Attention Span During Lectures

Adv Physiol Educ 40: 509–513, 2016;doi:10.1152/advan.00109.2016. A Personal View Attention span during lectures: 8 seconds, 10 minutes, or more? Neil A. Bradbury Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, Illinois Submitted 12 July 2016; accepted in final form 19 October 2016 Bradbury NA. Attention span during lectures: 8 seconds, 10 subject students to a 50-min lecture. Thus many authors would minutes, or more? Adv Physiol Educ 40: 509 –513, 2016; doi:10.1152/ make the case that a lecture session should last no more than advan.00109.2016.—In the current climate of curriculum reform, the 10 –15 min to accommodate the biological set point of a traditional lecture has come under fire for its perceived lack of student’s attention span. In 2015, a study commissioned by effectiveness. Indeed, several institutions have reduced their lectures Microsoft and discussed in Time magazine found that the to 15 min in length based upon the “common knowledge” and Downloaded from http://advan.physiology.org/ by 10.220.33.1 on November 16, 2017 “consensus” that there is a decline in students’ attention 10 –15 min average attention span was in fact only 8 s. If indeed this is the into lectures. A review of the literature on this topic reveals many case, then even participating in a 15-min lecture would be discussions referring to prior studies but scant few primary investi- positively heroic. To place this in perspective, it was reported gations. Alarmingly, the most often cited source for a rapid decline in in the same Time article, that goldfish, of the piscine rather than student attention during a lecture barely discusses student attention at snack variety, have an attention span of 9 s, one whole second all. Of the studies that do attempt to measure attention, many suffer greater than humans! It is perhaps rather premature to opt for from methodological flaws and subjectivity in data collection. Thus, an 8-s lecture format, as there are many caveats to the Time the available primary data do not support the concept of a 10- to article, not the least of which is that no one knows how to 15-min attention limit. Interestingly, the most consistent finding from actually measure a goldfish’s attention span. What has been a literature review is that the greatest variability in student attention measured is goldfish memory, which, according to researchers arises from differences between teachers and not from the teaching format itself. Certainly, even the most interesting material can be in the School of Psychology at the University of Plymouth, is presented in a dull and dry fashion, and it is the job of the instructor actually quite good (7). Similarly the 8-s attention span for to enhance their teaching skills to provide not only rich content but humans actually reflects the average time a person will spend also a satisfying lecture experience for the students. on a web page before looking somewhere else. So thankfully, we can dispense with the 8-s lecture limit, but we are still left lecture; attention; note taking; clickers with the idea that a physiology curriculum should only enter- tain the concept of a 15-min attention span. However, despite the perceived and agreed upon wisdom of this time point, are TED and the Goldfish there actually any data that would support such a thesis? THE ENORMOUSLY POPULAR TED talks are a series of talks in which speakers present their ideas on a wide range of topics Genesis of the 10-Min Attention Span from technology to biomedical research to culture. One key The academic literature is replete with articles and books stipulation given to all speakers is that they have a maximum supporting and propagating the conclusion that lectures should of 18 min to present their material. The rule dictating 18 min adhere to the 10- to 15-min attention span that is characteristic is based on the notion that 18 min is long enough to have a of modern students. In the book Tools for Teaching, Davis (5) “serious” presentation but short enough to hold a person’s states that “...student attention during lectures tends to wane attention. With the broad spectrum of physiology teaching after approximately 10 –15 minutes.” Similarly, Wankat (20) from undergraduate courses to health professional and graduate argues that “Although student attention is high at the start of a level courses, should a “TED” approach be widely imple- lecture, it has reached a low point after 10 –15 minutes.” In mented in physiology curricula? Since the founding of Western essays honoring the psychologist Wilbert J. McKeachie, Ben- universities in the middle of the 11th century, the lecture has jamin (1) asserts that “When the lecture begins, most students been the traditional means of passing on knowledge. Indeed, are paying attention, and for most students that attention lasts the 50-min lecture still holds sway at many institutions. De- for about 10 minutes.” Indeed, McKeachie (13), in Teaching spite nearly a millennium of usage, the established lecture Tips (8th Ed.), has maintained that “Attention typically in- format has come under more and more scrutiny. It is criticized creases from the beginning of the lecture to 10 minutes into the as being too long to hold a student’s attention based on several lecture and decreases after that point,” a sentiment still echoed authors’ claims that a student’s attention span declines precip- by this author more than 20 yr later in the 14th edition of the itously after 10 –15 min. Such observations would support the book (19). Several points are noteworthy regarding these TED approach of an 18-min limitation. If, as is contended, a publications. First, all of them agree on a quantitatively precise student can mentally focus only in 15-min increments, it would 10 –15 min time course for a variable (attention) that is nebu- seem not only unreasonable but also grossly inefficient to lous and never quantitatively defined. Second, evidentiary discussion for such a precise time span is negligible. Third, all of the above reports do not provide any primary data on Address for reprint request and other correspondence: N. A. Bradbury, Dept. of Physiology and Biophysics, Member Master Teacher Guild, Chicago attention but are content to all cite the same single initial report Medical School, 3333 Green Bay Rd., North Chicago, IL 60064 (e-mail: as the basis for the 10- to 15-min attention span assertion. For [email protected]). example, McKeachie (13) states that “Hartley and Davies’ 1043-4046/16 Copyright © 2016 The American Physiological Society 509 If note taking is not a useful possibilities: with students asked to press button no. with another attention question still remains: is note taking a good surrogate for lapse 10 –18 min into the class. there was no definition as to what note taking is not necessarily indicative of attention at all. argued for a connection between a 10-min time Johnstone and Percival (11) attempted to evaluate attention point and a decline in note taking. but it reviews the literature up vidual lecturers’ teaching styles and not related to the student’s to that point regarding the taking of notes in class by students.and fifth-year medical students. Although it is stated that when both authors indicator of attention. the rate of note taking appears to be class.A Personal View 510 STUDENT ATTENTION SPAN review of research on attention of students during lecture lecture. between second. the review by Hartley and Davies (10) has been 10 min too long.were attended by at least mental exhaustion on the part of the student but rather reflected one of us observers. Johnstone and Percival (11) reported that attention making key points rather than student fatigue. the decline in note taking at the class and record the times of perceived attention drift. a review of the data shows that the entire difference a thorough examination of this article is clearly warranted.to 15-min although the attention level at the beginning of a lecture was attention span ultimately appears to rely on a single key not different between second. citing the author’s own work (9) observed the same lecture they were in agreement as to when and that of Maddox and Hoole (12). about last night’s dinner.org/ by 10. even work by Hartley and Cameron (9) and Maddox and Hoole (12).” Nonchemistry majors have seen. So. 3 for attempted to discern attention of British medical students by attention lapses ⬎5 min. Every 5 min during a lecture. The results showed that attention lapses argue not for deficits in attention but rather for attention rose rapidly during the first 10 –20 min and then attention directed toward things other than the lecture. rather. consistent with “attention” decline after the first 10 –15 min of a lecture. Had senior medical students somehow Note Taking learned to pay more attention in class? Were senior students acquiring new skills and techniques to enable them to be alert If all of the citations for a 10..” state the authors. the dropped during the first 5 min of class. 2 for attention student attention spans? A study by Stuart and Rutherford (18) lapses of 2–3 min duration. 2017 enced lecturer who did not present to second-year students. Interestingly the examples the authors give for attention level on a 1 to 9 scale. A person looking away from the teacher note taking is not a good proxy for attention whatsoever. was an attention lapse.220. A finding like this Although this publication concerns note taking and not atten- should be axiomatic. there are several problems (10) concede that there is a waxing and waning in attention with the methodology that raise concerns about the validity of span during a lecture but that measuring note taking was not an the findings. 1 for metric. Indeed.33. perhaps note taking is a reasonable surrogate marker the lecture has been so awful and jejune that 10 min of lecture for attention. manuscript published in 1978 (10) describing the waning of the attention level observed at the end of the lecture was attention during a lecture. observations of students note taking has Recently. pressing button no. Although gratifying that a drop in lecture content during the waning few minutes of the at least one of the authors usually turned up to observe the presentation (12).org . and may be reflecting on the material and integrating it with prior even if it were.physiology.. Indeed. a finding seemingly consistent attention? The answer appears to be no. of the manuscript is in fact “note taking. Hartley and Davies with prior observations. Moreover. this is unreliable and not even supported by authors taking chemistry classes were asked to self-report using three who were studying note taking. then reality.00109.to 15-min attention span for longer periods of time than their junior colleagues? In originate with a 1978 article by Hartley and Davies (10).” This article itself is Thus. differences in attention appeared to be related to indi- also not a primary data source.” Thus. Out the end the lecture was not caused by a lack of attention or of 90 lectures given. Interestingly. that point. a review of prior Direct Observation literature. or pressing button no. (4).1 on November 16.physiology. Certainly. In fact.to 15-min limit on work. in fact observation by both authors occurred only 13% of relatively constant throughout the course of a lecture. and the time. with 87% of all subjective data collected by a single changes in note taking appear to reflect whether the lecturer is observer. the subject Downloaded from http://advan. We have all experienced lectures where tion span. Hartley points out that attention lapses occurred. Unfortunately the decline in span not by utilizing the student’s own evaluations but by note taking was observed during the last 10 min of the lecture employing two outside observers. individual abilities to remain attentive. whose job it was to watch and not the first (9. then what other approaches can be used to study attention lapses of ⱕ1 min. the propagated concept of a 10. but the decline reports that attention typically increases from the beginning of was slow and never went below the initial attention level the lecture to 10 minutes into the lecture and decreases after observed in the first few minutes of the lecture. it does not support a 10. significantly greater for fifth-year students compared with sec- ond-year students. course of a lecture. Yet as we of student attention using “clickers. However. However. Bunce et al. yet for other lecturers 1 h seems contends that the amount of notes taken declines over the wholly inadequate. 12). the lectures “. Personal Assessment Clickers and Attention As discussed above.and fifth-year students was all due to the fact What is remarkable regarding this publication is that attention that one class for fifth-year students was taught by an experi- span is not actually the subject of the article.2016 • http://advan. A student fixedly staring at the teacher may be thinking student engagement. a buzzer would between phases of attention and inattention throughout the go off and the students would record their own perceived entire lecture. As slowly and steadily declined until the end of the 50-min examples of the kinds of things that were classified as attention Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10. The authors noted that students did asking the students themselves what their attention level was not engage in consistent levels of attention but rather went during a lecture. Attention span did decline after 20 min. attempted to address the question been imputed as a surrogate for student attention.1152/advan. to 15-min lecture is or PowerPoint. the most parsi- respectively. to Factors Affecting Attention during Lectures ask whether there is a correlation between note taking and content recall. 3 was pressed by students ation. with a modest rise toward the end of the lecture. but what physiological the criterion for significance was were not elaborated upon in variables are amenable to easy and minimally invasive data the article. such data would seem to confirm the notion of a rial. Although this steady decline in attention during a lecture. 40. is not surprising that retention percentage is reduced. lectures lasting ⬎15 min. there are several flaws in the analysis that preclude any was a discussion class. that key points should that material covered in the lecture is not retained during always be highlighted in writing as well as spoken. that is losing attention in the present lecture due to mental fatigue. covered in the two sessions.org/ by 10. more material is cov. is no worse than the drop in attention during can be fully accounted for by the number of testable items active learning sessions. or at least a robust complaint to the Dean. and what determination of student attention. rather than Trenaman’s Interestingly. which should be taken into account by teachers. A Personal View STUDENT ATTENTION SPAN 511 lapses.” Yet what statistical analyses were per.org . However. This article started by looking at note taking and has mean- dered to material retention. is that written cues Recall and Retention are recorded more frequently and better retained than state- ments preceeded by spoken cues. It is ironic that in today’s student preference for middle. not their quantity. (15). The authors report As discussed. the conclusion is clear. students listened to a recorded student’s cerebral cortex. Arousal refers to a general level length of the lecture and the retention of the material covered of activity and a measure of nonspecific stimulation of a in that lecture. Bligh (2) outlines Scerbo et al. In these studies.6. who only retained 20% of the material. (16). Even if the outcome from this Bligh (2) was unable to find any overall correlation between study does define an inverse relation between lecture length declining heart rate and retention of covered material. 2 was pressed by students paying attention to and respond. it is the so-called attention lapses are extrinsic to whether a student is quality of the notes being taken. All of these skill for students to acquire.and revolt. Clearly. such an analysis was performed by In the book What’s the Use of Lectures?. found that there was no difference nor decline hall had as much impact on material retention as the placement in retention rates of material between live lectures of 25. material compared with students listening to 40 min of mate.220.1152/advan. the seating position of the student in the lecture recorded format. In addition. Bligh (2) study might seem to highlight the concept of diminishing found the same decline in heart rate when the teaching format returns. and back of the lecture hall scored 80. on the retention of covered material during subsequent evalu- ing to text messages. No one can determined by heart rates) was supposedly at its lowest. Data in support of this contention were presented by Johnstone and Percival (11). and not a lecture. to do so would likely incite a minor Giles et al. 1 was pressed by there was an observed decline in note taking during the length students glancing at and paying attention to the clock.. on tests given immediately following the lecture. Initially. McLeish’s report (15) of the work by Trenaman collection? At least two factors can be associated with atten- argued that there was an inverse relationship between the tion: arousal and motivation. whereas material replicate Trenaman’s data have not been satisfactory. rather than the seating position by itself. but as would be expected. However. what method of data collection was utilized. Therefore. utilizing a live lecture format. 71. (16) in 1992. Whether using chalk boards One of the arguments in favor of a 10. (8) found that information presented between the 15. The author argues that there Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10. and this such as a lecture. or of material within the lecture.1%. several factors affecting attention. That is not to say that note taking is not an important paying attention to homework from another class. Fortunately. listening to recorded rather than live lectures. The imagine that immediate testing following exposure to material observation that material covered during the latter half of a would in any way be a reasonable assessment of learning and lecture is more readily retained is a finding previously noted by comprehension. Consistent with previous reports. these studies would imply that ered in a 40-min session compared with a 15-min session. Trenaman found that students listening to only 15 rates steadily declined by ~14% from the start to end of the min of lecture had immediate retention of almost 41% of the lecture.1 on November 16. One critical point made by Scerbo et al. who attempted Objective Assessment of Attention Span Downloaded from http://advan. dent sits. such as group discussions.2016 • http://advan. Attempts to 30-min time segments was recalled best. there appears to be clear need for an objective formed. ing the last 20 min of the lecture. assessment.. Giles et al. the decline in note taking had no impact no. Bligh (2) monitored 16 students’ uated immediately following the lecture on their retention of heart rates every 5 s during a lecture using a pulsemeter. important. Heart the material. monious solution to the difference between Trenaman and However. so it a drop in attention during so-called passive learning sessions.physiology. the authors reported that button no. is little correlation did exist showed that student retention of this in any way a meaningful analysis? No physiology course material (as measured by immediate testing) was highest dur- director would expect students to immediately take examina. What and material retention immediately following the lecture.. a relevant measure of attention. when arousal (at least as tions on the material just covered in a lecture. 2017 to test knowledge of material covered during an apparent “attention lapse” during subsequent tests. during an “attention lapse. 50 min.statistically Given the subjective nature of many publications on attention highly significant. that is fairly easy to collect. and 68. (8). If heart rate is indeed hard interpretation of the data. Heart rate is one indication of arousal lecture (what would now be called a podcast) and were eval. McLeish presented during the first 15 min had the worst retention. and button no. Indeed.00109.” a finding that was “. button of a lecture. In a study of medical student retention. these findings likely reflect motivational factors McLeish’s studies would argue that recorded material is infe- (another component of attention) that determine where a stu- rior to live lecture in content retention.33. the concept of attention is somewhat nebulous that students performed poorly on recall of material covered and the working description for student attention ill-defined. it would seem fitting. Students sitting at the front.physiology. one section is devoted to Certainly. Lectures are one place In fact. Although all of the are required for a particular class. displaying the fallacy of the questions posed by the teacher. Indeed.2016 • http://advan. To the ple. determining which sources are reliable or just ciated by the students and also serves as role modeling for how plain wrong or discerning what information is salient vs. and which of them cadence. recent studies show that adage. The lecture format has been deemed a “passive” stadium.physiology. Students quickly pick up on the idea that if knowledge and may have benefits over flipped or small group faculty are unwilling to take the time to provide the best learning (17). options available.00109. 2017 ing the material. it is nonetheless still true that a picture is worth a the lecture can be an effective way to help students acquire new thousand words.physiology. In the book Teaching Naked. Lec- to devote attention and time to that lecture. students not only to remember material but also to have a deep ers are no longer consigned to devising their own crayon or comprehension of physiological processes and mechanisms pencil drawings of tissues or organs but can avail themselves of and be able to utilize such knowledge in various applications. It is informative to look at the speakers know this very well. What is learning experience. they allows a teacher to see the lecture from a student’s viewpoint provide context and the level of detail and comprehension that and can be a great guide for improvements.A Personal View 512 STUDENT ATTENTION SPAN is no reason that lectures should be “solo performances. have to rely on electronic devices but can be achieved by Is this article meant to imply that the 50-min lecture is the verbal responses from the students. Perhaps this paired faculty dialogues or group presentations being equally comes to the heart of the issue and requires an answer to the valid.” for exam- teachers merely reading long tracts of projected text. why is this assumption not evident in other aspects of Has the Sun Set on the Day of the Lecture? life? We all have access to virtually unlimited recordings of music.220. Multiple approaches can and should be used to help the internet is access to incredible graphics and videos.1152/advan. Clearly. collect. then no one need go to a live than reasoning based on findings. part of an overall balanced portfolio of instructional trate dynamic physiological processes. A further argument against the for conveying content. which of them are relevant to undergrad- teachers should actively take measures to alter rates of speech. no one need to go to watch a live play or lectures should be dismissed because students have only a 10. In this regard. but a live teacher can inspire a student lecture approach is that the lecture represents a form of edu. and who can blame tures are useful for introducing students to content.” with way to help students acquire new knowledge. however. but wisdom. one aspect is the conveyance of information. Merriam Webster’s dictionary defines sage good living by giving live presentations. and many make a remarkably definition of a sage.” It is surprising that probably the biggest aspect of inspiring students is passion for such qualities are deemed unworthy or passé in a good teacher. This can give a lecturer false choice. musical. such two-way dialogue does not this is clearly not the case. and style. great images (subject to appropriate copyright usage) to illus. These aspects are things that above aspects of attention and how teachers can impact that rely on a teacher’s accumulated experience and wisdom or.000 hits. The quoted dichotomy of “sage- Similarly. This section is taught in clinical vignettes by which the lecture is an effective method (2). to think more about a subject and delve deeper into content cational Luddism. which is not student-centered and focusses than can be achieved by passive media alone. Certainly books. This initially). As part of the physiology curriculum in gastrointestinal fundamental question of what is the purpose of a lecture? physiology at our medical school. Which of these sites provides extent that lectures are a performance in front of an audience. accurate information. rather identical to a real experience. each fold online sources for information from which the student can presenting a clinical case in rotation. the subject on the part of the teacher. or even videos.1 on November 16. although many seem to be straw men.33. with the current trend in “active” learning different between a live and recorded event is the emotional being focused on activities such as “flipped teaching” and buy-in. “guide-by-the-side” is often used to disparage cannot be part of the lecture. If a virtual experience is indeed lecture format. Yet such venues are often quickly sold out. yet a minimal amount of thought reveals that Downloaded from http://advan. there is no reason why students attending a lecture on-the-stage” vs. a YouTube video in bed just as they can attending a lecture in person. and no one need attend a football or baseball game at a to support it. the notion that music concert. There are mani- four faculty all in attendance during the lecture session. The construct implies that these are the only two immediate feedback on how well the students are comprehend. This is probably best exemplified the lecture format. Bowen (3) articu- possible graphics for their lectures. for pathophysiology. Lectures provide a good entry into a topic. it is curious that Bligh (2) dare one say it. Despite it being an old tools can include the lecture.org/ by 10. on the teacher being a sage. minutiae still requires a sage. personal. then students are unwilling lates aspects of teaching suited particularly for lectures. or characterized by helps in generating excitement about a subject in students. we are able to watch shows on television when it is Many arguments have been raised against the utility of the convenient for our schedule. can be excellent media “small problem-solving groups.400. Stimulation can also come preeminent or only means of conveying information? Certainly from auditory and visual cues. Equally if not more can adequately assess these options for themselves (at least illuminating is watching videos of one’s own lectures. Certainly charisma as “wise through reflection and experience. and moral Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10. omits mentioning student motivation as a critical aspect of If a student can get the identical learning experience viewing attention. In reality. generates 1. uate students with a minor in physiology. faculty interacts with each other in a professional manner.org . recent studies show that the lecture can be an effective where a teacher can model intellectual. prudence and good judgement. One eminently useful aspect of not. However. A quick them? Attention by students can also be seriously hampered by search on Google for “gastrointestinal physiology. this contrast is nothing more than by the use of “clickers” that allow the students to answer a sophomoric debating sleight. Of course. watching videos of motiva. attention are discussed by Bligh (2). Motivational on the “sage-on-the-stage”. This seems to be appre. no one need go to hear a distinguished speaker give a to 15-min attention span is erroneous and has little if any data talk. are relevant to medical students? It is unlikely that a student tional speakers can be very illustrative. Teach. 1976. Jr. Bunce DM. Yet when it comes to attention span. as possible to increase student motivation by showing the research. 1978. Franklin University of Medicine and Science. 4. 2013. Weinman J. Medical student concentration during lectures. MA: Heath. Dr. Hartley J. Grasha AF.00109. edited and revised manuscript.. Neiles KY. The Lecture Method. 2002. Wuppermann AC. p. 6. Flens EA. with no support other than “That’s what Educ Tech 15: 207–224. 1. the mechanistic understanding of these processes is Honor of Wilbert J. 1992. Performance decrement in the lecture. and open doors to new ways of thinking. there are now many sources in class? A study of student attention decline using clickers. J Exp Anal Behav 62: 1–13. can provide a broader education in terms of modeling respect and care for students. Johnson MR. Cambridge. Hartley J.2010. J Chem Educ to help teachers improve the quality of lectures and move the 87: 1438 –1443. Benjamin LT. 10. education. A Personal View STUDENT ATTENTION SPAN 513 values. subject? 18. 49 –50. Beyond that. processes or areas in which there is considerable disagreement 2000. McKeachie WJ. for many helpful 20. Johnstone AH. Maddox H. McKeachie WJ. Sviinicki M.physiology.1080/0013191750280102. Is traditional teaching really all that bad? A within-student between-student approach. CA: Jossey-Bass. They are usually one of the few places where students GRANTS meet faculty in person. 2. an unsubstantiated mantra 10. What’s the Use of Lectures? San Francisco.1021/ed100409p. Thus. when and where. Wankat PC. Percival F.” With the current educational trends of “life. it is critical that faculty acknowl. 1986. 2010. 15. 1982. In: The Teaching of Psychology: Essays in zymes). 2003. Scerbo MW. and although many things remain true (e. evidence for our research and data backing up our assertions. Educ Rev 20: 30 –37. Stuart J. McKeachie’s Teaching Tips: Strategies. even within a lecture format 7. Research and Theory for College and University Teachers. The Effective Efficient Professor: Scholarship and Service. it still behooves teachers in physiology classes to do as much 14. 10. DC: American Psychological Associa- regard. Giles RM. Boston: Houg- relevance of material and providing a context for what is taught ton-Mifflin. Teaching Tips: Strategies. Brewer. edited by Davis Downloaded from http://advan. Contemp Educ Psychol 17: 312–328. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 19. 10. Molecular Pharmacology at the Chicago Medical School. San Franciso. 5. Schwerdt G.A. MA: I thank Dr. Physi. 327. and students should expect 16. As scientists and physiologists. long learning” and “evidence-based teaching..1016/j. Educ Rev 28: dogmatically applying a 10.1982. Advances in Physiology Education • doi:10.1 on November 16. Bowen JA. Econ Educ Rev 30: and eager to spend as much time as they possibly can in the 365–379. ology is a wonderful science.2016 • http://advan. Stephenson D. Lexington.org . Martin Luther King stated DISCLOSURES that “.33. Rutherford RJ.org/ by 10. uncertainty and developing the intellectual processes for han. 10. faculty Cystic Fibrosis and Prostate Cancer is supported by a grant from the National Institutes of Health (1-R01-HL-102208).tb01262. The Professor’s Guide to Teaching: Psychological Princi- ples and Practices. In this 6. Wright DE. Lancet 312: 514 –516. Med Educ 16: 264 –268. 10. Zammett S. 1967. Bligh DA.. Warm JS. 1993. Davis BG.g. Textbooks by their N. 2002. 1968.1365-2923. Temporal discrimination learning of (3. Knight KE.x.1152/advan.” if we insist on 12. Fortunately. 2010. spire. The role of time and nothing less than having physiology taught with passion and cuing in a college lecture. Davies IK. 2017 continuously evolving. and theory for college and university teachers. approved final version of manuscript. discussions and encouragement. Bradbury is a member of the Master Teacher Guild at the Rosalind teachers and pose questions. Cameron A. Attention breaks in lectures.to 15-min limit on lectures. McKeachie WJ.220. Teaching Naked: How Moving Technology Out of the Class- on fixed content. Recall Conclusion of lecture information: a question of what. Bradbury receives funding from Abbvie Pharmaceuticals. 10. Hoole E. What could be better for the future of the disci. about mechanism. Boston. but they can be a valuable tool in showing room Will Improve Student Learning. motivate. enthusiasm. implying that we really don’t care about evidence. Program Learn of 15 min is chanted. Boston. p. 1975. Svinicki MD.A. San Francisco. 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Associate Professor and Vice Chair of Cellular and Houghton-Mifflin. very nature are considerably out of date by the time they are published. N. McKeachie and Charles L. McLeish J. 14). In this way. 2006. point for discussions on what is not known about physiological 57– 67. We tend to think of lectures as only passing 3. Indeed.B. McKeachie’s teaching tips: Strategies. CA: Jossey-Bass.” Lectures can also be used as a platform to allow AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS questions to be raised that can focus attention on areas of physiology that are not well worked out. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.physiology. 13.1016/0361-476X(92)90070-F. a lecture can be a good launching SF and Buskist W.11. CA: Jossey-Bass. lecture beyond merely conveying information but also to in.intelligence plus character – that is the goal of true N. 1978. Lecturing. critical thinking by their students.1080/0013191670200103.econedurev.