Asm Handbook Vol. 9

© 2004 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www.asminternational.org ASM Handbook姞 Volume 9 Metallography and Microstructures Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee George F. Vander Voort, Volume Editor Steven R. Lampman, Project Editor Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production Gayle J. Anton, Editorial Assistant Carol Polakowski, Production Supervisor Jill Kinson, Production Editor Kathryn Muldoon, Production Assistant Scott D. Henry, Senior Manager, Product and Service Development William W. Scott, Jr., Director of Technical Publications Editorial Assistance Elizabeth Marquard Heather Lampman Beverly Musgrove Kathleen Dragolich Marc Schaefer Materials Park, Ohio 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org manuals. No claim of any kind. shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. December 2004 This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. etc. specific testing under actual conditions is recommended.org Copyright 䉷 2004 by ASM International威 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced. but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES. ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone.asminternational. Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture. TA459. 2. Metals—Handbooks. and whether or not based on negligence. Properties and selection—irons. mechanical. use. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. sale.M43 1990 620. or reproduction. steels. copyright. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill. evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to specification is essential. All Rights Reserved. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume. AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL. EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials—[etc. ASM International. apparatus. or otherwise. . criticisms. electronic. and high-performance alloys—v. INCLUDING. WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. First printing. product. and suggestions are invited. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide sources to help scientists. ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION.2. ASM International.1. INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. stored in a retrieval system. As with any material. whether or not covered by letters patent.org Printed in the United States of America Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department. etc. OH 44073-0002 www. II. I. or system. recording. Handbook Committee. without the written permission of the copyright owner. or trademark. and should be forwarded to ASM International.]—v. at their sole discretion and risk. Metals Handbook. copyright. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control. or transmitted. in connection with any method. composition. engineers. and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Therefore. WITHOUT LIMITATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM. process. Composites 1. whether as to products or information in this publication. and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent.asminternational.© 2004 ASM International.21. in any form or by any means. manuals. Metal-work—Handbooks. or as a defense against liability for such infringement. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ASM International ASM Handbook Includes bibliographical references and indexes Contents: v. Comments. ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. or trademark. photocopying.1⬘6 90-115 SAN: 204-7586 ISBN: 0-87170-706-3 ASM International威 Materials Park. His familiarity with past and present volumes of the Handbook series has been instrumental in this project. and educational training.org Foreword ASM International is pleased to publish a new edition of Metallography and Microstructures. The sharing of their knowledge and experience is the basis for ASM International as their professional society. Moreover. This Volume would not have been possible without their commitment. manufacturing technologies.© 2004 ASM International. and digital imaging. Metallography is a longstanding core interest of ASM International members. The new Volume 9 addresses these and other developments. as described in the Preface. engineering. many thanks are extended to the devoted volunteers and ASM members. equipment. alloys. Jr. Theobald Managing Director ASM International iii . Robert C. substantial changes have occurred in automation. preparation methodology. His worldwide acquaintances with members of the metallographic community also have made this Volume an international effort with important contributions from authors around the world.asminternational. who have contributed their time and expertise as authors and reviewers. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. We commend the Volume Editor. Since the 1985 edition of Volume 9. George Vander Voort. and this new Volume 9 reflects the continuing importance of metallography in metallurgical analyses for production quality control. research. Tucker. All Rights Reserved. for his vision and direction in revising Metallography and Microstructures. Volume 9 of the ASM Handbook series. President ASM International Stanley C. All Rights Reserved. but the sheet thickness specified in that specification might be presented only in inches. which are pounds per square inch (psi). corresponding customary U. with attention given to the number of significant digits in the original data. units of measure.S. In preparing this Handbook. depending on the nature of the data. In this case. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations are presented in both SI-based and customary U. pressure. the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of the Handbook. SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units formed by combination of several basic units. For example. ASM International has adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary U. For example.asminternational. which are pascals (Pa) with a suitable prefix. To save space. where 1 ksi ⳱ 1000 psi. The metric tonne (kg ⳯ 103) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual units. units. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. Where appropriate. equivalents in parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables).93 ⬚C or 1763. units.S. iv . For example.S. The decision to use SI as the primary system of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world. and strength are shown both in SI units. and in customary U.© 2004 ASM International. temperature values in ⬚C and ⬚F are alternatives rather than conversions. stress. all of the units preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the virgule are in the denominator of the expression. For the most part. Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the units of that system. grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left and bottom edges. large values of psi have been converted to kips per square inch (ksi).org Policy on Units of Measure units would be presented in dual units. By a resolution of its Board of Trustees. in each instance.44 ⬚C would not be appropriate. it would be appropriate to report the temperature as 961.S. Therefore. no parentheses are required to prevent ambiguity. Wherever feasible. numerical engineering data in the text and in tables are presented in SI-based units with the customary U. the typical yield strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original units used in the analysis. units appear along the top and right edges.5 ⬚F.S. The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10. On graphs and charts. only one set of units is presented on artwork.S. units. Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEEE/ ASTM SI-10. with secondary mention of the corresponding values in customary U. the exact conversion to 854.S. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at a precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver). To clarify some illustrations. the equivalent temperature would be given as 855 ⬚C. equivalent units are also presented. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather than kg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume). the editors have attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me International d’Unite´s (SI). an annealing temperature of 1570 ⬚F contains three significant digits. In some instances (especially in tables and data compilations). Some strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only. and quantitative Cast Iron Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Aluminum and Its Alloys Cobalt and Its Alloys Precious Metals and Their Alloys Titanium and Its Alloys Biomedical Orthopedic Alloys Semisolid Formed Alloys Thermal Spray Coatings Ceramics With this extensive revision of Volume 9. Volume Editor Steven Lampman. stainless steels. The atlas method in the previous edition was effective at that time. titanium alloys. In this volume. consumable products. and thermal spray coatings ● Substantially revised articles on metallography and microstructural interpretation of tool steels. or educational training. and color metallography ● All-new articles on the metallography and microstructural interpretation of cast irons. Alloy Phase Diagrams. ceramics. ASM International. carbon and low-alloy steels. where a large collection of micrographs can be stored and searched electronically. as well as new metals. this edition of Volume 9 has all-new articles on the metallography and microstructures of the following materials: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● New articles on field metallography. as an important part in the interpretation and understanding of microstructural development. research. Volume 9 of the ASM Handbook series. and the Desk Handbook: Phase Diagrams for Binary Alloys. precious-metal alloys. This is the underlying concept of the newly released Micrograph Center as part of the ASM International Materials Information Online. The new Volume 9 also places more emphasis on the underlying physical metallurgy of alloys. This electronic archive provides a collection of the previously published micrograph atlases in the 8th and the 9th Editions Metals Handbook. as micrograph collections are useful in making visual comparisons for different materials conditions and/or specimen preparation techniques. The new Volume 9 edition also provides important updates and new information reflecting the substantial changes in automation. P/M alloys. with the development of electronic publication. a new approach is possible. As such. monitors. and Phases Diagrams (1973). formation of phase constituents is described in more detail in terms of the general concepts in physical metallurgy and key compositional categories of important alloy systems. although binary phase diagrams are not collected to the same extent as in the 8th Edition Metals Handbook. copper alloys. All Rights Reserved. Volume 8. Buehler Ltd. and preparation methodology. in which the end of each article contained an atlas of many micrographs without citation in text. Volume 3. However. Expanded and new coverage includes: methods and semi-automatic machines ● Practical coverage on sectioning and specimen extraction ● Laboratory safety guide ● New expanded color section The titles of new articles on metallurgical topics include: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Metallography: An Introduction Physical Metallurgy Concepts in Interpretation of Microstructure Fundamentals of Solidification Solidification Structures of Steels and Cast Iron Solidification Structures of Aluminum Alloys Solidification Structures of Titanium Alloys Inter-Diffusion Structures Plastic Deformation Structures Textured Structures Titles of all-new articles on metallography include: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Metallographic Sectioning and Specimen Extraction Light and Electron Microscopy Digital Imaging Quantitative Image Analysis Quantitative Characterization and Representation of Global Microstructural Geometry Three-Dimensional Microscopy Metallography of Archaeological Alloys Field Metallography Techniques Color Metallography Selected Color Images Laboratory Safety in Metallography In addition. quantitative metallography. equipment. 2000. image analysis. and manufacturing technologies that have emerged since 1985. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. aluminum alloys. one objective of the new Volume 9 is to complement more closely the electronic archive of the Micrograph Center by moving away from an atlas format and by focusing more on representative micrographs that are visual tools in assisting experienced and new practitioners in the preparation and interpretation of micrographs. This is because binary phase diagrams are covered extensively in other publications such as ASM Handbook. coated steel. This is distinctly different from the previous edition. performs. digital imaging. In this regard. and cemented carbides ● New micrographs throughout ● More integrated in-text citation of micrograph images with respect to discussions on preparation techniques and alloy metallurgy George Vander Voort.org Preface ● Updated coverage on specimen-preparation techniques for both manual This new edition of Metallography and Microstructures. the key emphasis is on the concepts for using phase diagrams as a tool in metallographic interpretation and on the presentation of important binary-phase regions or the quasi-binary and pseudo-binary diagrams of key compositional components. Some coverage on phase diagrams is included.© 2004 ASM International. Structures. ASM International Staff Editor v .asminternational. One difference is that the citations of micrographs are integrated within the textual discussions on the metallography and microstructures of materials. evaluates. Metallography. alloys. or uses metallurgical analyses for production quality control. Metallography and Microstructures continues to be a comprehensive and indispensable reference work for anyone who specifies. is quite different from the 1985 edition in several ways. org Officers and Trustees of ASM International (2003–2004) Robert C. Harper (1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926) C. Herty.N. Fabian Bodycote Thermal Processing William E. Paul J. Hollis (2003–) Delphi Corporation Dennis D. Lesuer (1999–) Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Huimin Liu (1999–) Ford Motor Company Alan T. Kennedy Allvac Richard D. All Rights Reserved. President and Trustee The Tucker Group LLC Andrew R.J. Jr.L. Previous Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee R. Gauthier (1997–1998) (Member 1990–) J.E.V. Worcester Polytechnic Institute George F. Luerssen (1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947) G.J. Leiter (1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958. 1989–1992) N. Dixon (1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955) R. Bardes (1993–) Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants Lichun Leigh Chen (2002–) Engineered Materials Solutions Craig V.S. Johnson (1999–) Engineering Systems Inc. Member 1997–) U. Darragh (1999–2002) (Member 1989–) E. Karl P. Department of Energy David E.J. Srikanth Raghunathan (1999–) Nanomat Inc. (1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936) D.D.H. Stadtler (1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972) R. Muzyka Immediate Past President and Trustee Special Metals Corporation (retired) Paul L.B.G. Johnson (1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951) L. Cooper (1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986) C. Gill (1937) (Member 1934–1937) J. Frazier Naval Air Systems Command Richard L.E.© 2004 ASM International. Jr. Korb (1983) (Member 1978–1983) R.B. Merten (1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933) D. Dowdell (1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939) M.H. Donald R. Graham (1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970) J.L. Wright (1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967) .J. 1960–1964) G. Shubat (1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975) W. Nicoll Vice President and Trustee Sulzer Metco (U. Ward (1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978) M. Promisel (1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963) G. Olson (1990–1992) (Member 1982–1988. Tucker. Maniar (1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980) W. Boyer Boeing Commercial Airplane Group Dianne Chong The Boeing Company Roger J. Department of Energy Bruce P. Jr. Staudhammer (1997–) Los Alamos National Laboratory Kenneth B. Sisson.) Inc. George F.D.V.J.asminternational. McCall (1982) (Member 1977–1982) W. Male (2003–) University of Kentucky William L. Fairman (Chair 2002–. Huffman (1986–1990) (Member 1982–) J.A.D.F. Hanke (1994–) Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc. Vander Voort Buehler Ltd.S.P.L.L.O. Vander Voort (1997–) Buehler Ltd. Alman (2002–) U. Lawrence C. Wells (1981) (Member 1976–1981) D.M. Mankins (1994–1997) (Member 1989–) vi J. Hawk (Vice Chair 2002–. Huber Treasurer Seco/Warwick Corporation Stanley C. Mankins (1989–) Metallurgical Services Inc. Kovach (1995–) Stress Engineering Services Inc.S. Austin (1992–1994) (Member 1984–) L. Theobald Secretary and Managing Director ASM International Trustees Reza Abbaschian University of Florida Rodney R. Tator (1991–) KTA-Tator Inc.W. Case (1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933) T. Huffman (1982–) The Timken Company (retired) Dwight Janoff (1995–) FMC Corporation Kent L. Donald R. Wagner Texas Instruments Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (2003–2004) Henry E. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. Member 1993–) Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants Jeffrey A. Michael A. Darragh (1989–) The Timken Company Larry D. Ann Kelly Los Alamos National Laboratory Dwaine L. Dept. Field Washington State University Luther M.asminternational.S. Inc. Gift. Niels Hansen Risø National Laboratory John C. Decker Thixomat. John Jorstad J. Veronika Carle Max-Planck Institut fu¨r Metallforschung R.org Authors and Contributors Brent L. DeHoff University of Florida Omer Dogan Albany Research Center. U. Inc. Hawk Albany Research Center. Briggs The Boeing Company Thomas Calahan Carl Zeiss. of Energy Roger Doherty Drexel University Charles W. All Rights Reserved. Dept. Davis Davis & Associates M. of Energy Joseph R. Brar Seagate Technology Inc. Caron Olin Brass Lichun Leigh Chen Engineered Materials Solutions Richard C.© 2004 ASM International. Gammon The Boeing Company Frank C. of Energy Roland Aubin Amsco Cast Products (Canada) Inc. Huffman The Timken Company (retired) Darcy Hughes Sandia National Laboratories Gene Ice Oak Ridge National Laboratory Kent L. Boyer The Boeing Company Bruce L.L. Goodhew University of Liverpool vii Martha Goodway Smithsonian Institution Stewart Grice Hoover & Strong Inc. Robert D. Inc Milo Kral University of Canterbury (Australia) George Krauss Colorado School of Mines . Hartley Air Force Office of Scientific Research Jeffrey A. Klarstrom Haynes International Jacek Komenda Swedish Institute for Metals Research Paul Kovach Stress Engineering Services.S. U. Harkness Brush Wellman Inc. Deacon Lehigh University Raymond L. Amitava Guha Larry Hanke Materials Evaluation & Engineering Inc. Danielson Albany Research Center. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www. Robert T. Raymond Cribb Brush Wellman Inc. U. Adams Brigham Young University Debbie Aliya Aliya Analytical. Inc.S. Fairman Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants LLC David P. Inc. Compton Zimmer. U. Inc. Lehigh University Arun Gokhale Georgia Institute of Technology Peter J. Exner Darmstadt University of Technology Henry E. Lesley Cornish MINTEK W. David Alman Albany Research Center. Amarjit S. Rodney R. Hoffmann Universita¨t Karlsruhe Frauke Hogue Hogue Metallography Michael Holt Frog.S. Steven Axdal Seagate Technology Inc. Dayananda Purdue University Ryan M. Craig S.J.N. Batson The Boeing Company Peter Bauer Leica Microsystems Arlan O. Technologies. Switch and Manufacturing Company Dennis D. Dept. Johnson Engineering Systems Inc.E. Benscoter Lehigh University Michael Blum Materials Technology Associates Inc. Domby The Boeing Company Timothy Eck Alcoa Mill Products Mario Epler Lehigh University Craig Eucken Wah Chang H. Inc. Richard Bodnar International Steel Group. Jr. of Energy Dennis W. William Baldwin ChevronTexaco Bruce Bardes Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants LLC Bob Barth Olin Brass Kurt W. Paul Crook Haynes International Paul E. Hetzner The Timken Company Michael J. Bramfitt International Steel Group. Dept. Inc. M. Roxana Ruxanda The University of Alabama Edward J.© 2004 ASM International. Sauer Sauer Engineering Małgorzata Warmuzek Foundry Research Institute (Poland) Ute Scha¨fer Max-Planck Institut fu¨r Metallforschung Michael L. Inc. U. Wilson Albany Research Center. Perricone Lehigh University Ulrike Ta¨ffner Max-Planck Institut fu¨r Metallforschung Samuel M. Tyler Olin Metals Research Laboratory Jonathan Regina Lehigh University Maria Richert University of Mining & Metallurgy (Krako´w) M. Heiner Lichtenberger Williams Advanced Materials Inc. Szpunar McGill University Matthew J.K. III Powder-Tech Associates. Arnold R. Fran Warmuth Wyman-Gordon Forgings John P. Rosenberg Naval Research Laboratory George Vander Voort Buehler Ltd. Department of Energy Jeff Stewart Stern Leach Company Leczek D. Mankins Metallurgical Services. Manilova Polzunov Central Boiler and Turbine Institute (Russia) William L. Willard Naval Research Laboratory Karl P. Lawrence International Steel Group. All Rights Reserved. Purdy Keith Taylor International Steel Group Inc. Wu Deloro Stellite Group Limited viii . Sutherlin Wah Chang Shane Para Lehigh University Janusz Szala Silesian University of Technology Leander F. Lucas Buehler Ltd. Elena P. Jerzy A. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) Krzysztof J. Kurzydłowki Warsaw University of Technology Selcuk Kuyucak CANMET Samuel J. Inc. Inc. Radzikowska The Foundry Research Institute (Krako´w) Brian Ralph Brunel University Stefanie Taylor MINTEK Derek E. Oakes Metalworking Products Sidnei Paciornik DCMM PUC-Rio John M. Weinbruch Darmstadt University of Technology Robert C. Wayman University of Alberta Shahram Shebany Pacific Metallurgical Company S.T. Medlin Zimmer. Pease.org Toby V. Morral The Ohio State University Yellapu V. Uchic Air Force Research Laboratory Elma van der Lingen MINTEK R. Inc. Brian Newbury Lehigh University Rick Noecker Lehigh University Michael Notis Lehigh University James J. Leonhardt Rhenium Alloys Inc. Packard The Boeing Company www. Huimin Liu Ford Motor Company Gabriel M. Marder Lehigh University Dana J. Wojnar Krakow University of Technology Rainer Su¨ss MINTEK J.O.S. Santhanam Kennametal Inc. Murty CMI.asminternational.D. Janina M. Todd A. Padfield ZF Sachs Automotive of America Richard C. Vinarcik Robert Bosch Corporation A. Staudhammer Los Alamos National Laboratory Doru M. Stefanescu The University of Alabama Richard D. Miller Oak Ridge National Laboratory John E. Solbach Matthew A. Inc. ............................41 Physical Metallurgy Concepts in Interpretation of Microstructure ............................. 118 Peritectic Reactions of ␣p and cp Phases ........................... 134 Nucleation and Growth ... 109 Microsegregation .........................97 Steel ...........................................71 Length Scale of Solidification Structures .................... 150 Recent Developments ...............29 Metallurgically Important Crystal Types ....................... 138 Spinodal Transformation Structures .... 117 Solidification Structures of Titanium-Aluminum-Base Alloys ................................ 145 B2 Superlattice (FeAl Structure) ............................10 Image Analysis ....................................53 Solidification ............................................ 118 Directional Solidification .......48 Nonequilibrium Phase Nucleation and Growth ......................................................59 Transformation Kinetics ..81 Solidification Structures of Peritectics ........... 148 Pure Metals and Congruent Points ........ 128 Monte Carlo (MC) Models ........................86 Solidification Structures of Pure Metals .................................... 144 Long-Range and Short-Range Order ............................................................71 Undercooling ....... 145 L12 Superlattice (Cu3Au Structure) ................93 Grain Boundaries .........................................................................29 Crystallographic Terms and Concepts ............................................................................. 132 Structures by Precipitation from Solid Solution ... 140 Microstructure ..............org Contents Introduction ............... 111 Macrosegregation ......................................................... 111 Defects ......57 Solid-State Phase Transformations ...41 Crystal Defects ................................... 149 Two-Phase Regions ............................27 Crystal Structure .................... 127 Phase-Field Models .. 144 L10 Superlattice (CuAuI Structure) ........................................... 121 Microstructures Produced through Various Near-Net Shape Manufacturing Processes .................................45 Equilibrium Phase Diagrams ................................................. 132 Substructures .................. 145 D03 Superlattice (Fe3Al Structure) ................................. 3 The Origins of Metallography ................26 Macrostructure ............................................ 107 Grain Structure ...... 4 Macroanalysis ................................................... 127 Standard Transport Models .....................................................................................................74 Basic Solidification Structures of Pure Metals ....23 Origins of Structures ..... 146 Dislocation-Generated Antiphase Boundaries ................................. 108 Eutectic Microstructure of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ...........77 Solidification Structures of Eutectics ........................44 Structure and Properties ......................23 Single-Phase Microstructures .....21 Introduction to Structures in Metals ...................................................................................................................................................... 122 Computer Modeling of Solidification Structures ......................................... 116 Phase Transformation in Titanium-Aluminum-Base Alloys ...................................................................................... 137 Precipitation Sequences ............................... 144 Antiphase Boundaries .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 150 Feathery Structures .................................................. All Rights Reserved............................ 141 Ordered Structures ........................................................................................ 112 Solidification Structures of Titanium Alloys ......26 Multiphase Microstructures .84 Solidification Structures of Monotectics ......... 109 ix . 146 Massive Transformation Structures .............................................. 129 Metallography: An Introduction ....................... 116 Classification of Titanium Alloys ............................................................................................................ 118 Grain Refinement ..................................................94 Solidification Structures of Steels and Cast Iron ................23 General Features of Structure .................................................................24 Substructure ............75 Solidification Structures of Solid Solutions .................................................................. ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www....................................... 129 Cellular Automaton (CA) Models ..........65 Solid-State Transformation Structures Introduction to Transformation Structures ...............................................................................................................................................................15 Metallurgy and Microstructure ...............................................© 2004 ASM International.....................................................asminternational................................. 132 Multiphase Microstructures ................. 140 Theory of Spinodal Decomposition .......93 Polycrystalline Metals ................ 149 Nucleation and Growth Kinetics .................................... 1 Dendritic Microstructure ...................................................................................................................... 135 Precipitation Modes ................................................99 Solidification Structures of Aluminum Alloys ..........97 Cast Iron .........................................72 Nucleation .......... 107 Basic Microstructures of Aluminum-Base Alloys ............................................................................. 132 Crystallography ...................................................................74 Growth and Interface Stability .......................... 150 Single-Crystal Growth ..................................................................... 151 Solidification Structures Fundamentals of Solidification ..................... 5 Microscopic Examination .............................. ...... 215 Texture Evolution and Control ............................... 315 Macroetching of Iron and Steel .................. 325 Magnification ......... 259 Polishing Damage .............................. 320 Macroetching of Copper and Copper Alloys ............................................................................ 186 Examples of Interdiffusion Microstructures .................................. 157 Martensitic Structures .................. 173 Ceramic Systems ............ 182 Granular Bainite ............................... 329 Aberrations in Optical Systems .................... 325 The Light-Optical Microscope ............................................. 306 Etchants and Etching Practice ....................... 156 Peritectoid Structures ....................... 325 Methods of Image Formation ......... 325 Pixels ............................org Certification Work .................... 240 Mounting of Specimens ........................................................................................................ 152 Eutectoid Structures ....................... 313 Procedures .................................. and Grain Growth Structures ... 179 Surface Relief ........ 169 Tempering of Martensite ....... 224 Microscopy and Image Analysis Light and Electron Microscopy ............ 184 Other Structures Interdiffusion Structures ................................................................................................ 294 Etching .................. 346 Photomicroscopy ........... 154 Pearlite Growth ......................................... 170 Nonferrous Martensite .........................................................................© 2004 ASM International................................................................ 330 Light Microscopy ................................................................ 154 Alloy Effects ...................................... 257 Abrasion Damage and Abrasion Artifacts ...................................................... 216 Texture Characterization and Experimental Determination ........... Grain-Boundary Character....................... 271 Semiautomatic Preparation Systems ......................................................................................... 352 Metallographic Techniques ..... 175 Shape Memory Materials .................... 348 Macrophotography ........................................ 248 Cast Mounts .................................................................................... 153 Pearlite Colony Orientation and Nucleation ............. 167 Morphology .......................... 327 Depth of Field and Depth of Focus ............ 313 Apparatus .......................................................................................... 256 Mechanical Grinding and Polishing ................................................................................................................................................................. 242 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................... 172 Metallic Systems ........................... 183 Recent Developments ... 324 Invariant Transformation Structures ........................................................................ 182 Inverse Bainite ....................................................... 266 Edge Retention .......... 268 Special Techniques for Unusual Materials ............................................................................................................ 207 Recovery ................................................................. 254 Mount Marking and Storage ........................ 242 Plastic Mounts ....... 237 x ................................. 330 Electrons versus Light ....... 294 Optical Enhancement of Contrast ........ 208 Recrystallization ................................................................................................... 281 Electrolytic Polishing ...................... 230 Abrasive Cutting .......................................... 227 Metallographic Sectioning and Specimen Extraction ................. All Rights Reserved............................................................................................... 233 Other Cutting Methods ................... 294 Etching Nomenclature ........... 332 Microscope Components ............................................................ 182 Columnar Bainite ......... Stainless Steels..................................... ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www............ 218 Microtexture. 198 Macroscopic Properties ................................................ 338 Auxiliary Techniques .......................................................................................................................... 242 Mechanical Clamps .. 281 Contrast Enhancement and Etching ...... 174 Other Systems ................................................... and Texture Gradients .................................................................... 257 Surface Preparation .............. 205 Recovery.......................................................... 294 Contrast Enhancement by Film Deposition ........ 192 Microstructural Evolution by Grain Subdivision .............................................................................. 251 Special Mounting Techniques .................... 157 Peritectic Structures ....................... 153 Nucleation of Pearlite on Proeutectoid Ferrite or Cementite .................................................................................... 186 Analysis of Interdiffusion Microstructures ..................................................... 238 Process Control and Troubleshooting .............. 337 Examination Modes .... 247 Compression Molded Mounts ........................ Recrystallization......................... 192 Microstructure Parameters: Quantitative and Theoretical Analysis ............................................... 323 Other Metals and Alloys ........ 188 Conclusions ...... 168 Transformation Temperatures ........................................ 179 Upper Bainite .. 273 Chemical and Electrolytic Polishing .......................... 316 Macroetching of High-Alloy Steels................................ 209 Grain Growth .... 313 Etching Solutions .................... 243 Mount Size and Configuration ....................................................................................... 239 Component Failure Analysis ......................................................... 155 Peritectic and Peritectoid Structures ........................................................ 229 Process and Practices ..................................................... 190 Plastic Deformation Structures ...................................................................... 327 Resolution ............................................ 308 Macroetching ........... 332 Optical Performance ................................................ 319 Macroetching of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ..................................................................................................................... 281 Chemical Polishing ........................... 165 Ferrous Martensite ....................................................................... and High-Temperature Alloys .......... 176 Bainitic Structures ..............asminternational........ 207 The Deformed State . 183 Bainite in Nonferrous Systems ........................................... 265 Final-Polishing Processes ............. 307 Preparation and Handling of Etchants ....... 314 Etching Operations ................................................ 165 Crystallographic Theory ....................... 203 Conclusion ........................................................................ 223 Modeling of Texture Evolution ....... 319 Macroetching of Titanium .......... 304 Etching for Effect ............... 212 Textured Structures ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 181 Lower Bainite ............................................................................................ 166 Orientation Relationships and Habit Plane ............................... .............................................. 752 Health and Safety ............... 463 Computer Reconstruction and Visualization of Three-Dimensional Data .............. 482 Using Field Metallography in the Laboratory ................. 459 Principles of Atom Probe Tomography ................................... 356 Types of Contrast .. 670 Microstructures of Stainless Steels ....................................................................... 461 Phase Contrast Imaging ............ 479 Basic Equipment and Supplies ...... 404 Specimen Preparation and Image Acquisition .......... 682 Austenitic Manganese Steel Castings ....... 448 Serial Sectioning ..... 449 Serial-Sectioning Case Study Examples .. 469 Case Studies .................. 704 Microstructure ..................................................................... 590 Specimen Preparation ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 413 Evaluation of Basic Stereological Parameters ............. 461 Transmission Tomography ........................................................................................ 459 Atom Probe Tomography ....................................................................................................................................................... 357 Special Instrumentation and Accessory Equipment ............. 428 Numerical Extents of Microstructural Features (How Much?) ... 701 Macroexamination ....................................... 465 Algorithms ........ 649 Metallography and Microstructures of Stainless Steels and Maraging Steels ............................... 448 Serial-Sectioning Experimental Techniques ...................org Special Applications and Methods Metallography of Archaeological Alloys ......................... 507 Selected Color Images ... 422 Quantitative Characterization and Representation of Global Microstructural Geometry .......................................................................................................... 601 Metallography and Microstructures of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ... 581 Metallography and Microstructures of Low-Carbon and Coated Steels .... 488 Conclusions .................. 403 Digital versus Manual Methods ............asminternational............................................ 563 Metallography and Microstructures of Cast Iron ............................................................... 464 Segmentation .................................... 461 General Concepts ............................. 705 Metallography and Microstructures of Nonferrous Alloys ................................................................................................ 632 Metallographic Techniques for Tool Steels .......... 493 Film Formation and Interference Techniques ...... 468 Metallography and the Archaeometallurgist ....................... 355 Basic Design of the Scanning Electron Microscope .......................© 2004 ASM International.... 628 Nitrided Steels ................................................................................................ 403 Basic Definitions ........................................................... 365 Digital Imaging ............................................................. 570 Microstructures ....... 496 Conclusions ....... 411 Digital Measurements .................. and Nickel-Beryllium Alloys .................................. 416 Spatial Distribution and Three-Dimensional Analysis ....................................... 478 Background .......... 401 Quantitative Image Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 368 Image Output—Printing ........................................... 670 Macroexamination ... 465 Metallography and Microstructures of Ferrous Alloys ......... 416 Shape Analysis ... 479 Advantages and Disadvantages .................................................................. 460 X-Ray Microtomography ........................ 465 Virtual Reality ................................. 627 Carburized and Carbonitrided Steels ...................... 723 SEM Examination ......................................... 462 Edge Contrast Tomography ........... 702 Microexamination .................. 458 Case Study .......... 464 Preprocessing ............. 752 xi .............................................................. 362 Applications in Materials Science and Technology ..................................... 436 Derived Microstructural Properties ........ 644 Macroexamination ................................................................................................................... 644 Microexamination ... 480 Specimen Preparation ....................................................... 368 Image Acquisition ................................ 429 Number Density of Microstructural Features (How Many?) ..... 614 Metallography and Microstructures of Case-Hardening Steel ...... 418 Examples of Automatic Quantitative Image Analysis ................................................. 412 Counting Objects and Size Distributions ............................................................................. 491 Color Metallography ................................ 355 Beam/Sample Interactions ............. All Rights Reserved.............. 608 Microstructural Constituents .... 711 Composition and Phases ...... 380 Image Processing and Analysis ................. 733 Metallography and Microstructures of Beryllium........... 442 Three-Dimensional Microscopy ............................................. Copper-Beryllium.............................. 407 Image Processing Necessary for Quantitative Image Analysis ........ 438 Feature-Specific Size...................................................................... 418 Quantification and Minimizing the Bias of Measurements .............................................. 463 X-Ray Fluorescence Tomography ......................... 721 Examination of Microstructure .......... 701 Specimen Preparation ........... 645 Microstructure of Tool Steels .......................... 440 Spatial Clustering and Correlations ............................................................. and Orientation Distributions ...................................... 609 Metallographic Procedures .................... 460 Methods of Representation ................ 470 Field Metallography Techniques ............................................ 382 Case Studies ...................................... 589 Metallographic Procedures ... 591 Manual Preparation of Coated Steel Specimens .............. 458 Sectioning ....................................................... 588 Microstructural Constituents ................................................................................................................................... 709 Metallography Techniques for Aluminum and Its Alloys ................... 493 Optical Methods for Producing Color .... 565 Microexamination Methods .......................................................... 480 Planning for Field Metallography ............................................................. 400 Conclusions ........................... 711 Examination of Macrostructure ........................................................... 463 Direct-Imaging Methods ........................................................................................... Shape................................. 488 Case Studies .......................................................... 565 Preparation for Microexamination ............................................................................................... 360 Sample Preparation .............. 450 Focused Ion Beam Tomography . ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www............................................... 513 Scanning Electron Microscopy ..................................................................................................................... 670 Microexamination ................ ................................................... 942 History of Zirconium Metallography .......................... 997 Uncompacted Powder ......1038 Process Variations .......................................................................... 765 Wear-Resistant Cobalt Alloys .1022 Macrostructural Examination ......... and Their Alloys ... 900 Metallography and Microstructures of Ceramics......... 755 Microexamination .......................................... 860 Microstructures of Gold and Gold Alloys .............1021 Semisolid Processes ............. 760 Metallography and Microstructures of Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys .1023 Specimen Preparation................................................................................................................................ 758 Microstructures of Nickel-Beryllium Alloys ....... 969 Specimen Preparation ........................ 977 Magnetism and Magnetic Domains .................... 752 Macroexamination .............................................. 930 Microetching and Microexamination ..... 860 Specimen Preparation .................... 880 Rhenium and Its Alloys ........ 933 Specimen Preparation ............................ 943 Specimen Preparation ...................................................................................................1047 Sample Preparation ............ 762 Cobalt Alloy Metallurgy .............................................................. Hafnium...............................................................................................1032 Microstructure of Semisolid-Processed Metals and Alloys .......1042 Other Methods of Analysis ............ 819 Metallography and Microstructures of Heat-Resistant Alloys ............ 816 Preparation for Microscopic Examination .... 933 Microstructures of Zinc and Zinc Alloys ......................................... 809 Metallography and Microstructures of Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys ................. 913 Metallography and Microstructures of Uranium and Its Alloys ......................... 834 Metallography and Microstructures of Precious Metals and Precious Metal Alloys ...................................................................................................... 860 Microstructures of Platinum and Platinum Alloys ........................ 877 General Specimen Preparation ... 801 Specimen Preparation ............................ 885 Metallography and Microstructures of Tin and Tin Alloys ............................ 868 Other Precious Metals .. 808 Metallurgy and Microstructures ......... 821 Specimen Preparation ............. 998 Compacted and Consolidated Powders ............................ 994 Automatic Grinding and Polishing ............... 961 Stainless Steels ..... 877 Alternate Preparation Procedures for Niobium and Tantalum .............................. 802 Macroexamination .............. 767 Heat-Resistant Cobalt Alloys .......... 889 Specimen Preparation .............................. 794 Metallography and Microstructures of Magnesium and Its Alloys ...... 918 Principles of Uranium Alloy Metallurgy ..... 773 Metallography and Microstructures of Copper and Its Alloys ........... 878 Alternate Preparation Procedures for Molybdenum .................. 763 Metallographic Preparation .......... 768 Cobalt-Base Corrosion Resistant Alloys .......................... 780 Metallography and Microstructures of Lead and Its Alloys ........................................ All Rights Reserved............ 821 Microstructures of Heat-Resistant Alloys ........ 872 Metallography and Microstructures of Refractory Metals and Their Alloys . 907 Other Techniques ............... 882 Specimen Preparation ........................................................................................ 951 Specimen Preparation ........ 775 Microstructures of Copper and Copper Alloys ..................................................................... 928 Macroetching and Macroexamination ......1050 xii .................................... 896 Metallography and Microstructures of Titanium and Its Alloys ........... 899 Specimen Preparation ............................................................................... 891 Microstructures of Tin and Tin Alloys ...............................1021 Compositions of Common Alloys Produced Using Semisolid Metalworking ......................... 963 Titanium and Titanium Alloys ........................................................................................................................ 775 Metallographic Examination ........................ 959 Metallography of Biomedical Orthopedic Alloys .................................. 967 Microstructure and Domain Imaging of Magnetic Materials ....................................................... 980 Metallography and Microstructures of Powder Metallurgy Alloys ........................................................................... 791 Microstructures of Lead and Lead Alloys ......... 792 Lead Alloys in Sleeve Bearings ..........1045 Metallography and Microstructures of Weldments .............................. Tantalum..................1032 Future Developments ...................... Composite-Metal Forms.................................. 756 Microstructures of Copper-Beryllium Alloys ........1003 Representative Microstructures of P/M Alloys .......1048 Solid-State Transformation Structures in Welded Joints ......................................... 942 Metallurgy of Zirconium and Hafnium Alloys ....... 816 Preparation for Macroscopic Examination ..... ASM Handbook Volume 9: Metallography and Microstructures (#06044G) www...................1005 Metallography and Microstructures of Semisolid Formed Alloys ................................................................................ 973 Microstructures of Permanent Magnets ......................... 931 Metallography and Microstructures of Zinc and Its Alloys ................................................ and Special-Purpose Alloys ...................1036 Microstructural Characterization of Thermal Spray Coatings ...........................................................1039 Microstructural Analysis by Light Microscopy .... Bulk Extraction..... 939 Microexamination .......... 996 Manual Grinding and Polishing .....................org Macroexamination ........... 899 Types of Titanium Alloys ................ 820 Macroetching .......1039 Microstructural Characteristics ........................................... 805 Microexamination ............................................................................ 759 Beryllium ................................................................................................. 961 Implant Devices ........................... 969 Microstructures of Magnetically Soft Materials .............................. 937 Preparation of Zinc Coating Specimens ..... Tungsten and Their Alloys ....... 831 Phases in Wrought Heat-Resistant Alloys ...© 2004 ASM International....1048 Solidification Structures in Welded Joints ....................................... 905 Microexamination ................ 775 Alloying Systems ......................................1047 Weld Bead Morphology ..................... 944 Examination and Interpretation ..................................................................... 789 Specimen Preparation .......................................................... 966 Emerging Materials ......... 920 Sample Preparation ......... and Etching ............... 880 Microstructures .......... 889 Techniques for Tin and Tin Alloy Coatings ................ 817 Microstructures of Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys ....................................asminternational........................ 789 Microscopic Examination ..... 964 Porous Coatings ........................ 918 Structures of Uranium and Uranium Alloys ............ Molybdenum............. 994 Sample Preparation ........................................ 962 Cobalt-Base Alloys ................................................ 939 Metallography and Microstructures of Zirconium.............................................................. 877 Niobium.......................................................................................... 879 Alternate Preparation Procedures for Tungsten .................................................. .......................................1057 Specimen Preparation ..............................................................................1087 Conclusions ................. and Handling .................................................................................1093 Tables of Chemicals and Etchants .....................1135 Abbreviations and Symbols ..................................................1082 Chemicals........................1067 Microexamination ......1088 Reference Information .1068 Microstructures of Cemented Carbides ..................................................1058 Ceramographic Etching ........................1140 xiii ..........................................................................1053 Additional Welding Processes .............. All Rights Reserved........................... Storage................1060 Metallography of Cemented Carbides ..........................© 2004 ASM International..............................................................................................................1059 Classification and Microstructure of Frequently Used Ceramics ...................................................1067 Metallographic Considerations .org Laboratory Safety .....................................................1067 Macroexamination .................................................1091 Grit Sizes and Grain Size Conversions .........................................1081 Hazard Communication Standards ......................1079 Defects in Welded Joints ...........................asminternational.1057 Microscopic Examination ..................1053 Preparation and Microstructural Analysis of High-Performance Ceramics .....1071 Quantitative Metallography .............................................1077 Laboratory Safety in Metallography ............................1094 Glossary of Terms .................1067 Specimen Preparation ...............1081 Personal Protective Equipment ...............................1083 Hydrofluoric Acid Exposure ......................................................1081 Laboratory Equipment ........................................................1115 Metric Conversion Guide .........................................1138 Index .............................. 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