FPA. sadness Threat Picture viewing (IAPS) Threat of shock Film clips Velten method Threat of shock HR HR HR HR. DBP. happiness Anger Film clips IBI. RD. SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL 60 60 60 1. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Emotion labels Anxiety Anger. FT SCL 0. disgust. disgust. sadness. FPA. sadness.5 20 30. sadness Fear Fear Disgust Sadness Disgust HR. Ti . anger. FPA. HRV (RSA (Porges)) SBF. happiness. fear. FT HR. CO. SYDER. FPTT. disgust Fear Anger. EPTT. FT 120 inst. hatred. Gehricke and Fridlund Gilissen et al. SBP. 60 RP. relaxation Anxiety.412 Table A. pleasure. SV. fear. Vt /Ti . RD RP. Ti . relaxation Amusement. sadness. sympathy Anger. surprise Amusement. joy. Gross Gross et al. sadness Disgust. 3. Gross and Levenson 1998 1954 2002 2008 2007 1998 1994 1993 60 72 69 20 78 92 78 120 150 43 42 Fear. Bradley et al. 30 15 Boiten 1998 27 120 16 17 18 19 20 Bradley et al. 60 ∼100 1. suspense. I/E ratio. MAP SCR SCR SCR 0. FPTT. LF/HF) HR HR IBI. fear. standardized imagery. sadness. personalized recall personalized recall Real-life. personalized recall Real-life. disgust. fear. Vm . Vm . tenderness Experimental paradigm Threat of shock Directed facial action Film clips Cardiovascular HR. Ti /Ttot . disgust. FPA HR Respiratory Electrodermal Averaging period (in s) 30 Ttot . Vt . MAP HR HR. DBP. 90 SCL 40 21 2004 22 23 24 2007 2008 1997 50 55 30 25 26 27 28 29 Davidson and Schwartz Demaree et al. forearm blood flow. amusement. SBP. MAP. PEP. Vt . sadness Fear Experimental paradigm Film clips Adapted standardized imagery Film clips Film clips Cardiovascular IBI. Kreibig et al. SBP. sadness Film clips Film clips Film clips Musical excerpts IBI. 2005 2005 96 95 Contentment. TPR. MAP RP. Ti . FT RR. nSRR HR. PEP. anger in self-defense Film clips Film clips RP RP. fear. DBP. CO.5. suspense Anger. Klorman et al.D. happiness. FPA. FPA. express emotion without feeling. SBP. EPA. happiness. humor Anger. disgust. HRV (RSA (not specified)). EPTT. sadness 56 Hofmann et al. nSRR. sadness Disgust. disgust. sexual arousal Anger in defense of other. FPTT. SBP. SBP.5 540 72 Lerner et al. 2005 92 Fear. EPTT. MAP. HRV (RSA (peak-valley)) SCL 30 HR HR HR. 1990 1991 2003 24 20 53 Amusement. SV. happiness. forearm vascular resistance HR. MAP. HRV (RSA (HF). study 1 Kring and Gordon. filmed while singing. 2008 2008 10 (control) 54 (control) 16 Disgust. sadness Contentment. social anxiety 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 Hubert and de Jong-Meyer Hubert and de Jong-Meyer Jönsson and SonnbyBorgström Kaiser and Roessler Khalfa et al. SV. TPR HR 60 180 SCL 30 HR. DBP. peacefulness. shame 54 Herrald and Tomaka Hess et al. Kornreich et al. disgust Real-life (harassment) 1380 (inst. DBP. pride. Vi /Ti . HRV (RSA (HF)) RR nSRR.) . humor Anger. SBP. SBP. TWA. watching video of self) Film clips Film clips picture viewing (faces) Film clips Musical excerpts Picture viewing Film clips Film clips HR. 47 48 Authors Gross and Levenson Grossberg and Wilson Year 1997 1968 N 180 18 Emotion labels Amusement. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Table A. SCL RR RR. LVET. happiness. FPTT. FT HR HR. FT HR. HRV (SDNN) HR. MAP. humiliation. SV. RD SCL SCL 540 60 70 71 Lang et al. LF). DBP. sadness Fear. DBP. DBP. DBP. FPTT.S. praise) Feel emotion. 2006 32 Embarrassment. SCL nSRR. 300 1970 2008 1977 1998 2007 20 50 42 (control) 14 (control) 34 Disgust Happiness. pride. decay 770 15 1 300 600 65 66 67 Kring and Gordon. TPR. anger. FPTT. 2000 36 30 Boredom. study 2 Kunzmann et al. PEP. FPA. DBP HR HR. EPTT. sadness Fear.1 (Continued) No. amusement. Ti /Ttot . TPR HR. FT IBI. excitement. FT IBI. sadness Amusement 51 52 Hamer et al. 2002 109 55 1992 28 Anger. disgust Disgust. HI. Te nSRR SCR. CO. SCL. CO. express and feel emotion Real-life (speech preparation. EPTT. Harris 2007 2001 55 34 Anger. sadness Anger. fear. EPTT. FPA. RD Electrodermal SCL SCL 413 Averaging period (in s) 210 25 49 50 Gruber et al. SCL 30 60 0. Lavoie et al. 20 300 60 53 Harrison et al. 180 68 69 Kunzmann and Grühn. respiratory variability SRA. suspense Amusement. study 2 Kring and Neale Krumhansl 1998 1998 1996 1997 43 67 20 38 Disgust. FPA. DBP SCL RR SRA 90 10. depression Embarrassment Personalized recall Real-life (filmed while singing. SBP. FT HR Respiratory RP. sadness SRA. happiness. CO HR. DBP. sadness Fear. 1993 2001 64 42 Picture viewing (IAPS) Real-life (harassment) SCR 0. Guliani et al. SV. SBP. happiness Real-life (harassment. watching video of self) Film clips HR. pCO2 . SBP. HRV (RMSSD) HR. RD nSRR nSRR nSRR SCL 300 240 300 1. SV. disgust. SV. Vt /Ti . SCR. fear Fear. 2000 24 (control) Real-life (test situation. happiness. Ti . serenity Musical excerpts 85 Palomba et al. SV. Pe 180 RR SCL 33 RR nSRR 60 60 300 300 (inst. sadness Sadness Anger. picture viewing Picture viewing (IAPS) Inst. HRV (RSA (HF). 2005 1982 14 (control) 16 Film clips Adapted standardized imagery Odorants HR. sadness. DBP.5 . disgust. SBP. fear. DBP.. SV. Te . fear. 360 60 1. disgust. Ti /Ttot . DBP Ttot . MAP. DBP. HRV (RSA (peak-valley)). Pi . palm temp. happiness Fear. happiness. disgust. LF/HF) HR. RD. LVET. sadness Anger. SDNN. LVET. happiness. happiness. happiness. happiness. TPR IBI.414 Table A. fear. LF. 1992 46 62 50 10 a HR. 2004 2007 2008 1982 1982 1987 23 (control) 27 34 24 (12) HR. SBP. HRV (RMSSD). Vt . fear. HRV (RSA (peak-valley)) Ttot . Rainville et al. sadness. disgust. anger Experimental paradigm Directed facial action. fear. TPR HR. happiness. sadness. 240 inst. peak HV. sadness Sadness Calmness. FT RP. depression. film clips Picture viewing (IAPS). Marsh et al. DBP. relaxation. Pe . contentment. MAP. FT SCL 10 75 Levenson et al. TPR HR. surprise Anger. study 1 Levenson et al. PEP. SBP. DBP pCO2 . Year 1991 N 20 S. happiness. study 1 McCaul et al.. disgust. happiness. SBP. fear 82 83 Murakami and Ohira Neumann and Waldstein 2007 2001 24 42 Anxiety Anger. fear. FT. Te . FPA. LVET. TPR HR. CO. FT Respiratory Electrodermal SCL Averaging period (in s) 10. FT SCL 10 1990 30 HR. disgust. Ros RR. joy. FT SCL 10 1990 16 HR. personal questions). Roberts and Weerts Robin et al. surprise Anger. duration 0. fear. 2005 30 (control) IBI. 1997 26 Agitation. depression. SV. TPR IBI. 15 74 Levenson et al. FPA. sadness. surprise Anger. RR OPD. FPTT. DBP. Kreibig / Biological Psychology 84 (2010) 394–421 Emotion labels Anger. SBP. SBP. fear Calmness. SBP.. personalized recall film clips Cardiovascular HR. harassment) Personalized recall Personalized recall HR. Te . Pauls and Stemmler Prkachin et al. speech preparation) Real-life (anger interview. HI. CI. CO. Velten method Film clips. fear. Vt .D. 10. FRC. disgust.1 (Continued) No. amusement Anxiety. MAP.. HRV (RSA (peak-valley)). IBI. disgust. Vm . happiness. 2000 12 93 Ritz et al. sadness real-life (speech preparation) Personalized recall 84 Nyklicek et al. SI. respiratory variability 90 91 Rimm-Kaufman and Kagan 1996 32 Anxiety. happiness Anxiety. PEP. MSD) FT 900 SCL 300 180 RR. RD.. PEP HR HR HR RP. DBP HR. CO. tonic HV 0. SYDER. PEP. sadness Anger. study 3 1990 62 a 16 b HR. 73 Authors Levenson et al. SBP. 1993 2003 15 78 88 2001 50 Anger 89 90 Prkachin et al. SV. Vt . HRV (RSA (HF)) HRV (RSA (HF)). TWA HR HR. Ros 12 SCL 180 94 Ritz et al. Pe . Vm . SV. contentment. Ti . performance anxiety Depression. DBP IBI. 2005 32 Anger. TPR HR. I/E ratio SCL SCL SCL SCL SCL 60. HRV (RSA (peak-valley)) HR. 30 97 1998 44 Dental anxiety SBF. CO. sexual arousal Disgust Anger. fear Film clips 86 87 Palomba et al. Ti . study 2 Levenson et al. Marci et al. study 2 Miller et al. fear. DBP. Vm ./16) RP. RMSSD. SBP. Vi /Ti . HRV (RSA (peak-valley.5. PEP. sadness. fear 92 Ritz et al. RD SCL 10 76 77 78 79 Luminet et al. 30 16 10 30 80 81 Montoya et al. Ros SCR 1. Ti /Ttot . happiness. 2000 46 Contentment. surprise Anger. personalized recall Directed facial action Directed facial action Directed facial action Directed facial action Film clips Personalized recall Film clips Posed facial expressions Posed facial expressions Standardized imagery. 1999 2006 31 43 Anger. 15 95 96 Ritz et al. sadness Film clips Real-life (harassment. HF). CO. anger. SBP. McCaul et al. math task. nSRR. step walking Personalized recall RR nSRR 180 HR. adapted standardized imagery 112 113 114 115 Sternbach Theall-Honey and Schmidt Tourangeau and Ellsworth Tsai et al. sadness Fear. FT HR. 2005 26 (control) 101 102 103 104 Rottenberg et al. SBP. 1962 2006 1979 2002 10 20 (control) 123 98 Fear. FPTT. happiness. QT-time. TPR. fear 111 Stemmler et al. ST-segment. personalized recall Film clips Film clips Film clips Real-life (harassment. SCL 60 RR SCL 30. ventricular ejection speed. 1981 32 106 Sinha et al. 98 99 Authors Rochman and Diamond Rohrmann and Hopp Year 2008 2008 N 27 36 83–89 Emotion labels Anger. disgust. sadness Disease-related disgust. FPA. PEP. SBP. LVET. FPTT. PQ-time. fear. food-related disgust Happiness. HRV (MSSD). FT HR. DBP. Te . TPR HR. SI. MAP. Vt Ti /Ttot SCR 6 105 Schwartz et al. HRV (SDNN) HR RR 60 RR SRA. CI. FPTT. SBP. standardized imagery. speech preparation). FPA. TWA. sadness Amusement. SV. fear Film clips. FPA. sadness Anger. Rottenberg et al. fear. nSRR. happiness. sadness Anger. FT IBI. FT HR. ST-segment. harassment. EPTT HR. HI. DBP. SV. sadness Experimental paradigm Personalized recall Film clips Cardiovascular HRV (RSA (HF)). TPR. SBP. CO. sadness Anger. PEP.SCL nSRR. HRV (RSA (HF)) HR. SV. fear. DBP. FPA. 2001 40 Depression. PEP. FPA HR. 1992 27 Anger. LF. Schachter 2002 2002 2003 1957 33 (control) 33 (control) 31 15 (48) Sadness Amusement. 2001 158 Anger. SBP. fear Disgust Anger. Rottenberg et al. TPR HR. HI. HRV (RSA (HF). happiness. sadness Anxiety Film clips Film clips Film clips Personalized recall IBI. Tsai et al. appreciation and reward. FPTT. HR. fear.1 (Continued) No. FPTT. love. fear. HRV (RMSSD). harassment. DBP. appreciation and reward) Standardized imagery IBI. FPA. happiness 15 107 108 109 Sinha and Parsons Sokhadze Stemmler 1996 2007 1989 27 29 42 Personalized recall Picture viewing (IAPS) Real-life (threatening radio play. FT RR. SBP.D. joy. pCO2 60 . personalized recall) Standardized imagery HR. sadness Anger. relaxation Ti . TPR. QT-time. DBP RR nSRR. humor. SBP. relaxation. pride. fear Real-life (harassment. 2007 118 Anger. EPTT. fear.S. sadness Sadness Anger. LVET. DBP. HRV (RMSSD). pleasure. PQ-time. 60 60 RR nSRR. DBP RP SCL SCL 120 180 60 119 1992 Anger. SCL nSRR 180 180 180 RR. RZ-time. SBP. FT HR IBI. SCL 30 60 60 110 Stemmler et al. fear. FPTT Respiratory Electrodermal SCL SCL 415 Averaging period (in s) 120 60 100 Rottenberg et al. 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