Attitudes towards women who work in EgyptMohamed M. Mostafa Introduction and literature review Attitudes towards women involve expectations directed at women (Spence and Helmreich, 1972), and these ideas are often based on negative stereotypes and broad assumptions about women's characteristics (Conway and Vartanian, 2000; Antilla, 2002). Research indicates that gender roles commonly lead to the discouragement of women's employment outside the home in non-traditional jobs (Heilman, 1997; Schreiber, 1998). In the past years, numerous studies on the attitudes towards women who work have been conducted in the West. For example, according to Mott (1998, p. 26): . . . women of all ages remain under-represented in skilled career fields due to misconception regarding gender-specific abilities and preferences and under-valuation of women's skills. The author Mohamed M. Mostafa is Assistant Professor at the College of Economics and Business, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan. Keywords Attitude surveys, Gender, National cultures, Islam, Women, Egypt Abstract This study investigates Egyptian society's attitudes towards women who work held by a sample of 217 participants. The subjects completed the newly developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS). The study validates the scale in a non-western context. The results reveal that, contrary to our expectation, Egyptian students have very similar attitudes towards women who work to those of the older generations. There are significant differences between males' and females' perceptions towards women's roles and participation in society. The study predicts that modernity may diminish patriarchal attitudes towards women in Arab societies. Finally, the study detects no significant difference between Muslims and non-Muslims in Egypt regarding their attitudes towards women who work. Electronic access The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0964-9425.htm Women in Management Review Volume 18 . Number 5 . 2003 . pp. 252-266 # MCB UP Limited . ISSN 0964-9425 DOI 10.1108/09649420310485096 There is sometimes a reluctance to hire women in key managerial positions (Eyring and Stead, 1998), so female leaders are consequently: . . . given job assignments with lower visibility and fewer chances to make important contacts (Ohlott et al., 1994, p. 49). Women also tend to earn significantly less compared with men in equivalent occupations, they frequently find high-level promotions difficult, and they experience barriers when seeking mentors (Anderson and Tomaskovic-Devey, 1995; Bhatnagar and Swamy, 1995; Browne, 1997; Pfeffer and Ross, 1990; Kirchmeyer, 2002). Some studies even show a distinct preference for male direction among subordinates (Cann and Siegfried, 1987; Jeanguart-Barone and Sekaran, 1994), and this fondness translates into higher ratings for male managers (McGlashan et al., 1995) and increased trust (Jeanguart-Barone and Sekaran, 1994). Women sometimes doubt their own abilities and skills (Hammick and Acker, 1998; Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974; Talmud and Izraeli, 1999), suggesting that stereotypes may be prevalent among both men and women. While there is a large amount of research in this area in the West, little research has been conducted to assess the attitudes towards Received: January 2003 Revised: March 2003 Accepted: March 2003 252 the total number of women in the labour force. 1995). As a result of these traditional viewpoints towards women in Arab societies. hence. especially among women (e. 2002). Research objectives The issue of measuring attitudes towards women's employment has been an important concern in the twentieth century. analyse Egyptian society's attitudes and expectations towards women who work. 1994). 1996.g. Abdalla. Research hypotheses H1. 1983). precisely because of the primacy attached to the concept of motherhood and domesticity (Japer. despite their advancement in the field of education and profession. age. women in Arab societies have lagged behind men in both salary and status (UN. In a recent study investigating the obstacles facing the participation of the Arab women in the labour force.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. In this study we aim to: . Allan and Coltran. 2002. Arab societies seem to be reluctant to abandon their traditional viewpoint of women primarily committed to the house and children (El-Jardawi. test the validity of the recently developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS) in a non-western culture. 252-266 women in the Arab world and Egypt is no exception. Egyptians will report traditional attitudes towards women who work as expressed by higher scores on both the employment skepticism and the traditional roles preference dimensions of the MAWWWS. 2003 . 253 . and 39 per cent worked in agriculture (World Bank. This lack of academic attention to attitudes towards women who work in Egypt may also be attributed to the prevailing assumption that work life is less central to women than to men (Kaufman and Fetters. in 1960. Number 5 . This is usually taken to be the result of discrimination (Arabsheibani. 2002). was divided up as follows: more than 40 per cent worked in social services. however. 2000). still implicitly inhabit the space of the ``reserve army of labour''. A recent study estimated male-female earnings differentials for a sample of university graduates in Egypt. in Egypt. In 1995. Research on attitudes to women's roles showed over the last two decades or so a universal trend of increasing liberalism and acceptance of more egalitarian role definitions. 1996). . 1986. For example. Connors (1987) found that the majority of women are employed in three occupations: elementary school teacher. 2001). women (as a group). 2002). 2001. However. 1980) and that men are usually perceived as the primary breadwinners (Kasl and Cobb. This study represents the first application of the scale in the Arab world and. women are pressured yet again to quit their jobs and become full-time mothers against instances of presumably child delinquency. Most Arab men consider households and domestic activities suitable for women and most Arab families educate their sons rather than their daughters on the assumption that boys are a greater economic asset than girls (El-Ghannam. examine the impact of some variables such as sex. Not surprisingly. while in 1995 they constituted 30 per cent. greater engagement of women in society is seen as essential as the once-generous welfare state erodes and women are forced to work (Khalaf. and found that just over one-quarter of the gross earnings differential between men and women remains ``unexplained''. 1996). secretary. it was revealed that women represent 23 per cent of the total labour force in Egypt (Ramzy. and . Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . women in Arab world constituted only 12 per cent of the labour force. to the relatively late entry of women into the labour force in qualitative and quantitative terms. The paucity of research on attitudes towards women who work in Egypt can be ascribed. Orabi. El-Rahmony. It became of particular importance in the Arab world when women began to enter into the labour force in record numbers (Statt. In spite of their increased participation in the labour force. among other things. Tary. 1999). and nurse. the reliability and convergent validity of the MAWWWS will be examined. 1979. and religiosity on the attitudes towards women who work in Egypt. In some Arab countries like Saudi Arabia. 21 per cent worked in industry. The current study fills the gap and tries to examine the validity of a recently developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS) in an Arab non-western context. For example. in Arab societies. The study emphasised the important role played by modernisation factors such as urbanisation. modernity encourages society to reconsider traditional gender roles. 1993). Not surprisingly. Haj-Yahia. 1983).044 non-students in the West Bank. They found that important decisions were more likely to be made by men only in families of students than in families of non-students (53 per cent versus 35 per cent). and women's access to education and labour market participation (Mar'i. and that students were more likely to choose their own future spouse than allow their parents to make that decision. 103 college undergraduates. including Egypt. According to Johnson (1995). Arab culture is also characterised as a patriarchal culture (Barakat. threats. The Economist (2001) concluded that in the Arab world. and women's involvement in the workforce lead to increasingly similar roles for men and women and hence a favourable attitude towards women. Patriarchy refers to men's structural control over political. Alwraikat and Simadi (2001) in a study to examine the relationship between some socio-demographic factors and modernity in Jordan and the United Arab Emirates. Recently. including the subculture of Arabs living in Israel. Shadid and Seltzer (1989) conducted a study among 1. Modernisation theory argues that increases in urbanisation. were more liberal than the older generations. 2000) will reflect traditional values regarding relations between the sexes and attitudes toward women. Mikulincer et al. Number 5 . 2003 . Al-Aysa (1981) found in her study about the values of marriage among Qataris that modern marriage is more liberal in terms of mate selection and individuality compared with traditional arranged marriage. 2002). Almaney. H2. It is safe. In another study conducted also in Qatar. 1992. legal. family responsibilities. Al-Thakeb (1985) found that modernisation plays a significant role in spousal selection and in changing attitudes in general. and other control tactics. Segal et al. 254 . to assume that patriarchal power relations prevailing in Arab societies (Dobash and Dobash. the younger generation. mass communication and education in this change. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . findings that indicate less traditional roles for those couples who benefit from more education. Nisan. 1987. and religious institutions (Glick and Fiske. It is argued that this patriarchal culture prevailing in Arab societies has even affected the way Arab literary critics read Arab literature produced by women (Mahadin. found that the two Arab countries are submitting to modernity. Slevin and Wingrove (1983) investigated the similarities and differences among three generations of women in attitudes towards the female role in contemporary society using the abbreviated 25-item AWS.. 252-266 This hypothesis is in line with the findings of cross-cultural research which showed that sex-role is intimately related to broader cultural and social structures (Maneef. In addition. 2002). Katsurada and Sugihara. Al-Hosayni and Al-Aysa (1981) found that the Qatari husbands' and wives' role has changed because of the proliferation of education and work opportunities. which involves the systematic use of economic subordination. The hypothesis is also consistent with previous studies that have shown that the Arab culture.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. then. Shalani (1988) found in his study in India that age is an important factor in changing attitudes from traditional to modern. marriage customs. In a study examining the effect of modernisation on the family structure in Kuwait. 1992. 1999. Vega. younger generations (students) will report more liberal attitudes towards women than older generations. 1993. education. 1997). 1981). 1985. Sharabi.018 Muslim students at three universities in the West Bank and 1. Evidence that Arab culture is submitting to modernisation is substantiated in a number of studies. 1990. economic. This hypothesis is in line with findings of previous research conducted to study the factors influencing expectations towards women. the product of patriarchal traditions of men's right to control their women can be called ``patriarchal terrorism''. the patriarchal family is the strongest state institution.. 1990. 1990. Amin (1993) found that the Bahrani family pattern since the discovery of oil has shifted from the extended and traditional family to the nuclear and modern family. For the two samples under study. is a traditional and a collectivistic culture (Bierenbauer. A total of 100 males and females were selected and interviewed. while females scored significantly higher than males on the positive aspects of the scale. a predominantly Muslim country. The influence of sex was observed in the case of attitudes towards working women but not in the case of values. then. Esposito. reinforced and legitimised her inferior status (Metle. 1996. Chia et al. Minces. From this perspective. as Islam cannot be separated from the culture of the people of the Middle East (Smith. 111 students from a mid-sized northern university in Egypt participated in the study. while only 13 per cent considered men and women equal and 8 per cent said that women were superior to men. In a national study of Muslim high school mature students. In addition. it is. This study corroborates a number of studies made to examine the impact of Islam on women's status and on attitudes towards women (e. 1991). Muslims in both samples will report more conservative attitudes towards working women than non-Muslims. . El-Saadawi. female college students expressed a preference for more equal and liberalised attitudes towards women and sex roles in general. This hypothesis is based on the assumption that Egypt is a traditional Arab and Muslim society. (1997. Egyptian culture is largely affected by Arab culture and Arab culture relegated the woman's role to that of a housewife and mother and her place to the home. it is important to consider its teachings concerning attitudes towards women in Muslim society. 3) argued: The interpretation of vague Koranic passages and the discovery of obscure hadith have historically been used by clergy both to justify female seclusion and to increase male rights. Based on the results of the extensive research reviewed above. Vandewiele (1983) explored adolescents' conceptions of women's status in Islam. 2002). Hjarpe. H4. 1982.g. Of the 400 boys and 200 girls surveyed. Method Sample Subjects in this study were 217 participants. 1982).Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. Several researchers compared the attitudes toward women from a cultural perspective. To explore the Kuwaiti women's image among university students. Of these.'s (1986) findings that women have more liberal attitudes towards women's role in society than their male counterparts. Parveen's (2001) study aimed to investigate the influence of age and sex attitudes toward working women and modernity values in Bangladesh. aged from 20-45 years. the study of Islam's impact on forming attitudes becomes an important framework from which to evaluate the attitudes towards women in Islamic societies. 1992) and with previous research which showed that men are less pro-feminist in their attitudes than are women (Misra and Panigrahi. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . McKinney. Damji and Lee (1995) examined the gender role identity and perceptions of appropriate gender roles so as to gain a better understanding of Canadian Ismaili Muslim beliefs. aged 20-22 in Senegal. p. The other 106 participants were selected randomly among older generations (40-60) and from both Muslim and 255 . Although the comparison of Muslim men and women is deemed to be complex. . p. Obermeyer. 29) concluded that: . In another study. in both Chinese and American societies. the vast majority (79 per cent) viewed women as inferior to men. Because Islam is the predominant religion in Egypt and in the Arab world.g. 2003 . it is argued. 1983. 1980. Khalifa (1997) in a study including 280 male and 300 female undergraduates found that males scored significantly higher than females on the negative aspects of a 90-item stereotypes scale. Diwan and Menezes. the women in this sample tended to resemble other women in demonstrating a more feminine identity and a more liberal outlook toward gender rules than the men. A variety of interpretations of attitudes towards women emerge from the same religious texts and tradition (Ed-Din. Number 5 . 1992). Men in both samples will report more traditional attitudes towards women than women. It is also consistent with Haworth et al. Marshall (1984. 1982. 1987). and the Islamic religion. This hypothesis is consistent with previous research which universally showed that men had less egalitarian attitudes towards women than women (e. safe to assume that Egyptian men will report more traditional attitudes towards working women compared with women. 252-266 H3. Nasif et al. thus. (1998. 13 per cent were graduate students. just under 31 per cent were sophomores. and a consulting company. 25 per cent were juniors. 1996. Dubno et al. Spence and Helmreich (1972) developed the widely used attitudes towards women scale (AWS). 1997. the cover letter indicated that the survey seeks ``attitudes towards women in Egypt'' and nothing else. antagonism. 1997). which assesses the degree to which woman are accepted in corporate managerial roles. and social roles. was 106 with a response rate of 46 per cent. The characteristics of the sample are presented in Table I. 1987). 1998. Some scales do not adequately assess contemporary gender issues (Henley et al. (1979) developed the popular managerial attitudes toward female executives scale (MATFES). The effective sample size. Swim et al. According to Henley et al. McHugh and Frieze. and 11 per cent were freshmen. Of these firms. and resentment associated with women's employment. and nine responses from the consulting company. 256 . Table I Characteristics of the sample Variable Frequency 111 61 50 106 49 57 12 35 28 22 14 128 86 Valid (%) 100 55 45 100 46 54 11 31 25 20 13 60 40 Students Male Female Non-students Male Female Student level Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate Religion Muslims Non-Muslims Measures A number of scales have been developed over the last several decades that measure various gender role attitudes and behaviours. The survey administrator remained present for the duration of the survey.. Around half of the participants were women (49 per cent). 143 responses were received by the cut-off date. 318). Student questionnaires were distributed during classes and collected from participants immediately upon completion. (1995) recently developed a modern sexism instrument that assesses discrimination. Gordon et al. but 37 questionnaires were discarded because the respondents failed to complete the MAWWWS scale appropriately.. 1997). many of them have various limitations and shortcomings. In order to ensure an acceptable number of responses. The five organisations were two banks. the use of students has been commonplace and widely accepted in empirical research about attitudes towards working women (e. p.g. contacts were made with seven organisations to secure their cooperation in collecting data from their employees.. 47 from the two major hotel and hospitality firms. Despite the proliferation of these instruments. and Yoder and McDonald (1997) provided some support for the scale's psychometric properties. even though there have been ``widespread development and use of such scales. 1991). and in the text. five agreed to distribute the survey instrument. Ng. Although the extent to which student subjects represent the general population of the young generation can be debated (Greenberg.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. In total. 1987. Similarly. and the scale is composed of items that tap both stereotypical and managerial traits (Terborg et al. The breakdown of the responses from the five organisations was as follows: 50 from the two banks. Collecting data by mail surveys in the Arab world has been very difficult (Harzing.. Confidentiality of responses was emphasized in the cover letter with the title ``confidential survey''. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . (1974) to measure attitudes about women in leadership roles. 1977). To reduce social desirability artifacts (Chen et al. Distribution of these surveys resulted in a convenience sample of 111 usable reponses. Almost 20 per cent of the student participants were seniors. there has been some dissatisfaction with them'' among researchers. Respondents were also given the opportunity to request an individualized report. the women as managers scale (WAMS) was developed by Peters et al. Abdalla. 2003 . A total of 231 questionnaires were distributed to employees in these organisations. which measures beliefs about women in various educational. Number 5 .. 252-266 non-Muslim communities for purposes of testing the research hypotheses. 1995). employment. two major hotel and hospitality firms. Number 5 .7 per cent of the variance and had an eigenvalue of 2. This procedure also tests whether the correlation matrix is an identity matrix (factor analysis would be meaningless with an identity matrix). A significance value of < 0. or word-by-word. The eigenvalue for the first factor (employment skepticism) was 5. are added and the words reinterpreted. it should be admitted that complete semantic equivalence in cross- 257 . 1994). The Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was used to measure the adequacy of the sample for extraction of the two factors. The KMO values found (see Table III) are generally considered acceptable (Kim and Mueller.3 per cent of the variance explained (see Table II). Later on the original five-item scale was refined and validated (Valentine. Zhang. whereas the second factor (traditional values preference) explained 27. However. First.16. these Arabic items were back-translated into English by a bilingual expert to make sure that original content was kept in translation to decrease discrepancies between the English and Arabic measurements. 1991). it provides confidence that the empirical findings accurately reflect the proposed constructs. the author followed Malinowski's (1935) technique of translation. In translating the scale items into Arabic. 1978). 1959). therefore. no longer viewed as a measure of feminism and it is considered an outdated measure of attitudes toward women's roles. 2001) by adding items that survey an employment skepticism component. which is a widely used secondary data source that has been compiled since 1979. Then.. cultural studies is a statistical fiction (Phillips. This suggests that only a small amount of the total variance for each group of variables is associated with causes other than the factor itself. The results highlighted a two-factor solution with 79. For instance. Procedure The Arabic version of the MAWWWS was created through careful translation and back-translation techniques (Candell and Hulin. 1972. Liss et al. the author translated the ten-item MAWWWS into Arabic. 1987. 2003 . p. All factors in each unifactorial test accounted for more than 68 per cent of the variance of the respective variable sets. 252-266 whereas others do not adequately discriminate between various gender phenomena and are too general and overly long (Henley et al. (3) an analysis and collation of the two translations. 279) claimed that the AWS is: . Thomas and Weigert.77. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . In factor analysis. oblique rotation was applied as the rotation procedure. Terborg et al. We use the ten-item new version of the MAWWWS in this study as this may mitigate several of the concerns with previously developed scales. leading to (4) a contextual specification of meaning. No individual items were problematic in translation.05 More recently. etc.6 per cent of the variance. Results Validity and reliability One of the objectives of this research was to test the validity and reliability of the MAWWWS in a non-Western context. conjunctions. (2000. The MAWWWS construct comprises many interrelated items and. Valentine and Mosley (1998) constructed a single dimension scale that assesses aversion to women who work (AWWWS) with five items from the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.. The Bartlett test of sphericity was used to test the multivariate normality of the set of distributions. (2) a ``free'' translation in which clarifying terms. The pattern matrix indicated that all of the item loadings for each factor were above 0.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. translation. The MAWWWS scale was factor-analysed by principal component analysis. Spence and Buckner. . and this factor explained 51. First. 1977).64. Second. A thorough reliability and validity analysis on measurement instruments in empirical research is essential for several reasons. .. which involves four steps: (1) an interlinear. 1998. a rotation procedure is commonly applied which maximises the correlations of each item on a factor (Comrey. empirically-validated scales can be used directly in other studies in the field for different populations and for longitudinal studies (Flynn et al. 2000. 1973). This result implies that the data are thus approximately multivariate normal and acceptable for factor analysis.88028 0. and coefficient alpha was calculated for each group.10211 0. Reliability refers to the instrument's ability to provide consistent results in repeated uses (Gatewood and Field.89380 0.79). The analysis focusing on the sphericity of the distribution (Bartlett's sphericity test) allowed us to reject the hypothesis according to which the matrix would be unitary (p < 0.. it can also be employed to assess more specific attitudinal domains.22132 0. which provides evidence of adequate content validity and construct definition. in exploratory research such as this.65 indicates that the data do not produce an identity matrix or differ significantly from identity (George and Mallery. 252-266 Table II Factor analysis results Rotated factor matrix Factor 1 Factor 2 Q10 Q8 Q9 Q7 Q6 Q4 Q2 Q3 Q1 Q5 ±0. therefore. 2003 .6 is sufficient. which improves the scale's efficacy.778 Variance explained (%) 64. and both traditional roles preference and employment skepticism also had acceptable reliability scores ( = 0. Number 5 . The items in each factor were grouped into two scales. 1990). The MAWWWS also exhibits sound psychometric properties unlike some other gender-related instruments (for example. Although its conceptual underpinnings allow the MAWWWS to be used as a global gender role measure.6 79.39600 0. 2000). that each factor is a sufficiently reliable measure.7 Cum.6 27.64479 ±0. Reliability results along with the findings from previous research are presented in Table IV. The most notable advantage of the scale is its length. Using SPSS.71 respectively). 2000).0001).85327 0. Based on the results of the statistical analyses.64 and = 0.85729 0.16190 2.16533 0. Coefficient (Cronbach's) alpha is the basic measure for reliability (Green et al.70 68.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M.90375 ±0.768 0. employment skepticism. Traditional attitudes hypothesis The ten items on the MAWWWS scale were rated using a four-point Likert-type response format anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 258 .76927 % of var. The ten-item MAWWWS had an acceptable coefficient alpha ( = 0. Nunnally (1978) suggested that.53097 0. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . The alpha values found for each scale indicated.74757 Factor 1 2 Eigenvalue 5. the measure also appears to be centrally positioned with regard to many gender role measures. 51. which is comparatively shorter than many other scales of its type. % 51. an alpha value of 0.04728 0.06537 0. see Yoder and McDonald (1997) for a discussion of the modern sexism scale).17587 0.94456 0. From a conceptual standpoint.3 Table III Construct validity tests of the factors Factors Employment skepticism Traditional values preference KMO 0.08919 0. an internal consistency analysis was performed to assess the reliability aspect of the MAWWWS instrument. the MAWWWS appears to be a fairly valid and reliable measure of traditional gender role attitudes and stereotypes. and traditional roles preference.92366 0.17327 ±0.86992 0. 00 4.00 4.00 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 111 (list-wise) = 106.68 0.68 1. (1980) Peters et al. Low items scores indicated that participants adopted somewhat non-traditional gender roles.00 1.82 0.68 0.53 0.94 2.00 4. H1 cannot be accepted.65 0.80 0.00 1. 1983).00 3. 2003 .g.00 1.00 2.00 2.80 1.00 3.00 4. Mar'i.00 4.89 0.00 1.11 2. modernisation theory argues that increases in urbanisation.01 .00 1.25 1.00 3.92 0.01 0.25 2. This was confirmed using the t-test procedure.70 1.00 3. and item-descriptive statistics are presented in Table V.64 0. and women's involvement in the workforce lead to increasingly similar roles for men and women. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 .85 0.81 1.71 Symbolic threat (ten items) Rosenberg self-esteem scale (ten items) Table V Scale-descriptive statistics Variable Number of valid observations (a) Student sample Q1 Q3 Q2 Q4 Q8 Q5 Q9 Q7 Q6 Q10 Number of valid observations (b) Non-student sample Q1 Q9 Q3 Q6 Q8 Q7 Q5 Q4 Q10 Q2 Mean Std Dev.00 1.91 0. Number 5 . education. (1974) Terborg et al.00 4.64 0. which shows that the mean scores for the participants are significantly less than the average theoretical score (p < 0.00 1.41 3.25 2.69 1.00 4.47 1.88 1.81 0.86 0.00 1.80 2.00 1. As a society evolves from agrarian to industrial.00 1.00 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 106 4 (strongly agree).75 1.79 1.82 0.00 4.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M.00 (2) 1.91 1.00 1.00 1.00 1. Hence. which predicated that modernity may diminish patriarchal attitudes towards women.79 0.00 4.00 4.05).00 4.44 0.00 (1) 1.00 1.00 1. (1977) Bhatnagar and Swamy (1995) Stephan et al. 259 .00 4. 252-266 Table IV Reliability of current study compared with reliability estimates reported in past studies Scale Aversion to women who work scale (five items) Attitudes towards women scale (AWS) (15 items) Women as managers scale (WAMS) (21 or 22 items) Past study Valentine and Mosley (1998) Valentine and Mosley (1999) Spence and Helmreich (1972) Rice et al.70 0.00 1.65 0. (2000) Valentine (1998) Abu-Saad (1999) Coefficient alpha in current study Traditional role preference Employment skepticism Reliability estimate (scale alpha) 0.05 1.00 3.00 4.37 2.52 0.48 1.93 1.00 1. This result partially corroborates previous research conducted in the Arab world (e. Minimum Maximum Valid n (list-wise) = 110.58 1.47 1.04 0.24 3.51 0.45 0.87 0.01 1.00 3.00 3. Scholars claim that Muslims range from those who believe that Islam. 2002). 252-266 An alternative explanation for the forces of ``development and modernisation'' is the social diffusion model (Montgomery and Casterline. diffusion models would predict that some individuals will be motivated to bargain in favour of altered behaviour in response to new ideas absorbed from their social environment (Rogers. These results suggest that.05).. community contacts. with the passing of time and especially through the effects of equal education.. This model predicts that a proportion of individuals who are exposed to new ideas through media. These findings corroborate earlier studies that show the Arab Implications Research implications This research contributes to the literature on cross-cultural studies of gender by systematically assessing the attitudes towards working women in Egypt. The purpose of this distinction is not to ease the confusion in the conceptualisation of Islam's view towards women. There is little question. . as it is practiced today.05). (1996) study which shows that. as it is practiced today. however. it is likely that tradition will have diminishing weight against the forces of modernisation (Al-Dhafiri. it was found that the mean scores for students and older generations are almost identical. This result partially contradicts Abdalla's. to those who believe that Islam. adolescent girls express more liberal views pertaining to women's roles and position in society than their male peers (Rapoport et al. no generation gap was found between the AWS scores of fathers and sons. and social spheres. This result shows that there exists some evidence that attitudes towards women who work in Egypt are. Arab men are not willing to share these responsibilities with them. Although it was hypothesised that college students will have much more liberal views towards women who work in Egypt through their encounter with non-traditional attitudes during their college years compared with older generations. 1989). With regard to attitudes towards women who work.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. Hence. For example. It seems that Muslims and Christians in Egypt share the same cultural heritage. is just and fair to women. over the general acceptance of Mohammed's teachings by either Muslim men or women. it was predicted that: . 260 . is patriarchal and contrary to its original teachings regarding gender issues. p. a recent study found that female circumcision (more widely referred to in the international literature as female genital cutting or female genital mutilation) is widespread in Egypt among both Muslims and Christians despite the claim that it is sanctioned by Islam (El-Gibaly et al. Actually. Gender differences hypothesis T-test shows that Egyptian females have more favourable attitudes towards women who work compared with their male counterparts. Islamic tradition and culture. we should distinguish between Islam. Å therefore. H2 cannot be accepted. but rather to facilitate the understanding between patriarchy and Islam. which supports H3 (p < 0. Number 5 . The general assumption for most Muslim women is that gender equality is inherent in the Qur'an. educational. changing towards a less traditional stance. inequality problems for them only emerge when there is ``malpractice. or misunderstanding. 2003 . Hence. of the sacred text''. or discussions with friends and neighbours will ultimately be persuaded to alter previous behaviour. 1996). Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 .05). as no generation gap was detected (p > 0. it seems that the perceived failure of development in Egypt and the rejection of westernisation has led to resurgence of Islamic fundamentalism promoting conservative values especially among the youth. . 1962). Religiosity hypothesis No significant difference is detected between Muslims and non-Muslims in Egypt regarding their attitudes towards women who work (p > 0. while a generation gap was detected between the AWS scores of mothers and their daughters. in general. 1987. while Arab women are willing to accept more responsibilities in the occupational. 27). Generation gap hypothesis Using the t-test procedure. policy makers should increase the role of local media in Arab communities to urge women to involve themselves in economic life and to form favourable attitudes towards working women in Egypt. but should continue to be investigated as the gender role perceptions in Egyptian society change over the coming years. Egyptian organisations need the active involvement of all employees. 2003 . Hence. 1996). Understanding and building favourable attitudes towards women may also help multinational firms implement strategic human resource management policies and systems that prevent the underutilisation of their talent in Egypt. Educated and skilled Arab women are thus relegated to positions which are assumed to be of a non-political nature such as teaching.Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. Another set of policy implications deals with the reason behind stereotyping and forming attitudes towards working women in Egypt. Preconceived gender stereotyping would be detrimental to organisations that underutilise this readily available pool of women managerial talent. stereotyping has often been regarded as a type of schema involved in processing media information and in organising memory (Martin and Halverson. The present results suggest that the need for validation of the MAWWWS should not end with this study. Usually. 1983). nursing. policy makers should aim to create conditions to enhance the position of these organisations. In other words. 1972). The main misconception is that Arab women are not supposed to publicly participate in the political and administrative processes. Future research The results of the present study should be viewed with caution because of the limited generalisability of studies involving college student participants. Women's movement organisations might also play a role in enhancing favourable attitudes towards women in Egyptian society. In this research we performed only one form: convergent-validity analysis. Several different forms of validity can serve as criteria for assessing the psychometric soundness of a scale (Grapentine. This form of validity pertains to the extent to which scale items assumed to represent a construct do in fact ``converge'' on the same construct. This should be kept in mind when viewing the results of the present study. Future researchers using the MAWWWS may test the scale's discriminate validity or 261 . those who are considered gendertyped and gender-schematic tend to organise their sense of self around socially prescribed sex-role characteristics and other socially designated behaviours that differentiate men and women and that are implicitly and uncritically accepted (Bem. It is possible that gender role perceptions are more conservative (and traditional) in the South than in other areas of the country. there is a tendency to under-utilise human resources in national development. That can be accomplished by following a comprehensive method aiming at deepening women's consciousness of their political and legal rights. and may be a direction for future research. Organisations with policies that hinder selection and promotion of women in management will greatly reduce utilisation of valuable personnel. 252-266 Perhaps the findings of this research will lend increased confidence to researchers who have been using the MAWWWS with reservations. and lesser administrative jobs. Egyptian organisations cannot afford to forgo a major managerial talent pool represented by women. Number 5 . Policy implications There is much misconception about the role of women and attitudes towards working women in Egypt. as a religion. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . Renn and Calvert (1993) interpreted gender stereotypes using an information-processing model and suggested that a gender schema enhanced recall of stereotypical information. As a result. In order to compete in the highly competitive global economy of the twentyfirst century. 1995). To grow and prosper. Hence. the MAWWWS may be less valid in some regions than in others. 1981). this argument is presented on Islamic grounds and is based on the assumption that Islam. or who may have avoided the instrument because of concerns about validity. The existing sex roles exert real pressures on individuals to behave in prescribed ways (Broverman et al. both men and women.. restricts and limits the role of women in public affairs (Al-Lail. From the social psychologist's point of view. and are expected to have control of the home. Discriminate-validity analysis shows the extent to which a scale is new and not just a reflection of other variables. I. Women in Management Review. along with state-sponsored projects. with females consistently more supportive than males. there are many indicators that the situation may change in favour of women in the near future. Men are the dominant sex. Vol. The predictive or concurrent facet of validity refers to the extent to which scale scores are associated as hypothesized with other conceptually related measures. significantly. The husband is culturally accepted as the ruler of the family and is regarded as the formal authority to whom the wife and children must ultimately respond. Despite the influence of fundamentalism. 29-39. The wife's role is taking care of her family structure. The husband's role is authoritarian. 2003 . Summary and conclusions The goal of this study was to explore the attitudes towards women who work in Egypt. 2002).Attitudes towards women who work in Egypt Mohamed M. This study was conducted in Egypt. 262 . In short. It is in this context that the popular rise in anti-Western/anti-colonial sentiments prompted by the Islamist movement have led to a counter-discourse of favourable attitudes towards women usually held by younger generations. particularly as more educational and employment opportunities are created. Egyptian society still generally values patriarchy. This finding suggests that males should not be overlooked in modernisation and equal opportunity programmes in Egypt. The sample for the present study consisted of 217 participants. so some caution should be observed in generalising its results to other Arab societies. 252-266 predictive/concurrent validity. validating the scale for the first time in an Arab non-Western context. Future research should also investigate hypotheses that derive from the traditional gender role stereotyping present in Egyptian culture. This study finds no significant differences between Muslims and non-Muslims in their attitudes towards women who work. References Abdalla. From the research findings we can conclude that there exists a moderate change from expected restrictive traditional attitudes towards women who work in Egypt to a more liberal view. Mostafa Women in Management Review Volume 18 . with clear-cut gender role differences. 11. ``Attitudes towards women in the Arabian Gulf region''. and the ways in which the issue of veil and women was encoded with political meanings and references. given that Egyptian society and culture are an integral part of the larger Islamic-Arab heritage. However. a considerable gender gap in attitudes persists even when other factors are held constant. between advocates and opponents of veiling. The data of the study were collected by a ten-item recently developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS) (see Appendix). Egyptian society is generally regarded as highly patriarchal. However. The debate presently taking place in the contemporary Arab World between Islamists and secularists. and he assumes responsibility for maintaining the family structure by whatever means he feels are justified. the results of this research should by no means be interpreted as Egypt moving away rapidly from a patriarchal and traditional society. pp. The institutions of marriage and the family are highly patriarchal (Ramzy. Muna (1980) suggests that Arab societies (moderate and traditional) have an inner similarity and share certain values despite the obvious differences in the economic and political attainments of their members. The fact that no generation gap was detected in the attitudes towards women who work might be shaped by several factors: the increasing rise in religion-based movements and their close affinity with patriarchal tendencies and. have a great bearing on any discourse related to attitudes towards women. 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