Article Toward a Sephardic Haplogroup Profile in the New World

Toward a Sephardic Haplogroup Profile in the New WorldElizabeth Caldwell Hirschman Department of Marketing School of Business Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ 08903 [email protected] Donald Panther-Yates DNA Consulting 1274 Calle de Comercio Santa Fe, NM 87507 [email protected] INTRODUCTION Sephardic Jews are defined as those living on the Iberian Peninsula prior to 1492, when the Edict of Expulsion was signed by their Most Catholic Majesties of a united Spain, King Ferdinand of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile and Leon. Estimates of the number of Jews who went into voluntary or involuntary exile range from 100,000 to 300,000, depending on the source used,1 but this does not really account for the larger segment of the population that had earlier converted, at least outwardly, to Catholicism. In 1391, in response to violent anti-Jewish riots across Spain, an estimated 200,000 took this expediency.2 Perhaps the majority of these continued to practice Judaism in secret, becoming Crypto-Jews. An equal number is believed to have converted superficially in 1492, after the introduction of the Inquisition, and were henceforth known as New Christians, Conversos or Marranos. Factoring in population growth, this would bring the total number of former Jews living in Spain and Portugal to around 500,000 by the early 1500s. Unlike the 1492 edict, which allowed nonconverting Jews to go into exile abroad, subsequent laws and regulations forbad conversos to leave the country, for it was feared they might go to other Catholic countries where they would return to the open practice of Judaism. They were also barred from emigrating to the New World. The Sephardim who left Spain, either as Jews or Crypto-Jews, spread throughout the Mediterranean, venturing as far as the Balkans and Ottoman Empire in the East, and Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, North Africa, the Balearic Islands, Azores, Madeira, Canaries, France, Belgium, Germany, Alsace, Low Countries, and Britain in the West. Some fled as far as India, Indonesia, Ceylon and China.3 In all these places, the Sephardim generally prospered, becoming plantation owners, merchants, international traders and bankers, as well as craftsmen, shop owners, and peddlers.4 Wherever they settled, they also tended to practice endogamy (in-group marriage), striving to preserve both their genetic heritage and their religious traditions.5 What were the origins of the Sephardic Jews? Where and when did they form into a coherent community? Most historians believe that a small contingent of Hebrews from ancient Judea made its way to the Iberian Peninsula by the time of the rise of Rome, while others hold the nucleus of Sepharad may have arrived as early as the building of the Second Temple in the sixth century BCE.6 Wexler7 has proposed that the majority of Sephardic Jews were of North African Berber origin and converted to Judaism sometime before the 711 CE invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by the Muslims. Hirschman and Yates have sought to demonstrate that the majority of Sephardic Jews came into existence with a large-scale conversion event in southern France circa 750-900 CE. The latter proselytizing movement, they propose, was centered on the establishment of a prominent Talmudic academy in Narbonne.8 Supporting this latter-day conversion of Frankish, Burgundian and Languedoc populations to Judaism is the research of Gerber showing that many Sephardic Jews believed themselves to be descendants of King David of Israel. 9 This belief was evidently fostered by the Babylonian Jews who founded the Narbonne academy. As Gerber states, ―The Sephardim believed themselves to be descendants of Judean royalty, tracing their lineage back to King David.‖10 According to these researchers, it was the Master of the Narbonne yeshiva, Machir ben Habibai, ostensibly of Davidic descent himself, also known as Theodoric, count of Septimania, who introduced this tradition when he arrived in 771 CE.11 Thus when these western Europeans converted to Judaism, they saw themselves as adoptive heirs of the ―House of David.‖ In a few North Africa or Western Europe.13 Instead of using a model of predestined continuity built around a core of founding fathers and mothers. endogamous Hebrews of the Bible are largely mythic constructions used to create cosmological coherence and a nationalistic concept of ―peoplehood‖ across a very diverse landscape of tribes and ethnic groups in the ancient Middle East.12 It was the rule rather than the exception among various groups of early Jews to backslide into the worship of pagan deities. Baal. we are perhaps better advised to approach Judaism as a multi-ethnic religion that has survived the cataclysms of history by constantly reinventing and reconstituting itself. The purpose of this paper is to examine the population structure of colonies of Sephardic Jews in the New World by using the data from a number of recent country-specific DNA projects. during which conversion to Judaism was . they have also experienced periods of triumphal expansion and efflorescence. We also attempt to come to some general conclusions about the original genetic profile of Sephardic Jews and to address the question of whether the majority came from Palestine. unbroken link to the first rabbis. A Brief Genetic History of the Jews In a sense.generations this mythic lineage became remembered as a hereditary claim founded on blood and genealogy. especially Astarte/Ashtoreth. and was passed forward as truth. If historical Jews have gone through bottlenecks and disintegration. all Jews are converts or descendants of converts. or patriarchs. It is also worth pointing out that not even the most concerted genealogical studies have been able to establish a direct. high priests of the Temple. it is just a matter of when they converted. Contemporary Judaic scholars acknowledge that the monotheistic. the consort of the most powerful Canaanite god. The Roman world was one such golden age. we propose. and even adopting Greek customs such as social bathing and visiting pagan temples. aristocratic and commoner lineages. was another.widespread. in Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in Search of a Jewish Identity. many had become Hellenized long before the Diaspora. and wavering degrees of commitment to monotheism and the Mosaic law. Even at the time of the Roman-instigated dispersal from Palestine. But let us take a dispassionate look at the following population frequency tables. who have been much more extensively studied than the Sephardim. the majority of the Jewish population in Eastern Europe had its genetic roots in Central Asia.15 Ashkenazic Jewish Ancestry Let us first consider the genetic ancestry of the Ashkenazi Jews. royal. who proposed that the convert Khazars who ruled between the Caucasus and the Volga contributed the principal component to Ashkenaz. and medieval Spain.14 Furthermore. This was also the explosive thesis of Arthur Koestler. speaking.17 Such ethnic theories have been embraced by Palestinian Arab leaders as much as they have been ferociously denied by Israeli statesmen and academicians. . reading and writing in Koiné Greek rather than Hebrew. Jews consisted of several varied social classes. Wexler. taking on Greek names.16 argues that while a few founder lines of the modern Ashkenazic branch of Judaism were from the Middle East. 54 Romanians and 59 Russians.‘s 2004 comparison of Ashkenazi Jews with ―European non-Jewish populations.0 5. 50 Poles.3 26.2 0.3 0.0 6.7 Number 4 18 -22 1 9 10 67 4 18 22 2 1 91 96 Table 1 is based on the data in Behar et al.1 2.7 0.0 2.6 0.18 Ashkenazi Jews Mutation/ Hg M35 E3b M78 ―Balkan‖ E3b1 M81 ―Berber‖ E3b2 E – Total M201 G P15 G2 G – Total P19 I 12f2 – J*.Table 1. 2004).7 4.‖ consisting of 64 French.4 30. Haplogroup Frequencies for Ashkenazi and European Non-Jewish Populations (source: Behar et al.1 19. The study highlights four presumably .3 2.9 19.7 7.2 7. 56 Hungarians.6 2.0 Number 71 12 4 87 33 9 42 18 84 84 168 9 23 33 44 Non-Jewish Europeans Frequency 1.0 19.0 7. J1 M172 – J2 J – Total M9 K P36 Q M17 – R1a1 P25 – R1b Frequency % 16.1 6.1 5.7 2.0 9.4 1.5 10.0 38.1 0.9 20. 34 Germans and 31 Austrians. By the same token another haplogroup.Central Asian and Middle Eastern lineages reflected in the present-day Ashkenazi male population: J* and J1=19%. none E3a) of 18. taken from the study by Semino et al (2004). we can view the distribution of Haplotype E within several European. of which 11.7% is subclade 123 and 5. the four instances in Behar‘s data set). Here we see that Ashkenazi Jews have a total E (presumably all E3b. . Such non-overlapping and mutually exclusive haplogroups can help us distinguish between the two Jewish populations. In Table 2. R1a1. we need the Behar R1a cite here). But a comparison of Ashkenazi haplogroup E (to single out one common Ashkenazi haplogroup) with a different set of populations gives us a substantially altered perspective. and wherever it is found it can be assumed to be indicative.7% and argues that the Ashkenazic population is more Middle Eastern than the surrounding ‗host‘ populations. the absence of Berber lineages would appear to be diagnostic of Ashkenazi Jews. North African and Middle Eastern populations (subSaharan populations and certain others are omitted in our summary). Mediterranean. Thus. not Ashkenazic (for example.2% is subclade 78 (―Balkan‖). of Sephardic ancestry. J2=19%. none is subclade 81 (―Berber‖) which reaches its highest levels among the Berbers of North Africa.7% and G=9. has been found characteristic of Ashkenazi Jews (Don. while practically non-existent in Sephardic populations.2%. strictly speaking. E=19. 0 75.8 1.2 37 84.7 10.5 11.8 20 9.5 32.4 3.4 5.5 5.4 10.2 7.7 21 65.9 55 87.1 5.19 Four Major Subclades Population No.5 53.1 105 99.2 12. 2004).5 22 45.9 11.6 32 55.7 65.1 2.5 35.4 5.8 4.9 6.0 .0 14 18.2 19.2 10.0 8 19. % M35 M123 M78 “Balkan” M81 “Berber” Arab Morocco (49) Arab Morocco (44) Berber Morocco Berber North Central Morocco Berber Southern Morocco Saharawish (North Africa) Algerian Tunisian Mali Burkina Faso Sudan Ethiopia Oromo Ethiopia Amhara Iraqi Lebanese Ashkenazi Jewish Sephardi Jewish 37 75.9 5.Table 2.9 7.0 2.9 1.6 12.5 11.6 52.2 12 30.0 0.3 42.9 22.3 35 87.9 5.1 65.6 29.3 15.1 12 30.1 3.5 32 72.5 24 82.5 17.7 55 85.0 62 79.9 3.355 68.1 27.3 2.1 2.5 2. Population Frequencies of Haplogroup E and Selected E3b Subclades (source: Semino et al. 4 8.0 7.0 0.5 0.7 6 10.3 3.6 21.6 12.3 20 23.7 12.0 17 14.2 2.9 15 27.3 1.8 18.0 5 5 8 4 8.7 5.5 2.2 1.5 13.7 2.5 12 20.3 5.0 2.7 0.7 2.1 7.7 1.0 2.4 16.8 1.7 3.9 1.9 11.0 10.1 9.5 16 23.4 4 10.6 1.3 5.0 3.7 2.0 2.5 4.Turkish Istanbul Turkish Konya Northern Greek (Macedonia) Greek Albanian Croatian Hungarian Ukrainian Polish Italian North Central Italian Calabria 1 Italian Calabria 2 Italian Apulia Italian Sicily Italian Sardinia Dutch French Bearnais French Basque Spanish Basque Catalan Andalusian (76) Andalusian (37) 6 13.9 1.7 .4 8.3 7 0 1 0 1 2 7 5.5 12 13.8 11 25.7 1.0 3.5 3.4 25.8 9.3 5.5 7.9 2.2 2.2 1.1 6.6 4.0 5.7 18 22.1 3. 3%. The ―toe‖ and ―heel‖ of the Italian boot were favorite sites to plant colonies for both the Greeks and the Canaanite Phoenicians who preceded them. Sephardic Jews.From the Semino study we also learn that the E haplogroup distribution closest to that observed in Ashkenazic Jews is found in the Calabria.9%. E-123. is virtually absent from the East African.9%. 21. 12. several non-Jewish populations have higher levels of E78 (―Balkan‖) than Ashkenazi Jews: Morocco Arabs (sample 1). Ethiopia Amhara.‖ E3b1).9%. 18. Greek. the latter two were the main points of embarkation across the narrow straits of the Adriatic to Greece. 11. 35.5%. Bari and Brindisi. which reaches 11. 15. it is Southern Italy that emerges as the most likely source for Ashkenazi E in general. if we consider all forms of E in Europe (excluding Africa). Major cities were Pozzuoli. 17.9% compared to the Ashkenazi Jewish 11. Jewish communities were so prominent under the Romans that many . perhaps in response to proselytizing efforts there by a community of post-Diaspora Judeans. 12.4%.5%. Italian Calabria (sample 1).7%. Northern Greek.2% for E-123 and E-78 (―Balkan.2% within the Calabrian sample. Ethiopia Oromo. southern Morocco Berbers. In fact. and Middle Eastern. Sudanese. 25%.9%. with 13. and Albanian. Italian Sardinia. Historians note that Jews settled in all these cities from the earliest times.5%. samples. 16. the chief Italian seaport for trade with the Eastern Mediterranean. 42. 12. Tunisians. 12.7% and 5.6%.6%. North African. Italy sample (n=68). Turkish Konya. Lebanese. We believe this may indicate that Ashkenazi Jews who carry the E-123 subclade converted to Judaism in or around Calabria.7% in Ashkenazi Jews. Conversely.8%.2% and 5.5%. where Latin was the main language. Indeed. Italian Sicily 11. 22. but is 13. as opposed to other regions of Roman Italy. respectively. Calabria and the adjoining province of Apulia were Greek-speaking. Importantly. Table 3. Table 3. the Ashkenazi Jews at 37.5. Judaic academies flourished in southern Italy from antiquity into Byzantine and Arab times. Palestinian Arabs are 16. several other non-Jewish populations carry similar or higher percentages. Balkarians at 25.‖ 20 The centrality of Apulia and Calabria to Ashkenazi origins is echoed by the presence of a virtually identical matching profile for J-M172.9. Italians from Apulia are at 29.0.8% and 20.4%). while in Albania it is 19. shows Ashkenazi Jews with a total of 23. Georgians (33.4.1.8% may be grouped with the Tunisians (34. The Lebanese are 25% and 10%.2. 22.0. Algerians 35.0%) and Algerians (35.7. For instance.2. and Apulia Italians (31. with Ashkenazi Jews having 23.0%) of North Africa. For J-M267 (J/J1).2% J-M172 (J2).4 and 11. 2004). Population Frequencies of J2 and J/J1 in Selected Populations (source: Semino et al.6.3.8 and 38. and 14. When combined J haplogroups are considered. For J2.6.2% and Calabrian samples. . the Iraqi percentages are 22. and in the Middle Ages there was even a proverb. Ethiopians 33. and in Greece the figure for J2 is 20. In Central Asia. respectively. and the word of God from Taranto [another Calabrian city]. However.8 and 20. Muslim Kurds are 28. Turkish Konya (31.laws singled them out.0.2%) and Bedouins (65.6%).3%).4 and 28.6% J-M267 ( J/J1). ―Out of Bari goeth forth the law.1.7.6. while North Central Italy has 26. Palestinian Arabs (55.8%). Georgians at 26. there also are several populations substantially higher than the Ashkenazic Jews: North African Saharan 17. Italians from Calabria are 22. the Konya Turks are at 27. They rank below the Muslim Kurds (40%). also taken from the Semino study. and as already mentioned.0%. Tunisians 30. and Bedouins 62. 3 .0 14.0 4.4 62.0 59.1 2.8 27.9 26.5 50.2 13.9 6.9 5.8 30.3 2.8 17.6 17.8 3. Caucasus) Northern Greek (Macedonia) 20 7 4 11 5 7 25 3 17 79 15 38 79 21 31 17 18 41 15 4 8 20.1 4.2 65.5 3.4 16.7 17.8 33.2 35.5 1. % Tot.Population No.2 3.3 25.7 31.4 Arab Morocco (49) Arab Morocco (44) Berber Morocco (64) Berber Morocco (103) Saharan (North Africa) Algerian Tunisian Ethiopia Oromo Ethiopia Amhara Iraqi Lebanese Muslim Kurd Palestinian Arab Bedouin Ashkenazi Jewish Sephardi Jewish Turkish Istanbul Turkish Konya Georgian Balkarian (so.5 40.7 25.3 J/J1 10.3 28. J M172 M267 J2 10.3 10.6 33.6 37.2 35.1 1.2 10.0 12.5 14.3 2.6 6.6 37.1 23.6 11.0 28.8 34.0 11.4 15.0 34.2 2.2 28.8 40.4 25.1 22.6 38.5 24.9 7. Greek Italian North Central Italian Calabria 1 Italian Calabria 2 Italian Apulia Italian Sicily Italian Sardinia Dutch French Bearnais Spanish Basque French Basque Catalan Andalusian (93) Pakistani Central Asia 21 14 14 9 27 10 18 0 2 0 6 1 8 21 40 22.000 years ago. pre-Diaspora Jewish settlements and.8 26.8 7.4 23.0 31. The first is that levels of haplogroups E and J are elevated in present day Italy.0 29. because these were the sites of earlier.6 7. Greece and the Balkans.2 What conclusions can we draw from these data? There are three possible ways to interpret them. Central Asia. therefore the portion of the population now carrying J and E were formerly Jews whose descendants converted to Christianity.9 21.7 13.7 20.5 15.8 12. but this was long before the birth of Judaism .8 2.8 20.5 0.0 7.1 7.3 7.9 11.9 1.9 24.6 3.7 2.7 9.6 20.9 9.6 26.6 23.0 13.1 16.7 0. A second explanation could be the spread of J2 from the Middle East into the circumMediterranean region about 10.2 1.6 3.6 8.9 22.1 2. . Turkic Avars and Jews of various origins came together in the sixth century.e. He proposes that the establishment of specifically Ashkenazi Jewry occurred in three stages: 1) the Balkans. Turkey.. bringing with them some Eastern Slavs and Iranians among their subjects. if we accept the Behar study‘s proposal that Ashkenazi Jews‘ present-day haplogroup profile confers on them a ―Middle Eastern‖ ancestry. when the Turkic rulers of Khazaria converted. which predates Judaism altogether. J1). were composed overwhelmingly of local convert populations with only a small minority of ethnic Palestinian Jews. We agree with Wexler that Ashkenazi Jews are unlikely to be descended in significant numbers from Palestinian Jewish ethnic stock (i. Albania. Ashkenazic Jews very likely descended from a population mix whose primary components were Slavo-Turkic proselytes. 2) the eighth century. Similarly E had preceded J into the Italian and Greek peninsulas after leaving its ancestral home in northeast Africa. Greece. . and a considerably intermarried Palestinian Jewish minority. Balkaria.(1. As Wexler writes: At best. not Hebrew. Kurdistan and several North African and East African populations as well. from Asia Minor to Spain and France (including both Ashkenazim and Sephardim). and 3) the post-Carolingian period down to the twelfth . where Slavs. Asia.500 BCE). This does not appear plausible except by invoking deep history. we would also have to award that title to much of Italy. and by borrowing heavily upon Biblical Hebrew terminology to denote their religious practices . I can reveal attempts by a scattered so-called ―Jewish‖ population in parts of Europe. Georgia. and that Greek was the native language of the latter. Thus. and Africa less than a millennium ago to establish a Jewish identity by imitating genuine Old Palestinian Jewish practices (as recorded in the Bible and talmudic literature). . 21 Wexler concludes that the Jewish communities established in the early Middle Ages. in North Africa in the 7th and early 8th centuries pursuant to the Arab settlement of North Africa. the E3b subclade E-123 in the Ashkenazi population seems to come from south Italian proselytes. Sorbian and additional Slavic proselytes. which provided numerous German. This would seem to be smaller than he conjectures. He proposes that this process took place during three different time periods: (a) First. Ashkenazic J2 likely derives from the same source. there is very little of it to be found in present day Middle Eastern populations. Berber and Arabic natives. By contrast J1 (M267) is as high as 62. Wexler in ―The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews‖ (1996) maintains that modern-day Sephardic Jews have their origins primarily in proselytes from North Africa of Berber ethnicity who merged with later converts in Iberia. . The Sephardic Genetic Heritage Turning now to the Sephardic population as a whole.7% among Bedouins.century in Slavic East Germany.6% of Ashkenazi who are J1s represent the vestige of original Palestinian Hebrew ancestry. As argued above. whereas the North African E3b contribution to the Sephardic community seems to be larger. He argues that a handful of descendants of Palestinian Jews in North Africa and on the Iberian Peninsula initiated intermarriage with much larger numbers of Romance.22 Where we differ is in the proportion of German and Sorbian ancestry in Wexler‘s assessment. Thus it is very likely that the 14. for the percentage of J2 among Arabs and other Middle Eastern populations is very low. then. especially haplogroups R1b and I. but we do suggest that the genetic makeup of the proselytes who formed Sephardic Jewry differs in several respects from Wexler‘s characterization. in the Iberian Peninsula between 711 and 1492 (the respective dates of the Muslim invasion and the expulsion of the Jews from the Kingdom of Spain by the Christian monarchs). Berber and Iberian converts who were the formative forces. Mexico and New Mexico – all of which are proposed by historians as sites of Sephardic Anusim settlement(need cites here—try Saudades). to the various country studies that we believe bear out these propositions. He argues that non-Jews played the dominant role in the first period. These include DNA samples collected in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands . while in the last two it was the ―Judaized‖ descendants of Arab. Let us proceed. again in North Africa after 1391 (where Iberian Jews began to settle in large numbers as a result of the nation-wide pogroms against the Jews in the Iberian Peninsula). Cuba. Puerto Rico. the Azores. permitting a connection to the names of documented Sephardim in the post-Inquisition Diaspora. We propose that current DNA studies show that the bulk of male Sephardic Jews came from European backgrounds. An advantage to the data bases we will be using is that they include the surnames of the donors. (c) Finally.23 We do not disagree with this timeline.(b) Then. while North African converts (E3b and K) occupy a more minor role in Sephardic ancestry. This occurred soon after the 1341 landfall of a large group of Portuguese. Italian and Spanish sailors arriving under Angiolina del Tegghis de Corbizz. a fair-haired. it would seem that this extreme westerly migration of Berbers took place between the time of which Pliny wrote and the conquest of northern Africa by the Arabs [eighth century CE].25 . No real doubt is now entertained that they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers which from the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic. but that they saw ruins of great buildings.The Canary Islands originally were settled by the Guanches. Pliny the Elder. and from the absence of any trace of Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago by the Spaniards. many were sold as slaves.‖ Despite having been invaded by Arabs under the command of Ben-Farroukh around 1000 CE and visited in 1291 by two Genoese galleys. Many of the Guanches fell in resisting the Spaniards. According to the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica. According to de la Peña.24 From studies of their skeletal remains. fair-skinned people whose history and culture are largely unknown. a Florentine. the Guanches seem to have preserved their original stock unmixed to the time of the Spanish conquest. and many conformed to the Roman Catholic faith and married Spaniards. This would suggest that the Guanches were not the first inhabitants. ‗Guan‘ being ―person. the name is a corrupted form of ‗Guanchinet‘ in the local language. states that when visited by the Carthaginians under Hanno [in the seventh or sixth century BCE] the archipelago was found by them to be uninhabited. Guanches resembled the Cro-Magnons of Europe. deriving his knowledge from the accounts of Juba. king of Mauretania. the admiral had important connections in the Canaries. The North Equatorial Current and winds going along with it swept past the islands on a clockwise course that carried ships to the Antilles in the Caribbean in a little more than a month. The king of Castile granted Bethencourt the right to settle the Canaries. When the Portuguese arrived. similar to the island of Leghorn in Italy. especially in Plymouth and Bristol. The possibility deserves to be raised that the Canaries started out as a Crypto-Jewish refuge. and peas and raising goats. Juan de Plessis. by the 1500s the new Canarians were numerous enough to provide settlers for . This was the same route Columbus took in 1492 and on all subsequent voyages. also bearing a Sephardic patronym. where he had an affair with the lady of Gomera.It is believed now that Berbers made their way to the islands about 2000 BCE.26 The primary settlement of the islands took place in the early 1400s under Juan de Bethencourt. From its inception.27 Though the last of native Guanche resistance was not overcome until after the time of Columbus. beans. the Canaries served as a highly important way station for east-west trade channels across the Atlantic. Dona Ines de Peraza. the Guanches were cultivating wheat. they neglected their means of navigation and lost contact with the North African mainland. Gadifer de la Salle and Maciot de Bethencourt among them. but they lacked metallurgy and were fragmented into numerous rival chieftanships. the community had strong ties to Marannos and other Crypto-Jews in southern France and England. Lying less than a hundred miles off the coast of Africa on the same latitude as the kingdom of Mali south of Morocco. and southwestern Scotland. pigs and sheep. with the result that colonists were drawn from France and Spain – Juan de Rouille. The bishop designated to provide spiritual guidance to the venture was Alberto de las Cassas. as most of these names are Sephardic. In fact. Settling there. Rodriguez and Torres suggests that these families – although carrying R1b. though the haplogroup can also be Central Asian. military conquest and the extermination of native peoples under the guise of conversion to Catholicism. This conclusion is strengthened by the presence of three Semitic (mitochondrial J) female haplotypes. The Y chromosome scores from the Canary Islands project at Family Tree DNA (n=34) display a set of haplotypes consistent with a Moorish-Iberian heritage.9%) and E3b (17. Cuba. and two O3 East Asian males. Diaz.000 Canarians ventured to Louisiana in 1778. I. 30 . Puerto Rico and Saint Augustine. Several of these Canarian descendants now claim Sephardic ancestry. Guatemala. likely relatively recent additions. surnamed Yan and San. There is also a small amount of K2 (2.8%).8%) and I (8. The presence of Sephardic surnames such as Benetez. followed by G/G2 (8. They also settled in Venezuela. When were these Native American females brought to the island. Another is that there were pre-Columbian Native Americans who crossed the Atlantic Ocean in the direction of Europe and Africa. which may be Phoenician. if they were not among the original settlers? One possibility is that they came back from the Americas with Spanish husbands. Over 4. Hernandez. The Canaries served as the proving ground for most of the institutions later introduced to the Americas – the plantation economy. probably from East Africa. as well as one U6b which is centered today in northern Portugal with suspected Berber affinities.6%). Nicaragua and Paraguay. Nunez. while the three C donors are probably Native American. Gersone. an emphasis on cash crops such as sugar cane. several families settled in Hispaniola. Perez.29 As for the other female lineage results. E3b. as about 10% of the ancient Phoenician port of Cadiz is K2.9%). slavery. The two primary haplogroups are R1b (55. and G haplotypes – are of Jewish descent. L3 represents a Sub-Saharan African ancestress.Spain‘s colonies in the New World.28 After prospering in the Canaries. Durant. Canary Island Mitochondrial Haplogroups (source: Canary Islands Sephardic DNA Project). J.0 17. Table 4. E3b = 11.1%. I = 9. J2 = 9.8%. and may be interpreted as providing additional support for a Jewish presence on the island.9 8.6 8.A much larger study (n = 652) of Canary Islands Y chromosome haplotypes by Flores et al (2003) provided a Y haplogroup distribution as follows: R1b = 47%.7%.8%. This is consistent with the overall profile provided by the much smaller FTDNA study sample.J1 = 4.8%. through the presence of the robust J2 proportion.8 0. E3b1 = 3.9 5. and R1a = 2. Number 19 3 0 6 3 1 2 Percent 55.8 2.5%.2%. Canary Island Y Chromosome Haplogroups (source: Canary Island Sephardic DNA Project) Haplogroup R1b I J E3b G/G2 K2 03 n=34 Table 5.9 . K = 3. Franco. SJ Notes (D‘Aquino) Number Names 3 Crespo. SJ .Table 6. Dorado 1 Mendoza 1 Nunez 1 Estevez Chaho – S. Canary Islands Surnames Surname Aquino Arbelo Bellot Haplogroup C J. Sanchez 3 Mestril. J1 H U6b L3 Chao R1b Haplogroup R1b I R1b Bello – S. Rodriguez. S. BM. G (de la Pena. R. L. R1b R1b E3b E3b G2 R1b. R. Penha) S. BW. L. L. BM. S. BM. H. L. Roa – S.Delgado Diaz Durant Gershoni Gomez Hernandez Lopez Lujan Martinez Morales Nunez Pena Perez Ramirez Ramos Rodriguez Roque Rosales San Santana Socarraz Torres Yan E3b. CN etc. CN etc. BW etc. G. L. I. E3b K2 R1b R1b R1b R1b O3 R1b R1b R1b O3 S. CN. BW. S. R. R1b R1b R1b E3b G E3b. BW. A. T MJ S. L. T. CN. L S. I R1b R1b. H S. L etc. L S. G S. BM. H. BM. T Gershom – Hebrew name S. L. H. Rocco. R. L. CN. BM. S. CN. BM MJ S. G. CN.). G CN. BM. . T etc. L. H. G. (Dias) S. G (Gomes) S. R. BW. S. Roca. Roach (Heb. S. Unlike the Canaries. Les Noms des Juifs de.Key A=Aragon. by Lionel Levy The Azores The Azores31 lie northwest of the Canary and Madeira32 islands where the easterly North Atlantic Current turns around and becomes the Canaries Current. Albert M.. B. the Azores were uninhabited when the Portuguese arrived in the 1400s – perhaps owing to the inhospitable. Secrecy and Deceit H=Hyamson. London BW=Barnett and Wright. History of the Jews in. The Jews of Jamaica CN=Jewish Canadian Surnames G=Gitlitz. by Regne BM-Bevis Marks. Liebman. David.com SJ=Sangre Judia T=Tunisie.. They are an ideal return harbor and restocking point for North Atlantic trade vessels. by Mario Javier Saban L=S. . Finding Our Fathers S=Sephardim.B.S. The Jews of New Spain MJ=Messianic Jews Sephardic Surname Reference List R=Dan Rothenburg. The Sephardim of England JC=Judios Conversos. Danish. They were colonized first in 1439 by people mainly from the Spanish(?) provinces of Algarve and Alentejo. In the 1700s the economy turned to the production of citrus. Most of the inhabitants made their living as farmers.volcanic nature of their creation. Hermigo Nolette and Antoine Sieuvre. William Ray (Reyes) and Henry Walker. especially oranges. The Azores also had a lucrative clothdying trade with Britain during the 1600s. Philip Palgrave and Christopher Williams.‖ 33 There were also French traders in 1690: Christophe and Jean Bressan and Bernard Fartoat (Phartouat). Richard Langford. most notably from Northern France and Flanders. the haplogroup profile must be viewed with caution. and the Azores have been documented as having a large Converso population. settlers from other European countries arrived. including the LaBat family. As shown in Table 6. fishermen and merchants. known Marrano Jews who helped settle French Canada. who were descended from Rui Gonçales de Camara (died 1522). Thomas Precost. but sadly in 1890 these groves were destroyed by parasites. In the following centuries. and in 1669 we find the names of John and William Chamberlin together with John Stone. gentlemen said to be ―very Portuguese in manner. One Abram Vogullar served as the Swedish. The Azores were home to several ecclesiastical seminaries and were ruled by the hereditary counts of Villa Franca. In 1640 the British traders were represented by Matthew Godwin. During the 1600s the British factors with whom the Azores traded included John Ellis. with Portuguese wives. Louis de la Ronde. . However with a sample size of only 15. Dutch. all but one of the surnames included in the DNA Project are considered Sephardic. Hamburg and Spanish consul. Several Huguenot businessmen based in La Rochelle had interests in the Azores. 6 . R. BM. Azores Surnames Surname Borges Bethencourt Pereira Pires de Melle de Sousa Fernandes Olivera Magellan Jacome Rosa Silveira da Rosa Jakum – S S. BM. BM. S. H. G Number 8 4 1 1 1 Percent 53. L (de Sosa) S. R etc. R etc. BW.6 6.6 6. L S. BW. BW S. S. S. L etc. G de Mella – S. BM. R. JC. L.Table 7. Azores Male Haplogroups (Azores DNA Project:FTDNA ) Haplogroup R1b I G C3 Q n=15 Table 8.3 26. MJ BM S. Notes (see Table 6) S. L etc. BM.6 6. L. H. F. Among mitochondrial haplogroups (n=5). Note also that the Machados lent their name to Machado‘s Disease.000 to 300.Periera da Rosa Machado Braz de Costa Loureiro de Freitas Tavares See above S. due to epidemics and abuse by the incoming Europeans. S. a genetic disorder traced to Portugal that is similar to Parkinson‘s Disease and afflicts some Jews. and Q can also be Ashkenazi or Scandinavian. we have 3 Hs and 2 Ks. is H.1%. Estimates of the indigenous population at that time range from 50. BW In Azores DNA. Bethencourt. we see again that R1b is the primary male haplogroup. also called Joseph‘s Disease.J2 was 8. R. by Monteil et al (Annals of Human Genetics 2005) produced a somewhat different genetic profile: R1b was 55. C3 and Q are American Indian types (though C is found sparsely in such places as Sardinia.000. R1b still remains the predominant haplogroup and the presence of both J and E3b in substantial proportions strengthens the argument that there was a Sephardic-Moorish presence on the islands. E3b was 13% and J1. G (de Costa) MJ S. L. Over the next seven decades most of the indigenes became extinct. a name made famous by the Sephardic historian Cardozo Bethencourt. Cuba Columbus arrived in Cuba34 on his first voyage in 1492. A larger study (n = 185). However. . L etc. H.6%. but without surnames. BM. Ciboneys and Guanajatabeyes. finding three different indigenous peoples dwelling there: Tainos. with sugarcane plantations and cattle ranches also remaining prominent. Subsequently. In our view these figures provide additional support for the proposal that the primary Sephardic Jewish haplogroup is R1b. while G and J2 were each present at 2.7%. After eleven months of British rule.000 persons in 1544. a slave rebellion on St. 800 were African slaves and the remainder indigenous people. Among the major sugar planters at the time were Francisco de Arronga. Q. Cuba was ceded back to Spain in exchange for Florida. The primary economic activity was shipbuilding and cattle ranching. consisting of 7. A large-scale population disruption occurred in 1762 when British forces attacked and occupied Havana. growing to 44. Juan de Prado.The first Spanish settlement was established in 1511 by Diego Valazquez.Q3 was 4. most of them used to cultivate sugarcane. the economy of the island had shifted to tobacco. By 1791 (by which time Florida was again in Spanish hands). and the ‗peninsulares‘ left. E3b and I/I1b were both 9. who served subsequently as governor until 1524. most of the Spanish administrators.1% of the sample. the number of slaves had reached 84. one of the major cities of New Spain. This interpretation of the data is supported by the mitochondrial DNA results (n = 30). By the early 1700s. the R1b component of the male population is even higher than in the Canary Islands and Azores – 72.000 by 1774. Cuba‘s early population was highly mixed. Here.5%. That same year. which show that while 40% of the female haplotypes were Indigenous and an additional 20% . the slave population of Cuba increased dramatically. Cuban Y chromosome haplogroup results are taken from the Cuban DNA Project (n = 44) at Family Tree DNA. The island‘s governor . Dominique (Haiti) caused many French sugar planters to flee to Cuba.3%.000. which opened the island to trade with North America and England. of whom 600 were Spanish. Conde de Casa Montalvo and José Richardo O-Farrill. John the). Carillo. Martin. Morena (silk. Moreira (Moor). Ferro (iron. Farinas.1 4. Maria. ―priest. Sardinas (from Sardinia). Ortega. to be paired with Jewish or Muslim men. Conea. Carballo. Galvez. Surnames included in the Cuban DNA Project echo those of the two previous studies examined in this paper. Salvador (Savior). 11% were clearly Semitic (J). holy man‖). An additional 21% of the mitochondrial DNA haplotypes were H. Duarte.1 9. several of these being North African or Mediterranean haplotypes likely. Haplogroup R1b E3b I. Sanchez (perhaps originally the same as Cohen. Gusman. Nearly all of these can be found on at least one of the standard Sephardic name-lists such as those of Sephardim. U4.7 9. Betancourt. Table 9. depending on the branch). Among those known to be associated with Converso or Morisco families are: Cruz (Cross). a proportion that would be unlikely if the male spouses were not Jewish (or Muslim).com and Saudades. H3. again. V and W. Valdez and Villareal (Royal House). a Jewish-dominated craft). Batista (Baptist. The low incidence of H. Q3 Number 32 4 4 2 Percent 72. Elizondo. responsible for over 40% of the population.5 . Male Haplogroups in Cuba (source: Cuban DNA Project). Garcia. Reyes (Royal). H11. which otherwise constitutes the largest haplogroup in Europe.were sub-Saharan African. papermaker). Almora (―the Moor‖). Banos (Jewish and Moorish. Romero. Perez. is another indication that we are dealing with an ethnically specific subpopulation. I1b Q. Diaz. U5b. 3 2.G J2 O2 N = 44 1 1 1 2.3 2.3 U4 U5b V W 10 1 1 1 1 1 3 6 1 1 1 1 N = 28 36% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 11% 21% 3% 3% 3% 3% Table 10. Cuba Project Surnames. Cruz Perez Albuerne Archuela Bayares Bruno Caballero Cadalso Ferrales Ferro Fundora Galas .3 MtDNA A B C H H11 H3 J L1. Arteaga Banos Betancourt Pena Reyes Almora Areces Avila Banio Blanco Pena y de Borbon Lima Alvarez Argete Bacallao Batista Borrego Torre Socarraz Alvarez-Perez Anastoa Lopez Lugo Caraballo Caraballosa Carballo Carballosa Caullo Caneras Correa Crepo de la Llata del Pino y Tous del Pozo Desdia Deulopeu Diaz Duarte Echazabal Echemendia Elizondo Esquivel Estopinao Farinas Morillo Mihica Galvez Garcia Garcia de Oranos Gasque Gavira Gonzalez (Etor) Govantes Guerra Guerrero Gusman Hernandez Herrera Ibanez Izquierdo Lauzenique Lazo de la Vega Leiva/Leyva Liz Llanes Ballerilla Fernandez Pupo Ramirez . or earlier. The island was settled by indigenous peoples of the Archaic culture of the West Indies in the first century CE. perhaps from South America.Maruga Marcello Marin Martin Masias Montano Monzon Moreira Morena Morgado Salas Sanchez Sardinas Tellez Valdez Vejarano Villaria Nido Olazabal Oramas Ortega Perdomo Perez (Martinez) Peroy Portuondo Prieto Pruna Salvador Sanchez-Pereira Suarez Temprano Valera Velasco Reyes Ricardo de Aldana Riviera Rodriguez Romero Rotxes Rubio Ruiz Saa Saavedia San Jorge Sancibrian Tascoa Uria(s) Vasquez Villareal Puerto Rico Puerto Rico35 lies in the Caribbean Sea adjacent to Cuba. By 1000 CE. Jamaica and Hispaniola. Around 120 CE. the Tainos had established . a second group of natives representing the Arawak culture reached the island. as well as advanced agricultural practices. Pardo de Osorio. Pedro Suarez. as several of the original Castilian families had moved to colonies on the mainland of the Americas or died from epidemics that periodically swept the island. 200 more Canarian families emigrated to Puerto Rico. Pedro Tello de Guzman. The Tainos had a well-developed language and civilization. Natives were forced into servitude or hunted down and killed. DNA samples collected on the island clearly show that Taino ancestry survives through the female line. Europeans came to Puerto Rico in 1493 with the second voyage of Columbus. Portuguese and Flemish. Puerto Rico was subjected to repeated depredations by French. but male lines are virtually extinct. In 1683. it was the native men and their male lineages who bore the brunt of this. and in 1508 Juan Ponce de Léon founded the first permanent settlement. resulting in a devastating collapse of the local population and culture.themselves on Puerto Rico. Antonio Mosquero and Juan de Haro. with some ―Italians. Many of these Indians escaped into the hills and their descendants remain today. As in other colonies. English and Portuguese privateers. Due to its central Caribbean location. Settlers on Puerto Rico were mainly drawn from Castile.‖36 By the late 1500s Canary Islanders and additional Portuguese settlers had also arrived. These surnames further suggest that the island was a Sephardic (and Moorish) community. for example is clearly Islamic. so the Puerto Rican indigenous haplotype pattern is especially diverse. followed by another 300 in 1691. . These arrivals shifted the overall population of the island toward a Canarian ancestry profile. Mosquera. Spanish officials on the island during the late 1500s included the following: Menendez de Valdes. Antonio Calderon. One further point is that Puerto Rico was a favorite place for the Spanish to send native slaves captured in the Carolinas. A fort was built by the Spanish settlers from 1530 to 1540 to defend the island. Betancourt. Leon. Lopez. . de Gracia. Second comes I (13. North African and Eastern Mediterranean is notable. The relatively high level of Semitic/North African lineages. Bernal. omitting the 16 instances of male African DNA). Medina (Arabic). Semitic and Eastern Mediterranean haplotypes is found. Castello.0%) and E3b (12.4%). Carrero. Marrero. Borges. Cruz.The Puerto Rico DNA Project (also at Family Tree DNA) is enlightening. for the remaining 19% to be concentrated in the categories of Semitic. Febus (Pharabus. characterized by the scores 13 24-13-9-13-14-11-12-10-14). something which would be unlikely had the male population not had Jewish and Muslim roots. Candelaria. and several sets of males are evidently cousins. Miranda. next J/J2 (12. Espinosa. n=64 females). Benitez. Guzman. The surnames in the Puerto Rico sample are also strongly suggestive of ConversoMorisco backgrounds: Bautista. Maysonet (French Maisonett). composed of both early and later converts to Judaism (or Islam). Cordova. Especially noteworthy is the high frequency of U haplotypes in this sample. Casillas. Muniz. Since 61% of the female lines were indigenous. suggests to us that this was largely a Sephardic and Moorish population. Flores. Correa. Jimenez. there appears to be at least one ―founder effect‖ (the male responsible for five matching E3b‘s. Perhaps the diversity results from the relatively high number of participants (n = 67 males. Garcia. This interpretation is supported by the mitochondrial data. showing a relatively high degree of endogamy. The most common haplotype is R1b (49. Ferrer. Forbes). because it displays a diverse set of haplotypes. a preponderance of North African. Excluding the indigenous and sub-Saharan African ancestry.3%). Mendez. Colon. coupled with R1b and I. while 20% were African.0%). de Jesus de la Reyes. Castellano. Dias. Moreover. Puerto Rico Y Chromosome Haplogroups (source: Puerto Rico DNA Project).0 13.5 3. Padilla.9 76. Romero.0 . Perez. Haplogroup A C D H H1 H1b H3 HV Number 32 15 2 2 1 1 2 1 10.5 4. Pardo. Haplogroup R1b E3b K I G/G2 J2 J R1a n=67 Table 12. Yanez and Zayas.9 6.6 Percent Number 33 8 4 9 3 5 3 2 Percent 49. Ortega. Robes.3 11. Olmeda.Navarro. Santiago.5 7. Puerto Rico Mitochondrial Haplogroups (source: Puerto Rico DNA Project).4 4. Table 11. Oliveras. Santos. Nieves. Reyes. Vega. Rossy. 1 Table 13. Puerto Rico Surnames (source: Puerto Rico DNA Project).J J1a U U5 U5b n=64 1 1 1 2 3 9. Adorno Agosto Aguiar Albadalyo Alicia Alvadalijo Alvarado Alvarez Ambel Ambert Aponte Aranda Arbelo Arce Archilla Arellano Beltran Benitez Bermudez Bernal Betancourt Bonilla Borges Borrero Brau Bravo Bragante Brito Burgos Burset Camacho Camunas Chevires Clas Cofresi Colberg Collazo Colon Colon de Bonilla Colon de Torres Cordero Cordova Brigantti Castello Correa Cortes Crespo Cruz .4 3. Arroyo Arvela Avila Aviles Ayala Ayes Badalejo Balasquisle Ballistie de la Luz de la Torre de la Pena de la Reyes de la Rios de los Santos Diclet del Castillo de Rio del Rosario de Toro del Valle de la Rosa Delgado Candelaria Camino Caraballo Cardona Carrero Cartagena Casillas Castaner Castillieno Gerena Gil Gines Gomez Gonzalez Grana Guilarte Guillen Guzman Hernandez Hidalgo Hinojosa Huertas Irizany Cruzado Cuesta Cuevas Davila de Castro de Gracia de Jesus de la Cruz Batista/Bautista Maysonet Medina Mejias Mendez Mendoza Menendez Mirabal Miranda Moctezuma Montalvo Montarez Montes Montesinos Moyi (Irsi) . Diaz Dominguez Esko Espinosa Febus Feliciano Fernandez Ferrer Flores Fontan Fontanes Garcia Nieves Ocasio Ojeda Olivares Oliver Oliveras Olmeda (O) Oquendo Orozco Ortega Ortiz Jimenez Lauriano Lebron Leon Longrais Lopez Lugo Maldonado Marrero Martin Martinez Matos Quinones Quirindoago Ramirez Ramos Ramos Colon Rangel Reyes Robles Roig Rolon Romero Mulero Muniz Munoz Muriel Narvaez Natal Navarro Navedo Negrin Negron Neris Nevarez Senano Sierra Solis Solla Soto Sotomayor Tirado Toledo Torres Ubarri Valentin . and with good reason. Huaxtec and Purepecha. were only the last of a long succession of civilizations. as the home of indigenous empires. Maya. Toltec. The Aztec. Zapotec. Teotihuacan. 37 whose ancient name is Anahuac. All of these peoples lived a settled existence in urban . or Mexica (who lent their name to the modern country that emerged).Otero Pabon Pacheco Padilla Padro Pantoja (J) Pardo Pedrosa Pena Peralta Peraza Perez Pinero Pinzon Ponce Sepulveda Rosa Rosado Rosario Rossy Ruiz Rus Saavedia Salazar Saliedo Saldana Salgado Sanchez Santana Santiago Santos Vallejo Vazquez Vega Velasco Valazquez Valez Vera Viera Villafane von Kupfershein Yanez Yrizany Zavala Zayas Puentes Mexico It is customary to speak of Mexico. Mixtec. Chichimeca. beginning with the Olmec and continuing through the Izapa. Thousands of African slaves were imported to work in the mines. palaces and apartment houses with broad avenues and water and sewage systems larger than any in Europe. and it was seated in Mexico City. During the 300-year colonial period that followed.4%. ranches and encomiendas (private trust lands). and the migratory Indian tribes not living in cities or towns were relegated to the margins of society and denigrated as ‗Indios. The Mexican Genealogy and DNA Project at Family Tree DNA has a large sample size (n=129) and yielded results that mirror the haplogroup profile seen in the other studies.‘ With Mexico City as its capital.7%). E3b at 11.7%) and O (0. and included all the Spanish Caribbean islands and Florida as well. and J1 at 1. the native population concentrated in the Valley of Mexico was reduced from eight million to less than half that number in a few short years. gardens.3%. Spain‘s South American possessions were termed New Granada. G. they saw a metropolis of temples.5%. followed by I at 12. as well as warfare. Due to plagues and epidemics. Once again. King Philip II instituted an Inquisition tribunal for all of New Spain. In 1571.5%). Reduplication of both the rank order and relative percentages of the major haplogroups . there emerged a distinctive new mestizo (mixed) population born of Spanish fathers and Mexican mothers.4%.centers. Also found were K2 (1. and when the conquistador Hernan Cortes and his small force of Spaniards first gazed on the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan (the future Mexico City) in 1521. R1b was predominant (55.G2 was present in Mexico at 5. especially the Portuguese nation‖ – testimony enough that Mexico and the surrounding countries were havens for Crypto-Jews.8%). Its purpose was ―to free the land which has become contaminated by Jews and heretics. R1a1 (0.6% J2 at 9. New Spain stretched from the Rio Arriba and Rio Abajo of present-day New Mexico (upper and lower provinces) to Costa Rica. Campos. respectively).3%. that is. Vidal. the European haplogroups are the same as we have seen in the other samples studied: H ( 5). Tarin. Trevino. Romero. Table 14. Pena. J. J ( 2). with European H. K (2). Ascensio. Mares. and V (2). Chacon. while B and C were each about one-fourth (26. Ybarra.lent support to the proposition that such a profile reflected an ancestral Sephardic Jewish population. K. Arriola.4% and 4. so it is difficult to ascertain the corresponding female haplogroups in the population. Olivas. Villareal.5%. . There has been no mitochondrial DNA collected in the Mexico project to date. Elyondo. Sanchez. on the other. Gallegos. Leal. Flores. Rodriguez. Soto. Correa.6%). Arebalo. Juarez.8%. Diaz.5% and 23. A 2000 study (n=223) of the ―cosmopolitan peoples‖ of north-central Mexico. An earlier study by Andrew Merriwether of Mexican-Americans living in Colorado found that 85% of the female haplogroups were Native and only 15% European – not unlike Cuba and Puerto Rico. Significantly.38 Native haplogroups amounted to nearly ninety percent of the sample (89. Rivera. and D trailed the others at 5. Garcia. respectively). U (1). Loera. Cervantes. Mexico Y Chromosome Haplogroups (source: Mexican Genealogy and DNA Project). Yanez. most of which are Sephardic and which we have seen in the other studies discussed: Acosta. Moreno.2%). Miranda. V and U. All of the Mexican study participants carried Hispanic surnames. dividing the remaining ten percent (5. Nunez. on the one hand. and African L. Palacios. Herrera. Salas. Ojinaga and Chihuahua. Mastinez. found that Indigenous haplogroup A accounted for about a third of the lineages (33. Ramirez. Leon. Aburto Acosta Aquihaga Aquinaga Alderete Aranzazu Arebalo Armijo J2a1 R1b Q E3b R1b E3b I1c R1b Loera Lopez Lopez Lozano Mares Martinez Martinez Medrano Q3 J2 R1b R1b R1b R1b G2 J2 .7 Table 15.4 5. Mexico Surnames with Haplogroup Assignments (source: Mexico Genealogy and DNA Project).5 0.4 9.7 0.7 1.5 0.8 11.3 1.Haplogroup R1b E3b I1b/I1c G/G2 J2 J1 J R1a1 K2 O n=129 Number 72 15 16 7 12 2 1 1 2 1 Percent 55.6 12. Arredondo Arrida Arriola Ascensio Avila Bejarano Botello Burquez Campos Canales Canales Cano Cano Carral Cervantes Chacon Chapa Correa Diaz Elizondo Escalante Felguerez Felix E3b E3b R1b Q3 E3b2 Q3 Q O3 R1b G R1b G2 R1b R1a1 R1b E3b2 R1b I1c Q3 Q R1b K2 I1c Miranda Montes Moreno Moreno Moreno Navarro Nunez Ochoa Ochoa Olivas Olivas Ortiz Pacheco Palacios Pena Pinedo Puetes Quiroz Ramirez Ramirez Ramos Rivera Rocha I1b Q Q3 J2 R1b R1b R1b R1b E3b R1b E3b J2 R1b Q3 I1b2 R1b R1b E3b Q3 R1b R1b R1b Q3 . Felix Fernandez Fernandez Flores Flores Galarza Gallegos Garcia Garcia Garcia Garcia Garza Garza Gomez Gomez Gonzalez Gonzalez Gonzalez Gonzalez Guajardo Guajardo Guerra Hernandez J2 R1b G2 E3b R1b I1c R1b I1b2 I1c J1 K2 R1b I1c J2 R1b1 J2 I1b2 E3b E3b2 J2f1 J2 R1b E3b Rodarte Rodriquez Romero Rosales Ruiz Salas Salinas Salinas Sanchez Serda Serros Solis Sotelo Soto Suarez Tarin Tarin-Segura Terrazas Trevino Trevino Madden Hernandez Gallardo Q3 R1b J2 R1b R1b1 R1b I1c R1b R1b R1b R1b1 R1b R1b G2 Q R1b1 G2 R1b R1b J2 E3b2 Q3 R1b . Doña Francisca. including Carvajal‘s namesake and successor. were Carvajal‘s sister. and their numerous children. then in Mexico City. Don Francisco Rodriguez de Matos (purportedly a rabbi).Herrera Hinojosa Holguin Huante Jimenez Leal Leal Leon R1b I1b2 R1b E3a O R1b G2 R1b Valdez Venegas Vidal Villareal Villareal Villareal Yanez Ybarra R1b I1c R1b E3b R1b R1b R1b R1b New Mexico The story of Jews in New Mexico begins with the establishment of the New Kingdom of Léon. Nuevo Léon. His ten-year governorship ended when the Mexican Inquisition learned that many of Carvajal‘s colonizers were Crypto -Jews. her husband. California. King Philip II gave the right to colonize this vast area to a New Christian. first in Tampico. Don Luis de Carvajal. Most of the Carvajal and Rodriguez family were persecuted by the Inquisition. Texas. Some of the Mexico City Converso community managed to move to New Mexico as soon as settlement there was organized in 1598. reorganized in 1610. and once more after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. Among the earliest settlers. a large territory embracing most of the present-day area of Tampico. young Luis. Chihuahua. and New Mexico. and many were burned at the stake in auto-da-fés. Bernardo Lopez de Mendizaval was governor of New Mexico from 1659 to 1661 before being removed and sent back to Mexico City to answer . Arizona. which we interpret as indicative of a Jewish-Moorish presence in the community.9 in New Mexico. of the select families studied in Chavez‘ book were originally Crypto-Jewish. Garcia.6% (versus 55.5 in New Mexico and G/G2 from 5. Cruz. Martinez.8%. However. Notable is the continued low presence of J/J1 in the sample. it is said that there are only about twelve original New Mexican families. Trujillo.41 Presumably.5% and the J/J1 to 4. Duran.40 In fact. all multiply intermarried. Chavez. each with their own coats of arms and royal grants. the J2 percentage rises to 13.39 Many. The R1b proportion remains virtually unchanged at 55.6 in Mexico to 9.charges of Judaizing. but these are not significantly different from the distributions found in Mexico. however. Lucero.5% of New Mexico female haplogroup results that were non-Native. A direct mtDNA comparison between the two is not possible. Jimenez. effectively counterbalancing the increase in J/J2 as far as Semitic/Mediterranean ancestry is concerned. there were present a J and a J1b1. the New Mexico DNA project may contain a higher percentage of Jewish ancestry than that of Mexico. including the names Baca. Lopez.42 The DNA evidence for such a supposition is equivocal.8% in Mexico). just as it does for the Ashkenazi community. Luna.4 to 3. Francisco Gomez Robledo was also summoned before the Inquisition. In New Mexico. One of his soldiers. as well as two Ks and 3 Us. Sanchez and Vigil. E3b declines from 11. because of the absence of mtDNA samples for Mexico. since it is believed that more openly Jewish Conversos migrated northward from Mexico to distance themselves from the Inquisition. among the 18. if not the majority. I1b. . I haplogroups (I. I1b) decline from 12.2.4 in Mexico to 7. which we have proposed represents the original Palestinian Hebrew component of the Sephardic population. 9 3. Haplogroup R1b E3b I G2 J2 J/J1 Total J Native Hgs n=142 Number 70 12 10 4 17 7 24 16 Percent 55.Table 16.8 18.2 13.5 4. New Mexico Y Chromosome Haplogroups (source: New Mexico DNA Project).5 81.4 Percent .3 Table 17. Haplogroup A B C X H HV J. J1b1 K Number 29 29 20 1 7 1 2 2 18.6 9.3 11. New Mexico Mitochondrial Haplogroups (source:New Mexico DNA Project).5 7. Abeyta Aquilar Anaya Apodaca Aragon Archibeque Archuleta Armijo Arrey Ayala Baca Baca Barreras Bejarano Brito Bustamante Campos R1b Q R1b R1b R1b R1b E3b R1b J2 R1b R1b I R1b Q3 R1b R1b R1b Marquez Martin Serrano Martinez Martinez Martinez Mirabal Mandragon Montano Montoya Morga Murchison Olivas Olivas Ortega Ortiz Ortiz Ortiz R1b R1b R1b J2 J1 R1b J2 J R1b R1b R1b E3b R1b R1b J2 R1b E3b . New Mexico Surnames with Haplogroup Assignments (source: New Mexico DNA Project).M R U5. U6 n=97 (without African) 1 3 3 Table 18. Carrasco Casaus Castillo Cervantes Chavez Chavez Cisneros Coca Coca Contreras Cordoba Curtis Deaguero Delgado Dominguez Duran Esquibel Flores Flores Gallegos Galvan Gaona Garcia de Jurado R1b I R1b R1b I R1b R1b R1b J2 Q J2 R1b J2 R1b R1b R1b R1b Q3 R1b I R1b I J Otero Pacheco Padilla Pena Peralta Perea Pittel Quintana Quiros Rael de Aguilar Ramirez Read Rincon Rivera Rivera Rodriguez Rodriguez Romero Robledo Romero Romero Romero Romero Romero R1b R1b R1b I1b I J2 R1b R1b E3b R1b E3b R1b R1b R1b J R1b I R1b R1b G2 J2 Q3 Q Garcia de Noriega Garcia Gavitt Gonzalez Bernal Gonazlez Griego Gutierrez Gutierrez Guzman Hernandez Guajardo Guajardo Guerra Hernandez Herrera Herrera Hidalgo Hill Jardine Kirker La Badie Lara Leal R1b Q E3b J2 Q G2 I J2 Q R1b J2f1 J2 R1b E3b R1b C3 R1b R1b R1b R1b I1b R1b R1b Ronguillo Saiz Salazar Sanchez de Inigo Sancez Sandoval Santistevan Santistevan Sedillo Sena Serna Serna Silva Tafoya Tenorio Torres Torres Trujillo Valdez Valdez Valencia Varela Velasquez O3 R1b J J Q3 R1b I Q3 J2 J G2 Q R1b K2 J R1b I1b J2 R1b E3b R1b R1b Q Lopez Lucera de Godoy Lucero Lujan Luna Madrid Madrid Maldonado Maldonado Manchego Marcilla Mares I R1b Q E3b R1b J2 E3b R1b E3b R1b E3b R1b Vergara Vigil Villescas R1b R1b G2 Sephardim – New Mexico There is a second Sephardim-New Mexico Project (N = 64), having an unknown amount of overlap with the first. In this sample, the R1b percentage holds steady at 56.1, while J,J1 is 7.6% and J2 is 10.6% for a total J representation of 18.2%. Interestingly, the I proportion is higher at 15.2%. E3b is 4.5%, and G2 is also 4.5%. There is one R1a donor in the sample for 1.5% representation; this donor may have originated in an Ashkenazi community. It should be noted that the Luna DNA sample from the New Mexico Sephardim Project has haplotype R1b-AMH. The de Luna family can be traced to a French nobleman named Bon de Lunel from a town in the kingdom of Septimania near Narbonne.43 Bon (―Good‖) received his name from the fact that his pedigree, like all Nasim, was believed to go directly back to King 6 1.5 15.‖ Thus. Other forms of the surname were Shem Tov (Hebrew). New Mexico Sephardim Y Chromosome Haplogroups (source: Sephardim – New Mexico Project).6 Table 20. Bonet.. Bennetton (Italian). Table 19. Haplogroup R1b E3b I G2 J/J1 R1a J2 n=62 (excludes native) Number 37 3 6 3 5 1 7 Percent 56. New Mexico Sephardim Mitochondrial Haplogroups (source: Sephardim – New Mexico Project). Haplogroup A Number 14 Percent . Good (English) and Buen (Spanish).2 4.5 10. Any Jewish male who was distinguished in this fashion took care never to alter his ―good name. actual rulers of Narbonne in the tenth century). Kalonymus (from the Greek. this Luna‘s R1b haplotype is consistent with proposals that the convert Jews of Septimania were of European origin.David. Hirschman and Yates 2007. Gerber 2002). Kalman (German).5 7.g.1 4. but believed themselves to be of Davidic descent (see e. Migueli. 21. Hernandez. R1b Lopez Martinez (2) Chavez Garcia Werkheiser Maicas Lucero Santistevan Perrez Herrera Mirabal Baca Rodriguez (2) Sanchez Gonzales Cavazos R1a Sanchez Delgado Saiz Matthews Maestas Jaramillo Vigil Esquibel Aragon Abeyta Morales Garza Gilbert Rose Malee Padilla Montoya G2 Chavez Romero Sanchez I Salazar Casaus Chavez Montoya (2) Garcia Torres J.Trujillo.B C D H HV H5a R T3 n=33 5 7 1 2 1 1 1 1 3. Surnames Sephardim – New Mexico. Martinez E3b Abousleman . J1.0 3.8 Fig. Nieto.0 12. Gonzales.1 81. Chavez. J2 Sanchez. E3b.. As shown in Table 22. Not surprisingly. the haplogroup profile in the Anousim Project most closely resembles the Cuban DNA Project. Montana.J1 = 7.3 for Cuba). Flora/Flores and the like. The sample in this project is small (n=34) and therefore the statistics may not be completely stable. Gerber 2002).1% (there was no J1). 11. e.3% for Cuba.The Anousim and Canadian-Anousim Project There are two additional projects to which we should attend before closing with a pair of U.8% for the Anousim versus 9.7%.g. Bellemare. Sephardic ancestry among this group may be a given. versus 2. Hence. Both of these are at Family Tree DNA.S.1% and J2 = 5. Another difference is in I haplogroups: 1. LeBlanc. the R1b proportion is still the highest (28. La Mont. La Fleur – but may have originally been Hispanic.4 (versus 2. Where the two countries differ is in the percentage of J/J2: 12.6%). all of which was J2. E3b is 5.4 (versus 9. the Anousim sample has relatively more J. regional projects.0 (versus 72. both Jews and Moors migrated to France in great numbers during the 1500s and 1600s. of which J. Bonmere.. Blanca. living publicly as Catholics. but privately reembracing Judaism or Islam (e.1% for Cuba. Roth 1932. since southern France was one of the places of refuge sought out by those expelled under the Spanish Inquisition. though much less than in the other samples. In it. According to several scholars. The Canadian-Anousim Project collected data from French Canadians who believed themselves to be of Sephardic descent. There . while the Cuba sample has relatively more I.4%. The R1b percentage is 75. 5.The first is the Anousim Project (n = 55) which invites persons who believe they are the descendants of Sephardic crypto-Jews to submit their Y-chromosome DNA scores. the surnames in this sample reflect a Francophile homeland – for instance.4%. and G/G2.1) and G is 5.g.3). whereas J2 is 17.5 for the Anousim. 6 11. was excluded from our analysis). Levinge and LaRochelle. which are usually indicative of Ashkenzic ancestry.9%) and one Q3(2.was also one K (2.3%).3 5.4 12. obviously Ashkenazic.7 17.7 Table 23. Hotlen. Martin.1 14.9%).4 3. Anousim Project Male Haplogroups (source: FTDNA) Haplogroup R1b E3b I G J/ J2 n=5544 Number 49 3 2 3 7 Percent 72.4 14. The surnames in the R1a group included Pelland.6 5. Table 22. It will be of interest to see if these percentages are altered when the sample is increased.3 5. Canadian Anusim Project (source: FTDNA) Haplogroup R1b E3b I G/G2 J2 R1a n=34 Number 10 4 5 2 6 5 Percent 28. (one donor surnamed Wisener. Included in the Canadian Anusim Project was a large set of R1a scores (14.3 . 7.Table 24. and K = 3. Charpentier Bilodeau Trottier Wisener LaRochelle Marion LaFleur Vigil. Thus our conclusions should be regarded as tentative). I = 16.6. E3b = 10.5. Kennedy 1997. Allaire. Chollete. I = 13.g. Dockes Melungeon and Cumberland Gap DNA Projects We now turn to two final sets of data – the Melungeon and Cumberland Gap DNA Projects. Canadian Anusim Surnames LeBlanc LaMont Michaud Dugas Case Lovers Dube Payeur Vaudrin Vizenor Gauvrit Bellemare Eblinaer Levinge.3.5%) matched Ashkenazi . J = 4.8.72. Boucher.9. G/G2 = 6. The much larger Cumberland Gap Y chromosome data (n=359) echoed these results.97. and G = 2. Both were collected in Central Appalachia in the United States. ( a note of caution: the Cumberland Gap DNA Project may have some dual paternal/maternal donors whose Y or MtDNA is not from the region. Plante Bernard Moores Bourgeois Lafond Martin Pelland. The E3b participants had Ashkenazi Jewish matches. as follows: R1b = 63. which we interpret as indicating Sephardic ancestry. except for a decline in the E3b percentage. Hirschman 2005). Forcier. This region is believed to have harbored large communities of Crypto-Jews and Crypto-Muslims dating at least from the 1500s. Thus it will be of interest to see if they do or do not match known Sephardic Anusim populations. Several of the R1b subjects had matches in South and Central America and the Caribbean.4. The Melungeon Y-chromosome data (n=29) resembled the Cuban pattern: R1b = 65. which were probably augmented by the addition of Roma (Gypsy) and Ottoman Turkish colonists in the following century (see e. The R1a donor (2.5. E3b = 3.. Canary Is. Latvia Poland.0 3. Czech. Croatia.5 . Croatia. Poland.3 10.6 3. Spain Hungary M172+. Bulgaria. Turkey Italy. Georgian Most common Ashkenazic form of H. Sephardi. Greek. Belarus. Italy. Goldman. Italy.1 13. Russia. Armenia. Syria. Lebanon Ashkenazi. Cyprus. Latvia Cherokee Cherokee (!) Azores. Serbia (Yadon.7 2. Iran.3 R1b I E3b J G 64.8 4. Gates) Ashkenazi. Armenia. Syria. Arab Ashkenazi. Table 25. Barbados. Russia. Lebanon. Druze. Poland. Hungary (Castillo. Ukraine Cherokee Table 26.9 8. Africa. Arab. Ashkenazi. Latvia. Armenia. Turkey Spain. Turkey.. Sephardi. Ethiopia. Barbados Macedonia. Weinmann. Ecuador. Armenia. Greece. Spain. Ashkenazi. Poland.0 16. Zander) Africa. Portugal. Ashkenazi. many Spanish North Africa Albania. Poland. Nicaragua Cherokee Ashkenazi. India. mtDNA and Y Chromosome Percentages for Cumberland Gap (source: FTDNA) H I J K T 32. Cyprus. Afro-Caribbean match Spain. These data suggest the tentative hypothesis that the Y-chromosome component of the Melungeon and Cumberland Gap populations may represent a combined Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jewish ancestry . Moreno) Azores. Ashkenazi Ashkenazi. Melungeon mtDNA Types and Matches (source: Melungeon DNA Project) ID Kennedy Caldwell Bruce Wilson Hill Van Horn Krapf Wilkins McKee Vaughan Beyers Cooper Botterson Mayo McGaughey Adkins Baggett Powers Mayes Davis Gordon Higdon Brown Moore Carter Allison Kenney Yates n=26 Hg K2 H3 U5a1b C J H C H H H HV J1b1 K H/H5a H H H/HV J2 H M1 H T2 H W H/H5 K U2e* Notes on Matches Turkish. Spain (LaFleur. Poland Ashkenazi. Armenia.Levites. Morocco. Massey. 12/12 with Africa. Sub-Saharan African . extremely rare I1a.5 X n=193 2. rare. other Caudills. Marrero. Chile close to Atlantic Modal Haplotype I1a. Deutch. Ashkenazi Jewish Africa. 24 marker match with Cuban. Lumbee G/G2. Isle of Man. Raphaelly. Hammar. Levy I or K. Balkan I1b. Parish. Sam Houston. Africa (Canary Islands) Rare. Ortiz.5 Table 27. Goodheart. incl. Longhunter family Nagle. rare. Schaefer. Zimmerman I1b (SNP tested).6 V 2. etc. Wilde I E3a. Macedonia E3b. Talley. Rezente. Rare. Sub-Saharan African E3a. Ashkenazi Jewish E3b1. Melungeon Y-Chromosome Results (source: Melungeon DNA Project) ID Kennedy Caldwell Moore Ramey Wolf Blevins Leslie Chaffin Locklear Perry Wampler Morrison Skeen Hale Wallen Christy Saylor Boone Houston Campbell Cowan Cowan Baggett Newberry Forbes Stewart Givens Ney Knowles Tankersley Chaffin Caudill Moore Talley Bunch Collins Goins Notes on Matches Rodriguez E3b1. Israel G. matches other Campbells R1a R1b I1a I1a. Gelley.6 W 0. no matches. matches only other Hales Exact match in Azores 24/24. Munoz. Chile. Rare. Klein. 23/25 match with Canter in South America) Hernandez.5 R1a U 2. 23/25 match with Azores AMH 25/25 match with many Houstons. Cuba. Ashkenazi.18. Canary Islands AMH Rare. Ven. Cantor. Kranz. Sellers Puerto Rico. Shapiro. Sub-Saharan African E3a. one was T2 (with matches in the Azores. The Cumberland Gap mtDNA data were even more striking (n=193).9 3. Ozmet AMH+1. Portugal. and one was W (with matches in Poland. Armenia. while J and variants . the Azores. three participants were J. Houston.3 13. Italy. one was U with matches in Spain. persons from Poland. Within this much larger data set. Russia and Hungary). another was U2* with no matches except in the New World. Payne. Hale. Three persons had K/K2 mitochondrial haplotypes. Arabs. India and Iran – not a typical cross-section for an ostensibly British settlement.Powers Yates Close to Wallen. haplogroup H and its variants constituted 32% of the sample.5 10. Recap of Melungeon Y-STR Types (source: Melungeon DNA Project) Haplogroup R1b E3b I G/G2 K Number 19 3 4 2 1 Percent 65. Nicaragua. Greeks. Poland and Serbia). Poland and Latvia. center in Northern Portugal Table 28.7 6. one was M (with matches in North Africa). Barbados. Morocco. There were 13 H haplogroup individuals (50%) with matches in several cases to Ashkenazi Jews.4 n=29 The Melungeon mtDNA figures (n=26) lend support to this ethnic hypothesis. 0) 0. Perhaps the most striking statistic is the relatively modest amount of haplogroup H.0 72.0 Mexico New Mexico 55.7 0. T was 10.0 30. in our view these differences point to a divergence between the Appalachian population and the Melungeon subpopulation with more indigenous ancestry being found in the latter. U5a was 11.0 55. Unlike the Cumberland Gap Project. **New Mexico DNA Project (Sephardim-New Mexico Project).2 (4.9%.0 (0.0 0. I. U3 and U4 making up another 5.3 0.6 12.7 (1.0 0.1 9.7 9.8 11. Summary of Sephardic Y-Haplotype Distribution.0) 0.4 11.0 3.0 *Very small sample. Also reported were trace levels of U6.0 0.4 1.3%.5 (4.3 12.5) 61.5 0.9 (15.5 6.3 (18.3 2. but here only 32%.9 17. containing substantial nonEuropean DNA. I1b J. .0 0.2) 18. V.0 0. W and X.0 8. Haplogroup Canary Islands R1b E3b I.5 0.8 0. with U*. usually as high as 50% in Western European populations.9% of the sample.8 2. the Melungeon sample did contain a significant number of Native American lineages.9 0.5) 7.0 (0.1 2. Table 29.9 5.0 7.4 12.0 4.0 13.composed 13.2) 3. N=13.6 8.8 0. There was very little Native American admixture found in the Cumberland Gap female population. U2.6%.6 (56. I1c.3%.5) 0.7 0.1) 9.0 Azores* Cuba Puerto Rico 49. J1.5 5. J2 G. G2 K2 O3 R1a1 55. and K was 8. This indicates that the gene pool of Appalachia is unusual compared to most sections of the USA. DISCUSSION Table 31 summarizes the Y chromosome haplogroup findings for several of the studies we have discussed in the present analysis. the Anousim Project figures were R1b 72. respectively. First.e. I = 16. Across these three specifically Sephardic samples.6% and I of 14. with an average representation of over 55%. then. Across these studies some substantial consistencies were found in the Sephardic New World haplogroup profile. The collective J haplogroups averaged 7. i.3%.5% across the New World Sephardic studies.. where R1b = 68%.G2 in Northern Spain (8%) and K2 in Cadiz (10%).2%.5. E3b = 10%. Cuba. the Sephardim New Mexico. These statistics are also relatively consistent with the figures obtained for the Cumberland Gap (R1b = 63. Puerto Rico. R1b averaged 52. Azores.3% and I was 11%.4%.97. We also found strong and consistent support for the presence of the E3b and I haplogroups among communities of New World Sephardim. Anousim and Canadian Anusim Projects. Mexico and New Mexico samples. I = 13. we should compare these to the overall haplogroup distribution found in modern Spain. These patterns were borne out in those DNA samples specifically intended to assess Marrano/Converso/Anusim heritage. remarkably close to the 55% R1b and 14% I found across the Canary. and haplogroup G had a mean of 5. I = 13%. across all the studies the R1b haplogroup was found to be predominant.1% and I of 15.7) DNA Projects. There were also ‗trace‘ levels of K and R1a1 in some of the samples. Finally.6) and Melungeon (R1b = 65. . J1.J2 = 3% and there are pockets of G. Recall that the New Mexico Sephardim had an R1b proportion of 56. and the (small sample) Canadian Anusim Project had R1b of 28.6% . with overall averages of 10 % and 14 %.3% and I 3. Asia. while others were founded by women who were likely already Jewish or Muslim and whose ancestors originated in the Middle East or Mediterranean. just as was the case in Jewish colonies in Europe. From our earlier analysis of the available DNA data on Ashkenazi populations. India and Africa from antiquity onwards. and that. for example Puerto Rico and New Mexico.Given this pattern. that both these types of New World Sephardic community supported a Jewish/CryptoJewish culture. Judah or Israel . Spain and Portugal. we believe that the data indicate that some New World Sephardic communities were established through extensive intermarriage with indigenous women. It is important to recognize. These Semitic-haplogroup-bearing males seem to have served as ‗seeds‘ who established the Jewish faith and practices in several distant lands and attracted the non-Semitic-haplotype-bearing males whose descendants now compose the majority of both Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jewry. we believe that it may be tentatively concluded that the majority of Sephardim present in New World communities were the descendants of converts drawn from the southwestern Atlantic and western Mediterranean regions of what are present day France. in general. Indeed what the present DNA data show is the enduring vitality and perseverance of Judaism as a way of life and religious tradition – in all its myriad manifestations. however. for example Cuba and the Cumberland Gap. the haplogroup pattern of the male New World Sephardim closely resembles that of modern Spain. From a mitochondial DNA perspective. One‘s earliest Jewish ancestors need not have come from the Middle Eastern lands of Canaan. we believe that it is likely that both of these major Jewish groups were initiated by Hebrew males carrying the J1 haplotype who migrated out of the Middle East from 500 BCE onward and spread to various parts of the Greek and Roman Empires. 20 ―Apulia‖ and ―Bari. forthcoming 2007).. Albany. Hellenistic Culture and Society (Los Angeles: University of California Press. Kyle McCarter. ―Origin.htm. others have gone farther and claimed descent through Rashi to King David. who points out that whereas a great many families claim descent legitimately from Rashi. Cecil (1937) The Spanish Inquisition. for instance. (1992) 10 Gerber. 19 Ornella Semino et al. in an article titled ―Can We Claim Descent from David?‖ at www. Both scholars conclude that whereas King David may well have thousands of descendants among us today.in order to have played a significant role in the continuation of Judaism over the past 5000 or so years. T. 24 Most of this history is drawn from Salvador Lopez Herrera. Berkely. 12 Thus.‖ Human Genetics 114 (2004):354-65..shealtiel. State University of New York Press. ―Contrasting Patterns of Y Chromosome Variation in Ashkenazi Jewish and Host NonJewish European Populations.jewishgen. New York. 17 Arthur Koestler. 23 Wexler. about 2000 years after King David‘s time. 12-13. Yates. When Scotland Was Jewish (New York: McFarland. Guanchis or Guanchos. (2000). (1996). Note that virtually all these ―Davidic pedigrees‖ begin around 900-1100. unless otherwise noted. Jane S. 16 Paul Wexler. Roth (1937) 6 Gerber( 1992) 7 Wexler.‖ articles in JewishEncyclopedia. and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area. For most modern-day Jews. Varieties. University of California Press . Shaye Cohen. 18 Doron M.‖ . The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries. no proof or real documentation has been offered for any unbroken Davidic descent. 6. Roth (1937) 3 Benbassa and Rodrique. The Canary Islands through History (Madrid: Madrid University Press. Ashkenazic Jews: A Slavo-Turkic People in Search of a Jewish Identity (Slavica Publishing. chapter 5. 1 Benbassa. I. 1976). 1993). 8 Hirschman Elizabeth C. The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage (New York: Random House. P. New York: W. Uncertainties. (2000) 4 Benbassa and Rodrique (2000). Paul.. (1992) The Jews of Spain. Ancient Israel: A Short History from Abraham to the Roman Destruction of the Temple (Biblical Archaeology Society.html. 15 L.org/Rabbinic/journal/descent. (2000). 13 For instance. 14 J. becoming Jewish was a choice made within the last 1000 to 1500 years – a choice in which all of us should rejoice. Levine. Moshe Shealtiel-Gracian discusses Shealtiel Family Davidic Descent. and Donald N. including certainly the bulk of Sepharad.. 9 Gerber. (1992) 11 Hirschman and Yates.v.W. ―Guanches. 7. He responds to the article ―Can We Prove Descent from King David?‖ by David Einsiedler.‖ American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (2004):1023-34. (2000) Sephardi Jewry. The Free Press. 2 Benbassa and Rodrique. See Rabbinic Special Interest Group Online Journal. Norton. Gerber. 1978). 1991). Diffusion. 22 Ibid. the most famous Talmudic scholar.org/david. Gerber (1992). Gerber (1992) 5 Benbassa and Rodrique. Roth . Behar et al. Esther and Aron Rodrigue. 21 Wexler. The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews. 25 S. Judaism and Hellenism in Antiquity (Seattle: 1998). 1999). available online at http://www.com. 32 We are not aware of any DNA project for the Madeiras. 34 Notes on Cuba‘s history are based on Clifford L. 40 Angelico Chavez. A Jewish Princedom in Feudal France.htm. ―The Organization of an Institutional and Social Life. Norton. however. Puerto Rico: A Political and Cultural History (New York: W. 36 Aida R. By the end of the 16th century. 2-9.‖ in Carrion. 39 Harriet and Fred Rochlin. 38 Lance D. 41 See the Great New Mexico Pedigree Database Project at http://www. Atlantic Islands: Madeira. W. and J1. 2005). The History of Cuba (New York: Palgrave Macmillan. At first. ―mtDNA Affinities of the Peoples of North-Central Mexico. these historical notes come from T. 10%. 7%. 2000). Paul H. 44 ―Sephardic Population Figures through History. The Madeiras lay closest to Portugal and were first settled in 1419. 35 Sketch drawn from Arturo Morales Carrion.html. 37 This overview of Mexican history is based on a Wikipedia article available at en. but these islands were also havens for Sephardic Jews. Chapman. after various attacks by the local bishop and rectors of the Jesuit college at Funchal. When the Jews who pioneered these processes moved on to Brazil at the invitation of the Portuguese governor Duarte Coelho Pereira sugar refining expertise went with them. Hordes. along with sugar refining. 1992).org/wiki/History_of_Mexico. 87-88.sephardim. 2001). the Azores and the Cape Verdes in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago). Ashkenazi mtDNA is distributed as follows: K. 1972). According to Mordecai Arbell. the new settlers were primarily petty criminals.: ISAC Press. Columbus. 33 Duncan. 30-32. American Colonies: The Settling of North America (New York: Penguin Books. New Christians began to pour into the colony. 29 According to the 2004 Behar study.CO. Green. the Man (Columbus. Ga.‖ American Journal of Human Genetics 66 (2000):989-98. 42 Stanley M. A History of the Crypto-Jews of New Mexico (New York: Columbia University Press. Caro Costas. 21%. see Arthur Zuckerman. H. 2002). 32. A New Life in the Far West (Boston: Houghton Mifflin. The famous rabbi Menashe Ben Israel was probably born in Madeira. 29-30. they were an important steppingstone to the Americas.wikipedia. 1954). It was here that the planting of sugarcane was first perfected.26 27 Alan Taylor. Jews began emigrating to Amsterdam and Brazil. James N.hgrc-nm. 33%. Bentley Duncan.com/html/lore.‖ from [email protected]. 28 Taylor. Derr and Alec Knight.org/surnames/surnames. No figures were provided for Sephardic female DNA. 2003). 106. 1983). The Jewish Nation of the Caribbean (Jerusalem: Gefen. but under Manuel I. . Pioneer Jews. 760-900 ( New York: Columbia University Press. To the End of the Earth. N1b. 31 Unless otherwise specified. 43 On Narbonne. Staten. available at www. Origins of New Mexico Families in the Spanish Colonial Period 1598-1820 (Santa Fe: Historical Society of New Mexico.