Champion BriefsMarch/April 2015 Lincoln-Douglas Brief Resolved: Just governments ought to ensure food security for their citizens. Copyright 2014 by Champion Briefs, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by an information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner and the publisher. Public Forum, Lincoln-Douglas, and Congressional Debate ChampionBriefsInstitute.com The$Evidence$Standard$$ ! $ March/April$2015$ $ The$Evidence!Standard$ ! ! Speech!and!Debate!provides!a!meaningful!and!educational!experience!to!all!who!are!involved.! We,!as!educators!in!the!community,!believe!that!it!is!our!responsibility!to!provide!resources!that! uphold!the!foundation!of!the!Speech!and!Debate!activity.!Champion!Briefs,!its!employees,! managers,!and!associates!take!an!oath!to!uphold!the!following!Evidence!Standard:! ! 1. We!will!never!falsify!facts,!opinions,!dissents,!or!any!other!information.! 2. We!will!never!knowingly!distribute!information!that!has!been!proven!to!be!inaccurate,! even!if!the!source!of!the!information!is!legitimate.! 3. We!will!actively!fight!the!dissemination!of!false!information!and!will!provide!the! community!with!clarity!if!we!learn!that!a!thirdEparty!has!attempted!to!commit!deception.! 4. We!will!never!support!or!distribute!studies,!news!articles,!or!other!materials!that!use! inaccurate!methodologies!to!reach!a!conclusion!or!prove!a!point.! 5. We!will!provide!meaningful!clarification!to!any!who!question!the!legitimacy!of! information!distributed!by!ourselves!or!by!any!thirdEparty.! 6. We!will!actively!contribute!to!students’!understanding!of!the!world!by!using!evidence! from!a!multitude!of!perspectives!and!schools!of!thought.! 7. We!will,!within!our!power,!assist!the!community!as!a!whole!in!its!mission!to!achieve!the! goals!and!vision!of!this!activity.! ! These!seven!statements,!while!seemingly!simple,!represent!the!complex!notion!of!what!it!means! to!advance!students’!understanding!of!the!world!around!them,!as!is!the!purpose!of!educators.! Champion)Briefs) ) 4$ Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Table&of&Contents& ! The&Evidence&Standard&.............................................................................................&4& ! Table&of&Contents&........................................................................................................&5& ! Topic&Analyses&...........................................................................................................&24! Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian&..........................................................................................&25! Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&.......................................................................................&37! Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt&..........................................................................................&48! Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge&..........................................................................................&54& ! Topic&Analysis&by&Jared&Woods&...........................................................................&59& ! Framework&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried&............................................................&76& ! Evidence&for&the&Affirmative&......................................................................&83! Ableism)AC)...................................................................................................................................)84! Disability&is&a&significant&risk&factor&for&food&security.&....................................&84! Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&people&with& disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&the&global&development& agenda.&.............................................................................................................................&85! Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including&people&with& disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within&the&global&development& agenda.&.............................................................................................................................&88! The&interests&of&people&with&disabilities&are&largely&ignored&within& food&security&policy&but&now&is&the&key&time&to&include&them&within& mainstream&discussions&of&development.&........................................................&91! Disability&studies&is&a&useful&lens&through&which&to&view&food&security& issues.&...............................................................................................................................&93! The&disabled&do¬&have&security&in&many&parts&of&the&world.&..............&94! Champion)Briefs) 5& Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Disabled&people&are&excluded&from&discussions&of&food&security.&.........&95! A&disability&perspective&is&necessary&in&the&study&of&food&security.&.....&97! Modeling&the&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Program&by&establishing& income&generating&activities&can&solve.&.............................................................&98! Contracts/Polls)AC)...................................................................................................................)99! The&Brazilian&Constitution&defends&food&security&as&a&national&right.& 99! The&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition&represents&an& overwhelming&international&consensus&that&food&security&is&a&right.&......&100! All&major&international&human&rights&covenants&address&and&recognize& the&right&to&food&and&the&government’s&obligation&to&ensure&that&right& for&their&citizens.&.......................................................................................................&101! The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&right&to& food&on&a&national&and&international&level.&....................................................&102! The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the&right&to& food&on&a&national&and&international&level&and&is&legally&binding.&......&103! ICCPR&has&one&of&the&largest&memberships&in&the&world&and&recognizes& a&governments&obligation&to&provide&food&security&for&its&citizens.&...&104! Deontology)AC).........................................................................................................................)105! Food&insecurity&kills&military&readiness.&........................................................&105! Changing&unequal&gender&dynamics&is&a&key&tenet&of&food&security&and& proper&child&development.&...................................................................................&108! The&right&to&adequate&food&is&firmly&established&under&international& law.&..................................................................................................................................&110! Ending&world&hunger&is&the&highest&priority&of&the&international& community.&..................................................................................................................&111! Increasing&interdependence&makes&it&more&difficult&for&countries&to& stabilize&the&cost&of&food&domestically.&............................................................&112! The&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and& Malnutrition&affirms.&...............................................................................................&113! Champion)Briefs) 6& Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Food&is&important&beyond&a&physical&need&for&hunger.&............................&114! The&issue&of&food&security&is&a&question&of&whether&it&is&justified&by&a& principle&of&charity&or&justice.&.............................................................................&115! Providing&citizens&with&food&security&is&a&perfect&duty&for&the&state.&.&116! Any&moral&theory&that&values&human&dignity&must&recognize&the&right& to&food®ardless&of&the&distinction&between&positive&and&negative& rights.&.............................................................................................................................&117! Consumers&act&deontically.&...................................................................................&119! Those&without&food&security&face&social&stigma.&..........................................&120! The&fetal&origins&hypothesis&states&that&those&born&to&malnourished& parents&are&more&likely&to&get&disease&later&in&life.&....................................&121! The&Dutch&famine&shows&a&relation&between&malnutrition&and& cardiovascular&disease&in&later&life.&..................................................................&123! Famine&during&gestation&is&linked&to&increased&risk&of&pulmonary&disease. &...........................................................................................................................................&124! HIV&hinders&food&security.&.....................................................................................&125! Ethics)of)Care/Feminism)AC)..............................................................................................)126! Empowering&women&is&key&to&providing&food&security&and&fighting& child&malnutrition.&...................................................................................................&126! Food&security&that&is&attentive&to&gender&relations&are&key&to& preventing&gender&related&violence.&.................................................................&128! Feminism)AC)............................................................................................................................)129! There&are&gender&specific&implications&to&food&insecurity.&....................&129! We&must&examine&the&sexist,&racist,&and&classist&history&of&the&food& movement.&....................................................................................................................&130! Women&are&disproportionately&harmed&by&food&insecurity.&..................&132! Naturalism)AC).........................................................................................................................)133! Entitlements&to&food&are&a&societal&norm.&......................................................&133! Corporations&have&taken&over&the&world’s&food&supply.&..........................&134! Champion)Briefs) 7& Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Government&must&stop&Monsanto&from&bullying&farmers.&......................&135! GMO&crops&make&it&harder&to&farm&and&the&government&needs&to&do& something.&....................................................................................................................&136! Political&organization&to&acquire&food&is&natural.&.......................................&137! Because&political&organization&is&always&driven&by&biological& imperative&even&larger&states&should&naturally&secure&food&for&their& citizens.&..........................................................................................................................&138! Generic)Utilitarian/Human)Rights)AC).........................................................................)139! Food&security&policy&does¬&have&contribute&to&violence&if&done& correctly&it&can&create&a&more&peaceful&society.&..........................................&139! Food&insecurity&causes&chronic&disease&and&nutritional&deficiencies& among&children&and&adults.&..................................................................................&140! Food&security&programs&can&have&a&stabilizing&effect&that&improves&the& perceived&legitimacy&of&the&country&Brinkman&and&Korbel&writes:.&...&142! Food&security&interventions&also&improve&the&sustainability&of& infrastructure&and&livelihood.&.............................................................................&143! Food&security&initiatives&promote&social&cohesion&especially&among& young&people&and&groups&withðnic&tension&which&are&the&strongest& contributors&to&unrest&and&violence.&................................................................&145! Food&security&is¬&just&the&ability&access&food&but&also&ensuring&that& everyone&has&the&means&to&afford&it.&.................................................................&147! The&issue&is&generally¬&a&lack&of&food&but&rather&inability&to&afford&it. &...........................................................................................................................................&148! Rising&cost&of&food&and&declining&food&stocks&contribute&to&cost&of&food& harming&impoverished&people.&...........................................................................&149! Transnational&companies&aggravate&the&issue&by&decreasing&ecological& productivity&and&exploiting&desperate&farmers.&.........................................&150! Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&and&are&disproportionately&affected& by&food&insecurity.&....................................................................................................&151! Champion)Briefs) 8& ................................................................................................................................................................&152! The&IFST&is&key&to&enforcement&and&accountability...........................................................................&Social&and&Cultural&Rights& mandates&that&states&should&provide&adequate&food&for&their&citizens.....................&161! International)Law)AC).................................................................................&.......&165! The&American&Declaration&of&the&Rights&and&Duties&of&Man&includes&a& right&to&food&security........Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&is&key&to&enforcement&and& international&cooperation&to&end&world&hunger........................&....................................................................&................&.....................................................&................................................... &...................&160! The&IFST&is&a&key&starting&point&to&ending&world&hunger........)162! A&right&to&food&is&enshrined&in&international&law.....................................&157! Purely&economic&approaches&to&food&security&are&inadequate&at& addressing&the&problem&only&the&IFST&can&solve........&167! States&have&a&duty&to&provide&food&security&for&children...........................................&154! The&IFST&is&key&to&accountability&because&it&requires&participating& states&to&report&their&data&meaning&they&can’t&backslide&or&hide& failures................................&169! Champion)Briefs) 9& ... &...............................................................................................................................&166! The&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&the&Child&includes&provisions&for&food& security.&.....&........&164! The&International&Covenant&on&Economic.........................&.........................................................................................&168! International&law&codifies&food&security&as&a&human&right................................&......................................................&........&............................................................................................&162! The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&guarantees&food&security.&163! The&Declaration&on&the&Right&to&Development&requires&states&to& provide&food&security................................&......&158! The&IFST&is&also&key&to&ensuring&international&security&and&reducing& civic&conflict......................&............&155! The&IFST&is&also&key&to&checking&back&international&corporations&to¬& exploit&their&workers&if&they&wish&to&business&in&participating& countries..................................................... .&.......................... &....&................&175! MacIntyre)AC).......................................&178! Humans&live&in&a&state&of&vulnerability&which&requires&humans&be& concerned&with&the&things&they&are&dependent&upon.....................................&.............................&....................&176! Though&there&is&a&multiplicity&of&ways&one&might&lead&a&good&life&there& are&essential&things&which&are&good&for&humans..............................................................&186! Poverty)AC).......................&170! The&UN&is&clear:&everyone&should&get&food&based&on&international&law..............................................&183! There&is&structural&injustice&in&the&economy®arding&who&has&access& to&food...................................................&which&is&a&national&security&concern.................&185! China&must&fix&its&food&production&or&cause&international&chaos.....................&174! The&international&legal&right&to&food&shares&connections&with&the&idea& of&food&security........................&................&................................................................................................)187! Hunger&is&a&problem&of&poverty&rather&than&lack&of&food&resources.......................................&...&184! Political)Instability/Conflict)Advantage)AC).....................................&187! Champion)Briefs) 10& .........................&182! Those&who&have&been&discarded&by&our&economy&do¬&have&access&to& food...................)176! Communities&need&agreements&about&what&the&common&goods&each& individual&is&entitled&to&are&in&order&to&end&the&tolerance&of&structural& injustice...........................................................................................................&179! There&are&certain&evident&facts&about&the&world&around&us&that&we& ignore...................................................&..............&.............................................&......................................................&They&don’t&need&to& distribute&the&food......&but&heedlessness&prevents&us&from&being&aware&of&this.)185! China’s&water&is&running&dry......................................................................&..............................................................................................&Only&with&this&agreement&can&we&stop&being&heedless& towards&the&impoverished.....................&....................&...........................................&172! Governments&only&need&to&provide&the&conditions..............................&181! We&ignore&that&our&access&to&cheap&food&comes&at&the&expense&of&other& people..Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& International&mechanisms&exist&to&transfer&food&to&those&in&need.................... ............&201! Those&without&readily&accessible&food&are&viewed&negatively...........&...................&202! Rich&countries&horde&food&and&countries&have&to&rely&on&trade&for&food& security.....&204! Children&are&harmed&by&food&insecurity.........................................&............................................................&189! Hunger&and&poverty&are&linked&in&a&cycle.............&................................................&206! Factors&that&contribute&to&food&insecurity.......................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& The&majority&of&malnourished&people&are&in&poverty..&....................&........................&but&are&separate& phenomena.........&.......&195! Farm&workers&live&in&poor&conditions&`&four&warrants.................................&................................&209! Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&federal&food&assistance.................&....&..............&.............&190! We&ought&to&reject&food&insecurity&and&poverty.............................&............................&203! Food&security&varies&based&upon&goal....&207! Reductions&of&welfare&and&mobility&contribute&to&food&insecurity...............&..&197! Legal&reform&is&key&to&help&farm&laborers&`&they&have&been&exploited& for&decades.............................&191! In&India&poverty&and&hunger&are&so&intimately&linked&that&government& measures&of&poverty&don’t&even&fully&appreciate&the&problem&of& hunger................................................................................................&193! Food&security&and&environmental&justice&are&intrinsically&linked.............&210! Champion)Briefs) 11& .........................&we&must&examine&social& inequalities.........................&198! "Food&deserts"&disproportionately&exist&in&low&income&communities....................................................................................................................................&... &...........................&192! In&order&to&examine&food&security...................&...........................................&..........................&.............&205! Poverty&and&food&insecurity&may&correlate.................&....................................................&..........&...........&208! Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&state&by&state&variations..................&194! Food&security&protects&labor&workers............&199! Two&reasons&why&chain&grocers&don’t&solve.......................&...................&196! Immigrant&labor&workers&are&tricked&into&poor&work&conditions.......................................................................................... ....................................................&...................&228! An&overwhelming&majority&of&Americans&across&all&ideological&groups& support&the&government's&role&in&ensuring&food&security..................&............................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Summer&meal&programs&lower&risk&for&food&insecurity.................................&227! Livestock&used&to&satisfy&beef&demand&is&the&leading&cause&of&warming..............&213! AT&Libertarian&NC&`&There&is¬&significant&relationship&between&tax& burden&and&food&insecurity...............................&......................&............................&....................................&.........................................&229! Concerns&of&overpopulation&are&based&on&a&false&understanding&of&how& populations&sustain&themselves...................................................................&........................................... &............)217! Race&is&crucial&in&food&studies..........&230! Champion)Briefs) 12& ..&.......&220! Public&pedagogy&disrupts&whiteness&in&the&food&movement...........................&215! Family&who&are¬&poor&still&struggle&with&food&security............&....................&............................&223! India’s&food&security&program&is&financially&unsustainable...............&...&224! Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&be&used& to&empower&people&with&disabilities............................&.....&221! Rawlsian/Social)Contract)AC)...........)222! On&pain&of&contradiction&we&must&recognize&the&right&to&subsistence&as& a&general&duty.........&218! Education&is&key&to&undo&the&racist&view&of&the&US&food&system..........................................................................................................................................................................................&226! Increased&income&and&food&consumption&leads&to&increased&beef& consumption.........................................................&214! Stability&is&key&`&unemployment&is¬&directly&linked&to&insecurity...............................&..................................&222! The&global&food&system&links&environmentalism&with&social&justice..................&212! Taxes&increase&food&insecurity..........................................&...........&216! Racism)AC)...&..............................&217! The¤t&status&of&food&security&threatens&the&sovereignty&of& indigenous&peoples............................................................................&....&225! Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can&be&used& to&empower&people&with&disabilities........................................................................................... ......................................................&236! Community&connections&are&key&to&food&security..............................&245! Soft)Power)Advantage)AC)................................&It&should&also&be& about&participation.....)246! The&Democratic&Republic&of&the&Congo&can&bargain&with&the&West&over& food&resources...............&....................................................................................................................&........................................................................................................................................&.....................&246! The&DRC&can&increase&its&bargaining&power&by&providing&food&security& for&its&people.................................................&government&should&give&as&much&as& possible...........&234! Food&justice&shouldn’t&just&be&about&participation.................................................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Justice&requires&distribution&of&food.................&250! Champion)Briefs) 13& ...............................................................&240! Rule)Util)AC)...................................................................&..............................................&249! The&campaign&clarifies&what&accessibility&means........................................................ &.&244! Food&security&promotes&economic&egalitarianism..................&....................................................................................................................................&243! Agricultural&growth&needs&to&be&matched&with&social&guarantees& against&hunger.................&....................................&237! Infrastructure&and&community&connections&are&key&to&prevent&food& insecurity&`&studies&prove......&............&........................................&................................................&....................................................)249! Just&states&ought&to&participate&in&an&international&treaty&to&guarantee& food&security&through&domestic&legislation&and&ratification&of&a&treaty...............................................&...........................&.....................................................................................&241! When&there&are&no&other&actors............................................................&233! Food&justice&requires&a&system&when&individuals&are&represented&in&its& governing..........&242! Hunger&is&a&serious&issue.................................................................................................................&..........&238! Affordable&housing&is&another&alternative&to&promote&food&security...&235! Food&Security&is&promoted&by&a&welfare&state..........&...........................................&239! Food&access&problems&harm&community&values........................&248! Specific)Plans)........................................&.......)241! Hunger&is&a&large&and&growing&problem.............. ....&269! Food&security&justifies&food&stamps.....................................................................................&260! Food&stocks&could&make&intervention&easier.........&and&prevent&speculation&causing&price&volatility...........................&259! Food&safety&nets&are&a&good&idea...............................&..................&268! Must&take&multifaceted&approach&to&change&agriculture...............................................&......... &.................&..&257! Food&stamps&create&an&economic&demand&for&more&stores..&....&help&vulnerable& populations........&.................................................................................&...&......................................& Science&has&helped&us&in&the&past.......&..........&267! Multifaceted&laws&are&key...............................................&262! Fish&Plan:&Increased&fishing&can&help&curb&food&insecurity&in&Africa......................&......&.............................................&271! Champion)Briefs) 14& ....................................&261! Market®ulation&and&transparency&would&reduce&price&volatility.........................................................................................................&270! Policy&makers&should&increase&access&to&food&assistance&programs&to& people&who&are¬....&263! Fish&Plan:&Fish&provide&subsistence&and&economic&growth&to&villagers...............................................................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& A&countries&obligation&would&be&three`fold...........................&............................&253! GMO&Crops&Plan:&China's&agricultural&plan&solves&the&future's&global& famine........&266! Education&is&key&to&promoting&food&security&in&these®ions...............................................&.........&264! Fish&Plan:&Africa&must&support&increased&aquaculture&to&provide&for& citizens....................&254! GMO&Crops&Plan:&the&Chinese&Plan&requires&government&investment.......&265! Must&have&clear&goals&in&order&to&overcome&food&injustices........&.......................&.............................................................. &...............&.........................&.............&256! Food&stamps&are&necessary&to&break&individuals&from&the&cycle&of&food& insecurity.......................................................................................................&252! GMO&Crops&Plan:&Today's&environment&requires&genetic&engineering&to& raise&global&crop&yields.............................................&251! GMO&Crops&Plan:&Demographic&pressures&will&rise&in&the&future........................................................................... ..........&......................................................&..............&producers...........&Latin&America& proves...................................&...................................................................&leading&to&a& vicious&cycle&of&hunger.............&...&history&proves..............&272! We&must&act&now&for&food&security........&282! When&prices&are&low&states&often&stop&preparing&for&food&volatility..............&286! Even&though&progress&has&been&made&across&the&globe&there&are&still& regions&where&more&effort&needs&to&be&made.............................................................&..................&................................................................&............................ &...........................&...&...........&279! We&should&look&at&comparative&moral&costs&and&benefits&of&any&policy......................................................&275! Malnourished&individuals&cannot&function&in&society.....&......................................................................&285! Solving&hunger&is&possible............................................&273! Util)AC)............................................................................&malnourished&patients&become&more& susceptible&to&tuberculosis..............&......................................................................................................& and&the&state...&274! Among&comparative&studies.....................&................&276! US&relief&programs&targeting&food&security&help&create&healthy& households.....................................................................)274! Malnutrition&causes&drastic&physical&and&social&effects&within&weeks.....................................&283! There&needs&to&be&strong&political&commitment&to&food&security&to& solve&hunger....Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& We&must&tailor&policy&to&the&specific&problems&of&insecurity.......&277! Models&show&that&households&that&lack&food&are&more&likely&to&be& unhealthy..........................................&289! Champion)Briefs) 15& ...............................................&281! Price&volatility&can&trigger&large&scale&harms&to&the&poor........................................&288! India&needs&food&security&now.............&278! Food&insecurity&lowers&levels&of&child&development................&280! 36&million&Americans&are&food&insecure..............&we’re&making&good&progress..............................................................................&287! Growth&alone&can’t&solve.........................................................................................................................&284! Solving&hunger&is&possible......................&...............................................................................................&..&......&States&need&to&ensure&security...............................&.................... &................................ .....................................&...........................................................................&.........................................................................................&307! Food&stamp&had&a&negative&impact&on&food&security.............&311! Beef)DA)....&297! AntiSCommunism/Communitarianism)NC).................................................................................................................&292! Climate&change&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.................&..................&313! Champion)Briefs) 16& .........&..................................)303! Our&only&natural&right&is&the&opportunity&to&act.....&303! Humans&naturally&act&to&deprive&themselves&of&basic&necessities.............&304! In&the&US..................................................&..............................................................................................&308! FSP&leads&to&increased&insecurity....................................&295! We&must&fight&climate&change&to&provide&food&security...............&.......&312! Beef&consumption&and&production&is&shrinking....................&291! Infrastructure&is&key&to&food&security....................&298! Collectivized&food&production&is&uniquely&difficult.....................................&food&security&is¬&a&chronic&problem..&.......&305! Food&security&programs&are&econometrically&flawed..........................&....................................&309! Residential&stability&is&a&greater&indicator&of&security&than&poverty....................&access...&...........&...&....................&.................&290! Access&is&key.............&301! AntiSGovernment)Intervention)NC)...........................&and&utilization..........................................................&...............................................................&293! Climate&change&harms&food&security..............&.............&..............................................)312! Feeding&people&beef&just&makes&them&more&likely&to&die.&.....................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& We&must&look&at&availability&and&utilization&when&examining&food& security..................................................................&................&310! Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&admits&their&results&are&incomplete....&294! Food&security&depends&on&availability..............................&306! The&top`down&bureaucratic&model&of&government&doesn’t&work& anymore........................)298! Collective&labor&is&liable&to&incentive&problems.................................&............&296! & Evidence&for&the&Negative&.............................&.&.......&300! Collectives&eventually&become&compulsory&–&which&destroys& productivity&and&individual&rights............................. .................................................................................................&323! Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&ones&it& intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading& neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations.....&324! Food&security&is&used&by&wealthier&states&as&a&means&of&playing&state& building&with&“weaker&nations”&in&order&to&control&and&condition&local& population&breeding&militarism&and&coopting&them&into&the&neoliberal& system&that&ultimately&exploits&them...........................................................&................................&........................&337! Champion)Briefs) 17& ..........&316! Cattle&produces&harmful&methane&which&contributes&to&climate&change...)323! Food&security&politics&are&really&a&means&of&neoliberal& developmentalism&to&scale&and&reproduce&capitalist&relations..........................................&322! Capitalism)Kritik)NC)...............................................................................................&.....&329! Food&security&is&tied&to&the&spread&of&imperialism&and&neoliberal& markets&systems&that&harm&anyone&outside&of&the&market&nexus:....&335! Food&Security&is&tied&to&infrastructural&development&and&furtherance& of&US`centered&neoliberalism&..........................................&319! Increased&access&to&food&causes&increase&in&beef&consumption............&315! Increased&meat&production&causes&global&warming..........&318! Beef&consumption&is&at&an&all&time&low............&..........&...............&....................................................&............&.........&327! Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the&ones&it& intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading& neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations............................................................................&320! Beef&consumption&ensures&global&hunger.......................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Higher&demand&will&greatly&increase&production&of&beef.........&332! Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&up&harming&the&ones& it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy&for&spreading& neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling&populations...... &......&..........................&.&................................... ...................................................................................&339! Climate)DA).....................)342! Agriculture&to&create&food&contributes&heavily&to&climate&emissions....................&345! Food&assistance&isn't&going&to&the&people&who&need&it................................................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is¢ral&to&the&reproduction&of&capitalist&social& relations&and&imperialism&we&must&undertake&a&genealogical& examination&is&key&to&resist&such&structures......&.....................................................................&355! Food)Sovereignty)K/PIC)...&356! Food&sovereignty&means&local&control&over&resources..............................&........................................................................................&.........................................&352! Affirmative&claims&that&food&insecurity&breeds&unrest&get&the&causal& link&mixed&up&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity¬&the&other&way& around.........................)356! Difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty............................................................................................)345! Food&aid&sometimes&goes&to&terrorist&and&militant&groups...................&354! While&in&theory&food&security&might&help&the&poor&in&practice&it&only& helps&the&well&off&at&the&expense&of&those&that&depend&on&selling& agricultural&goods&for&their&livelihood................................&................................&347! The&USDA&willingly&allows&corruption&in&the&food&stamp&program..&................&.........&..........................................................................................&..................&344! Corruption)NC)...........&350! Economics)NC).....................................................................&Food&security& means&being&subject&to&neoliberal&markets.................................................&348! Food&service&retailers®ularly&defraud&the&United&States&Government.....................................................&....&Somalia&is&a& good&example...&People&use&them&to&buy& drugs&and&weapons.........&357! Champion)Briefs) 18& .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................&343! Nitrous&oxide&from&agriculture&is&one&of&the&deadliest&greenhouse& gases...........&...................342! Greenhouse&gas&emissions&from&agriculture&are&set&to&increase&by& 2020.................................................&346! Food&stamps&are&abused&by&the&population...........)352! Food&insecurity&quells&insurgent&violence..........................&........................................................&................. &................ ..................&363! Land&grabs&pose&a&major&challenge&to&nations&despite&their&efforts&to& develop..............&...&364! Food&security&can’t&solve..........................&361! Land&is&purchased&in&foreign&countries&to&provide&security&for&food` importing&countries&ignoring&sovereignty&concerns.......&.........................................&368! The&only&way&to&provide&security&is&through&alleviating&poverty&and& that&can&only&happen&through&food&sovereignty.........................................&............................................................&366! Food&sovereignty&is&about&providing&people&the&capacity&to&take&part&in& the&decisions&affecting&them.......................................&.........................................&..........&......&..................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& The&difference&between&security&and&sovereignty&matters&a&lot................ &............&....&358! Food&sovereignty&is&both&a&movement&and&a&theoretical&idea&which& contrasts&with&food&security.....&.............................................................................................&360! International&markets&actually&lead&to&more&insecurity&though&land` grabbing.................................................&362! Land&grabs&hurt&the&poor&and&women&most&of&all.......................&375! Champion)Briefs) 19& ..&365! Food&security&is&anti`democratic&compared&to&food&sovereignty.............................................................&372! Food&sovereignty&has&specific&policy&goals&that&separate&it&from&food` based&rights.............................&........&...................................................&....&359! An&emphasis&on&food&security&has&problematically&led&to&foreign&aid& organizations&being&able&to&ignore&structural&problems...&370! Food&sovereignty&is&a&conceptual&alternative&to&top`down&food&security& programs.........&................................................................&..........&371! Food&sovereignty&gives&rights&to&farmers&rather&than&control&to&the& governments&and&corporations..................&367! Food&sovereignty&solves&security&and&is&hostile&to&market&forces............&........................................................&.................&373! Trade&liberalization&has&led&to&less&food&security¬&more..&369! Ensuring&food&sovereignty&is&more&than&just&criticizing&neo`liberalism............&Otherwise&it&strives&for&the&same&goals......................................&you&need&food&sovereignty.............................................. ..............................................&386! State&charity&such&as&food&security&programs&just&make&recipients&lazy..........................................................&..........................&384! Gift)K).................... &....................................................................................................................................................&.... &..........................................................................................................................)393! Food&security&programs&create&a&state&of&long`term&dependence&for&the& population............................&385! Food&stamps&create&a&cycle&of&need&`&the&welfare&state&is&the&new& plantation.......&...................................................................&...........................&379! Food&sovereignty&ensures&that&the&agricultural&work&that&women&do&in& LDCs&is&recognized&and&valued.......................&380! Food&sovereignty&is&key&to&challenging&traditional&gendered&divisions& of&labor.........................................................&382! Net&benefit&to&food&sovereignty&over&food&security.................................................&.....................................................................................&393! Champion)Briefs) 20& ..............................................................................................................................................)385! This&self`aggrandizing&motion&to&promote&humanity&through&aid& destroys&the&unique&value&to&these&people’s&lives...............&392! Libertarian)NC).&.........................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Food&requires&local&investment&which&means&that&local&sovereignty&is& key.................)389! Food&security&initiative&drive&up&demand&for&Big&Western&nations&to& exploit&the&global&south&by&land&grabing..........................................................................................&376! Food&sovereignty&is&conceptually&distinct&from&food&security.................&388! Individual)Rights)NC).....................................&377! Food&sovereignty&developed&as&a&criticism&of&food&security&and&is&key& to&female&empowerment..............................................&391! Labor&workers&who&supply&food&are&often&underpaid&and&overworked.....&.....................................&383! Sovereignty&solves&better&for&food&crisis&than&security.................................&..................&381! Only&a&food&sovereignty¶digm&can&stop&land&grabbing.............................................................................&389! Land&Grabbing&is&a&new&means&for&Western&nations&to&institute&neo` colonialism&in&the&Global&South.....................................................................................................&..................................................&......................................&................&...............&................. .........................&412! The&exclusion&of&race&in&the&discussion&of&food&security&is&harmful................................................................&....................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Food&security&should¬&be&a&right&unless&recipients&work&for&it..........&their&growth&is& stunted.....................................................................&..&403! Positive&feedback&means&governments&can&do¬hing&to&stop&future& famine............&405! Carrying&Capacity&is&still&a&constraint&on&food&security&and&the&quality& of&life...........................................)400! Population&growth&means&we&can’t&feed&everyone&and&trying&will&only& exacerbate&the&problem...............&397! Any&state&mandated&welfare&program&leads&to&inherently&unfair& practices.................&402! Data&shows&that&global&society&will&collapse&by&the&middle&of&the& century................&.&399! Malthus)NC)........................................................&413! Urban&agriculture&is&a&solution&entrenched&in&whiteness...&.................................................................................................&.&.......................................................&......................&...........&..................................................................&409! Racism)NC)................................................................................&414! Champion)Briefs) 21& ........................................&............................................................&395! Food&banks&help&millions&every&year............................................................................................................)411! Food&is&always&caught&up&in&a&racial&apparatus...........................................&.......................)409! Pity&is&an&instance&of&moral&failure....&411! Food&security&definitions&including&the¬ion&of&cultural& appropriateness&assume&stable&racial&groups..........................................................................................................................................&398! If&emerging&markets&are&dependent&on&larger&countries.............&396! Food&banks&have&become&sophisticated&enough&to&handle&food&security& problems.....................................................&.......................................................................&400! The&poor&can't&eat&if&there's&no&food&available&to&them....................&406! Nietzsche)K)......&.........................................................................................................&............................&.............................................................................&394! AT&Poverty:&A&right&to&any&welfare&benefit&only&encourages&people&to& not&work........&404! Food&data&supports&an&overpopulation&model.....................................................&..........................&.............................................................. .....................................................................................................................&......................)416! Setting&food&within&the&realm&of&security&allows&for&the&possibility&of& conflict................................ &.....................................&430! Champion)Briefs) 22& .&....................&422! The&most&widely&accepted&definition&of&food&security&is&market& oriented......................................................................&429! U.......&427! Post&9/11.......................................................................................................&..........................&421! The&AFF&necessarily&quantifies&people&in&order&to&assess&food&policy....&......................&419! Food&security&initiatives&foster&neo`colonialist&relations&of& dependence...........................................&...&415! Securitization)K)..&426! Food&security&is&linked&to&climate&change&and&terrorist&threats...................................................&418! Food&securitization&creates&a&moral&imperative&to&invest&in&biotech& that&outweighs&other&policy&making&concerns&in&public&debates...................................................&416! Inaccurate&media&sensationalizing&contributes&to&food&securitization......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................&........................................................&425! The&need&for&food&security&is&driven&by&the&need&to&control&population& and&manage&citizens.....................................................................................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& The&food&security&movement&(specifically&alternative&food&efforts)& does¬&take&race&into&consideration..............&.....................................&food&became&increasingly&securitized&by&the&US............&securitization&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.............................................................................&..............................................&423! Globalization&and&industrialization&increase&challenges&for&food& security..........&420! The&idea&of&vulnerability&to&any&outside&stressor&requires&a&complex& system&of&quantification...&......... &....S..............&424! Food&security&furthers&a&neoliberal&agenda..................&417! Food&securitization&can&contribute&to&biotechnological&corporate& forces............................&428! Food&security&has&lead&to&a&more&authoritarian&government..........&..................................&.............................................&.....&........&............... .....)435! Food&stamps&can&lead&to&a&cycle&of&obesity............&..........................Table&of&Contents& & March/April&2015& Food&security&harms&global&south&countries&more&than&global&north................................&436! Champion)Briefs) 23& .....&.. &..........................&432! Food&security&is&historically&linked&to&the&spread&of&neoliberalism..........................................................................................................................&..............&435! Food&security&does¬&help&farmers.........................................................................................&...............................&433! World&Bank&study&justifies&neoliberalism........................&434! Worse)Food)NC)...........................................................................&................................&431! Food&security&is&neoliberal.......................... Champion Briefs March/April 2015 Lincoln-Douglas Brief Topic Analyses . &household.!For!example.!the!topic!literature!demonstrates! the!ways!in!which!particular!conceptions!of!food!security!have!major!implications!on! how!food!security!initiatives!are!implemented.!However!food! security!has!changed!substantially!since!that!time.!It!was!commonly!understood!as!"sustain!a!steady!expansion!of!food! consumption!and!to!offset!fluctuations!in!production!and!prices"1.&at&the&individual.!Report'of'the'World'Food'Conference.!Sachs2!clarifies!what!we!generally! mean!by!food!security!today:! ! In!1996.!the!previous!definition!reduced!food!security!to! a!question!of!whether!countries!produced!enough!food!to!feed!their!population!but! does!not!care!if!they!can!actually!buy!and!eat!the!food!being!produced.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!Crafting!A! New!Vision.&at&all×.!Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.!New!York! 2!Sachs!13’YCarolyn.!many! took!issue!with!this!conception!because!it!largely!ignored!the!needs!of!individual! citizens.& ! Interpretational&Issues:& ! “Food!Security”! ! The!term!food!security!did!not!exist!as!a!term!of!art!until!the!1974!World!Food! Conference.'Rome'5416'November'1974.!However.!Different!approaches!to!food!security! define!and!maintain!different!standards!for!determining!the!scope!of!the!problem!and! for!measures!of!success.!International!Conference!@!Yale!University.!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!UniversityY! Champion)Briefs) 25& .& regional&and&global&levels&[is&achieved]&when&all&people.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.&national.!the!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!of!the!United!Nations!(FAO)& established&at&its&World&Food&Summit&the&most&widely&agreed&definition&of& food&security:&“Food&security.&have& physical&and&economic&access&to&sufficient.&safe&and&nutritious&food&to& meet&their&dietary&needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy& !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!!United!Nations.!While!this!may!seem!like!a!slight!oversight.!1975. ”!Food!security!goes!substantially!beyond!adequate!global!level!production! to!include!a!deeper!understanding!of!different!aspects!of!food!security.!but!is!not!likely!a!predictable!approach!to!affirming.!debaters!could!fiat!that!international!organizations!or!multilateral!coalitions! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!For!example.!For! example.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& life.!Since!the! affirmative!has!defend!that!multiple!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!many! planYfocus!debaters!could!defend!more!nuanced!interpretations!of!the!resolution.!This!might!make!counterplan!and! plan!inclusive!kritik!debates!confusing!because!it!is!unclear!whether!those! counterplans!and!kritiks!really!are!negative!ground.!This!opens!the!door!for!various!different! interpretations!of!what!actors!the!affirmative!can!legitimately!fiat.!a!“kill!all!hungry!people”!affirmative!would!result!in!the!complete!absence!of!food! insecurity!in!states.!This!may!also!be!good!news!for!a!lot!of!debates!that! favor!truthYtesting!interpretations!of!the!resolution!as!there!is!clearly!an!issue!limits! and!predictability!that!policy!making!interpretations!cannot!sufficiently!resolve.!Affirmatives!could!simply!claim! that!any!attempt!to!ensure!sufficient!access!to!food!is!really!their!ground.!! ! ! If!past!events!are!any!indication!of!future!events!(there!is!some!reasonable! debate!over!this!issue).!Many! affirmatives!may!also!use!this!as!an!opportunity!to!defend!positions!that!are!only! topical!as!a!result!of!the!effects!of!the!affirmative.!Another!issue!worth!noticing!is!that!the!most! common!definition!of!food!security!does!not!specify!any!particular!method!for! ensuring!food!security.!then!negative!debaters!should!notice!how!the!conception!of! food!security!might!shape!the!approaches!to!global!hunger!and!therefore!limit!or! improve!the!ability!to!address!the!issue.!! Champion)Briefs) 26& .!this!topic!identifies!a!plurality!of!actors! but!does!not!specify!any!particular!actor.!! ! “Just!Governments”! ! Just!like!the!January/February!topic.!Instead!food!security!is!just!a!state!of!affairs!that!the! affirmative!is!obligated!to!bring!about!or!at!least!prove!the!government!is!obligated!to! ensure!regardless!of!implementation!questions.!Effects!topical!affirmatives!are! substantially!less!predictable!because!of!the!near!infinite!variety!of!options!that!result! in!the!affirmative!as!an!effect3. merriamYwebster.!Still.!Depending!on!what! counts!as!a!legitimate!affirmation!of!the!topic.!it!could!just!mean!that!the!government!is!generally!obligated!to!do! “something”!about!food!insecurity.!Obviously!both!of!these!interpretations!have!their! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!http://www.!many!negative!debaters!may!be!tempted!to!write! “must!defend!multiple!actors”.!many!plans!and!their!solvency!advocates! usually!discuss!a!single!government.! insure.!!!! ! “Ought!to!ensure”! ! ! Although!I!am!sure!we!are!all!familiar!with!the!diverse!and!often!ridiculous! interpretations!of!ought!it!is!definitely!important!to!note!that!ensure!is!commonly! understood!as:! ! “ensure.!but!ensure!may!imply!a!virtual! guarantee!the!government!has!ensured!the!safety!of!the!refugee”4.com/dictionary/ensure! Champion)Briefs) 27& .!assure.!These!affirmatives!could!simultaneously! claim!multilateralism!advantages!that!give!the!affirmative!offense!regardless!of! whether!they!solve!for!the!food!crisis.!debaters!could!also!justify!a!truthY testing!interpretation!of!the!resolution.!insure.!and!assure!are!interchangeable!in!many!contexts!where!they!indicate! the!making!certain!or!inevitable!of!an!outcome.!Conversely.!! ! This!term!may!seem!more!straightforward!then!the!rest!but!there!is!a!question! of!whether!it!means!that!governments!are!obligated!to!bring!about!the!result!of!food! security!which!would!mean!that!solvency!deficits!are!a!sufficient!to!justify!a!negative! ballot.!For!anyone!who!plans!on!winning!a! good!theory!debate!on!an!issue!like!this!I!would!suggest!that!you!instead!explore!more! nuanced!theoretical!criticisms!of!what!constitutes!an!acceptable!fiat.!I!warn!that!the!multiple!governmental!institutions!that! are!required!to!enact!most!affirmatives!would!make!we!meet!arguments!on!this!issue! very!easy!to!defend!on!either!side!of!this!issue.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& ensure!food!security!as!a!means!of!bolstering!their!solvency!and!hedge!against! common!solvency!deficits!like!backsliding.!secure!mean!to!make!a!thing!or!person!sure.!Ensure.!The!resolution! lacks!important!parameters!to!justify!who!gets!to!be!the!actor. !they!are!not!necessarily!obligated!to!ensure!that!same!security! for!the!citizens!of!other!countries.! negative!debaters!should!also!think!about!the!implication!of!governments!exclusively! ensuring!the!food!security!of!their!citizens!to!the!exclusion!of!citizens!from!other! countries!or!even!nonYcitizens.!It!will!definitely!be!important!to!understand!how!far!the!and!to!what!extent! governments!are!obligated!to!ensure!the!food!security!of!their!citizens!because!that! will!determine!the!resolutional!burden!that!the!affirmative!has!to!prove.!Many!affirmatives!could!use!this!to!narrow!the! scope!of!the!resolution!and!their!burden!of!proof!by!claiming!the!government!is!only! obligated!to!help!their!citizens!and!only!their!citizens.!! ! Case&Positions:&An&Overview& & Unlike!the!January!February!Topic!the!split!between!lay!and!circuit!debate!on! this!topic!will!be!a!little!more!evenly!distributed!because!most!of!you!reading!this!will! be!debating!this!topic!at!their!state!tournament.com/search?q=their+definition&ie=utfY8&oe=utfY8! Champion)Briefs) 28& .!An!important!distinction!that!many!debaters!may! ignore!is!that!the!resolution!is!not!a!question!of!whether!governments!are!obligated!to! solve!for!the!food!security!issues!of!other!countries.!! ! “Their”!5! ! Their!means!“Belonging!to!or!associated!with!the!people!or!things!previously! mentioned!or!easily!identified”.google.!Many!criticisms!philosophic! objections!of!the!affirmative!may!claim!that!ensuring!food!security!is!only!an! admirable!or!supererogatory!action!and!not!actually!obligatory!so!the!affirmative! could!use!this!argument!to!get!out!of!common!criticism!of!the!affirmative.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& issues!but!this!issue!will!play!an!important!part!of!determining!what!cases!you!will! advocate.!Conversely.!The!implication!of!this! interpretation!is!that!the!recipient!of!food!security!is!clearly!stands!in!possessive! relation!to!the!actor!or!to!put!it!plainly!the!government!is!ensuring!food!security!for! their!citizens!however.!I!think!it!is!important!that!your!case! positions!can!be!adapted!for!the!diverse!set!of!judges!that!will!be!evaluating!your! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!https://www. !Many!people!may! argue!that!it!is!impossible!to!feed!everyone.!There!is!definitely!a!plethora!of!interesting!case!positions!on!this!topic!that!I! would!encourage!you!to!explore!however!that!cannot!come!to!the!expense!of!lay!prep! or!else!you!will!end!up!unable!to!adapt!and!frustrated!with!the!less!experienced! judges.”6!So!it!seems!that! we!actually!have!enough!food!for!everyone!but!there!is!some!greater!issue!causing! food!insecurity!that!most!deontological!positions!could!discuss.!That!being!said.!The!FAO!neatly!summarizes!the!problem!of!starvation.!That!is!because!a!lot! of!these!debates!will!boil!down!to!more!general!questions!of!whether!we!have!a!duty! to!be!beneficent!and!therefore!secure!the!necessary!conditions!of!survival!and!human! dignity!as!Kant!and!Singer!would!likely!suggest!on!pain!of!contradiction.!saying! that!"the!world!currently!produces!enough!food!for!everybody.com/foodYtheresYlotsYit! Champion)Briefs) 29& .!The!topic!literature!indicates!an! intuitively!satisfying!answer:!“[b]oth!of!the!world's!leading!authorities!on!food! distribution!(the!United!Nations!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization![FAO]!and!the! World!Food!Programme![WFP])!are!very!clear:!there!is!more!than!enough!food!for! everyone!on!the!planet."!Food!is!a!lot!like!money:!just!because!some!people!have!none! doesn't!mean!that!there!isn't!enough!of!itYYit's!just!spread!unevenly.!it!can!be!adapted!in!front!of! lay!judges!very!easily!saving!you!a!great!deal!of!time!preparing.! & AFF&positions& ! Deontology!and!Other!Rights!Based!Approaches! ! From!a!deontological!perspective!this!topic!brings!up!a!lot!of!the!same!issues! you!have!probably!noticed!a!lot!of!philosophic!similarities!between!this!topic!and!last! year’s!March!April!topic!about!putting!conditions!on!political!aid.!Another! appeal!to!positions!like!this!is!positions!like!this!can!either!have!very!dense! frameworks!that!can!be!difficult!to!respond!to!in!addition.!Though!Singer!is! clearly!a!utilitarian!he!still!defends!universalizability!and!it!could!easily!be!argued! that!we!are!obligated!to!help!others!if!we!can!at!no!great!expense.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& rounds.!but!many!people!do! not!have!access!to!it.!the! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!https://overpopulationisamyth. !It!is!also!pretty!clear!that!there!are!a!lot!of!harms!this!topic! discusses!such!as!child!malnutrition!and!poverty!that!will!be!very!persuasive!in!front! lay!panels.!the!kritikal!affirmative!literature!is!too!expansive!to!simply!address!under! the!plans!debate.!Many!people!will!also!probably!rush! over!for!their!Winter!and!Leighton!cards!for!more!kritikal!approaches!to!the!topic.! However.!Ripstein!may!also!be!tangentially!related!to!the!topic!given! that!the!current!food!security!likely!does!create!a!system!of!dependence!or!at!least! some!instance!of!unequal!freedom!between!those!who!do!not!have!access!to!food!and! those!that!do!not!which!does!open!room!for!some!interesting!deontological!plans!that! have!become!popular!this!season.!In!trickier!rounds!it!would!also!be!strategic!to!argue!that!if!utility!is!true! we!would!probably!have!little!justification!to!selfishly!withhold!foods!from!others! according!utilitarian!theories!of!beneficence.!As!previously! stated!the!potential!for!using!multiple!actors!definitely!has!a!lot!of!potential!for! deriving!offense!but!just!doing!the!plan!that!may!be!sufficient!reason!to!affirm! regardless!of!whether!they!increase!food!security.! ! Kritikal!Affirmatives! ! Champion)Briefs) 30& .!In!addition!these!debaters!will!have! the!competitive!edge!in!lay!debates!because!less!experience!judges!often!express! discomfort!with!voting!on!CPs!which!is!probably!the!negatives!best!shot!at!generating! offense!in!a!utility!debate.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& responses!to!positions!like!this!are!obvious!since!people!have!been!debating! deontology!for!decades!(not!that!it!is!a!bad!thing)!so!it!may!be!necessary!to!frontline!a! lot!of!the!common!objections!to!this!affirmative!such!as!property!right!or!general! deontology!bad!arguments.!! ! Plans/Utility:! ! The!topic!is!probably!too!open!ended!for!me!to!really!identify!the!best!plan!on! this!topic!but!I!think!it!is!safe!to!say!that!possibilities!are!limitless!given!that!the! affirmative!seems!only!to!be!obligated!to!ensure!that!food!security. !There!is!the!obvious!issue!of!what!tournaments!you!will!have!the!opportunity! to!run!positions!like!this!however!as!previously!mentioned!you!could!get!around!this! by!also!making!more!straightforward!and!stock!versions!of!these!case!positions!in!the! form!of!utility!or!deontology!that!might!make!it!worth!it!to!take!an!alternative! approach!to!the!topic.!One!position!that!I!found!to!be!particularly! interesting!was!that!being!a!person!with!a!disability!was!one!of!the!strongest! predictors!of!food!insecurity7!and!people!with!disability!are!largely!ignored!in! development!policy!considerations!despite!the!fact!they!are!disproportionately!food! insecure!in!comparison!to!other!groups8!which!I!find!personally!troubling.!The!issues!causing!food! insecurity!probably!stem!from!larger!oppressive!phenomena!that!would!certainly!be! relevant!under!many!different!roles!of!the!ballot!that!readers!have!become!accustom! to!defending!or!are!interested!in!learning!how!to!run!for!their!last!tournament!of!the! season.!Of!course! this!is!only!instance!of!discrimination!that!food!security!policy!could!directly!address!I! would!definitely!advise!debaters!too!look!into!positions!like!this.!children!and!people!with!disabilities!are!the!first!to!be! affected!by!unequal!distributions!in!food.theguardian.! & Negative&Positions& & Malthusian/Environmental!NCs! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!http://www.!As!it!has!been!previously! established.aspx! 8!http://www.usda.ers.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& Many!of!you!are!pretty!familiar!with!the!proliferation!of!kritikal!affirmatives! this!year!due!to!the!growing!acceptance!of!alternative!approaches!to!debating!the! resolution!and!this!resolution!is!definitely!not!an!exception.gov/amberYwaves/2013Ymay/disabilityYisYanYimportantYriskYfactorYforY foodYinsecurity.!global!food!supply!is!actually!enough!to!feed!everyone!but!marginalized! groups!such!as!women.!Considering!that!food!insecurity!is!likely!the!cause!of!larger! structural!inequalities!such!as!neoYcolonialism!or!capitalism.com/globalYdevelopmentYprofessionalsY network/2014/feb/07/disabilityYdevelopmentYpolicyYliveYchat! Champion)Briefs) 31& . !This! position!in!part!relies!on!the!negative!forcing!the!affirmative!to!defend!complete! solvency!that!will!prompt!many!affirmatives!to!complain!about!the!fairness!of!this! burden.!positions!like!this!can!definitely!be!very!appealing!for!lay!judges! who!will!intuitively!believe!that!the!Earth!has!a!certain!carrying!capacity!that!food! security!initiatives!may!exceed!in!light!of!the!fact!that!our!population!is!set!to!exceed! as!“Present!global!trends!will!lead!to!a!doubling!of!the!world's!urban!areas!by!2050.html! Champion)Briefs) 32& .!However.!mostly!in!developing!countries.!! ! Utilitarianism! ! As!I!previously!mentioned!the!resolution!specifies!that!the!government!is!only! obligated!to!ensure!the!food!security!and!not!the!security!of!other!citizens.! That!means!that!cities.!will!expand!from!3!to!6!percent! of!allYice!free!land.!!The!other!appeal!to!positions!like!this!also!allows!for!the!negative! can!also!be!adapted!to!denser!position!about!environmental!ethics!(Plum!and!other! Deep!Ecologist!for!example)!that!criticize!prioritizing!human!needs!over!the!interest! of!the!ecosystem.com/alonYtal/overpopulationYisYstillYt_b_3990646.!A!lot!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9!http://www.huffingtonpost.!Though!it! could!be!argued!that!there!is!not!necessarily!a!zeroYsum!relationship!in!food!supply! there!is!definitely!evidence!indicating!that!tradeYoffs!do!occur!between!states.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& A!glaring!criticism!of!the!affirmative!is!that!it!obligates!the!government!to! ensure!that!everyone!has!access!to!food!which!sounds!good!in!theory!but!it!may!be! easier!said!than!done!given!the!difficulty!of!producing!and!distributing!food.!It!also!means!that!10!to!15!percent!of!lands!farmed!today!would!be! taken!out!of!production.” 9!! Though!positions!like!this!may!seem!cruel!on!face!to!imply!that!some!people!will!have! to!starve!to!death!I!definitely!think!the!argument!that!the!Earth!cannot!sustain!the! food!demands!of!our!ever!expanding!population!may!be!too!much!of!a!strain!on!our! Earth’s!resources.!You!could!just!as!easily!turn!these!under!an!“ought!implies!can”! interpretation!of!the!resolution!and!simply!win!on!terminal!defense!even!though!a! position!like!this!is!largely!unfair!I!doubt!any!skep!or!tricks!debaters!will!care!about! this!objection!so!long!as!they!have!frontlines. !A!good! example!of!this!is!something!known!as!“Land!grabbing”!where!states!and!corporations! buy!large!plots!of!land!at!the!expense!of!weaker!nations!who!are!more!vulnerable!and! less!able!to!compete.!In!fact.!But!as!you!recall!the! way!we!interpret!food!security!can!shape!our!approaches!to!world!hunger!and!result! in!us!having!“food!security”!while!still!allowing!people!to!systematically!die!of!hunger.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& interesting!disadvantages!could!be!derived!as!one!countries!attempt!to!secure!food!for! their!citizens!may!entail!a!loss!of!food!security!for!another!country!that!may!result!in! comparatively!worse!harms!overall!as!they!compete!for!cheap!arable!land.!there!is!a!clear!“Urban! Bias”!that!food!security!policies!have!at!the!expense!of!agricultural!labors!who!will!be! put!out!of!business!if!their!prices!cannot!compete!with!the!free!food!that!food!security! initiatives!might!give.!Another!issue!with!food!security!initiatives!is!that! they!giving!food!for!free!when!many!of!the!people!who!experience!food!insecurity!also! rely!on!selling!agricultural!goods!for!their!livelihood.!Eve!n!if!you!concede!that! feeding!people!is!important!(because!it!probably!is)!agent!counterYplans!and!word! PICs!might!be!a!good!trick!to!have!up!your!sleeve.!CounterYPlans!and!PICS!will!also!be!relevant!given!that! local!policy!judges!may!also!be!deciding!key!rounds!for!you!and!so!your!ability!LARP! on!this!topic!will!probably!be!integral!to!your!success.!This!is!only!one!example!but!there!are!many!utilitarian!harms! that!are!made!worse!by!increasing!overall!global!food!consumption!that!negatives! should!definitely!look!into.! In!fact!just!after!the!FOA’s!definition!of!food!security!Sachs!points!out!an!obvious!issue! with!this!interpretation:!! & Champion)Briefs) 33& .! ! Kritiks! ! The!bulk!of!this!discussion!may!have!you!believe!that!the!affirmative!is!simply! ensuring!that!everyone!is!fed!while!the!negative!is!some!selfish!character!out!Atlas! Shrugged!who!has!no!concern!for!the!huddled!starving!masses.!This!is!a!major!cause!of!world!hunger!because!the!increased! demand!for!food!security!may!actually!be!largely!responsible!for!the!structural! inequalities!causing!world!hunger. &as&Fairbairn&(2012)&has&pointed&out.!Because!plenty!of!affirmatives!will!also!claim!that!food!security!is!an! important!factor!in!preventing!civil!conflict!and!the!securitizing!discourse!of!the! resolution!(why!is!it!specifically!food!“security”)!I!would!definitely!suggest!looking! into!security!kritiks!which!could!turn!most!affirmatives!and!would!definitely!be! appealing!inevitable!policy!judges!that!you!will!get.!International!Conference!@!Yale!University.!instances!such!as!land!grabbing!may!indicate!that!they!make!the! problem!worse!because!the!attempt!to!“expand!access”!may!allow!nefarious!actors!to! exploit!Less!Developed!Countries!more!by!violating!the!land!rights!of!indigenous! people!to!expand!food!production.10& & It!is!important!to!note!that!“food!security”!does!not!actually!equate!to!“having! and!eating!food”!and!even!if!it!does!there!still!might!be!greater!questions!of!what! biopolitical!relationships!are!established!in!exchange!for!protection!from!hunger.!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!UniversityY! Champion)Briefs) 34& .!Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.&this&concept&of¶&food&security& emphasizes&market&orientation&over&state&intervention&that&is&consistent&with¶& neoliberal&ideology.!All!this!being!said!many!affirmative!debaters!can! still!rely!on!the!traditional!objections!made!against!kritiks!that!demand!you!have!an! implementable!alternative!which!brings!me!to…! ! Food!sovereignty!PICs! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 10!10!Sachs!13’YCarolyn.!It!should!also!be!mentioned!that!many!countries! like!the!United!States!use!food!aid!as!an!opportunity!to!interfere!with!the!affairs! development!process!of!countries!who!are!willing!to!be!exploited!in!exchange!for! more!food!aid.!In!fact.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:!Crafting!A! New!Vision.!The! negative!could!easily!concede!that!feeding!people!is!important!but!the!inherently! market!based!approaches!to!the!problem!will!probably!increase!access!and!not! resolve!the!structural!inequalities!between!nations!that!are!truly!responsible!for! world!hunger.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& However.!Many!affirmatives!will!also! attempt!to!make!sympathetic!appeals!concerning!the!plight!of!the!starving!masses! that!would!make!a!Nietzsche!kritik!very!strategic!on!this!topic!for!those!who!are!able! to!defend!it!and!have!the!right!judge. Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& The¬ion&of&food'sovereignty&was&defined&in&2007.!However.&it&is&able&to&directly& address&the&problems&that&we&are&seeing&where&food&production&and&agricultural& production&is&done&to&ensure&profits&rather&than&the&needs&of&people.&It& deliberately&addresses&the&problems&of&hunger&from&the&point&of&view&of&the& production&of&food&and&the&decisions&of&peasant&producers&and&local&consumers& in&achieving&control&of&food&production&and&distribution.!Human!Geography.!sanitation!and! energy).!From&the&acceptance&of&the&right&of&people&to&food.!I!suspect!that!many!negatives!could!argue! that!this!alternative!may!be!a!better!approach!that!could!also!solve!for!the!more! negative!aspects!of!food!security.& calls&for&land&reform&to&ensure&equal&access&to&land 11.!As!we!previously!established!the!issue!of!world!hunger!is!an! issue!of!distribution!rather!than!supply!so!it!is!clear!why!greater!access!will!not! resolve!the!underlying!causes!of!hunger.!The!neoliberal!geopolitics!of!food!security:!The!case!of! Indonesia.!In!addition.!it!is!safe!to!say!that!a!lot!of!lay!judges!may!be! skeptical!of!a!position!like!this!or!any!other!interesting!CPs!that!you!might!put! together!so!I!would!not!exclusively!rely!on!this!position.&It&begins&with&the&very& simple&acceptance&of&the¬ion&of&the&right&to&food!(water.!! ! Conclusion& !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 11!Essex!08’YJamey.& This!is!probably!the!most!interesting!alternative!that!I!have!seen!on!this!topic! so!far!not!only!because!it!clearly!goes!further!left!than!most!affirmative! interpretations!of!the!topic!but!also!because!there!some!legitimate!policy!actions!that! could!be!derived!from!this!approach!to!world!hunger!that!could!solve!a!large!portion! of!kritikal!affirmatives!in!addition!to!the!more!traditional!approaches!to!the!topic!like! utility!and!deontology.&reintroduce&domestic&food&production&under&the&hands&of&peasants.edu/1881119/The_neoliberal_geopolitics_of_food_security_The_case_of_In donesia! Champion)Briefs) 35& .&It&aims&to&eliminate& food&dependency&on&advanced&capitalist&countries&and&the&international&market& for&food.!I!have!definitely!read!many!authors!that! discuss!how!food!sovereignty!can!resolve!the!capitalist!and!patriarchal!issues!of!food! security!initiatives!and!also!has!the!opportunity!to!empower!local!populations!making! this!a!very!strategic!position.academia.! https://www. !!! Champion)Briefs) 36& .!and!Alta.!Fred!has!been!coaching!LD!since!2009!and!is! currently!coaching!Lake!Highland!Preparatory!School.!He!has!recently!graduated!from! the!University!of!Central!Florida!and!is!set!to!begin!his!Master’s!Degree!Public!Policy! Analysis!at!Claremont!Graduate!University!in!the!fall.! ! ! ! ! & & & About&Fred&Ditzian& & Fred!Ditzian!debated!3!years!at!Fort!Lauderdale!High!School!and!had!great! success!on!the!both!the!national!and!local!circuit!making!it!to!elimination!rounds!at:! Harvard.! ! Good!Luck!! Fred!Ditzian.!Blue!Key.Topic&Analysis&by&Fred&Ditzian& March/April&2015& ! Despite!some!obvious!interpretational!issues!this!resolution!is!definitely!one!of! the!better!topics!to!be!chosen.!Crestian. !!The!March/April!topic!specifically!questions!the! duty!of!a!government!to!provide!its!citizenry!with!food!security.!!Debates!over!whether!a! government!should!provide!living!wages!concern!the!general!principles!of!a!state’s! responsibility!to!uphold!good!conditions!for!the!lives!of!its!citizens.!!!! Champion)Briefs) 37& .!The! threat!of!food!insecurity!makes!the!issues!that!confront!most!debaters!–!college.!!Food!deprivation!is!one!of! the!top!five!leading!causes!of!death!in!developing!countries!across!the!globe.!!The!January/February! resolution!left!debaters!wondering!if!a!government!was!responsible!to!assure!an! economic!foundation!within!its!boundaries.”!This!topic!brings!along!many!other!parallels!from!the!past!few!resolutions! regarding!governmental!obligations.!This!resolution!will!similarly!force! debaters!to!replace!economic!concerns!with!nutritional!ones.& & The!NSDA!seems!to!want!debaters!to!understand!the!principles!of!justice! because!the!March/April!resolution!is!the!third!topic!this!year!to!use!the!modifier! “just.!!The!dilemma!of! food!security!will!allow!debaters!to!hone!in!on!a!truthful!discussion!of!the!substance! of!a!social!contract!between!citizens!and!their!states.! dating.!The!good!thing!about! this!resolution!is!that!debaters!will!be!able!to!expand!on!the!substance!of!many! debates!occurring!throughout!the!January/February!topic.!Debaters!should!confront!this!privilege!and!think!about! how!basic!necessities!actually!affect!those!without!them.!or!if!food! security!guarantees!lie!dormant!outside!a!just!government’s!duties.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& ! ! Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.! ! Debaters!should!reflect!on!the!issues!raised!by!the!existence!of!global!food! insecurity.!TOC!bids!–!seem!trivial!in!comparison.!!Debaters!will!need!to! explore!whether!just!governments!have!a!duty!to!guarantee!food!security.!Debaters!should!use!this!opportunity!to! reflect!on!their!social!positions!and!to!establish!ways!to!positively!impact!their!local! and!global!communities.!By!definition!debaters!in!rounds!have!a!level!of!wealth!sufficient!to!travel! and!compete!in!tournaments. !some!proponents!of!food!security!argue!that!food!security!is! a!necessary!check!against!stateYled!famines.!!! Champion)Briefs) 38& .!!However.!! ! & Key&terms:& & Just&Governments&are!the!actor!of!the!resolution.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& ! March/April&2015& To!effectively!prepare!for!tournaments!on!the!March/April!topic!debaters!need! to!have!a!comprehensive!understanding!of!the!meaning!of!food!security.!they!will!need!to!demonstrate!whether!a!just!government!is! obligated!to!ensure!food!security.!the!framers!of!the!resolution!cast!the!government!as!an!actor!that! adopts!moral!principles!to!govern!action.!just!governments! implies!debaters!are!not!talking!about!governments!that!intentionally!harm!their!own! people.!the!term!“just”!seems!to!speak!to!the! moral!quality!of!the!government!actor!in!the!resolution.!and!what!a! world!without!food!security!truly!looks!like.!For!example.!!If!a!just!government!is!the!actor.!Once!debaters!have!a!clearer!image!of!the! world!they!are!defending.!debaters!need!not! concern!themselves!with!preventing!oppression!from!the!government.!Although!governments!are! sometimes!described!as!selfYinterested!bodies.!at!the!very!least.!such! arguments!about!food!security!preventing!oppression!from!a!government!seem! unnecessary!and!irrelevant.!!This!is!an!important!nuance!and!implication!that!I!draw!from!the!conjunction! of!the!two!terms!because!the!justness!of!the!government!would!seem!to!imply!that! arguments!about!governments!purposefully!starving!or!hurting!their!own!people!are! not!topical.!there!are!many!common! themes!involved!in!ensuring!food!security.!ethicality.!!Just!means!“in!accordance! with!codes!of!justice.!or.!because!the!resolution! explicitly!states!that!debaters!are!defending!the!actions!of!a!just!government.!!Regardless!of!the!specific!normative!arguments! sides!decide!to!use!in!favor!of!or!against!the!resolution.!!Therefore.!and!fairness”.!in!attaching!just!to! governments.!!Several!clear!questions!arise:!! ! Is!it!possible!for!a!government!to!actually!give!food!to!all!its!citizens?!!Are!there! any!real!world!examples!of!a!state!like!this?!!Are!governments!that!have!food!security! moral?!!! ! Debaters!should!consider!these!questions!in!preparing. !!The!converse!of!this!is!that!the!negative!will!also!need!to!supply! multiple!actors!for!counterplans!to!be!topical!as!well.!rather!than!a! categorical!obligation!of!just!governments.!!As!such.!to!negate!the!negative!needs!to!undermine!the!obligation.!!Should!states!truly!be!prohibited!from!ensuring!food!security?!! Most!likely!not.!!They!can!prove!that!there!exists!a!prohibition!on!ensuring!food! security.!!The!affirmative!will!have!to!prove!the!existence!of!a! categorical!moral!obligation!adhering!to!just!governments!to!ensure!food!for!their! citizens.!An!affirmative!case!that!merely!proved!the!United!States!should!provide!food! security!only!establishes!one!instance!of!the!resolution!being!true.!but!proving!a!prohibition!does!not!seem!to!be!a!plausible!position!for! negatives!to!defend.!else!the!negative!may!argue!that!the!affirmative!does!not!meet!their!burden.!!By! proving!that!ensuring!food!security!is!merely!a!permissible!option.!! Champion)Briefs) 39& .!!This!means!that!affirmative!debaters! need!to!come!up!with!a!substantive!normative!framework!that!will!allow!them!to! unconditionally!yield!an!obligation!for!a!just!government!to!ensure!food!security.! !!Conversely.!! Particularly!important!for!policy!debates!will!be!that!the!resolutional!actor!is!plural.!meaning!it!renders!the! debaters’!truth!burdens.!the!negative!will!need!to!go!about!denying!an!obligation! upon!just!governments!to!ensure!food!security!by!proving!that!maybe!there!exists!no! obligation!to!provide!food!security—rather!ensuring!food!security!is!permissible.!!There! are!multiple!ways!negative!debaters!can!go!about!disproving!an!obligation!to!ensure! food!security.!! Plans!and!counterplans!will!need!to!defend!actions!by!multiple!just!governments!to!be! topical.!!This!means!the!affirmative!is!most!prove!an!obligation!exists!for!just! governments!to!ensure!food!security.!!Ought!has!various!meanings!but!typically!implies!a!moral! obligation.!the!negative!will!be!able!to!deny!that!just! governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security.!but!does!not! necessarily!meet!the!plurality!condition!bestowed!upon!affirmatives!through!multiple! “governments”.!!The!implication!of!the!affirmative!having!to! prove!an!obligation!means!that!the!affirmative!does!not!affirm!by!merely!proving!that! people!need!food!to!live.!!! ! ! Ought!is!the!evaluative!phrase!in!the!resolution.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& ! March/April&2015& The!nature!of!just!governments!is!not!the!only!significant!point!of! interpretational!analysis!that!debaters!can!garner!from!the!actor!in!the!resolution. !!When! debaters!speak!of!fiat.!!Negatives!can!persuasively!formulate!the! argument!that!just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!to!its!citizens!only!if! food!security!can!be!ensured.!“should”.!“reasonability”.!!! ! ! Ensure!means!to!make!certain.!!This!means!negative!debaters!may!strategically!place!a! burden!of!solvency!on!affirmatives!in!order!to!affirm.!have!various!impacts!on!debaters’!truth!burdens.!or!to!guarantee.!! By!straying!outside!of!conventional!norms!and!interpretations.!!Traditionally!this!occurs!through!solvency!evidence! that!demonstrates!how!a!particular!plan!or!policy!action!will!occur.!In!short.!!Solvency!demonstrates!the! route.”!“ensure”!casts!a!sense!of! action!upon!the!government.!!This!has!an! important!impact!on!affirmatives!because!it!seems!like!“ensure”!forces!affirmatives!be! able!to!prove!the!solvency!of!their!action!as!requisite!part!of!their!truth!burden!in! affirming.!it!requires!that!the!just!government!is!obligated! to!take!actions!that!make!food!security!certain!throughout!a!country.!solvency!is!required.!however.!however.!!Debaters! should!methodologically!push!themselves!to!explore!whether!these!varying! interpretations!of!ought!can!have!a!positive!impact!on!a!particular!side!of!debating.!debaters!will!be!able! to!garner!a!strategic!advantage!over!others!erroneously!breeze!past!the!word!ought!in! the!resolution.!!Much!like!the! January/February!resolution’s!use!of!the!word!“require.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& ! March/April&2015& Alternate!interpretations!of!ought.!affirmative! debaters!can!quickly!preempt!this!issue!both!theoretically!in!the!AC!or!1AR!by! offensively!explaining!they!ought!not!to!be!responsible!for!solvency!because!the! Champion)Briefs) 40& .!it!seems!the! resolution!would!not!be!a!true!statement.!or!efficacy!of!an!action.!!Naturally.! and!“logical!consequence”.!!The!positive! force!inherent!in!the!word!ensure!implies!that!the!affirmative!must!justify!a!proactive! action!be!taken!in!order!to!guarantee!food!for!citizens.!like!“desirability”.!!Actions!in!debate!occur! through!fiat—the!power!for!a!debater!to!cast!their!position!into!reality.!!If!affirmatives!cannot!prove!that!food!security!can!be!ensured. !!Different!regions!of!the!globe!have!different!socioeconomic!and! agricultural!characteristics.!or! because!solvency!is!not!a!reciprocal!burden 12.!!More!importantly.!or!counterplans!that!eliminate!a!single!word!in!the! resolution!to!negate. The idea that debaters should not have to solve because solving requires doing research is inane to the point of being embarrassing.!!!! ! Apart!from!the!solvency!considerations!in!the!resolution.!The!purpose!for!this! interpretation!would!be!to!allow!affirmatives!to!dichotomize!the!resolution!through! the!end!state!of!food!security—in!the!affirmative!world!there!is!food!security.!in!the! negative!world!there!is!not!food!security.!!By!assuring!citizens!food.!and!kritiks!will! originate.!!Food!security!is!the!government’s!promise!to!citizens!that!they!will!have! resources!to!procure!food.!!Experts!have!ranging! opinions!on!what!exactly!qualifies!as!food!security!and!how!food!security!ought!to!be! reasonably!enforced. debaters may want to prepare answers to them to end these arguments quickly if encountered.!plan!texts.!the!affirmative!most!likely!will!want!to!explain!that!the!negative!burden!is! to!establish!why!just!governments!ought!not!ensure!food!security.!given!that!ensure!means!“to!guarantee!food! security”.!the!government!is!able!to! establish!a!level!of!means!sufficient!to!live!within!the!state. Nonetheless.!because!solvency!explodes!negative!ground.!But!this!just!points!to! the!importance!of!semantic!wording!in!the!resolution—and!the!fact!that!affirmatives! should!be!wary!of!word!PICs. Champion)Briefs) 41& .!!! ! ! Food&security&is!essentially!core!access!to!healthy!food!and!optimal!nutrition! for!all!in!a!society.!the!word!ensure!also! raises!questions!regarding!what!the!negative!may!advocate.!so!debating!about!comprehensive!food!security!programs! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 These arguments are all literally ridiculous whines and should never win ballots.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& resolution!is!a!philosophical!question.!!This!is!the!most!important!phrase!in!the!resolution!as!it!is!a!term! of!art!from!which!the!majority!of!topicality!debates.!and!in!establishing! such!a!burden!demonstrate!that!negatives!should!not!be!able!to!claim!offensive! ground!from!the!benefits!of!food!security!in!a!state.!can!the!negative!run!a! counterplan!that!endorses!the!just!government!promote!food!security!without! ensuring!it?!!Intuitively!this!would!be!a!form!of!affirmative!ground!because!promoting! food!security!would!affirm!the!spirit!of!ensuring!food!security.!!In!doing!so!the!affirmative!will!establish! better!ground!for!themselves.!!If!the!affirmative!world!is! one!in!which!food!security!is!ensured!by!the!just!government. !It!typically!refers!to!a!government’s!ability!to!prevent!against!wide!spread! famines!and!starvation.!!Food!security!allows!states! to!have!the!say!over!how!a!population!is!fed!so!represents!a!critical!form!of!state! population!control.! or!merely!access!to!amounts!of!money!to!be!used!for!certain!amounts!of!food.!!There!are!questions!that!debaters!need!to! resolve!as!to!what!degree!just!governments!are!responsible!in!food!security! programs—does!the!government!need!to!supply!each!and!every!meal!for!its!citizens.!and!so!questions!over! how!food!ought!to!be!secured!fall!primarily!upon!the!state.!!There!is!much!volatility!in! the!international!arena!due!to!state!actors!fighting!over!natural!resources.!!Critiques!of!food!security!should!investigate!the!ways!in!which! food!security!programs!between!two!nations!leads!to!conflicts.!!As!such.!!! ! ! For&Their&Citizens&is!the!last!phrase!of!the!resolution!and!it!merely!links!the! object!of!the!resolution!“citizens”!to!the!actor!“just!governments”!through!the! Champion)Briefs) 42& .!droughts.!!! ! Interesting!criticisms!of!food!security!stem!from!negatives!who!criticize!a! states!overYcontrol!and!domination!of!a!group!of!people.!!As!such.!!Therefore.!!But!other!cases! will!conceptualize!food!security!in!the!abstract!as!merely!the!fulfillment!of!necessary! means!of!sustenance.!so!ought!to!be!something!states!are!obligated!to!ensure.!!Food!security!on!a!grander!level!speaks!to!the!ability!of!a! country!to!sustain!a!steady!supply!of!food!to!its!citizens!so!that!they!will!not!have!to! fear!for!their!lives!when!food!levels!fluctuate.!!! ! Throughout!history!food!security!has!meant!more!than!merely!giving!people! food!to!live.!smart! affirmative!debaters!will!couch!food!security!as!a!policy!question!that!can!only!be! resolved!on!the!state!level.!and!other!civil!disruptions!in!a!particular!area.!and!forms!of!threat! construction!that!lead!to!greater!international!problems.!!Food!supply!is!critical!in! wars.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& is!very!difficult!in!the!abstract.!many!plans!will!seek!to!specify!the!form!of! food!security!that!governments!ought!to!give!in!particular!regions.!!Food!security!becomes! a!question!of!whether!the!government!should!be!responsible!to!provide!for!the!basic! foundations!of!a!good!life!for!citizens.!!By!analyzing!food!security!as!a!concept!affirmative!and!negative! debaters!will!be!able!to!philosophically!analyze!the!resolution.!food!security!is!a!very! important!term!for!both!debaters!to!contextualize!because!there!are!wideYspread! policy!implications!to!good!and!bad!food!security!programs. !an!individual!could!not!coherently!be!referred!to!as!a!citizen!of!a!state.!!!! ! More!importantly.!!Citizens!are!inhabitants!of!a!particular!country!or!state.!citizens!differ!throughout!the!world!due!to!the! wide!ranging!socioYeconomic!status!of!individuals!throughout!the!globe.!!The!citizens!in!the!resolution!are!the!objects!of!food! security!programs.!!The!impact!of!a!citizen! accepting!a!state’s!rules!is!that!the!resolution!sets!up!a!pseudoYsocial!contract! relationship!between!citizens!and!just!governments.!could!thus!be!the!basis!for!a!substantive! cosmopolitanism!versus!realism!framework!debate.! debaters!need!to!be!careful!in!assuming!trends!from!one!country!will!apply!to! another.!!!The!use!of!the!word!citizen! seems!to!imply!that!the!government!has!an!obligation!to!those!people!before! obligations!to!any!other!particular!persons.!the!rules!of! the!state!and!let!themselves!be!governed!by!the!state’s!policies.!!Citizens!creates!a!specialized!obligation! on!the!state!to!support!their!own!citizens!before!others!in!humanity.!!Affirmative!debaters!will!cite!international!law.!!This!distinction.!and!many!human!rights!referendums!which!mandate!humans!be!given! fundamental!components!as!basic!rights!to!life—food!included.!and!as!such!is!one!that!should!be! upheld!by!just!states.!at!least!tacitly.! rather!a!mere!individual!residing!within!a!state’s!boundaries.!!A!citizen!can!only!be!a!citizen!if!they!accept.!constitutional! law.!!The!affirmative!will! Champion)Briefs) 43& .!however.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& adjectival!pronoun!“their”.! between!citizen!and!traditional!individuals.!!Notice.!! ! Affirmative&positions:& & Right!to!Food!AC:!The!first!and!most!common!affirmative!position!will!be!one! that!argues!food!security!is!a!basic!human!right.!!Absent!such!tacit! compliance.!!Interpreting!the!resolution!as!a! question!of!whether!just!government!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!their!citizens! or!for!the!globe!could!certainly!be!an!interesting!way!of!spinning!the!clash!for!this! topic.”!and!so!intuitively!proposes!a!reciprocal!balance!between! individuals!and!the!state.!the!status!of!a!citizen!says!something!about!the!country!that! they!reside!in.!! The!resolution’s!use!of!the!word!citizen!ties!the!obligations!of!the!just!government! directly!to!“their!citizens.!!As!a!result. !which!lack!the!ability!to!provide!food!guarantees!to!their!citizens!out!of!a! sheer!lack!of!resources.!!But! international!law!affirmatives!will!need!to!be!careful!when!dealing!with!empirical! questions!about!food!security.!!Does!the!lack!of!one!country!to!provide!food!for!its!own! citizens!mean!that!another!country!should!step!in—is!that!what!is!demanded!by!the! resolutional!question!if!the!affirmative!is!stating!that!international!law!demands!all! humans!be!given!the!right!to!food?!!Affirmatives!can!strategically!escape!this!question! by!just!proposing!the!resolution!as!a!philosophical!question!over!whether!individuals! ought!to!have!the!right!to!food!in!the!first!place.!! The!result!is!that!the!government!should!be!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!for!its! citizens!to!guarantee!that!a!wide!spread!famine!or!massive!starvation!does!not!occur.!and! monetary!force!to!both!substantiate!and!provide!for!a!long!term!food!security!plan.!! The!impacts!are!therefore!quite!huge!because!affirmatives!can!trace!the!copious!death! toll!that!famines!wreck!across!the!world.!A!“right!to!food”!affirmative!will! thus!have!a!lot!of!topic!literature!backing.!! If!governments!do!not!ensure!food!security.!!!The!UN!will!be!widely!carded!and!sourced!for!this!type!of!argument.!there!is!no!infrastructural!way!that! individuals!will!be!able!to!maintain!a!steady!supply!of!food!if!a!horrific!drought.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& be!able!to!trace!laws!that!establish!individuals!ought!to!be!afforded!with!food!to!then! argue!that!just!governments!have!an!obligation!to!provide!food!security!to!their! citizens.!!Tons!of!legal!literature!answers! positively!on!this!question.!!Individuals!do!not!necessarily! have!to!care!for!other!citizens!so!can!wastefully!use!resources.!!Another!form!of!a!utilitarian!AC!is!one!that! derives!offensive!impacts!from!land!degradation!and!a!bad!use!of!natural!resources! that!results!without!government!regulation!of!food.!or! mass!terrorist!attack!occurs.!and!not!in! the!UN.!!There!are!many!countries!in!both!the!UN.!! Champion)Briefs) 44& .!!Governments!possess!the!allocative!resources.!and!a!harmful! consequence!of!this!could!be!the!diminishment!of!resources!for!future!generations.!and!will!most!certainly!be!a!persuasive! advocacy!that!on!the!surface!level!not!too!many!would!disagree!with.!as!well!as!the!basis!of!many!moral!philosophers!who!are! inclined!to!believe!citizens!ought!to!be!given!food.!!! ! Utilitarianism!AC:!!Another!extremely!popular!affirmative!will!argue!that!food! security!is!necessary!because!it!will!prevent!mass!devastation!and!horrific!end!states. !!But.!so!making!food!security!an!obligation!of!the! government!seems!to!side!step!the!individuals’!obligations!to!themselves.!and!so!will!provide!a!moral!answer!to!why!just!governments!ought!to! ensure!food!security.!!Negatives!will! want!to!argue!that!food!security!is!an!individual!problem.!the! problem!is!not!merely!that!food!security!is!an!individual!concern.!! ! Social!Contract!AC:!A!final!affirmative!position!that!is!philosophically!based!will! be!an!account!of!the!social!contract!that!stems!a!reciprocal!relationship!between!the! government!and!its!citizens!to!provide!for!one!another.!!Individuals!control!the! amount!that!they!eat.!governments!should!be!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!so!that!present! generations!have!food.!!Such!a!relationship!will!call! upon!the!government!to!maintain!access!to!a!good!quality!of!life!for!its!citizens! through!the!requirement!of!food!security.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& Therefore.!affirmatives!running!utility!may!be!able!to!claim!potential!infinite! impacts.!! ! ! ! ! Negative&Positions:& & OverYresponsibility!NC:!A!popular!negative!response!to!the!resolutional! question!will!be!that!food!security!is!not!the!government’s!obligation.!!The!affirmative!will!argue!that!the!citizens! in!the!resolution!give!up!rights!and!resources!for!the!just!government.!!When!considering!the!impact!to!both!present!and!future! generations.!not!governments.!!Social!contract!theories!will! well!establish!a!philosophical!basis!for!individuals!and!governments!to!come!to!an! agreement.!!The!just!government!has!a! reciprocal!relationship!to!provide!for!its!citizens!by!thusly!ensuring!their!citizens!have! the!ability!to!eat!and!sustain!themselves!in!the!long!run.!!Food!security!teaches!families! Champion)Briefs) 45& .!but!rather!than! transforming!food!security!into!a!nonYindividual!concern!forces!and!trains!individuals! to!be!dependent!on!the!government!for!their!own!food.!and!so!that!future!citizens!of!the!state!are!given!access!to!food! resources!as!well.!so!that!they!can! benefit!from!the!just!governments!protection!in!return. !with!over!9!billion!people!in!the!world.!negatives!will!want!to!argue!that!placing!the! burden!of!food!on!the!government!undermines!the!government’s!efficacy.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& to!be!over!reliant!on!the!government.!!The!massive!impact!of!land!degradation!that!results!from! governments!striving!to!reap!the!most!food!they!can!diminishes!the!overall!resources! for!people!in!the!future.!!Therefore.!!States!that!take!on!the!burden!of!food!security!force! themselves!to!over!allocate!and!over!use!land!resources!and!so!harm!the!environment.!and! ultimately!reduces!an!individual’s!control!of!their!own!life.!!Deontology!would!demand!that! individuals!be!given!the!choice!over!whether!the!state!provides!them!with!food.!! Thus.!in!arguing!that!the!state!is!obligated!to!ensure!food!security! ignores!the!choice!of!individuals!and!so!disrespects!their!end!status.!!Negative!debaters!will!be! able!to!claim!huge!impacts!from!these!sort!of!negative!cases!because!loss!of!bioY diversity.!will!be!the!loss!of!bioYdiversity!that!results!from!stateYheavy! mining!of!food!resources.!!Food!security!thus!could!arguably! lead!to!a!deprivation!of!individual!autonomy!because!individuals!lose!access!to! choices!over!what!to!eat.!and!consequently!the!increasing!amounts!of! population!growth.!! & Good!Luck!! ! Michael!Fried! Champion)Briefs) 46& .!and!as! such.!!Citizens!are! unable!to!make!choices!as!to!what!types!of!foods!they!want!to!eat!if!their!community’s! food!is!singularly!sustained!by!the!government.!!! ! BioYDiversity!NC:!A!negative!disadvantage!to!affirming.!the!affirmative.!a!negative!case!couched!in!protecting!the!environment!for!a!sustainable!future! will!want!to!argue!that!just!governments!ought!not!to!ensure!food!security—rather! food!security!ought!to!be!an!individual!concern!for!citizens.!and!land!degradation!can!mean…extinction!! ! Deontological!NC:!A!philosophical!NC!that!negative!debaters!may!use!to!negate! the!topic!will!argue!that!ensuring!food!security!forces!citizens!into!dietary!habits!that! the!state!wants!and!so!does!not!let!them!freely!live!their!own!lives.!puts!too!much!pressure!on! imperfect!governments.!that!could!potentially! be!a!negative!case!itself.!and!where!to!get!their!food. !and!The!Dowling!and!Harvard!Round!Robins.!Michael!is!currently! a!junior!at!UC!Berkeley.!Valley.!the!Dowling! Invitational.!! Champion)Briefs) 47& .! Blake.!He!won! Apple!Valley.! This!past!year.Topic&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& March/April&2015& & About&Michael&Fried& ! Michael!Fried!attended!and!competed!for!University!School!of!Nova! Southeastern!University!and!graduated!in!May.!he!was!a!finalist! at!the!Greenhill!Invitational!and!reached!late!outrounds!at!the!Glenbrooks.!the!Crestian!Classic.!Emory.!In!addition.!2012.!He!competed!in!LD!Debate! throughout!his!entire!four!years!of!high!school.!Harvard.!he!coached!the!5th!ever!Freshman!to!qualify!to!the!Tournament!of! Champions!and!a!student!to!the!Finals!of!the!Emory!Tournament.!the!Florida!State!Championship!(twice).!In!total!he!amassed!14!TOC!bids.!reaching!Semifinals!as!a!Junior!and!Octos!as!a!Senior.!and!the!Bronx!Invitational.!He!qualified!to!the!Tournament!of! Champions!three!times. If you are prepared to answer those positions and write more unique and nuanced cases. The disparity in food to population ratio lead Malthus to predict a catastrophe that would force a return to subsistence level conditions. THE TOPIC This topic means debating whether governments should ensure that people have the sustenance in order to live their lives. While this idea was proven wrong by at least the fact that we have largely increased the rate of production of food. Most tournaments are basically over by the time March/April comes around. then you are already ahead of the game. Debaters who went to camps that taught on this topic should use their preexisting preparation on the topic. This is important because the popular arguments run at camp will probably be the main arguments at your tournaments because some debaters are lazy and just use camp prep. Thomas Malthus argued that the rate of population was increasing so much that the growth of population would be exponential in nature whereas the growth of food production was linear. This means that at some point the amount of people would far outnumber the amount of food. it is a pretty important topic to talk about.& ! MARCH/APRIL DEBATE PERSPECTIVE The debates on March/April are small in quantity but high in quality and demand an increased amount of work. Not all hope is lost for debaters who did not attend camp as well —they should use friends that went to camp to find out what type of arguments were popular. It is also a pretty interesting topic that has been debated constantly during different ages. Champion)Briefs) 48& . it shows the inherent debate that exists over whether or not food security is an issue.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens. but most state tournaments fall within this timeframe. in which case there can be a debate about whether the affirmative should defend only the principle or implementation of the topic. This should not bring about many topicality debates. deontological approaches. Champion)Briefs) 49& . nearly the entire cannon of modern political philosophy literature is concerned with establishing universal frameworks for evaluating justice.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& It is important to take a look at what the words in the resolution mean. nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.” Maybe this is a hypothetical just society. there are two normative words in the resolution—“just” and “ought. Merriam-Webster.merriamwebster. “when all people at all times have access to sufficient.” Ought is “used to express an obligation” (Merriam-Webster) 14. the World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as." Merriam-Webster. <http://www.” many debaters have argued on past topics that affirmatives must have plans with more than one actor. Just be wary of the more topic-specific plans bad arguments that now have legitimate textual claims for support. n. In fact. Just like the September/October and January/February topic this year. I lean towards the latter because the concept of just is subjective13 and no society probably fits the any concept of “just. 14 "Ought.com/dictionary/ought>.d. The first phrase in the resolution is “just government. utilitarian approaches. and the like. regardless of which interpretation seems better for debate. but just in case it is good to be prepared for the potential T-ought shell that seems to have rising popularity in the past few years. safe. virtue ethicist approaches. For example. Web. 21 Aug.” Definitions of food security typically also include economic and physical access to food that meets citizen !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13 There are obviously a near-innumerable conceptions of justice that purport to be objective and universally applicable. Because of the plural nature of the phrase “just governments.” The immediate question that comes to my mind is whether a society has to already be just in order to take the resolutional action or if taking the resolutional action would be something a just society would do. debaters will still read binary topicality shells where they argue that either interpretation of the topic you defend is bad. Honestly. Be prepared for this by thinking for a while why each interpretation is good or might be better than the other. This was a very popular topicality debate at camps that used this topic and camps in the past that have used similarly phrased topics. Food security is the first tricky phrase in the resolution. 2014. including distributivist approaches. ” Food use means “appropriate use based on knowledge of basis nutrition and care. certain. <http://www. Web. N. For their citizens seems like a pretty straight up phrase.”16 This makes it difficult for the affirmative to have solvency. 1 in 9 people go hungry every day. "Food Security. There are a couple of basic arguments that come up when initially researching the topic. or safe. But basically the resolution just posits the question of whether or not a government would make sure that all their citizens have adequate access to food for themselves. If you do not defend some parametricized version of the resolution.merriam-webster.” The active verb in the resolution is ensure. the affirmative essentially defends making sure that everyone has sufficient access to food. Long story short. That action would be something that a just government does. then all citizens technically would have food security from their respective governments. Merriam-Webster. affirmatives might want to try to find a less absolute definition that doesn’t enforce them to have 100% solvency. food access. AFFIRMATIVE Absent justifying a plan. <http://www. There can be impacts from this to most deontological !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 15 WHO. “to make (something) sure. The first one that comes to mind is that food is a fundamental human right.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& needs and preferences." WHO.who. So. Ensure is defined by Merriam-Websters as.” Food access mean “having sufficient resources to obtain appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. 16 Champion)Briefs) 50& . Each government will ensure food security for their own citizens rather than others. 3 Feb. "Ensure. 3 Feb. the major topicality issues will probably arise out of just governments and food security.int/trade/glossary/story028/en/>. You might even run into topicality on ensure.com/dictionary/ensure>. 2015." Merriam-Webster. as well as adequate water and sanitation. and food use. The WHO explains how there are three pillars to food security which include food availability. though.p. 2015. 2015. Merriam-Webster. 2015. Web..15 Food availability means having “sufficient quantities of food available on a consistent basis. <http://www. Dec.2% decrease in how many people are living under $1 per day.7% to 2% in developing countries." The Impact of Research-Led Agricultural Productivity Growth on Poverty Reduction in Africa.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X03001682>.17 The economic costs of micronutrient deficiencies reduce GDP by 0. "Our Work. 03 Feb. there was a set of goals called the Millennium Development Goals that aimed to halve the amount of people who were in hunger. and Jenifer Piese. Many have argued that GDP growth can be almost 4 times as effective to reduce the total amount of poverty. For example. N.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& frameworks.. “If women had the same access to productive resources as !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 17 Australian International Food Security and Research Centre." IFAD. Collin. 2015. <http://www.20 Collin Thirtle et al argues that a 1% increase in yields causes a 0.. 2015. N. Web.p. 2015. Web. N. 08 Feb. "The Future of World Food and Nutrition Security. 21 Thirtle.19 There are some pretty good benefits from agriculture based plans. "Download PDFs. N. Areas in Latin America and the Caribbean have make leaps and bounds in food security. 2013.sciencedirect. 2015.org/hfs/index.6% to 1. 2015. Web.p. but in countries where there are natural disasters like areas in Western Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa we still need food security. Failure to secure the proper nutrients to survive negatively affects their growth. 08 Feb. Harms to health is also a big issue.ifpri.p. 2015. 21 There is also an argument for a feminist case as the Australian International Food Security Research Centre argues." Australian International Food Security and Research Centre. These impacts could go as far as death. stock argument for the affirmative.ifad. Web.. Lin Lin. This translates to global losses in economic productivity by up to 2% to 3%. 2015.p. Asia and Latin America. <http%3A%2F%2Faciar. However. This is another reasonable. Champion)Briefs) 51& . this protection still needs to be expanded to many states. "Food Security and Why It Matters..gov.htm>. 18 International Food Policy Research Institute. as well. These are huge violations to human rights.au%2Faifsc%2Ffood-security-and-why-it-matters>. <http://www. 3 Feb. Children in their first few years are in developmental growing stages of their life." Global Hunger Index.18 One way that many advocate for increasing food security would be to increase agricultural research and development. So you can draw ties to economic growth. Food insecurity leads to deficiencies in nutrients that spur development in children.org/book-8018/ourwork/researcharea/global-hunger-index>. 19 Ibid 20 IFAD. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22 Australian International Food Security and Research Centre.5-4%.” 22 NEGATIVE The negative can advocate for lots of different positions on this topic. Alongside general topicality arguments mentioned above in the topic portion. The way that many talk about how at risk these individuals are is problematic.edu/gracyk/courses/phil%20318/ought-can_Outline. which leads to free-riding issues.”23 The real world puts constraints on our actions.mnstate. which could reduce the number of hungry people in the world by 12-17% or 100-150 million people. 2015. Those are not easy or cheap and there are valid arguments to be made about why it is either difficult or impossible to implement food security and have the solvency for it.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& men. Pages 229 247http://www. This stops individuals from finding a solution themselves to their food insecurity in the home. Issue 3. then you would be wrong to insist that Pat has a moral obligation to levitate into the air and rescue the kitten. there are some people that critique the word food security because it has assumptions of vulnerability of individuals. June 2001. 3 Feb. <http://aciar. so Pat has no such obligation. There also is a cost issue. Web. Food security has been an issue for a very long time and it is difficult to implement solutions. Theodor Gracyk argues that in order to say that we ought to do something.p. 04 Oct. 2012.htm 24 Maxx Dilley and Tanya E Boudreau “Coming to terms with vulnerability: a critique of the food security definition” Volume 26.com/science/article/pii/S0306919200000464 Champion)Briefs) 52& . disposal programs. we have to be able to take the action." Australian International Food Security Centre. "Food Security and Why It Matters. Being human. many people at camp argued for an “ought implies can” argument..au/aifsc/food-securityand-why-it-matters>. http://web.sciencedirect. “if a kitten is stuck in a tree. Pat cannot levitate. N. however first. They throw policies that give free food to people and hope that everything will be okay.24 Another major issue is that food security policies oftentimes mask the problem of food insecurity by putting a Band-Aid on a broken leg. 23 Theodore Gracyk Philosophy Department Minnesota State University Moorhead. they could increase yields in their fields by 20-30%.gov. it costs a large amount of money to build up the infrastructure. He gives the example that. This alone would raise total agricultural output in developing countries by 2. The argument was made either as an independent case or as a quick overview to affirmative cases. and the like to ensure food security. !Greenhill. 3 Feb. and GERRIT-JAN VAN UFFELEN.Topic&Analysis&by&Shania&Hunt& March/April&2015& Another major issue that stems from this is dependency. 2012. so take them as a starting point for your research. These are just a few of the arguments that the negative make. DOROTHEA HILHORST.!She!is!excited!to!be!attending!UCLA!in!the!fall. "Food Aid and Dependency Syndrome in Ethiopia: Local Perceptions.tufts.!She!reached!elimination!rounds!of! Grapevine. the refusal to co-operate under conditions where co-operation appears advantageous.edu/jha/archives/1754>.!Lexington. Food security programs from the government failed. so people were completely reliant on food aid. 26 Ibid Champion)Briefs) 53& . They also are more on the reasonable. <http://sites.!and!a!Quarterfinalist!at!2014!TOC. stock side." The Journal of Humanitarian Assistance.!a!finalist!at!Cal!Berkeley!Invitations.!national!runner!up!in!Extemporaneous!Debate!at!the! 2013!NSDA!nationals.!She!was! honored!with!a!place!on!the!USA’s!debate!team!and!will!be!debating!in!the!fall!at!the! WSDC!world!championships. Barbara Harrell-Bond coined the term “dependency syndrome” and defined it as. Good Luck! Shania Hunt About&Shania&Hunt! Shania!Hunt!debated!for!four!years!at!Northland!Christian!School!and!was!a! team!captain!for!her!junior!and!senior!year. rather than the extent to your research.!and!the!VBI!tournament. and food aid made the individuals dependent. 2015. and the prevalence of destructive and anti-social behavior.p.”26 This went so far as to make farmers alter their food production patterns in anticipation of food aid.!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 ASCHALE DAGNACHEW SIYOUM.!She!was!a!semifinalist!at! 2012!St!Marks!Tournament. recurrent drought. 25 These things have led to large scale famine and food insecurity for a long time period. N. Ethiopia had large food insecurity issues stemming from poverty. Web. “the real and apparent lack of support for each other. 27 Nov.. and soil and land degradation.!champion!of!the!2013!Greenhill!Classic!and!Cal!Berkeley!Round! Robin. !This!requires!work!by!the!negative! part!on!the!theoretical!front!of!these!questions.!I!will!explore!the!topic!in!a!way! that!attempts!to!remedy!some!of!these!concerns.!However.!First.Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& March/April&2015& Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.!In!this!topic!analysis.!and!it!relates!to!the! word!“ensure”.! Framework!arguments!will!be!very!similar!to!the!ones!you!saw!on!the! January/February!topic.!! There!is!one!interpretational!issue!I!find!worth!discussing.!since!the!evaluative!phrase!is!identical.!The!evaluative!phrase!is!identical.!I!think!what!I!propose!is!a! valuable!way!of!looking!at!the!resolution.! much!of!the!language!in!the!resolution!is!very!similar!to!the!language!in!the! January/February!topic.!As!such.!that!abstract!truth!does!is!disconnected!from!questions!of! implementation!and!practicality.!the!affirmative!seems! intuitively!true.!! This!word!has!very!serious!and!direct!implications!for!any!policy!option! implemented!by!the!affirmative.!and!as!a!result!debaters! can!expect!framework!debates!to!remain!relatively!consistent.!Happy!reading!! & Interpretational&Issues& & ! This!topic!follows!a!model!that!should!be!familiar!to!nearly!all!debaters!–!in!a! lot!of!respects.& & Introduction& & ! The!March/April!2015!LD!topic!echoes!its!predecessor!in!several!ways.!The!second! resemblance!is!that!this!topic!explores!an!interesting!and!important!topic!area!in!a! perhaps!lessYthanYideal!way.!I!am!going!to! try!to!spend!most!of!my!analysis!talking!about!the!meat!of!the!topic.!in!functions!in!exactly!the!same!way!as!the!January/February!topic!did.!As!long!as!negative!debaters!win!that!the!affirmative! Champion)Briefs) 54& .!Regardless.!Like!the!January/February!topic.!rather!than!the! framing. !for!environmental.! developmental.!and!global! warming!initiatives!that!attempt!to!curb!the!harmful!effect!of!greenhouse!gases!on! agriculture.!The!second!is! distributional!–!lack!of!adequate!food!supply!as!a!result!of!certain!segments!of!a! society!simply!being!unable!to!afford!consistent!access!to!food.! & Affirmative&Positions& ! & I!think!most!frameworks!will!be!relatively!straightforward.!but!it!does!draw!a! distinction!between!strategy!categories.!! ! Food!security!has!at!least!two!dimensions!to!it.!investment!in!agricultural!research!and!development.!or!other!reasons.! This!is!especially!true!given!the!nature!of!the!topic.!On!one!hand!are!policies!that!encourage!longYterm! sustainability.!This!distinction!is!not!an!absolute!one.!Food!insecurity!and!scarcity!are! overwhelmingly!identified!as!problematic.!These!sorts!of!solutions!are!not!mutually! exclusive!in!principle.!and! welfare!programs.!On!the!other!hand!are!social!initiatives.!The!first!has!to!do!with!scarcity! and!sustainability!–!people!who!live!in!places!where.!the!very!existence!of!sizable!areas!around!the!world!that! lack!food!security!is!in!some!senses!a!global!distributional!problem.!These!two!elements! are!not!unrelated!–!in!fact.!Thus.!and!it!is!imaginable!that!either!debater!could!advocate!some! combination!of!these!sorts!of!policies.!and!affirmative! frameworks!especially!will!probably!provide!opportunities!for!comparative!offense.!government!subsidies.!Still.!the!abundance!of! good!clash!on!this!topic!comes!from!discussions!of!what!we!should!do!about!food! security.!the! distinction!is!valuable!because!it!gives!a!general!shape!to!the!kinds!of!solutions!for! food!security!that!exist.! This!argument!has!strong!strategic!value!in!rounds!by!making!advantage!defense!a! gameYover!issue.!the!regional!food!supply!is!deficient.!Limited!institutional!resources!complicate! Champion)Briefs) 55& .!but!noting!the!existence!of!a!problem!does! little!to!demonstrate!what!we!should!do!about!that!problem.Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& March/April&2015& must!defend!a!policy!option!then!the!definition!of!ensure!seems!to!imply!that!they!also! need!to!defend!the!efficacy!of!their!chosen!mechanism.!winning!defense!on!the! affirmative's!implementation!mechanism!means!that!the!affirmative!is!not!topical.!Thus. !Many! longYterm!solutions!focus!on!improving!agricultural!productivity!by!investing! technologies!like!genetically!modified!crops.Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& March/April&2015& combination!advocacies!though.!and!guaranteeing!certain!farmers!employment.! a!necessary!part!of!any!'just!government'!acting!justly!is!negotiating!equitable!policies! with!other!countries.!Additional!longYterm.!as!well!allocating!larger!amounts!of!dedicated!farmland.!There!are!also! policies!aimed!at!the!global!distribution!aspect!of!food!insecurity.!grain!and!fertilizer!subsidies.!many! agricultural!producers!in!developing!countries!struggle!with!access!to!worldwide! markets!as!a!result!of!import!tariffs.!but!can!also!include!things!like!conditional! subsidies!to!farmers!that!guarantee!a!certain!market!price!for!food.!For!instance.!this!argument!says!that!your!policy!controls!the!internal!link!to!solving! localized!food!security!problems.!subsidized!irrigation! equipment.! ! There!are!a!diverse!set!of!longYterm!strategies!to!combat!food!insecurity.!It!is!possible!to!object!that!the!topic!is!specific!to! the!relation!between!particular!citizens!and!their!respective!governments.!Unlimited! agricultural!development!in!the!world!will!not!fix!basic!issues!of!poverty!and!food! shortages!in!societies!with!severe!distributional!inequalities.!then!they!will!remain!without!access!regardless!of!how!much!food!there!is.!improved!irrigation!methods.!and!shift!the!focus!of!the!debate!from!which!policies! would!be!good!to!do.! ! ShortYterm!strategies!focus!less!on!increasing!agricultural!production!and!more! on!ensuring!a!relatively!equitable!societal!distribution!of!food.!In!other!words.!and!better! fertilizers.!to!which!policies!are!most!important!to!get!done.!These!can!include! social!welfare!programs!like!food!stamps.!I!would!respond!that!the!nature!of!global!food! production!means!that!the!domestic!policy!of!any!given!country!is!necessarily! intertwined!with!its!foreign!policy!and!relations!with!other!countries.!sustainable!policies!include!seed!banks!in! the!case!of!natural!disasters.!If!a!certain!portion!of! society!is!continually!cut!off!from!financial!access!to!the!otherwise!abundant!food! supply.!and!thus! international!concerns!are!not!topical.!With!that!in! mind.!I!will!use!this!section!of!my!analysis!to!talk!a!bit!about!what!strategies!in!both!of! these!domains!look!like.! ! !! Negative&Positions& ! Champion)Briefs) 56& .!In! other!words. !and!should!reference! the!proposed!implementation!mechanisms!in!the!Affirmative!Positions!section.!and!should!not!be! treated!as!a!comprehensive!or!thorough!review!of!the!topical!literature.!I! think!the!best!counterplans!are!PICs!that!focus!on!opting!out!of!certain!parts!of!the! resolution.!! ! Second.!Instead.!though!I!will!discuss!two!potential!strategies!for!negating.!The!second!is!a!straightforward!negation!of!the! resolution.!! ! Conclusion! & These!arguments!merit!further!exploration!and!development.!the!negative!could!PIC!out!of!the!word!“citizens.!The!negative!must! then!argue!that!the!obligation!is!in!fact!impossible!or!otherwise!undesirable.!and!discuss!how!these!populations!are!some! of!those!that!are!most!at!risk!of!suffering!from!food!shortages.!For!example.!The!first!and!best! strategy!is!a!nontopical!counterplan.”!and!argue! that!just!governments!instead!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!residents!of!their! country.! ! Good!Luck!! ! Brian!Hodge! ! About&Brian&Hodge! Brian!Hodge!attended!and!competed!for!Cypress!Falls!High!School!and! graduated!in!June!2012.Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& ! March/April&2015& I!think!counterplans!occupy!the!vast!majority!of!strategic!negative!ground!on! this!topic.!achieving! Champion)Briefs) 57& .! ! There!are!a!vast!variety!of!nontopical!counterplans!available!on!the!topic.!The!negative!may!also!advocate!topical!counterplans.!It!could!also!talk!about!the!contributions!of!these! individuals!via!various!forms!of!taxation.!This!type!of!advocacy!would!make!arguments!involving!the!contributions!and! stigmatization!of!nonYcitizens.!He!competed!in!Lincoln!Douglas!debate!for!4!years.!the!negative!can!read!a!straightforward!negative!position!by!suggesting! that!the!attempt!to!meet!moral!obligations!that!are!impossible!to!practically!satisfy!is! harmful!by!imposing!necessary!failure!on!those!trying!to!satisfy!the!obligation.!they! should!kickstart!your!research!and!shape!your!perspective.!The! word!“ensure”!in!the!resolution!strengthens!this!argument!because!the!affirmative!is! advocating!an!obligation!to!guarantee!food!security!to!all!citizens. Topic&Analysis&by&Brian&Hodge& March/April&2015& success!on!both!the!regional!and!national!levels.!Marks!Invitational.!and!reached!elimination!rounds!his!junior!and!senior!years.!he!received!bids!to!the!Tournament!of!Champions!his!sophomore!and! junior!years.!! Champion)Briefs) 58& .!He!qualified!for!the!TFA!State! Tournament!four!times.!a!finalist!at!the!St.! In!addition.!where!he!is!studying!Mechanical!Engineering.! and!a!quarterfinalist!at!the!Berkeley!Invitational.!He!is!currently!a!junior!at!the! University!of!Texas!at!Austin.!He!was!the! champion!of!the!Houston!Memorial!tournament.!fully!qualifying!his!senior!year!with!a!total!of!five!career!bids. 2014. 10 . “The United States Federal Government should normalize food trade with Cuba. FX topicality argues that the affirmative plan is not topical because the plan it proposes doesn’t directly mandate the. 15 Drake J. 393. J..” Drake Journal of Agricultural Law. “WHOSE FOOD SECURITY? CONFRONTING EXPANDING COMMODITY PRODUCTION AND THE OBESITY AND DIABETES EPIDEMICS. This topic analysis will approach the resolution from a “policymaking” perspective in that I will analyze potential plans. governments ensure food security for their citizens.” and while that number is down over 100 million people in the last decade.. Topicality: One thing to consider on this topic is the role that effects (FX) topicality will play.Assistant Professor. global food insecurity remains a prevalent issue. counterplans. University of Florida Levin College of Law. For those of you unaware of what that means. http://www. An example of that on this topic could be something like. be they philosophical or policy based.org/3/a-i4037e.S.” Fazzino. Agric. negatives will argue that if the aff is only topical because of the effects of their plan then that is unfair because it could arguably make any kind of affirmative possible. 2007. M. Slippery Rock University.D. and Ph. for example.fao. LexisNexis) !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27 State of Food Insecurity in the World in Brief. University of Florida.pdf Champion)Briefs) 59& . L. Sustainable Systems. Department of Anthropology. disadvantages and kritiks. University of Alaska Fairbanks.. 2008 (David V. December 1999. Since topicality is about the mandate of the plan.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& Topic&Analysis&by&Jared&Woods& Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations27 (FOA) estimates that “805 million people are estimated to be chronically undernourished in 201214. but rather they only solve the harms through casual links that the plan results in. Anthropology..D. and it also poses an incredibly important question that must be addressed.& Introduction: The topic we’ve been given for March/April is definitely one of the best topics available because it allows for an incredible amount of different positions. it is a historically produced discourse.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& It's important for our nation to build--to grow foodstuffs. the temporal unfolding of science and technology is perceived as leading directly to the continual emergence of progress. n27 Coalition Provisional Authority Order 81 could undermine food security for farmers unable to afford required seed purchases if patented material is found among seeds which have been saved from the previous season. Can you imagine a country that was unable to grow enough food to feed the people? It would be a nation that would be subject to international pressure. On another note. And so when we're talking about American agriculture. so the US doing something for Cuba would probably fall outside the Champion)Briefs) 60& . n34 In this case. programs. as opposed to directly mandating that food security be ensured. while the United States occupies the role of provider and breadbasket of the world. then the United States emerges as a superior nation in terms of its overall food security and food surpluses. the relationship between food security and national security by the former President is obvious. the relative inability of so-called less developed countries to meet the caloric needs of their populace--due to chronic or acute instability in environmental. n30 Those in international development circles would also point to the poor transportation infrastructure in these less developed countries. n31 In the United States. this affirmative would probably not be topical because the resolution specifies that the government must provide food security for their citizens. When the operational definitions of food security are limited to measuring how much food is created and distributed. we're really talking about a national security issue. international agro-industrial complex is intimately connected with economics and politics. n26 Similarly. which limits the distribution of food to areas that may be in the greatest need of food assistance.S. and measures to enhance food security by relying on local and national food production programs. the way that food security is ensured to citizens is via the effects of the affirmative plan. perhaps the most notable example is the embargo on Cuba. n29 At the same time. the United States has been responsible for the imposition of Coalition Provisional Authority Order 81 in Iraq. economic or political sectors--is described as vulnerability and reflective of their inferiority. It would be a nation at risk. not for other countries citizens. to feed our people. n33 The stated superiority of the U. n32 Notions of this superiority are reflected in the literature concerning food production and security where the locus of food insecurity is consistently placed in the so-called less developed world. which imposes World Trade Organization-friendly intellectual property rights. including limitations on the rights of farmers to use seeds from the previous season's [*400] harvest. n24 The Cuban embargo has forced individual families and the Cuban government to make due with fewer ties to global circuits of food production and distribution. n25 The embargo led to an increase in the number of policies. considering that the This concern over United States has utilized food as a weapon. which makes it susceptible to food price increases and changes in supply based on factors out of its control. to go around. a Cuba analyst with the Lexington Institute. is particularly vulnerable to food insecurity because it imports about 60% of its domestic food requirements28. The Cuban government maintains a monopoly on selling anything new. March 12th.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0 The 1980s Soviet model tractor he bought from another farmer was as about good as it gets in Cuba . “It’s about control. Cuba’s Free-Market Farm Experiment Yields a Meager Crop. Thinking about FX topicality will be especially important when crafting your plan text/advocacy because if you take a plan-focus approach to the resolution. By DAMIEN CAVE Published: December 8. http://www. topicality is based on your plan text. or sometimes even machetes — Government economists are aware of the problem .org/en/iiss%20voices/blogsections/iiss-voices-2014-b4d9/march-2014-cd5b/cuba-food-security624b Champion)Briefs) 61& . Cuba. for example. http://www. But Mr. In the status quo.nytimes. a Virginia-based research group. Castro has refused to allow what many farmers and experts see as an obvious solution to the shortages of transportation and equipment: Let people import supplies on their own.” said Joaquin Infante of the Havana-based Cuban National Association of Economists .Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& purview of this resolution. the Cuban government maintains far too much control and it’s led to massive inefficiencies. 2014.” said Philip Peters. it doesn’t matter what happens on the land. One potential plan is to defend that the Cuban government should make some change in its agricultural policies. Affirmative: One obvious approach to the topic is to specify a country that should ensure food security for their citizens. “If you give people land and no resources. 2012. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28 Alexa Von Sickle: Cuba and food security.iiss.com/2012/12/09/world/americas/changes-to-agriculture-highlightcubas-problems. and there simply is not enough of anything — fertilizer. If government inefficiency is the problem. “They are sending the message that they want to let go. not indefinitely or the 99 years offered to foreign developers. or are trying to let go. This kind of land is critical if Cuba is going to be able to become self-sufficient in regards to food security. private enterprise will be supported.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& Other analysts agree. Another option is to research Cuba’s pilot program implemented by Cuba’s Soil Institute that aims to improve the farming land in Cuba by conserving soil.brookings.” For many farmers. despite a concession this year to allow doing so. water and forestry. Another country that should be of interest is India. who insist that this time. as it is the kind of land that is used for crowing crops. that explains why land leases last for 10 years with a chance to renew. But after half a century of strict control. noting that changes — though the agricultural reforms have gone farther than other like those that allow for self-employment — they remain constrained by politics.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16YworldYtradeYorganizationY indiaYfoodYsecurityYmeltzer! Champion)Briefs) 62& . To get the growth Mr.! Joshua!Meltzer. analysts say.29 “India ranks 65 out of 79 in the Global Hunger Index. then researching different policies that the government could change in Cuba offer a wide array of options for affirmative plans. people need to trust the government.!2014. a Latin American studies professor at Baruch College. Mistrust is widespread. “The government is not ready to let go.” said Ted Henken.” making food security a !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!Improving!Indian!Food!Security:!Why!Prime!Minister!Modi!Should!Embrace!the!WTO. Some farmers still wonder when the government is going to swoop in and take what they have built.!May!16. many Cubans doubt proclamations from officials. This seems like an area of the topic that the affirmative could delve into and find a significant amount of solvency evidence.! http://www. It is also why many farmers say they will not build homes on the land they lease. etc. despite previous crackdowns. but what they have is still a mechanism of control. Castro wants in agriculture and the economy. problems still remain. According to the Brookings Institute. Although Castro has started to allow Cuban farmers to have a bit more autonomy. Agricultural imports are instead seen as in competition with the rural sector and therefore restricted using tariffs. safe and nutritious foods.brookings. 2014. This point was highlighted by a recent World Bank report on achieving food security. In 2013. arable land and population growth— an outcome that would undoubtedly create significantly greater food insecurit y. [10] Champion)Briefs) 63& . However. India spends more on food subsidies. May 16. there has been little improvement in the food security of poor households in India. The government keeps prices low for consumers and high for farmers by paying for the difference. “access to sufficient. where it would lead to countries insulating food production completely from international trade .N. are competition with their markets. which concluded that “ fixating on national self-sufficiency has been costly and counter-productive. subsidies and other non-tariff barriers. India "will under no circumstances compromise the fundamental issues pertaining to food security. strengthening the key dimensions of food security. http://www. namely. The food stockpiling program will add to India’s already extensive food subsidy programs." [6] This reflects an Indian government view of food security as food sovereignty —the notion expressed by U. India adopted the National Food Security Act that orders a stockpiling of food that can be released into the market as a way of minimizing spikes in food prices. and that international trade.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16world-trade-organization-india-food-security-meltzer India’s National Food Security Act has two goals: increasing access to food and supporting its farmers. Already. price support and price stabilization programs than it does on other pressing needs such as health. education and child development. Joshua Meltzer. India believes that food security is equivalent to food sovereignty. Improving Indian Food Security: Why Prime Minister Modi Should Embrace the WTO. [9] And despite these significant outlays. As India’s Commerce and Industry Minister Anand Sharma stated following the WTO Meeting last year . [7] The limits and costs of this understanding of food security is made clear by following it to its logical conclusion. or agricultural imports. Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food Olivier de Schutter that states should seek food security through self-sufficiency in food production.” Pursuing food security and supporting farmers also comes at significant financial cost.” [8] Such a view of food security is part of the reason why India fails to take advantage of the potential for international trade in agricultural products and foodstuffs to improve the food security of India’s poor. the government’s ideological views toward food security in India prevent them from engaging in international trade as a means of reducing their people’s food insecurity. more trade would increase choice and diversify supply. irrespective of climatic conditions. In contrast. livelihood security and the welfare of its subsistence farmers and poor.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& huge priority for this country. It has led India to taking positions in these negotiations that are focused on defending these programs. Another cost to India from its approach to food security is the lost opportunities in the WTO Doha Round. [11] This can support greater consumption. a well-functioning international market in food can strengthen India’s food security at significantly less cost than its food stockpiling program while providing new economic opportunities that can address India’s legitimate economic development needs. 2014. India’s demand that it be allowed to purchase certain food to maintain prices and to stockpile for release into the market in the event of price spikes almost doomed the most recent WTO Ministerial Meeting in Bali in December last year.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& Policies that seek to suppress the actual cost of food also ignore the benefits of higher food prices on wages. May 16. higher food prices translate into higher wages for the poorest in India and this is a much more effective means for reducing rural poverty. This put at risk a trade facilitation agreement—the first new multilateral agreement since the establishment of the WTO in 1995—that will produce significant benefits for developing countries such as India.edu/research/opinions/2014/05/16world-trade-organization-india-food-security-meltzer Addressing food security issues within the WTO—a setting the seeks to create new market access opportunities—points to a growing consensus that international trade can enhance food security by increasing access to sources of food. improving India’s terms of trade for agriculture products by reducing agriculture trade barriers in developed countries is likely the most effective and least costly way of improving both food security and welfare in India . and support rural farmers in the process . the time is ripe for change. According to a recent World Bank report. The recent election of Prime Minister Modi and the Bharatiya Janata Party provides an opportunity for India to reform Champion)Briefs) 64& . [12] This underlines the broader point that there is no inherent conflict between food security and international trade. Given recent elections in India. In fact. An interesting affirmative on this topic could argue that India should change its approach in WTO negotiations in order to better promote food security within their nation. http://www.brookings. Improving Indian Food Security: Why Prime Minister Modi Should Embrace the WTO. For example and as noted above. This link between prices and wages also has implications for international trade. often at the expense of other gains from the round for other sectors of its economy. Joshua Meltzer. most of which the poor spend on food. Indeed. Finally. Removing the need to defend its agriculture subsidies from WTO disciplines could also create space for India to take advantage of 21st century economic opportunities arising from international trade in areas such as services and information technology. research from the living wages topic will have relevance to this topic.8 percent) and by 10. which provides low-income families food-purchasing assistance.gov/measuring-effect-snap-participation-food-security-0 Participating in SNAP for 6 months was associated with a decrease in food insecurity by about 5 to 10 percentage points.!September!2014! Champion)Briefs) 65& .1 to 54.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& its domestic agriculture subsidy scheme. including households with food insecurity among children. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 30!Household!Food!Security!in!the!United!States!in!2013¶!by!Alisha!ColemanYJensen.usda. 2014.6 percentage points in the cross-sectional sample (from 65.!and!Anita!Singh¶!Economic!Research!Report!No.” and that number remained relatively unchanged from the prior year. The percentage of households that were food insecure decreased by 4.3 percent of American households were food insecure at least some time during…2013.!(ERRY173)!41!pp. Measuring the Effect of SNAP Participation on Food Security.6 percentage points in the longitudinal sample (from 65. http://www.!United! States!Department!of!Agriculture. India could take a leadership role in designing new trade disciplines in the WTO that takes advantage of imports and new market access opportunities for its agriculture sector in the developed world to increase its food security and the welfare of its farmers. Per the United States Department of Agriculture30. March 24. let’s not forget our beloved USA.4 to 60. In many ways. according to a 2014 report by the US Department of Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service. Participation in SNAP has been shown to have a positive impact on reducing food insecurity.! Christian!Gregory. where the future of India’s economy lies. “an estimated 14.fns. And by focusing on the goal of food security. Monday.5 percent). One of the largest federal programs in the domestic hunger safety net is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). US Department of Agriculture’s Food and Nutrition Service. 9 to 29.6 percentage points in the cross-sectional sample (from 33.1 percentage points in the longitudinal sample (from 32. such as the SNAP benefits cliff.3 to 22. including Champion)Briefs) 66& . 1586 . The increased benefits were intended to continue until the automatic annual inflation adjustments in regular SNAP benefits increased their value to match the ARRA levels.6 percent). Congress and the Administration will need to work together to fix the future benefits cliff.which is paid for in part by cutting short a boost in SNAP benefits provided in ARRA.3 percentage points in the longitudinal sample (from 35. The ARRA SNAP boosts were critical and continue to be vitally important for vulnerable families as we bounce back from the recent recession. [same citation as the evidence immediately above this] A final recommendation is to fix the current benefits cliff that SNAP recipients will face due to a proposed cut back on benefit levels as passed in H. there is a vast body of literature that discusses the needs of children and the importance of school-based nutritional programs. The percentage of households in which children were food insecure decreased by 8. advocates. Potential affirmatives could look into some of the weaknesses in SNAP and advocate plans to address those inefficiencies.4 percent) and by 6.0 percentage points in the cross-sectional sample (from 36.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& The percentage of households that experienced very low food security decreased by 5. These programs offer a multitude of policy options.8 percent) and by 10. ARRA had been written to avoid a dramatic drop in SNAP benefits from one month to the next. Hunger Free Kids Act.3 to 24. SNAP benefits would be reduced beginning in April of 2014.2 percent). Although the SNAP cut is not ideal it is imperative to pass child nutrition legislation before the end of the year despite the SNAP offset. while SNAP does most of the heavy lifting. This cliff could take place earlier as current child nutrition legislation proposes a cut that would begin in November 2013 instead of April 2014 to partially offset the Healthy.4 to 31.R. Regardless of when the SNAP cut takes effect. Moreover. Needless to say. I strongly encourage that you find a specific area of the topic that you think is most defensible and research that area in depth. http://www. but solves the affirmative’s impacts while competing through net benefits. If you have a much better understanding of your advocacy. farmers expect to see some change in the United States' agriculture trade relations with Cuba.com/news/article/Rice-growers-want-Obamaadministration-to-open-701533.php) President-elect Barack Obama represents the future to most of the nation. If we did not implement some plan to promote Cuba’s self-sufficiency. Under the new administration. 12/22. you will be far more prepared to answer whatever strategies the negative throws at you. the options for plans on this topic seem plentiful. “Rice growers want Obama administration to open trade with Cuba”. and you should not only have specific strategies prepared for different countries but also strategies that will answer any affirmative in the case that you don’t have a case specific strategy prepared. Champion)Briefs) Cuba was once a top buyer of 67& .Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& advocacies like mandating that children in foster care be automatically eligible for free school meals. which has been under an embargo since the 1960s.Staff writer at The Advocate (Kyle. An example of a potential counterplan against a Cuba specific aff would be something like the US lifting its embargo on Cuba and/or normalizing food trade with them. but some Southeast Texas rice farmers see in the presidentelect a chance to return to the past. We will now discuss those strategies. In this case. While you may have the urge to write numerous plans that are all different.beaumontenterprise. This would be an example of an advantage counterplan that does something not necessarily mutually exclusive with the affirmative. and instead lifted trade embargoes then it could have significant implications for biodiversity. the net benefit could be a disadvantage to Cuba becoming a self-sufficient source of food. Opening the Cuban rice market causes an increase in rice acreage in Texas Peveto 08-. Negative: Obviously the negative’s strategy will be dependent on how the affirmative chooses to approach the topic. " We're sitting 80 or 90 miles from this country. " It seems like it's the exact opposite.000 tons of rice to Cuba in 2004. Europeans have not imported from American farmers." Doguet said of the embargo. We need to pressure the European nations to drop the ban on U." Rice farming is net better for biodiversity than alternate uses of the Texan land Rister 97— Professor and Associate Department Head of the Department of Agricultural Economics at Texas A&M University (“THE TEXAS RICE INDUSTRY COALITION Champion)Briefs) 68& . the nation shipped 165. Since genetically modified rice turned up in rice exports in 2006. During President Bill Clinton's administration. rice because of the genetically modified issue. and for several years.S. president of Beaumont Rice Mills. "The way I see it." Before the 1960s." Broussard said he expects the new administration will support advancing trade with the communist nation. But it does hurt the poor people and the American farmer.S. but not end the embargo." The United States must work harder to open trade to more countries . whose family has worked in the rice industry for more than a century." said Mike Doguet. area growers have lobbied for a loosening of relations to allow local farmers to compete with the rest of the world. " It would get more people growing rice and other commodities if we would just do away with that stuff.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& Southeast Texas rice . and the United States imposed a full embargo against the communist island nation in 1962. We've got all these foreign rices coming in and all these countries putting restrictions on U. president of Doguet buy everything from foreign sources from Vietnam and Thailand. rice. Farmers can trade with Cuba. rice. All the leaders they're trying to hurt." he said. " They to 'em." he said. I don't think they've missed a meal. and after Congress passed a sanctions reform act that allowed agriculture trade in 2000. and in essence we are going to keep the acres we have now. said Louis Broussard. We need a little help from the administration on that end. according to the Center for International Policy. "This has come to the forefront since Bush has kept us out of there. a rule that farmers say makes Americans less competitive. In addition to Cuba. "Europeans still have restraints on U. "That strain of rice has been well out of supply now for over a year. according to The Enterprise archives. Beaumont Rice Mills sold about 90 percent of its rice to Cuba under the brand Sunset. farmers want the government to encourage European nations to buy American rice.S. "It doesn't work.S. who is on the Texas Rice Council board. A series of trade restrictions began after Fidel Castro seized power in a 1959 revolution. you would see an increase in acres. in the later years of the Bush administration. All it does with the embargoes is help our competitors." Broussard said. but keeping the local industry healthy. "If we see these markets open. according to a fellow of the Lexington Institute quoted in the Christian Science Monitor. and we're really limited on what we can ship Rice Co." said Bill Dishman. the United States loosened trade relations with the island nation. However. rice. that's the key. " I would like to see more restrictions on foreign rice coming in here and see the government really trying to open trade up for U. and analysts expect Obama will loosen some restrictions on Cuban trade. progress has slowed again. possibly attracting more farmers." Broussard said opening trade with Cuba could be a boon to local agriculture. but buyers must supply cash in advance. there is a litany of disadvantages and alternatives to these kinds of programs. 18 The viewpoint was articulated that if we lose rice farming. the focus group participants expressed the viewpoint that everyone should help pay. Edward. like rice fields) will have more positive effects than establishing several smaller tracts. One option is a counterplan that defends universal service programs.g. The reason that hedgerows are being removed (with USDA sponsorship) is to control blackbird predation. and therefore fewer waterfowl. On the other hand. sprawling out of Houston .umn. They were concerned about the change in government policy. Moreover .): MAIN POINTS FROM SIX FOCUS GROUPS”. Laser leveling was discussed in detail. The group discussed how protecting larger tracts of wetlands (including created wetlands. There are both positive and negative aspects of such changes in government policy which need to be considered before new policy is implemented. The focus group discussed encroaching development. if the affirmative advocates a means-tested program for US citizens. the group talked about there being some negative effects of rice production. Management is challenging and complex. Birders are realizing more and more that they are “consumers. When asked about who should pay to help promote positive benefits from rice production. one participant “wouldn’t automatically buy into there being more wildlife (birds) in current rice fields than without farming.” and that they should help with the costs. particularly users.I. it’s not bird sanctuaries!” Moreover. what will replace it is a big brushy forest. rice farms will have more wildlife than other kinds of farming. They are paving more arable land and spreading out the tax base for Houston. http://ageconsearch. That jeopardizes environmental quality. but there is an increase in wildlife habitat with good management. For example. When rice fields are flooded. She mentioned that it would take many years for native wildlife to start using a tallow forest as habitat. which are Champion)Briefs) 69& .” When asked about the effect of rice farming on wildlife.edu/handle/23971) The group discussed the implications of wetland policy on rice production and on continuing urban development. tallow trees are big water-users. the focus group participants talked about waterfowl as well as other kinds of birds (e. They were concerned about the loss of positive benefits of hedgerows as habitat for other birds. One participant had very specific information about likely successional plants if rice production were to decline .Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& FOR THE ENVIRONMENT (R. The participant most familiar with rice farming explained how water is a nuisance in the winter and discussed the importance of the timing of filling and draining fields . some animals lose their habitat.C. hawks and eagles which benefit from rodents). such as SNAP. “If it’s homes.. She talked about tallow forests (a non-native plant) being likely to fill in the rice fields . This group was very concerned about the hedgerows being destroyed in the Katy Prairie. However. farmers used to be told that they could fill in wetlands. On a more general level. they appreciated that rice farms serve as a buffer to development on the western edge of Houston. but it’s obviously specific to Cuba so it’s critical that this is not the only option in the toolbox. Regarding wildlife habitat.E. but now they are not allowed to farm wetlands. This is just one example of a disadvantage the negative could have prepared. e. Means testing thus could undermine the political consensus supporting Social Security. which thus argues for a moderate income eligibility cutoff.com/books/about/Entitlements_and_the_Elderly. For instance. a means- Champion)Briefs) 70& . Slower phase-outs further increase the costs of the program. many of those in need would also fail to be helped by such a program. 1996. Social Security benefits are vital to middle-income as well as poor elderly and disabled persons. to move from a universal program to a severely means-tested one seems unnecessarily restrictive. That is. Entitlements and the Elderly: Protecting Promises. savings from means testing Social Security depend heavily on the income level on which eligibility is phased out.. argue that the original goal of Social Security was to provide a floor of protection. means testing connotes "welfare programs. say to 200 percent of poverty. participation rates are often low in welfare programs because of the stigma of being on welfare and the inadequacy of benefits in many of these programs. whose premise is that high-income people do not need Social Security benefits. but research into means-tested programs shows that often they harm the very people they claim to support and perpetuate a cycle of poverty that is hard to get out of according to Marilyn Moon.google. And setting the cutoffs at a level to protect those with higher incomes. http://books. Why is it bad that means-tested programs specifically target the poor? Isn’t that the group that we want to help in the first place? Good question." which at present are extremely unpopular and often come with stringent caps or other mechanisms to limit costs. individuals would be discouraged from attempting to raise their incomes because of and income disregards high implicit taxes or penalties from earning more. would add another million elderly people and thus require even more resources. As in most means-tested programs. The Urban Institute. Advocates of means testing. Marilyn Moon. however. Consequently. making eligibility dependent on income ).Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& distinct from means-tested programs because they provide benefits and services for the entire population whereas means-tested programs are deliberately aimed at the poor. If Social Security were set so as to protect both the poor and near-poor elderly with incomes up to 150 percent of the poverty threshold.html?id=a_HNoMbIto EC Means Testing Most proposals to restructure the poverty prevention portion of Social Security focus on means testing (i. A disadvantages. Moreover. Further. there would be perverse incentives at the margin unless benefits were slowly phased out. however. or nearly half of current OASI expenditures. if each dollar of other income reduces benefits by a dollar. Recognizing Reality. the costs would be quite high—over $100 billion. Most important. which can be done without subsidizing the income of people who have more than adequate incomes without Social Security. means-tested program poses a number of From a political perspective. so that you can take advantage of affirmatives who have not done as much research as you have. rely on fish as a primary source of protein and if the aff does something to ensure food security that might increase the amount of fishing then you have a solid link to this disadvantage. This kind of kritik would apply to any affirmative that takes a policy-based approach to the resolution. you have a few options. Certainly one of our most fundamental of human needs is our ability to grow and procure adequate nutrition. http://www. If the affs plan to provide food security has irreversible impacts on Earth’s biodiversity or climate. wages are effectively subjected to a 50 percent tax. Western societies. As far as critical approaches to this topic go. These adjustments improve the behavioral incentives of programs but raise costs and implicitly expand eligibility. One of them is the infamous capitalism kritik. Another topic area to look into for disadvantage ideas is overfishing. or advocates a solution to food security that ignores or leaves in place the alleged cause behind the broken food system…capitalism! The Greatest Threat to Global Food Security: Capitalism ¶ Tuesday. One benefit of this kind of disadvantage is that you can also make “turns case” arguments based on internal links to destruction of biodiversity.truthout. Under SSI.org/speakout/item/18011-the-greatest-threat-to-global-food-security-capitalism# The current Industrial mass production of food for profit is a political. then it could have worldwide negative impacts on food production as the climate plays an irreplaceable role in farming and agriculture. globally. Yet over the past 50 years. SpeakOut | News Analysis.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& tested program could simply expand upon the existing Supplemental Security Income program which now serves very low-income elderly and disabled persons. and other income is disregarded up to a certain level before benefits are reduced. 06 August 2013 13:21By Katie Anderson. and particularly Champion)Briefs) 71& . One thing that will be important should you choose to implement this strategy is that you have a solid understanding of what means-tested programs are out there. economic and social crisis that has devastating effects on human health and threatens the survival of the planet. This kind of counterplan/disadvantage combination could be devastating against any affirmative that advocates some kind of plan that exclusively targets the poor. Vast majorities of people. this information is not groundbreaking or novel. Capitalism isn’t just a problem in the United States. 2004.” Kothari/Harcourt. “Introduction: Champion)Briefs) 72& . as discussed earlier. While it feels like capitalism has been everyone’s favorite argument this topic. with writers like Michael Pollan and the creators of food documentaries such as Forks over Knives and King Corn popularizing the food crisis in the mainstream. Most of the impacts you can generate from this kritik also serve as “turns case” arguments because. organic whole foods). Rural Development. this unsustainable model of food production continues to spread and grow unabated in an era of declining oil production and clean water availability. one option you have is a criticism of their rhetoric or representation of developing countries. or function to perpetuate poverty under the guise of “solvency. I think there are very interesting and unique ways to approach the cap K on this topic. Erasmus University Rotterdam. A large body of critical literature analyzes and indicts certain academic and political approaches to developing countries. 4 (Smitu. Using the twin vehicles of destructive food policy implements and growing reliance upon industrialization and oil. and if you win a link then the impacts of the K can have serious advantages in debate rounds. but also threatens human health and destroys our environment. Scientists and independent research agencies have been sounding the alarms for years. social and almost celebrity status of eating well (that is eating locally grown.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& the United States. climate change (a very common impact to cap) has ramifications on global food security. what most food policy advocates and researchers have failed to do is identify and hold accountable the true cause of our broken food system: "free market" Capitalism. it’s also very relevant in Cuba and other international countries so if you examine the underlying assumptions of the affirmatives advocacy and can explain why it’s dependent on neoliberalism then you have a link. have radically shifted methods of growing and producing food for human consumption. This structure not only threatens the security of the entire global food system. But beyond the political. International Institute of Social Studies. If the affirmative is specific to developing countries. arguing that solutions to “developing countries problems” often serve as a mask to propagate colonialism. founding member of the International Accountability Project/Wendy. Then again. threatens and destroys livelihoods. and there is good reason to believe that increasing our military strength directly trades off with food security. To argue that the only reason these people need food is so that we can encourage further militarism is a huge link into the security kritik. forcing men and women. 34 Champion)Briefs) 73& . All this while those doing development claim to be ‘alleviating’ poverty and ‘listening’ to the voices of those they label poor.S. breaking down homes and communities. It is a problem of wealth creation. the discrimination against the girl child. in Physics and Ph. Development. Paths To Peace 1987 p. Richard Smoke BA Harvard magna cum laude.com/development/journal/v47/n1/full/1100024a. a security/securitization kritik appears to be an exceptional strategy. The process of national and global policymaking and today's geopolitics in the wake of September 11. The underbelly of the violence inherent in development is reflected in the heightened levels of domestic violence. It is this criminalization of poverty that has led to some of the worst forms of gender violence as insecurities compound violence within the family as men are compelled to redefine their identities.html>) Fourthly.palgravejournals. Moving from the community level to the geopolitical level. into criminality. <http://www. Additionally. the increase in suicides and the spread of HIV/AIDS. the trafficking of women and children. it’s very likely that some affirmatives will choose to argue that food security is key to national security and then generates large impacts based off this link chain. The privileging of materialism and the dominant patterns of achieving economic growth as the only road to development creates poverty.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& The violence of development”. often displaced from their familiar environment. in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University . Winner Bancroft Prize in History.D. both culturally and individually and endure life-threatening economic insecurities. Prof. creates mass insecurities. democracy and development. the invasion of Iraq and the growing US hegemony is the enabling environment for so much violence to go unheeded in the name of freedom. @ Brown. the increase of women entering the workforce in debilitating and unhealthy conditions. it is also important to look at the macro-context of violence that allows policymakers to pay little attention to the voices from the marginalized and the growing mass resistance to economic globalization. AND Willis Harman M. PhD MIT. the destabilization of natural systems and the threat to cultures and traditions and ensuing insecurities and violence is a problem not of poverty but rather the reverse. The reason why food security is important has very little to do with national security and much more to do with the massive amount of people who die from starvation every single day. In that case. I am a firm believer of depth over breadth when researching. Robert Heilbroner's book An Inquiry Into the Human Prospect was one of the first influential works to draw attention to the link between mass poverty in what we now call the Third World and the likelihood of future wars . but below that you have a link section so that whenever you find out what the aff is you can substitute in link cards that are hyper-specific to that advocacy. 40. and the more research you do. like security or capitalism. although not nearly enough from Western society as a whole.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& Social injustices in the more conventional sense of severe economic disparities have received much more attention in recent decades from peace specialists . These are just a few examples of kritiks that you can have in the toolbox. • For one-half of one percent of one year's world military expenditure. that has a basic 1nc shell at the top. you are likely to come across a number of different potential advocacies for both the affirmative and negative. especially for affs. the more likely you are to find incredibly topic specific links for any given affirmative.000 village pharmacies could be set up. such as these from the Brandt Commission Report. and the link has served to justify economic assistance from the developing world to underdeveloped nations. North-South: • The world military expenditure of only half a day would be enough to finance the entire malaria eradication program of the World Health Organization. • For the price of just one jet fighter. The connection runs both ways between war and preparations for war on the one hand and the drastic economic difficulties of much of the Third World on the other. Conclusion: This topic analysis has only begun to scratch the surface of what is out there. United Nations officials. and many specialists have tried repeatedly to draw attention to how much could be done to ease the world's sufferings if so much were not thrown into the maw of war. Vivid comparisons are offered. enough farm equipment could be purchased for all of the lowincome nations that presently have insufficient food to approach food self-sufficiency in only ten years . Others have made this link often in the decade since. The resources sunk into armaments by many nations could yield immense benefits if applied to Third World development. because debaters who have a better understanding of their arguments are much more likely to be successful since they will be better equipped to answer cx Champion)Briefs) 74& . Religious leaders. I would suggest that you create a kritik file. Given the incredibly generic wording of the topic and the expansive literature that accompanies it. !earning!seven!career!bids. etc. disads.Alternative&Argumentation&by&Jared&Woods& March/April&2015& questions.!His!students!have!cleared!to!late!elimination!rounds!at!nearly!every! major!tournament!in!Texas!including!TFA!State.! Champion)Briefs) 75& . I am excited to see what people come up with on this topic.!Jared!was!highly!successful!on! both!the!national!and!Texas!circuits. then you are in a position to succeed.!where!he!debated!LincolnYDouglas!for!four!years.!He!qualified!to!the!TFA!State!tournament!for! three!consecutive!years.!During!the!2011Y 2014!seasons. and wish you the best of luck.!Jared!qualified!to!the!national!Tournament!of! Champions!for!two!consecutive!years.!Jared!coached!the!Cypress!Woods!and!Woodlands!College!Park!debate! teams!in!Houston. counterplans.!He!has!also!coached!numerous!TOC! and!NSDA!Nationals!qualifiers.!!In!addition. ! ! Good!Luck!! ! Jared!Woods! ! About&Jared&Woods& ! Jared!Woods!is!a!graduate!from!the!Northland!Christian!School!in!the!Houston! area.!reaching!elimination!rounds!each!time!with!a!quarterfinals! finish!as!a!senior. kritiks. If you can explain the nuances of your advocacy better than the negative can explain their answers to your argument. Champion Briefs March/April 2015 Lincoln-Douglas Brief Frameworks . & ! Right&to&Food&Framework& & ! The!first!popular!framework!that!debaters!will!want!to!run!is!a!right!to!food!AC! that!justifies!the!importance!of!rights!to!morality.Frameworks& & March/April&2015& & Framework&Analysis&by&Michael&Fried& & Resolved:&Just&governments&ought&to&ensure&food&security&for&their&citizens.!!All!we!know!about!the!government!is!that!it!is! just.! as!well!as!moral!philosophies!related!to!the!necessity!of!food.!!A!third!and!final!interp!move!that!the!affirmative!will!want!to! make!in!order!to!get!the!most!out!of!a!right!to!food!AC!will!be!in!using!the!word! “citizens”!to!justify!why!the!object!of!the!resolution!is!one!that!already!has!rights.!! Individuals!can!only!become!citizens!when!they!have!a!particular!relationship!to!a! Champion)Briefs) 77& .! ! Prior!to!justifying!a!normative!framework.!this!ac!will!want!to!contextualize! the!just!government!as!an!abstract!actor!in!the!resolution.!for!most!people!would!intuitively!agree!that!food! should!be!a!basic!right.!a!right!to!food!AC!will!want!to!make! a!few!preYframework!interpretational!moves.!!This!case!will!argue!that!rights!are! the!basis!for!morality!to!impose!obligations.!!The!affirmative!will!want!to!establish!that!food!security!entails!the!basic! necessities!for!life!within!a!state.!and!the! economic!stature!of!the!government!means!both!debaters!are!left!guessing!the! governments’!specific!characteristics.!!The!lack!of!specification! into!the!type!of!government.!!First.!!A!second!interpretational!move!that!the!affirmative!will!want! to!make!is!in!defining!food!security!as!a!large!encompassing!arena!for!rights! securement.!!These! will!be!important!impacts!to!draw!because!they!will!allow!the!framework!for!the!case! to!flow!naturally!from!the!words!within!the!resolution.!!The!contention!level!for!this!affirmative!will!trace!many!empirical!legal!statutes.!the!particular!location!of!the!government.!!The!affirmative!will!want!to!argue!that!a!government!premised!on!justice!will!be! one!that!respects!and!upholds!the!rights!of!its!citizens!and!is!necessarily!fair.!and!that!there!exists!a!pertinent!right!to! food.!so!it!will!have!an!extremely! strong!link!to!the!topic.!!Aff’s!should!do!this!so!that!their!advocacy!has!a! strongly!persuasive!contention!level. !!As!such.!!Actors!have!obligations!to!fulfill! another’s!rights.!!Affirmatives!will!want!to!justify!their!value!criterion!by!arguing! that!natural!rights!are!what!creates!a!citizen/government!distinction.!a!right!to!food!AC!can!use!deontological!warrants!to!sustain!the! framework.!!The!affirmative!debater!will!want!to!argue!that!rights!are!the!basis!for! morality!and!are!the!locus!of!moral!obligations.!!The!philosophical!contention!level!for!this!AC!will! argue!that!food!is!a!right!because!morally!food!is!necessary!to!live.!one! philosophical.!!International!Law.!because!the!framework!merely!wants!to!prove!that!if!something!is!a!right.!multiple!state! constitutions.!individual!rights!do!not!need!to!be!the!central!focus!of!this!affirmative! case.!as!well!as!the!UN!argue!that!there!exists!a!fundamental!right!to!food! within!humanity.!and!as!such!the!affirmative!debater!should! find!little!difficulty!in!supplying!warrants!to!a!rights!based!AC!framework.!!The!way!in!which!citizens!are!defined!by!a!state!is!by!the!sacrifices!they!make! to!it.!and!one!empirical.!!There!are!a!plethora!of! justifications!for!why!rights!are!important.!and!the!rights!they!are!rewarded!from!it.!will!be!by!citing!empirical!literature!in!the!real! world!that!justifies!why!there!is!a!right!to!food.!and!just!governments!are!internally!prohibited!from!violating!rights.!!This!means!this!affirmative!case!need!not! take!a!stance!on!whether!it!is!utilitarian/ends!based.!then!it! should!be!followed.! ! The!value!criterion!for!a!right!to!food!ac!will!be!one!that!justifies!the! importance!of!rights!in!and!of!themselves.!and!so!could!not!be!a!moral!agent.!so!ought!be!considered!a!right!that! governments!are!obligated!to!uphold.!!But.!! In!such!a!way.! ! The!contention!level!for!a!right!to!food!AC!will!come!from!two!sources.Frameworks& & March/April&2015& state.!and!that!the! only!way!to!recognize!the!justness!of!a!just!government!is!by!forcing!that!government! to!follow!a!framework!centered!around!protecting!rights.!a! person!could!not!fulfill!their!life!projects.!!Any!legal!statute!would!suffice!as!offense!under!this!contention! Champion)Briefs) 78& .!for!instance.!!An!easier!way!of!making!contention!level! arguments!for!a!Right!to!food!AC.!!Without!food.!all!people!are!equal!so!everyone!ought!be!afforded!the!same! rights.!!Food! thus!forms!a!basis!for!morality!within!citizenship.!the!word!citizens!in!the! resolution!will!allow!the!affirmative!to!emphasize!the!importance!of!rights!in!the! normative!framework.!or!deontological/means!based!as! this!affirmative!case!merely!wants!to!argue!that!rights!are!important!in!and!of! themselves. !just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food! security.!!The!final!move!that!the!affirmative!will!need!to!make!is!argue! that!the!impact!of!the!inclusion!of!citizens.!the!contention!level! and!normative!framework!debate!are!strategically!easy!to!win.!!First.!!This!case!will! require!a!lot!of!preYframework!interpretational!analysis!to!set!up!a!burden!structure! in!which!realism!is!relevant.!!! ! ! & Realism&FW& & ! A!creative!affirmative!framework!and!interpretation!of!the!resolution!will!be! one!that!casts!the!resolution!as!a!question!between!a!states!obligation!to!its!own! citizens.!!This!dilemma!is!resolved!through!the!political! framework!debate!of!realism!versus!cosmopolitanism.Frameworks& & March/April&2015& level!and!would!prove!that!there!is!a!right!to!food.!and!as!such!states!ought!to!ensure!food!for!their!own!citizens.! ! The!preYvalue!framework!moves!that!this!affirmative!case!must!make!are! dependent!upon!an!interpretation!of!the!word!citizens.!states!only!care!about!their!own! citizens.!or!to!humanity!abroad.!and!consequent!distinction!with!nonY citizens.!!Instead!of!deciphering!the!resolution!as!a!question!between!food! Champion)Briefs) 79& .!but!once!this!framework!is!set!up.!and!so!consequently!establish!that! just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security.!is!to!create!an!alternate.!!In!this!affirmative!case.!the!affirmative!will!need! to!argue!that!the!phrase!“for!their!citizens”!was!purposefully!included!in!the! resolution!so!as!to!set!off!a!distinction!between!citizens!and!normal!humans.!but!the!inclusion!of!“for!their!citizens”!means!the!object!of!the!food!security! is!the!central!focus!of!the!clash.!but!rather!to!set!off!an!important!distinction.!and!somewhat!less!intuitive!truth!burdens!structure! for!both!debaters.!The!affirmative!will!need!to!argue!that!the!particular! use!of!the!word!“citizens”!was!to!set!a!contrast!off!between!citizens!and!nonYcitizens.!! Citizens!are!those!indexed!to!a!state.!!The! affirmative!debater!must!explain!that!the!framers!of!the!resolution!included!this! phrase!not!just!to!be!superfluous.!the! affirmative!will!argue!that!political!realism!is!true.!!The! resolution!could!have!easily!been!written.!and!nonYcitizens!are!those!that!the!state!has!no! particular!allegiance!to. ! “just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!to!their!own!citizens”!is!true!because! just!governments!ought!to!only!act!for!and!help!their!own!citizens.!!! ! Rational&Contractarianism&AC& ! Champion)Briefs) 80& .!and!the!negative!burden!is!to! prove!that!just!governments!have!responsibilities!to!all!humans.!realism!justifies!and!legitimizes!a!separation!between! governments!and!different!people!based!upon!where!those!people!reside!and!what! government!they!call!themselves!citizens!to.!!In!contextualizing!other!states!as!inherent! threats.!debaters!will!want!to!argue!that!it!is!not! rational!for!states!to!rely!on!other!states!because!there!is!no!assurance!that!the!other! states!will!work!benevolently!with!them.!!A!state!has!to!rely!on!its! own!citizens!for!resources.!realism!will!also!contextualize!the!citizens!of!other!states!as!antagonistic!to! their!own!citizens.!!Realism! argues!that!states!are!selfYinterested!actors!in!a!selfYhelp!world!in!which!there!is!no! global!overarching!body.!!There!are!many!political!theorists!that!justify!realism.Frameworks& & March/April&2015& security!or!no!food!security.!!As!such.! ! As!such.!!This!affirmative!will!argue!that!the!affirmative!burden!is!to!prove!just! governments!are!only!responsible!to!their!citizens.!and!no!one!is!looking!out!for!them.!upon!justifying!a!realist!framework.!and!protects!its!citizens!by!defending!its!natural! boundaries.!the!contention!level!debate!for! this!case!is!very!easy!to!win.!this!affirmative!posits!that!the!resolution!is!a!question!of! whether!just!governments!ought!to!ensure!food!security!for!their!own!citizens!or!for! all!of!humanity.!this!AC! strategically!employs!a!framework!and!contention!level!that!are!largely!incontestable.!!In!justifying!realism.! ! The!framework!that!this!affirmative!case!will!use!to!justify!why!just! governments!solely!have!obligations!to!their!own!citizens!is!political!realism.!not!merely!their!own! citizens.!!A!realist!framework!argues!the!government!has! obligations!to!its!own!citizens.!and!there!are! many!moral!arguments!debaters!can!cite!to!justify!this!framework—mainly!variations! of!the!arguments!above.!!In!this!way.! and!instead!relies!on!a!majority!of!framework!interpretational!moves.!!This!affirmative!will!thus!contend!that!the!statement. !moral!principles!come!from!an!individual’s! fundamental!agreement!to!and!usage!of!moral!rules.!!The! “citizens”!of!the!resolution!form!the!objective!party!whom!the!policies!of!food!security! are!forced!on.!as! well!as!emphasize!the!textual!link!between!rational!contractarianism!and!just! governments.!! ! The!moral!framework!begins!from!the!starting!point!that!we!need!a!noncircular! origin!for!morality.!!Rational!contractarianism!holds! that!all!individuals!are!equally!selfYinterested!and!so!would!come!together!to!form! moral!rules.!!Rational!contractarianism!is!an!ethical!theory!for!individuals!within! governments!so!could!be!said!to!be!the!ethical!principle!that!a!just!government!does! act!off!of.!!Affirmative!debaters!will!first.! ! The!preYvalue!framework!moves!that!this!affirmative!case!will!need!to!make! are!not!very!numerous.!want!to!make! theoretical!arguments!in!the!framework!that!undermine!the!negatives!ability!to!draw! out!necessary!but!insufficient!conditions!to!affirming.!and!will!second!want!to!argue! that!the!only!entity!relevant!to!the!contracts!in!the!resolution!are!the!“citizens”.!!Individuals!cannot!be!obligated!by!rules!that! they!do!not!choose!to!follow.!!This!allows!the!ac!to!get!out!of!specific!policy!arguments.!!The!moral!rules!that!individuals!use!must!be!those!that! individuals!choose!to!use!themselves.!!Affirmatives!could!potentially!argue!that!the!lack!of! specification!of!an!actor!beyond!a!just!government!means!that!debaters!must!use! hypothetical!frameworks.Frameworks& ! & March/April&2015& A!final!FW!on!the!topic!that!debaters!may!want!to!run!will!start!from!the! perspective!of!individuals!as!selfYinterested!actors!who!come!together!to!form! contracts!of!mutual!agreement!for!their!own!self!interest.!!The!fact!that!governments!are!typically!seen!as!selfYinterested!actors!in! favor!of!the!best!for!their!populous!seems!to!strengthen!a!link!between!the!actor!of! the!topic!and!this!framework.!or!contracts!that!benefit!their!selfYinterest.!!Therefore.!!SelfYinterest!normatively! guides!the!moral!rules!that!individuals!make!because!the!selfYinterest!of!the!individual! Champion)Briefs) 81& .!so!rational!contractarianism!would!evaluate!if!the!citizens!would! themselves!come!to!agree!to!contracts!demanding!food!security!by!the!state.!!A!second!interpretational!move!that!debaters!reading! this!affirmative!case!will!want!to!make!is!to!preempt!negative!debaters!that!argue! forming!a!contract!will!be!impossible.!!A!framework!of!Rational! Contractarianism!will!justify!that!it!is!in!the!self!interest!of!individuals!to!have!their! government!ensure!food!security. !!Just! governments!are!thus!obligated!to!ensure!food!security!to!their!citizens!under! rational!contractarianism!because!individuals!would!agree!to!contracts!in!which!the! government!gives!them!food.!and! as!such!individuals!do!not!have!to!expend!other!resources!or!efforts!on!it.!! Rational!contractarianism!thus!starts!from!the!empirical!presumption!that!individuals! are!selfYinterested.!and!for!others.!and!concludes!we!ought!to!form!moral!rules!securing!our!selfY interest.! ! The!contention!level!for!a!rational!contractarianism!AC!will!!simply!argue!that! ensuring!the!right!to!food!benefits!the!selfYinterest!of!individuals.Frameworks& & March/April&2015& guarantees!that!they!will!choose!the!best!rules!for!themselves.!!The!right!to!food! guarantees!that!individuals!have!the!ability!to!pursue!their!selfYinterest!because!they! are!given!sustenance.!and!so!no!prohibition!exists!on!creating!a!contract!to! obligate!the!government!to!ensure!food.!! ! Champion)Briefs) 82& .!!The!government!supplies!individuals!with!such!sustenance.!!There!are!no!outstanding!reasons!why!food!would!not! be!in!the!self!interest!of!citizens. Champion Briefs March/April 2015 Lincoln-Douglas Brief Evidence for the Affirmative . !"Disability!Is!An!Important!Risk!Factor!For!Food!Insecurity.ers.!these!households!lacked!adequate!food!for!one!or!more!household! members!due!to!insufficient!money!or!other!resources!for!food.!June!05."!United! States!Department!of!Agriculture!Economic!Research!Service.aspx>.&including&food&security.!households!were!food!insecure.S.!February!06.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& Disability&is&a&significant&risk&factor&for&food&security.! In!2011.!only!low!income!and!participation!in!food!and!nutrition! assistance!programs!identify!such!a!large!portion!of!the!foodYinsecure!population.!close!to!15!percent!of!U.! It!appears&that¤t&food&and&nutrition&assistance&programs&and&disability& assistance&programs&designed&to&help&people&with&disabilities&meet&their&basic& needs.!12!percent!of! households!that!had!no!workingYage!adults!with!disabilities!were!food!insecure!in! 2009Y10.!<http://www.!2015.&are¬&fully&compensating&for&the&reduced& earnings&and&higher&costs&associated&with&disability! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 84& .There&is&substantial&overlap&between&households&that&include&adults& with&disabilities&and&food`insecure&households.!Recent!ERS!research!found!that!in!2009Y10.!Among!factors!known!to!correlate! with!food!insecurity.!oneYthird!of!households!with!a! workingYage!adult!who!was!unable!to!work!due!to!disability!were!food!insecure!and! oneYquarter!of!households!that!included!a!workingYage!adult!with!a!disability!that!did! not!necessarily!prevent!employment!were!food!insecure.& Nord.! Web.gov/amberYwaves/2013Y may/disabilityYisYanYimportantYriskYfactorYforYfoodYinsecurity.!In!comparison.usda.!2013.!At!some!time! during!the!year.!Disability&has& emerged&as&one&of&the&strongest&known&factors&that&affect&a&household’s&food& security.!Mark. !an!estimated! one!billion!persons!live!with!a!disability.&Human&rights&are&indivisible&and&the&right&to& food&cannot&be&realized&unless&the&other&human&rights&of&persons&with& disabilities&are&realized&too.& Rachele.! A!call!on!governments!to!give!persons!with!disabilities!access!to!adequate!and! nutritious!food!and!on!the!United!Nations!to!include!them!in!the!new!Sustainable! Development!Goals.!International!Day!of! Persons!with!Disabilities.!will!be!finalized!in!the!coming!months! and!will!be!officially!adopted!by!the!UN!in!September!2015.!"Hungry!For!Change:!The!Right!To!Food!And!Persons!With! Disabilities.!Web.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including& people&with&disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within& the&global&development&agenda.lightYforY theYworld.org/uploads/media/20141203_IDPD_food_disabilities.!Currently!805!million!people!in!the!world!have!been!estimated!to!be! chronically!undernourished.&Across!the!globe.!This&unique&opportunity& for&persons&with&disabilities&to&become¬&just&more&visible&but&active& participants&in&the&global&agenda&must¬&be&missed.!2015.!We&are&at&a&critical&juncture&for&reflecting&on&the&human& rights&of&persons&with&disabilities.&They&must&be&included&in&the&broader&sustainable& development&agenda.!these!two!large!populations!overlap!to!a!considerable!extent.!These!striking! facts!need!to!be!remembered!especially!today.!March!12.!The!new!UN!Sustainable!Development!Goals!(SDGs).!Since!many!persons!with!disabilities!live!in!absolute! poverty."!LIGHT!FOR!THE!WORLD!United!Nations!Special!Rapporteur!on!the! Right!to!Food.&Their&inclusion&in&the& SDGs&is&fundamental&if&we&are&to&achieve&a&sustainable&development&that&is& genuinely&rights`based&and&leaves&“no&one&behind”.!<http://www.!which!will! replace!the!UN!Millennium!Development!Goals.!February!06.!A!recent!article!by!professor!Nora!Groce!and!her!colleagues! published!in!Paediatrics!and!International!Child!Health!states!that!“Nutrition&and& disability&are&intimately&linked:&malnutrition&can&directly&cause&or&contribute&to& Champion)Briefs) 85& .pdf>.!Tardi.!Eighty!percent!of!them!live!in!the!global! South.!2014.!December!3. !the!UN! Convention!on!the!Rights!of!Persons!with!Disabilities.&since&there&is&no&social&justice&without&economic&justice.&and&many&societies&fail& to&include&them&in&a&constructive&manner.&And.!the!International! Covenant!on!Economic!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!and.&due&to&social&stigma&and&negative&cultural&norms.!including!the!training! of!professionals.&They&must&ensure&that&the&disability& perspective&is&taken&fully&into&account&in&nutrition&policy!and!programming.&it&is&vital&to& emphasize&the&human&rights&approach&to&food&security&also&for&those&who& already&live&with&a&disability.!Children!with!disabilities!are!often!believed!to!be!incapable! of!learning!to!feed!themselves!and!they!therefore!become!reliant!on!others!who!may! give!them!less!food!because!it!takes!time!to!feed!them.&including&the&right& to&food.!Although&the&need&for&good& nutrition&is&often&discussed&in&relation&to&disability&prevention.!girls!are!often!discriminated!against!and!given!less!and!lowerYquality! food!than!boys.&Governments&have&a&particular&obligation&to&take&targeted&actions& to&fulfill&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.! maternal!and!child!health!and!broader!public!health!initiatives.!most!recently.!including!the!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights.&ignoring&their&right&to&food&among& other&rights.!Both&children&and&adults&with&disabilities&are&discriminated& against.!This!is!recognized!as!a!fundamental!human!right!in!several!international! instruments.&and&disability&can&lead&to&malnutrition”.! even!though!those!children!needed!help!with!eating!and!drinking.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& disability.&Persons&with&disabilities&face& many&challenges&in&the&full&realization&of&their&human&rights.&States&are&particularly&responsible&to&make&sure& that&vulnerable&and&marginalized&people&can&access&adequate&and&nutritious& food&in&a&non`discriminatory&and&equal&manner.! Mothers!of!newborns!with!a!disability!are!often!discouraged!from!breastfeeding!their! babies!for!similar!reasons.!They!may!receive!less!food!because!the!others!are! seen!as!having!a!greater!chance!of!surviving!and!contributing!to!the!household.!The!article!shows!that!children! with!disabilities!often!lack!equal!access!to!adequate!food!and!more!likely!to!be!subject! to!malnutrition!than!other!children.!Among!children! with!disabilities.& sufficient&resources&must&be&allocated&for&the&“twin`track”&approach:&alongside& Champion)Briefs) 86& .!The!UKYbased!international! NGO!Lumos!reported!in!2013!that!in!Bulgarian!institutions!for!children!with! disabilities!caretakers!were!spending!less!than!2!minutes!on!each!child!at!mealtimes. !culturally!acceptable! food.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 87& .&inclusive&of&and& accessible&for&persons&with&disabilities.&there&need&to&be&disability`specific& services&that&aim&at&the&full&inclusion&of&persons&with&disabilities&in&society.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& “mainstream”&nutrition&services.&Food& must&be&both&physically&and&economically&accessible.!Many!persons!with! disabilities!around!the!world!face!great!difficulties!in!accessing!a!sustainable!job!and! income.&initiatives&and&campaigns.!Governments!should!implement!affirmative!policies!to!maintain!the!physical! and!economic!access!of!persons!with!disabilities!to!available. !March!12.! A!call!on!governments!to!give!persons!with!disabilities!access!to!adequate!and! nutritious!food!and!on!the!United!Nations!to!include!them!in!the!new!Sustainable! Development!Goals.&Human&rights&are&indivisible&and&the&right&to& food&cannot&be&realized&unless&the&other&human&rights&of&persons&with& disabilities&are&realized&too.!December!3.&Across!the!globe.!This&unique&opportunity& for&persons&with&disabilities&to&become¬&just&more&visible&but&active& participants&in&the&global&agenda&must¬&be&missed.!which!will! replace!the!UN!Millennium!Development!Goals.&Their&inclusion&in&the& SDGs&is&fundamental&if&we&are&to&achieve&a&sustainable&development&that&is& genuinely&rights`based&and&leaves&“no&one&behind”.lightYforY theYworld.pdf>.!an!estimated! one!billion!persons!live!with!a!disability.!will!be!finalized!in!the!coming!months! and!will!be!officially!adopted!by!the!UN!in!September!2015."!LIGHT!FOR!THE!WORLD!United!Nations!Special!Rapporteur!on!the! Right!to!Food.!Currently!805!million!people!in!the!world!have!been!estimated!to!be! chronically!undernourished.!International!Day!of! Persons!with!Disabilities.!<http://www.!We&are&at&a&critical&juncture&for&reflecting&on&the&human& rights&of&persons&with&disabilities.!2015.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& Establishing&access&to&food&as&a&right&is&key&to&including& people&with&disabilities&is&key&to&including&them&within& the&global&development&agenda.& Rachele.!The!new!UN!Sustainable!Development!Goals!(SDGs).&They&must&be&included&in&the&broader&sustainable& development&agenda.!Eighty!percent!of!them!live!in!the!global! South.!These!striking! facts!need!to!be!remembered!especially!today.!A!recent!article!by!professor!Nora!Groce!and!her!colleagues! published!in!Paediatrics!and!International!Child!Health!states!that!“Nutrition&and& disability&are&intimately&linked:&malnutrition&can&directly&cause&or&contribute&to& Champion)Briefs) 88& .!Tardi.!"Hungry!For!Change:!The!Right!To!Food!And!Persons!With! Disabilities.!these!two!large!populations!overlap!to!a!considerable!extent.!Web.!Since!many!persons!with!disabilities!live!in!absolute! poverty.org/uploads/media/20141203_IDPD_food_disabilities.!2014.!February!06. &and&disability&can&lead&to&malnutrition”.&They&must&ensure&that&the&disability& perspective&is&taken&fully&into&account&in&nutrition&policy!and!programming.&Governments&have&a&particular&obligation&to&take&targeted&actions& to&fulfill&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.& sufficient&resources&must&be&allocated&for&the&“twin`track”&approach:&alongside& Champion)Briefs) 89& .!including!the!training! of!professionals.&Persons&with&disabilities&face& many&challenges&in&the&full&realization&of&their&human&rights.!girls!are!often!discriminated!against!and!given!less!and!lowerYquality! food!than!boys.!Children!with!disabilities!are!often!believed!to!be!incapable! of!learning!to!feed!themselves!and!they!therefore!become!reliant!on!others!who!may! give!them!less!food!because!it!takes!time!to!feed!them.&ignoring&their&right&to&food&among& other&rights.&including&the&right& to&food.&it&is&vital&to& emphasize&the&human&rights&approach&to&food&security&also&for&those&who& already&live&with&a&disability.!Both&children&and&adults&with&disabilities&are&discriminated& against.!The!UKYbased!international! NGO!Lumos!reported!in!2013!that!in!Bulgarian!institutions!for!children!with! disabilities!caretakers!were!spending!less!than!2!minutes!on!each!child!at!mealtimes.!This!is!recognized!as!a!fundamental!human!right!in!several!international! instruments.&since&there&is&no&social&justice&without&economic&justice.!including!the!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights.!Although&the&need&for&good& nutrition&is&often&discussed&in&relation&to&disability&prevention.! Mothers!of!newborns!with!a!disability!are!often!discouraged!from!breastfeeding!their! babies!for!similar!reasons.&and&many&societies&fail& to&include&them&in&a&constructive&manner.!the!International! Covenant!on!Economic!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!and.!the!UN! Convention!on!the!Rights!of!Persons!with!Disabilities.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& disability.! even!though!those!children!needed!help!with!eating!and!drinking.!The!article!shows!that!children! with!disabilities!often!lack!equal!access!to!adequate!food!and!more!likely!to!be!subject! to!malnutrition!than!other!children.&due&to&social&stigma&and&negative&cultural&norms.&And.! maternal!and!child!health!and!broader!public!health!initiatives.!most!recently.!Among!children! with!disabilities.!They!may!receive!less!food!because!the!others!are! seen!as!having!a!greater!chance!of!surviving!and!contributing!to!the!household.&States&are&particularly&responsible&to&make&sure& that&vulnerable&and&marginalized&people&can&access&adequate&and&nutritious& food&in&a&non`discriminatory&and&equal&manner. ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 90& .&there&need&to&be&disability`specific& services&that&aim&at&the&full&inclusion&of&persons&with&disabilities&in&society.&Food& must&be&both&physically&and&economically&accessible.!culturally!acceptable! food.!Governments!should!implement!affirmative!policies!to!maintain!the!physical! and!economic!access!of!persons!with!disabilities!to!available.!Many!persons!with! disabilities!around!the!world!face!great!difficulties!in!accessing!a!sustainable!job!and! income.&inclusive&of&and& accessible&for&persons&with&disabilities.&initiatives&and&campaigns.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& “mainstream”&nutrition&services. !Get!in!touch! There!are!many!disabled!peoples'!organisations!working!in!development.! Over!a!billion!people.! http://www.& the&2011WHO/World&Bank&world&report&on&disability&and&post`2015&agenda& now&provide&an&opportunity&for&disability&issues&to&be&brought&into&the& mainstream&of&development.!about!15%!of!the!world's!population.& disability&remains&an&under`represented&issue&in&food&security&policy&and& practice!(there!is!no!mention!of!disability!at!all!in!the!new!2012!millenium! development!goals!report).&The&links&between&poverty& and&disability&are&complex&and&go&in&both&directions!–!poverty!can!lead!to! disability!through!poor!living!conditions.&education&and& welfare.theguardian.&disability&in&development&remains& stuck&in&the&'special&needs'§ion&of&targeted&projects&on&health.com/globalYdevelopmentYprofessionalsY network/2013/mar/27/mdgsYfoodYsecurityYdisabilityYdevelopmentYagenda>.!The! diversity!of!knowledge.!limited!access!to!health!and!social!services.!The&UN&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&Persons&with&Disabilities&(UNCRPD).& Edge.!2015.!<Put!disability!on!the!food!security!agenda.Despite&this.!malnutrition!and!lack!of!access!to!health! services.!March!12.!"Put!Disability!On!The!Food!Security!Agenda.!skills!and!abilities!of!disabled!people!should!not!be!forgotten.according!to!the!World!Health!Organisation.!How!can!we!achieve!this!while!tackling!food!insecurity! in!practice?!Be!inclusive!Disability!should!be!addressed!in!all!activities!rather!than!as! a!separate!issue.!February!06.!To&a&great&extent.! 2014.!disability!can!lead!to!poverty!through!lack!of!employment! and!education!opportunities.!At!the!same!time.!Web.!Who!better! to!know!about!disability!than!people!with!disabilities!themselves?!Someinternational& Champion)Briefs) 91& ."!The!Guardian.!live!with!a! disability.! We!should!be!careful!that!our!own!practices!are!not!disempowering.!We&need&to&acknowledge&the&roles&that&people&with&disabilities& can&and&do&play&in&achieving&food&security&for&themselves&and&their&families.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&interests&of&people&with&disabilities&are&largely&ignored& within&food&security&policy&but&now&is&the&key&time&to& include&them&within&mainstream&discussions&of& development.!James. !human!rights.!and!can!help!engage!disabled!groups!that! are!hardYtoYreach.!Be!accessible!Make!all!your!information!more!accessible.!when!it!is!often!too!late!to!make!changes.!Food!security!for!all!The!food!security!agenda!postY2015! should!be!about!equity.!Place!your!documents!online.!and!project!evaluation?!Influencing!the!postY2015!agenda!Now&that&we& are&rapidly&approaching&the&deadline&for&halving&the&number&of&hungry&by&2015.!making! your!documents!available!in!Microsoft!Word!helps!people!who!use!text!readers!or! need!to!change!the!font!size!to!access!the!information.!Examples!of!best!practice!help!avoid!repeating!problems! encountered!in!previous!interventions.!and!provide!opportunities!to!scale!up! innovative!programmes!and!apply!solutions!in!new!areas.!which!make!programmes!more!likely! to!succeed.! mailing!lists!and!blogs!have!a!wide!reach.!Find!sources!of!examples! and!lessons!learnt!from!making!gender!equality!part!of!mainstream!development!–!for! which!there!is!extensive!critical!literature!and!practice!–!and!see!how!this!knowledge! can!be!extended!to!disability.&All&of&us&have&a&role&to&play&in&deciding&who&has&a&place&at& the&table&in&targeting&food&security.!Food! security!groups!should!make!contact!with!these!organisations!early!in!consultative! processes.!project!design.!Sharing!stories!of!best!practice!and! innovation!Promoting!and!disseminating!success!stories!from!the!field!is!a!great!way! to!ensure!a!more!efficient!allocation!of!limited!resources!to!projects!that!are!more! likely!to!succeed.!Making!sure!people!can!physically! access!it!is!another.! implementation!and!monitoring!of!programmes.!Ask!yourself.!There!are! numerous!online!networks!and!communities!which!can!guide!you!towards!local!and! regional!organisations.!For!example.!Having!a!well!written! consultation!or!policy!document!is!only!one!step.!implementation!and! monitoring.!not!at!the!end.& there&is&an&opportunity&for&disabled&people&to&be&fully&included&and&to&influence& the&post`2015&agenda.!Social!media.!are!disabled!people!involved!in!all!stages!of!the!project!cycle! in!your!organisation!–!project!identification.! Champion)Briefs) 92& .!Beneficiaries!should!be!included!in!the!design.!Think!about!the!formats!you!are!providing.!Use!alternative!methods!to!get!your!message!across.! Writing!in!a!clear!style!and!avoiding!jargon!benefits!everyone.!but!don't!assume!that!your!website! is!fully!accessible.!Ask!disabled!groups!how!they! would!like!information!to!be!presented.!sustainable!and!inclusive!development!and! sustainable!and!inclusive!growth.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& disability&NGOs&are&already&taking&part&in&food&security&consultations&but&many& may¬&have&the&funds&and&capacity&to&make&their&voices&heard. !It! requires!both!shielding!people!from!acute!threats!and!empowering!people!to!take! charge!of!their!own!lives.!Human!security!according!to!the!Commission!on!Human!Security! (2003)!is!concerned!with!safeguarding!and!expanding!people’s!vital!freedoms.!freedom!from!fear."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International! Journal!Volume!5.!environmental!security.!personal!security.!Web.&a&disability&studies&lens&can&crucially&clarify&and&test&the& discourses&of&human&security&and&social&cohesion&for&their&usefulness&for& disabled&people&and&provide&information&about&implications&for&the&general& population&as&well.!!! Champion)Briefs) 93& .!community!security.!2015.!2009!.& Wolbring.! Human&security&and&social&cohesion&Y!the!topic!of!this!RDS!issue!Y!are¢ral& requisites&especially&for&the&medical&and&social&well&being&of&disabled&people.!food!security.! health!security.& Furthermore.!And!Disabled!People.!and!freedom!from!want!as!primary!concerns.org/operation.!Issue!3.! political!security.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& !! !! !! Disability&studies&is&a&useful&lens&through&which&to&view&food& security&issues.! <http://www.!Human! Security.biasfree.!February!06.pdf#page=15!>.!Gregor.!Social!Cohesion.!"Guest!Editorial:!Science!And!Technology.!The!Commission!identified!economic!security. !“The&protection&of&the&vital& core&of&all&human&lives&in&ways&that&enhance&human&freedoms&and&fulfillment.!capacity.!Issues&about&disabled&people’s&security&correlates& with&the&abject&poverty&in&the&developing&countries!and!perhaps!to!a!lesser!degree.! As!the!Commission!on!Human!Security!(2003)!indicates.!!! Champion)Briefs) ! 94& .!My!desire!is!not!to!create!a!dichotomy.!<http://www.!While&disabled&activists&in&industrialized&countries& debate&about&issues&such&as&independent&living.&disabled&people&in&the&majority&of&the&world&are&still&struggling& for&survival.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&disabled&do¬&have&security&in&many&parts&of&the&world.&and& facilitated&sex.!Anita."!Review! of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!Volume!5.& Are&people&with&disabilities&secure?&The&answer&does¬&seem&to&be&positive.&a& fundamental&part&of&our&daily&life&involves&support&that&can&maintain&our&bodily& integrity.!shelter.org/operation.!Social!Cohesion.!water.! the!developed!countries.!health).&assistance&with&care&needs.!Issue!3.pdf#page=15!>.!human&security&is&understood&as&security&of& survival!(mortality/injury.!and&dignity!(basic!human! rights.& Ghai.! February!06.! environmental!needs.!"Guest!Editorial:!Human!Security.!security!of!livelihood!(food.&as& disabled&people&are¬&fully&integrated&into&our&society.!In&accepting&these&definitions.!energy.!participation).!People&with&disabilities&feel&that&the&right&of&being&secure&and& autonomous&is¬&evident.!but!to!point!out!the!enormity!of! pressures!that!characterize!the!lives!of!those!for!whom!disability!is!closely!linked!with! poverty.&For&many&of&us.!2015.&the&question&arises.”!In! other!words.!and!economic!security).biasfree.!And!Disability.!2009!Web. &and&the&food&security&discourse&in&particular.&b)&education&and& information&can&play&a&significant&protective&role&and&can&thus&further&human& security.!Gregor.!February!06.! Vanmala!Hiranandani!in!this!special!issue!makes!the!case!that!the!human&security& discourse&in&general.org/operation.! secondary.!but& also&includes&the&NGO/CSO!movementinvolved!in!these!issues.!!! Champion)Briefs) 95& .!and!higher!education.&is&too&limited& in&its&scope&and&interpretation&and&too&limited&in&the&variety&of&people&covered.&are¬&present&in&the&food&security&discourse.!Human! Security.!2015.biasfree.!and!political!insecurity.!with!their!attendant!insecurities! such!as!food!insecurity.!transportation.!health!services.&This&lack&of& presence&is¬&just&confined&to&the&governmental.!it!is!a!struggle!to!involve!disabled!people."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International! Journal!Volume!5.!Issue!3.&industrial.& Wolbring.!health!insecurity.!"Guest!Editorial:!Science!And!Technology.pdf#page=15!>.!This!leads!to!education!insecurity!with!consequent! employment!insecurity!and!economic!insecurity.!Social!Cohesion.&and&c)&this&cannot&be&achieved&without&the&existence&of&a&clearly& defined&legislative&framework&and&implementation&structures&that&guide& disabled&people’s&access&to&and&use&of&support&services&that&enhances&their& social.!And!Disabled!People.!The&role&of&disabled& people&too&often&seem&to&be&confined&to&the&medical&health&angle!and!access!to! buildings.&and&academic& discourse&around&human&security&in&general&and&food&security&in&particular.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& Disabled&people&are&excluded&from&discussions&of&food& security.&and&economic&position&within&mainstream&society.!Even!within! this!confined!scope!of!topics.! <http://www.! She!especially!makes!the!case!that!disabled.!2009!Web.&a)&education&and&knowledge&enable&disabled&people&to&identify& common&problems&and&act&in&solidarity&with&others.!Charles!Dube! talks!in!his!piece!about!the!lack!of!access!of!South!African!disabled!people!to!primary.&people&particularly&under&the&social& model&interpretation.&political.!employment!and!education.!Dube&makes&the& point&that. AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& ! ! Champion)Briefs) 96& . ! <http://www.&impairment&and&malnutrition.biasfree.pdf#page=15!>.!!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 97& .&it&is&inadequate&to&address&the&wider& socio`economic&disparities&that&affect&the&livelihoods.!February!06.org/operation.!"Disability.& Extant&studies&on&disability&and&food&security&have&been&limited&to&the&fields&of& medicine&and&nutrition&that&largely&view&“disability”&from&a&medical&model&as&a& deficit!or!a!problem!inherent!in!the!individual.!Issue!3.!opportunities!and!selfY determination!of&disabled&persons.& Hiranandani.!While&this&health&science& perspective&is&significant&to&understand&the&interrelations&between&chronic& illness.!2015.!most&literature&on&food&security&has&lacked&a&disability&perspective.!Vanmala."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal! Volume!5.!Web.!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:Advancing!The! Human!Security!Agenda.!2009.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& A&disability&perspective&is&necessary&in&the&study&of&food& security.! Furthermore. !"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh.!who!is!able!to!speak!the!local!sign! language.&the&initiative&worked&to&raise& awareness&about&the&rights&and&needs&of&disabled&people.newY ag.&negative&attitudes&and& lack&of&accessibility&often&prohibit&their&participation.!The!Leprosy!Mission!(Netherlands!and!England!&!Wales)!and!Light!for!the! World.!With!the!help!of!a!community!member.! Molida&Afsar&and&her&sister&Hena&are&two&young&women&with&a&hearing& impairment.&we&aimed&to&make&sure& that&at&least&20&per¢&of&households&included&a&member&with&a&disability.!Inclusive!Development! Coordinator!for!Light!for!the!World.&From&the&outset.!2015."! !! ! Champion)Briefs) 98& .!they!were!able!to!fully!contribute!to!the!group.!Together!with!other!women!in!their!village.!they& formed&a&Women&Village&Group&(WVG)&and&received&training&on&healthy&food.!<http://www."!explains!Paulien!Bruijn.!Web.&So&to&ensure&the&equal& participation&of&people&with&disabilities&in&the&project.&They&were&fully&dependent&on&their&brother&when&they&were& selected&to&be&part&of&the&EU`funded&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Programme&for& Ultra&Poor&Women&in&Bangladesh.info/en/focus/focusItem.!The!project!was! implemented!by!seven!local!organisations*!and!supported!by!three!European!NGOs!Y! ICCO.& how&to&start&their&own&vegetable&garden&and&other&ways&to&generate&their&own& income."!New!Agriculturist.php?a=3072>.!The&aim&was&to&improve&the&food&security&of&40.!"Inadequate&policies.& Williams.!January! 08.!"The!reason!why!people! with!disabilities!often!do!not!participate!in!development!projects!is!not!their! impairment!or!functional!limitation.!Fiona.000&women`headed& households&in&Bangladesh.!2013.AFF:&Ableism&AC& & &March/April&2015& Modeling&the&Gaibandha&Food&Security&Program&by& establishing&income&generating&activities&can&solve.!February!07. !"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&Brazilian&Constitution&defends&food&security&as&a& national&right.!2015.65!Brazil!is!one!of!the!twentyYtwo!countries!in!the!world!that! addresses!a!right!to!food!in!their!constitutions.&health.66!Article&227&of&the&Brazil& Constitution&states:&It&is&the&duty&of&the&family.!Web.71!Although!Brazil!still!has!a!long!trek!ahead!in! increasing!health!and!nutrition!to!more!acceptable!levels.!exploitation.&the&right&to&life.!in!addition!to!safeguarding!them!against!all!forms!of! negligence.!violence.!the! Brazilian!Parliament!approved!“Brazil’s!National!Food!and!Nutritional!Security! Framework!Law”!(LOSAN)!that!gives!the!government!a!tactical!way!of!approaching! food!security!in!their!country.pdf>.!cruelty.! Brazil!is!the!largest!country!in!South!America!with!a!population!of!approximately!192! million!people.&Brazilian&hunger& has&continued&to&decrease.!Although& not&every&country&that&designates&a&constitutional&right&to&food&is&successful.!February!03."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.&with&absolute&priority.!it!is!improving!at!a!rapid! rate.!In!2006.!freedom.!discrimination.!and!oppression.& Brazil&has&been&able&to&maintain&one&of&the&lowest&rates&of&undernourishment& among&the&developing&countries—about!6%!as!of!2005.&and&of&the&State&to& ensure&children&and&adolescents.!January!08.& food.69LOSAN&acknowledges&that&adequate&food&is&a&basic& human&right&and&is&indispensable&in&realizing&the&other&rights&that&are&set&forth& in&their&federal&constitution.! <https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.68!What!sets!Brazil!apart! from!many!other!countries!that!address!a!right!to!food!in!their!constitutions!is!the! action!that!Brazil!has!taken!to!ensure!food!security!in!their!country.!and! family!and!community!life.!dignity.!leisure.!education.!professional!training.72! Champion)Briefs) 99& .!respect.&of&society.!culture.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!2010.70&Since&passing&LOSAN&into&law. !2015.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 100& .!February!03.&3)&achieving&an&environmentally& sound&and&sustainable&way&to&develop&food&and&contribute&to&health&and& nutrition.&and&that&access&to&food&is&the&main&problem.&The&1992&Declaration&reiterated&that&the&right&to&adequate& food&is&a&right&of&each&individual.!2010.pdf>.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.! The&1992&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition&represented& consensus&among&159&countries&that&the&levels&of&hunger&and&malnutrition&are& unacceptable&in&a&world&that&has&both&the&knowledge&and&resources&to&end&this& human&catastrophe.!January!08.AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&World&Declaration&and&Plan&of&Action&for&Nutrition& represents&an&overwhelming&international&consensus&that& food&security&is&a&right.&Their&main&objectives&were:&1)&ensuring&sufficient&supplies&of&food&for& everyone&to&have&a&nutritionally&adequate&diet.! <https://willamette.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&and&4)&eliminating&the&existence&of&famines&and&famine&related&deaths."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!Web.& The&159&countries&signing&the&Declaration&pledged&to&work&together&to&find&a& solution.&2)&working&to&achieve&and& maintain&optimal&health&and&nutrition&for&all. !which!are!specifically! focused!on!the!right!to!adequate!food.! <https://willamette.!three&other&major&human&rights&documents& that&together&constitute&the&International&Bill&of&Rights&specifically&address&the& right&to&adequate&food&among&other&rights:&(1)&The&Universal&Declaration&of& Human&Rights&(UDHR).&however.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!Web.! In!addition!to!the!human!rights!documents!outlined!above.&(3)&The&International&Covenant&on&Civil&and&Political& Rights&(ICCPR).!January!08.!February!03.!2010.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 101& .edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&(2)&The&International&Covenant&on&Economic."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.&the&countries&bear&the&obligations& that&come&with&being&parties&to&these&agreements.&the&ICCPR&discusses& the&right&to&life&and&the&right&to&use&one’s&own&means&of&subsistence.92&As&discussed&below.&the& UDHR&and&the&ICESCR&specifically&address&the&right&to&food.!2015.AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& All&major&international&human&rights&covenants&address&and& recognize&the&right&to&food&and&the&government’s& obligation&to&ensure&that&right&for&their&citizens.pdf>.91&In&these&documents&individuals&are&the&right&holders&rather& than&the&countries&who&are&parties.&Social&and& Cultural&Rights&(ICESCR). &disability.! In&1948&the&“contemporary&international&human&rights&system”&was&created& when&the&United&National&General&Assembly&adopted&the&Universal&Declaration& of&Human&Rights&(UDHR).!This!is!to!occur!through! progressive!measures.!Web.&The&purpose&of&the&UDHR&was&to&achieve&promotion& and&respect&for&fundamental&human&rights&and&freedoms.&including&food."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.pdf>.!both!at!the!national!and!international!level.! <https://willamette.!February!03.!housing!and!medical! care!and!necessary!social!services.94&This&provision&of&the&UDHR&is& an&important&foundation&for&the&right&to&food.93&The& UDHR&specifically&addresses&the&right&to&food.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 102& .& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&old&age&or&other&lack&of& livelihood&in&circumstances&beyond&his&control.&Article&25&of&The&UDHR&states:& Everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of&living&adequate&for&the&health&and&well` being&of&himself&and&of&his&family.!January!08.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!in!hopes!of! securing!a!universal!and!effective!recognition!and!observance!of!these!rights.&sickness.and&the&right&to&security&in&the&event&of& unemployment.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&widowhood.!clothing.AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the& right&to&food&on&a&national&and&international&level.!2010.!2015. & International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!clothing!and!housing.!including!specific!programmes.96!As&seen&in&Section& 2&of&Article&11.&parties&have&a&legally&binding&obligation!to!work!towards!the! Champion)Briefs) 103& .!the! measures."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!individually!and!through!international!coYoperation.&including&adequate&food.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!shall!take.!There!are!currently!160! parties!to!the!ICESCR.!2.!2010.!recognizing!to!this!effect!the!essential! importance!of!international!coYoperation!based!on!free!consent.!The!States!Parties! to!the!present!Covenant.!which!are!needed:!(a)!To!improve!methods! of!production.95!Article!11!states:!1.!conservation!and!distribution!of!food!by!making!full!use!of!technical! and!scientific!knowledge.!(b)!Taking!into!account!the! problems!of!both!foodYimporting!and!foodY!exporting!countries.!2015.&Social.! <https://willamette.&and&Cultural&Rights&(ICESCR)&in&1966&and&came&into&force&in& 1976.!to!ensure!an! equitable!distribution!of!world!food!supplies!in!relation!to!need.!Web.!January!08.!February!03.&The&States&Parties&to&the&present& Covenant&recognize&the&right&of&everyone&to&an&adequate&standard&of&living&for& himself&and&his&family.pdf>.!The!States!Parties!will!take!appropriate! steps!to!ensure!the!realization!of!this!right.!recognizing!the!fundamental!right!of!everyone!to!be!free! from!hunger.! The&right&to&food&was&again&recognized&in&the&International&Covenant&on& Economic.!and!to!the! continuous!improvement!of!living!conditions.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&The&ICESCR&also&further&clarified&the&right&to&food.!by!disseminating!knowledge!of!the!principles!of!nutrition! and!by!developing!or!reforming!agrarian!systems!in!such!a!way!as!to!achieve!the!most! efficient!development!and!utilization!of!natural!resources.AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&recognizes&the& right&to&food&on&a&national&and&international&level&and&is& legally&binding. AFF:&Contracts/Polls&AC& & &March/April&2015& realization!of!the!rights!presented!in!the!ICESCR.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!January!08.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.& “[I]n&no&case&may&a&people&be&deprived&of&its&own&means&of&subsistence.! <https://willamette.&it&can&be&inferred&that&the&right&to&food&is&included& because&it&is&such&a&necessary&part&of&life.! The&International&Covenant&on&Civil&and&Political&Rights&(ICCPR)&also&came&into& force&in&1976.9! ! ! ICCPR&has&one&of&the&largest&memberships&in&the&world&and& recognizes&a&governments&obligation&to&provide&food& security&for&its&citizens.&There&are&169&parties&to&the&ICCPR.!Web."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.&The&ICCPR&further&states&in&Article&2.!"Every!human!being!has! the!inherent!right!to!life."!104!While&the&language&"an&inherent&right&to&life"&does& not&expressly&mention&food.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!Article!8!declares.pdf>.!February!03.!including!the!right!to!adequate! food.!2010.103!Although!this!covenant!does! not!mention!the!right!to!food!specifically.!2015.105! ! Champion)Briefs) 104& . &Nate&Christensen& said&in&a&statement&on&Friday&that&the&Pentagon&was&reviewing&the&survey&and& was&“concerned&with&anything&that&impacts&the&wellness&and&readiness&of&service& members&and&families.!“We’ve!heard!for!the!last!several!years!from!our!food!banks!that!there’s!a!growing! need!among!military!families!for!food!assistance.!The!help!is!sought!for!various!reasons.& Leitsinger.&Cmdr.&and&the&higher&costs&of&living&in&some&states.!Both!groups!were!hit!by!the!Great!Recession.!that!will!be!released!Monday.&according&to&a&rare&inquiry&about&the&food& insecurity&of&troops&and&veterans&conducted&by&Feeding&America.!experts!say:!For& active&duty.!a!Feeding!America! spokeswoman.!Miranda.”!she!added.! <http://www.!2015."! NBC!News.nbcnews.000!households!that!include!at!least!one!soldier.!2010.!Yetter’s!family!is!among!the!620.!The!work!of!Feeding!America!and!other!organizations!will! help!the!department!amplify!the!DOD!resources!available!to!service!members!and! Champion)Briefs) 105& .! .&for&some.!"Hungry!Heroes:!25!Percent!Of!Military!Families!Seek!Food!Aid.&pressures&include&low&pay.com/feature/inYplainYsight/hungryYheroesY25YpercentY militaryYfamiliesYseekYfoodYaidYn180236>.! too.!Another&2.&the&difficulty&for&spouses&to&hold&steady&jobs&amid&base&transfers&and& deployments.&and.!Web.! reservist!or!guardsman!–!or!25&percent&of&the&nation’s&total&active&duty&and& reserve&personnel&–&that&are&seeking&aid&from&food&pantries&and&other&charitable& programs&across&the&country.&the& triggers&are&the&transition&to&the&civilian&world.&poor&financial&planning&by&junior& soldiers.”!said!Maura!Daly.!January!08.!Though!the!organization!“found!the!results!to!be!incredibly! disheartening”!it!also!will!give!Feeding!America!the!opportunity!“to!partner!with! military!organizations!on!the!ground!to!help!ensure!that!we!are!better!meeting!their! needs.&a&hunger&relief& charity.&living&off&low& disability&pay&or&retirement&funds.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Food&insecurity&kills&military&readiness.&For&veterans.!Defense&Department&spokesman&Lt.37&million&households&including& veterans&receive&assistance&from&food&pantries!that!are!part!of!Feeding!America's! network!(this!figure!doesn't!include!households!where!both!a!former!and!current! service!member!reside).!February!03. ! wounded!warriors!and!their!families.&said&Army&Col.&the&association’s&deputy&director&of&government&relations.!More!than!60.&particularly&impacting&young& military&families&already&living&on&tight&budgets.!according!to!Feeding!America!data!from! its!"Hunger!in!America!2014"!report.!a!nonprofit!focusing!on!the!lowestYpaid!enlisted!service!members.!Operation! Homefront.!Adding! to!the!financial!strain!for!military!families.).!saying:!"The!Department!of!Defense!disagrees! with!the!methodology!that!Feeding!America!used!to!calculate!the!estimated! percentage!of!military!households!served!by!its!food!assistance!programs.&“It’s&going&to& cause&them&(soldiers)&to¬&be&as&focused&on&their&job&at&hand&and&a&lot&of&the& jobs&that&we&have.!Limiting!the!pay! increase!came!after!Congress!in!2000!passed!a!law!to!redress!the!salary!gap!between! civilians!and!the!military.!guardsmen!and!veterans! emerged!in!states!with!large!military!bases.”!he!said.!a!national!study!it!runs!every!four!years.!reservists.!The&financial& Champion)Briefs) 106& .!particularly!in!highYcost!locations.!Texas.!Washington!and!Virginia.!Other! surges!came!in!states!where!a!lot!of!people!join!the!military.!to!help! personnel!get!a!clear!understanding!of!their!finances.!Military!stores!–!like!exchanges! and!commissaries!–!provide!savings!to!troops.!the!Pentagon! issued!a!new!statement!on!the!survey.!California.!he!said.!(On!Monday.!The& new&pay&cap&hurts&retention&and&readiness.!like!in!Delaware.!which!was!then!at!13.!a!nonpartisan!nonprofit!focused!on!military!personnel! matters.!like!Iowa.!and!then! return!home!after!being!discharged.")!Spikes!in! food!aid!sought!by!active!duty!service!members.&Mike&Barron& (Ret.!according!to!the!Military!Officers! Association!of!America.!said!requests!for!food!assistance!from!people! they!serve!tripled!starting!in!2009!and!have!only!slightly!receded!since!then.000!of!its!partner!agencies!participated!in!the!survey.!Georgia.!the!association!said.!the!Defense!Department!this!year!issued!its! lowest!pay!raise!–!1!percent!Y!in!50!years.!and!it!will!seek!the!same!level!from!Congress!through!2017.”&He&added&that&the&Pentagon& “recognizes&that&personal&financial&readiness&of&service&members&and&their& families&must&be&maintained&to&sustain&mission&readiness”&and!offers!personal! financial!management!counselors.&lives&depend&on&them&being&focused.000!clients!of!the!organization’s! network!and!32.!as!well!as!other!tools!and!services.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& families.5!percent.! Colorado. &more&stress&on&the&service& member.”&he!added.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& hardships&translate&into&“more&stress&on&the&force.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 107& .&more&stress&on&their&family. "!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!as!well!as!adequate!water! and!sanitary!issues.& Sachs.!nutrition.&water.!Carolyn.yale.!and!hygiene! practices!to!ensure!positive!health!and!nutrition!outcomes!for!infants!and! children.!women! breastYfeed.!adequate!food!storage!and!preparation.!January!08.!February!03.&Health&care&and&water&and&sanitation&services&must&consider& gendered&needs.!2010.!In&addition.!2013).!2015.&sanitation.! The&third&pillar&of&food&security.&In&most& societies.!safety.!FAO&has&recently&emphasized&that&ending&hunger&and&providing&food& security&must&refocus&on&nutritional&security&and&gender&concerns&rather&than& only&agricultural&interventions!(FAO.&food&utilization&refers&to&the&ability&of& individuals&to&meet&their&specific&nutritional&and&dietary&needs.&health.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.&Unequal&gender&relations&in&the&household&and&in&communities& can&seriously&impinge&on&women’s&ability&to&meet&the&nutritional&needs&of&their& families.&A&number&of&studies&have&shown&that&education&and&nutritional& Champion)Briefs) 108& .&women&also&typically&assume&major&responsibility& for&food&preparation.!Obviously.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Changing&unequal&gender&dynamics&is&a&key&tenet&of&food& security&and&proper&child&development.&This&will&entail&working&across& sectors&such&as&education.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.! Web.&and&provision&of&water&and&sanitation&within&the& household.! <http://www.&and&agriculture.!which!when!done!exclusively!for!the!first!six!months!and!continued!for! two!years!with!food!supplements!provides!the!best!health!outcomes!for!infants! (UNICEF/WHO).!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.&Calorie&intake& alone&is¬&enough&to&ensure&adequate&diets&and&nutrition.&women&play&the&primary&role&in&translating&available&food&into& nutritional&security&for&children&and&other&family&members. pdf>.!This!dimension!of! food!security!incorporates!food!quality.&cooking.!UNICEF!has!highlighted!the!importance!of!child!care!and!feeding! practices!such!as!breast!feeding. &As&these&power&dynamics&shift.&as&well&as&gender&equality&in& household&decision&making&positively&impacts&nutritional&status&of&young& children!(Ecker!and!Breisinger!2012.!Changing&power&dynamics& within&households&can&enable&women&to&make&the&choices&and&decisions& necessary&for&caring&for&infants&and&children.&and&increases&the&risk&of&small&or&preterm&babies&in& pregnant&women&(Center&for&Disease&Control.& between&4&and&5&billion&people&suffer&from&iron&deficiency&with&estimates&of&half& of&pregnant&women&and&children&under&5&in&developing&countries&suffering&from& iron&deficiency.&2013).!In!addition.&causes&fatigue&and&impairs&ability&to&do&physical&work&in&adults.!Kennedy!and!Peters!1992.&For&example.!maternal! health!is!crucial!to!child!survival!and!infant!and!child!nutrition.&Iron&deficiency&delays&normal&motor&and&mental&functioning&in& infants.!Glewwe!1999.!2008.!Micronutrient& deficiencies&disproportionately&impact&women&and&children.!Behrman!and!Wolfe!1984.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& knowledge&of&parents.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 109& .!Thomas!1994).&impairs& mental&functioning&in&teens.! The!physiological!needs!of!pregnant!and!lactating!women!make!them!particularly! vulnerable!to!malnutrition!and!micronutrient!deficiencies.!Semba! et!al.& men&may&assume&some&responsibility&for&care&but&also&value&and&support&these& activities.!Behrman!and!Deolalikar!1990.&especially&mothers. !Web.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&The&World&Food&Summit&concluded&that&the&right&to&adequate&food&is& “firmly&established&in&international&law.!February!03.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&right&to&adequate&food&is&firmly&established&under& international&law.&convened&and&declared&that&it&was&intolerable& that&more&than&823&million&people&throughout&the&world&did¬&have&enough& food&to&meet&their&most&basic&nutritional&needs.”6!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 110& .& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!2015.&but&its&operational&content&and&means& of&application&are&generally&little&understood.! <https://willamette."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.! In&1996.pdf>.5&Over&eighty&countries&joined&at& this&Summit&and&participated&in&creating&the&Rome&Declaration&on&World&Food& Security&to&protect&what&they&deemed&a&fundamental&human&right&of&adequate& food.&at&the&United&Nation’s&Food&and&Agriculture& Organization&meeting&in&Rome.!2010.&the&World&Food&Summit.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!January!08. ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 111& .!January!08.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Ending&world&hunger&is&the&highest&priority&of&the& international&community.!February!03.10&Not&only&is&ending&hunger&one&of&the&Millennium&Development& Goals."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!2010.&from&providing&universal&education&to& ending&hunger.&it&is&the&first&on&the&list.&The&goals&range&from&halving&extreme& poverty&to&ending&the&spread&of&HIV/AIDS.!Web.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!The&Goals&mirror&the&goals&of&the&World&Food&Summit&of&1996& in&hopes&of&decreasing&hunger&by&one`half&by&the&year&2015.& Millennium&Development&Goals.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&the&United&Nations&had& a&meeting&of&world&leaders&in&September&2000&to&develop&and&adopt&the&U.&The&Millennium&Project&recognized&that&poverty& and&hunger&go&hand`in`hand&and&thus&stated&its&first&goal!as:!Eradicate!extreme! poverty!and!hunger.N.pdf>.! <https://willamette.&The&purpose&of&the&Millennium&Development& Goals&was&to&bring&together&all&of&the&world’s&countries&to&agree&to&a&plan&of& action&sponsored&by&the&United&Nations.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!2015.! After&the&World&Food&Summit&released&its&goals&in&1996. &as&these&countries&have& become&more&integrated&in&the&world&market&through&trade&and&investments.!February!03.&those&most&affected& by&the&financial&crunch&beginning&in&the&late&2000s&in&terms&of&hunger&have&been& poor&farm&workers&who&have&seen&their&already&low&wages&reduced&even&further& and&who&are&losing&their&jobs&altogether.34&In&fact.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 112& .AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Increasing&interdependence&makes&it&more&difficult&for& countries&to&stabilize&the&cost&of&food&domestically.!2015.&countries& with&the&highest&levels&of&hunger&have&been&the&most&vulnerable&to&the&recent& global&food&crisis.!2010.!Web.33&However.! There&once&was&a&time&that&developing&countries&could&be&resistant&to&economic& fluctuations&in&the&global&marketplace.35&Since&hunger&levels&rise&with&poverty."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.&and&therefore.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.! <https://willamette.& these&fluctuations&have&had&much&stronger&effects&on&them.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.pdf>.!January!08.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&food& insecurity&can&also&be&attributed&to&them.36&The&integration&of&these&developing& countries&into&the&world&market&can&be&largely&attributed&to&private& corporations&and&international&financial&institutions&(IFI’s). &It&declared&that&every& country&in&the&position&to&help&has&the&responsibility&to&do&so&in&ensuring&that& the&right&to&food&is&realized.!It&also&explained&that&the&welfare& of&many&of&the&world’s&people&depends&on&the&ability&to&adequately&produce&and& distribute&food.!2010.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and& Malnutrition&affirms.&and&to& have&reasonably&priced&food&so&that&food&is&available&to&all.pdf>.!February!03.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!Web.!January!08.!The!Declaration!recognized!that!there!was!a!food!crisis! greatly!affecting!people!in!developing!countries."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.! The&1974&Universal&Declaration&on&the&Eradication&of&Hunger&and&Malnutrition& declared&that&every&human&being&has&the&fundamental&right&to&be&free&from& hunger&and&malnutrition&so&that&they&can&fully&develop.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.! ! Champion)Briefs) 113& .&establish&a&system&where&all&people&have&access&to&food.! <https://willamette.!2015. ! <http://heinonline.!Asbjorn.!the&adequacy&of&the&daily&food&basket&is&a&crucial&element&in&the&concept& of&household&food&security:!the!household!food!basket!must!be!adequate!to!cover! the!nutritional!needs!of!its!members!both!quantitatively!and!qualitatively.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And! Development.& Eide.!2015."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!Clearly.!But& "adequacy"&must&go&beyond!this!in&recognition&of&the&many&roles&and&meanings& food&has&for&people&as&part&of&their&wider&cultural&identity.!November!30.! Web.!1990.!Concern&with!the! local!food&culture¬&only&is&a&sign&of&respect&for&the&dignity&of&the&poor&and& their&right&to&eat&what&they&prefer&to&eat.! Finally.&but&also&links&up&logically&with&the& optimal&utilization&of&the&natural&resource&base&and&the&amount&of&food&that&can& be&sustained&by&a&given&ecosystem.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 114& .!February!05.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Food&is&important&beyond&a&physical&need&for&hunger.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent =1&collection=journals>.!in!such!cases!preservation!of!the! environment!would!also!contribute!to!the!preservation!of!traditional!dietary! diversity. & Peffer.!2015.! The&third&issue&is&whether&saving&people&from&starvation&(and!other!forms!of! severe!deprivation)&is&a&matter&of&charity&(or&beneficence)&or&a&matter&of&justice."! International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.sandiego.!January!03.!2003.&is&of& the&utmost&importance&since.& This&question.!February! 06.&whereas&if&it&is&a&matter&of&justice& then&people&could&be&compelled&–&through&compulsory&taxation.&if&it&is&a&matter&of&charity&then&no&one& can&be&compelled&to&give&some&of&the&resources&they&would&otherwise&have& available&to&them&to&aid&the&severely&deprived.!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM.!This!issue!also!cuts!across!the!division!between!the!individual!and!social! approaches!to!this!problem.!"WORLD!HUNGER.&which&cuts&across&the&traditional&division&between& consequentialist&and&non`consequentialist!(or!deontological)!moral&theory.!Rodney.%20Moral%20 Theory.&by&definition.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& The&issue&of&food&security&is&a&question&of&whether&it&is& justified&by&a&principle&of&charity&or&justice.!although!it!seems!plausible!to!suggest!that!most!of!those! who!view!this!as!a!matter!of!justice!adopt!the!social!approach!to!it.!whereas!most! of!those!who!view!it!as!a!matter!of!charity!favor!the!individual!approach! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 115& .! <http://home.%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.doc>.&for&example&–& to&aid&them.!Web.!MORAL!THEORY. &it&follows&–&according&to&the&strict& libertarian&–&that&taxation&or&any&other&such&interference&in&an&individual's&life& aimed&at&satisfying&a&duty&of&charity&or&beneficence&is&morally&impermissible! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 116& .sandiego.&that&it& would¬&be&morally&allowable&to&have&any&kind&of&taxation&to&fund&social& programs&aimed&at&solving&these&problems&because&solving&them&is&a&matter&of& beneficence.!It&also&allows&one&to&argue&that&we&need¬& have&social&arrangements&that&ensure&people&don't&starve&and.&enforceable)&one.!February! 06.!"WORLD!HUNGER.!2003.&the&former&is&a&perfect&duty&and&the&latter& an&imperfect&one.!Since&the&moral&requirements&of& justice&always&trump&the&moral&requirements&of&beneficence&(or&other&parts&of& morality&that&are¬&part&of&justice).edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger.!MORAL!THEORY.%20Moral%20 Theory.!(In&Kant's&terms.!2015.&This&is&extremely&important& because&duties&of&justice&are&enforceable&while&duties&of&charity&or&beneficence& are¬.!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM.&in&fact.!Rodney.!Web."! International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.!January!03.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Providing&citizens&with&food&security&is&a&perfect&duty&for&the& state.!and!taxation!–!according!to!the!strict!libertarian!–!is!a!violation!of!one's! property!rights!(which!is!a!matter!of!justice).& Peffer.! <http://home.!This!not!only!allows!one!off!the!moral!hook!as!soon!as!one! ponies!up!one's!minimal!contribution.)!Even!strict&libertarians&often&claim!that!we!have!a!duty!to!be! charitable!so!long!as!this&duty&is¬&defined!as&a&perfect& (i.doc>.! By&now&we&should&already&be&able&to&feel&the&force&of&the&claim&that&aiding&those& in&severe&necessity!(in!either!an!individual!or!social!context)!is¬&a&matter&of& charity&or&beneficence&but&a&matter&of&justice.e. !require!us!to!undertake!positive!actions!to!provide! opportunities.!The!former!(security)!rights!are!primarily.!or!services!to!those!who!lack!them.&Meaningful& exercise&of&one's&choices&as&well&as&the&adequate&satisfaction&of&one’s&needs&are& both&vital&components&of&human&dignity&and&worth.!raped.&and& as&existing&to&protect&them&from&being&rendered&vulnerable&in&ways&that& adversely&affect&their&dignity.!"WORLD!HUNGER.! <http://home.!2015.&As! Radika!Balakrishnan!and!Uma!Narayan!write:&Both&negative&and&positive&rights&can& …&be&seen&as&guaranteeing&basic&dignity.!housing."! International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!etc.!January!03.%20Moral%20 Theory.!brutally!assaulted.& Peffer.!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM.!MORAL!THEORY.&If&we&understand&rights&in&this&way.&arguably.&respect&and&worth&to&human&beings.!potable!water.!whereas!the!latter! (subsistence)!rights!are!primarily!though!not!exclusively!positive!in!that!they! primarily.&the&two&most&fundamental&interests&one&has.!clothing.! Since&the&interests&of¬&having&one's&physical&security&violated!(by!being! murdered.!2003.sandiego.!require!us!to! refrain!from!interfering!with!people's!bodily!integrity.&Failures&to&guarantee&either& Champion)Briefs) 117& .!And!these&rights&would& seem&to&be&intimately&connected&to&human&dignity&and&respect&for&the&person.&These&rights&are&simply&the&"negative"&and&"positive"&parts&of&the& generally&recognized&right&to&life.!though!not!exclusively.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Any&moral&theory&that&values&human&dignity&must&recognize& the&right&to&food®ardless&of&the&distinction&between& positive&and&negative&rights.)!and&of¬&having&one's&basic&physical& needs&go&unmet&(by&lacking&sufficient&nutrition.&we&can&see&an& underlying&unity&between&the&roles&of&'negative'&and&'positive'&rights.!negative!in!that!they!primarily.&it&seems& reasonable&to&claim&that&these&rights&must&be&recognized&as&the&strongest&rights& we&have.!Web.)!are.! etc.!February! 06.!though! not!exclusively.%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.!though!not!exclusively.!Rodney.doc>.!goods. &but&positive&welfare&rights&to&the&basic&means&of&subsistence.! cit.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& basic&negative&or&positive&rights&to&individuals&is&tantamount&to&declaring&that& their&fate&and&future&do¬&matter.! "Combining! Justice! with! Development.! [ii]!Xiaorong! Li.! pp.&and&to&be&treated&as&creatures&whose&vital& interests&do¬&matter!is!to!be!reduced!to!the!moral!status!of!a!creature!who&is& accorded&no&dignity.!World'Hunger'and'Morality.! 240Y 241.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 118& .!respect!or!worth.!Thus&any&moral&framework&that&is& committed&to&seeing&all&humans&as&bearers&of&dignity&and&worth&needs&to& guarantee&all&individuals¬&merely&important&negative&rights&to& noninterference.!p."! in! William! Aiken! and! Hugh! LaFollette! (eds.!cit."! op.[i]! ! [i]!Radhika! Balakrishnan! and! Uma! Narayan.! "Making! Sense! of! the! Right! to! Food.!op.).!161... ! 2015.!instead.&Consumers&rated& unethical&behavior&as&unethical®ardless&of&whether&this&behavior&had& positive!(e.! For!example.!copying!software)! were!not!considered!in!ethical!decisions.g.&like&product&choice&and&brand&choice!(Burgess.g.!consequences!of!ethical! behavior!(either!positive.!Values&express&the& goals/needs&that&motivate&people&and&appropriate&ways&to&attain& these!goals/needs.g.!<&& http://ezproxy.!(2001)!found&that&consumers&are&more& guided&by&principles&or&values!(deontology)!than&by& consequences(teleology)!when&making!ethical&decisions...e du/docview/196572432?accountid=3783! ! Human!values!are!referred!to!as!relatively!stable!beliefs!about!the!personal!or!social! desirability!of!certain!behaviors!and!modes!of!existence.!giving!it!direction!and!emotional!intensity! (Schwartz.!Iris.!"Sustainable!Food!Consumption:!Exploring!The!Consumer!"AttitudeY Behavioral!Intention"!Gap..!January!03.proquest.!Web..com.!e.!1994).!Values!motivate!action.!consumers!based!their!decision!on! the!ethical!value!of!the!behavior!itself!(either!ethical!or!unethical).edu/login?url=http://search.ezproxy.!switching!price!tags)& consequences!for!the!consumer.!cashier!mistake.snhu..snhu.!1995).!or!negative.!e.!using!an!expired!coupon)!or&negative!(e.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Consumers&act&deontically.!Vitell&et&al.!Engel!et!al.!people!who!adhere!to!the!value!‘‘universalism’’!(see!Appendix!1)!may!be! motivated!to!protect!the!environment!and!therefore!buy!environmentally!safe! products.&Values&can&play&an&important&role&in&the&consumer&decision& process.& Vermier.!2003.!1992.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 119& ."!Springer.!In!the!same!manner.!For!instance.!February!06.g. &Placing& responsibility&onto&individuals&to&overcome&their&life&circumstances&in&order&to& improve&their&food&security&induces&a&level&of&blame&for&individuals¤tly& experiencing&food&insecurity&and&frames&them&as&having&failed&to&modify&their& behaviours&to&ensure&food&security.& as&individuals&experiencing&food&insecurity&are&seen&as&being&socially&deviant.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.com/index.! February!09.& Bastian.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem! Represented!To!Be?.!The&resulting& discrimination&and&stigmatisation&can&lead&to&poor&self`esteem&and&further& exacerbate&poor&health&outcomes&and&low&socioeconomic&situation!(Whitehead.!In!their!discourse!analysis!Madden!and! Chamberlain!(2004)!highlight!the&‘moral’&individual&is&one&who&consumes&healthy& foods&and&looks&after&their&weight&while&the&‘immoral’&individual&eats&‘bad’& foods.!The! consequence!of!taking!an!individual!approach!is!victim!blaming.!In!addition.&alcohol& and&gambling&addictions&rather&than&purchasing&healthy&foods.!&!Burstrom.!2015.!January!06.&responsibility&and&therefore&blame&for&food&insecurity&is&placed&onto& individuals.! which!subjects!them!to!moral!judgement!from!society!(Scambler.! Champion)Briefs) 120& .!Amber.!This&may&generate&a&certain&stigma&associated&with&food&insecurity.!By&representing&the&issue&as&a&problem&of&individual&behaviour&and&lack&of& knowledge&on&how&to&appropriately&budget&fi&nances&or&eat&healthily&on&a&low& income.!2013.&Deviance&can&be&defi&ned&as¬& conforming&to&a&set&of&social&norms&and&is&behaviour&that&is&subjected&to& correction&or&treatment!(Scambler.!Web.! Diderichsen.&by&highlighting&that&some& individuals&choose&to&spend&money&on&competing&priorities&such&as&drug.AFF:&Deontology&AC& & &March/April&2015& Those&without&food&security&face&social&stigma.!2003).&infers&these& individuals&are&being&socially&‘deviant’.eY contentmanagement."!Health!Sociology!Review.!<http://ojs.!2001).!2003).! Unintended&consequences&of&the&individual&responsibility&representation&may& be&associated&stigma&for&individuals&experiencing&food&insecurity. !1998.!1997..!1998).! The!associations&between&small&size&at&birth&and&CHD&later&in&life&have& extensively&been&replicated&in&studies&in&several!European!countries.!They&extend&across&the&normal&range!of!size!at!birth!and! depend!on!small!size!for!gestational!age!rather!than!on!prematurity!(Osmond!et!al.!reliable!and!valid!data!allow!the! longYterm!effects!to!be!studied.!Death&rates&from&CHD&were&highest&among&men&who&were&thin&at&birth&but& had&accelerated&weight&gain&in&childhood(Eriksson!et!al.!a& more&than&5`fold&increase&in&mortality!among!men!who!were!thin!at!birth!and! overweight!at!age!11!compared!with!men!with!a!high!ponderal!index!at!birth!and!lean! in!childhood."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology..! <http://www..!February!07..!November!30..&which&could&increase&its&risk&of&disease&in&later& life!(Barker..!Lithell!et!al.!Vol.!TessaJ.!1999).&and&in&doing&so&it&permanently&alters&its& physiology&and&metabolism.!Eriksson!et!al.!1999.!The!effect!size.!These& findings&have&led&to&the&foetal&origins&hypothesis&that&proposes&that&the&foetus& adapts&to&a&limited&supply&of&nutrients.!but!also!in! the!US!and!in!India!(Osmond!et!al..!1999.!1999).sjsu.nufs.!Forsen!et!al.!Leon!et!al.!Web.!1993.!1996.!RichY Edwards!et!al.! 185.!Moreover.edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.!Leon!et!al.! Huxley!et!al.!the! Champion)Briefs) 121& .!A!study!in!Finland!showed!that!the!path! of!growth!in!childhood!modifies!the!risk!of!CHD!associated!with!small!size!at! birth..pdf>.!1998.!2000.!struck!where!extensive.& Roseboom..!Eriksson!et!al...!2000).!and.!it!was!sharply!circumscribed!in!both!time!and!place.!Stein!et!al.!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult! Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview.!1996.AFF:&Disease&Advantage& & &March/April&2015& The&fetal&origins&hypothesis&states&that&those&born&to& malnourished&parents&are&more&likely&to&get&disease& later&in&life.!if!ever.!2015.!is!among!the!largest!found!in!cardiovascular!epidemiology.!The!Dutch!famine—though!a!historical!disaster—provides!a! unique!opportunity!to!study!effects!of!undernutrition!during!gestation!in!humans.!the!famine!occurred!in!a!previously!wellY nourished!population.! Famine!has!seldom..! 1993. ! but!possible!not!the!foetal!supply!line.!The!foetus!becomes! undernourished!when!its!demand!for!nutrients.!All!these! characteristics!enable!that!the!Dutch!famine!can!be!considered!as!a!unique! ‘experiment!of!history’!to!test!the!foetal!origins!hypothesis.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 122& .!So!the!famine!enables!us!to!assess!the! contribution!of!maternal!dietary!intake!and!to!a!lesser!extent.AFF:&Disease&Advantage& & &March/April&2015& type!and!degree!of!nutritional!deprivation!during!the!famine!were!known!with!a! precision!unequalled!in!any!large!human!population!before!or!since.!exceeds!its!supply.&Nutrient&supply&to&the&foetus&depends&on&maternal& nutritional&state&and&the&foetal&supply&line.!which!largely!depends!on!its!rate!of! growth.!The!famine!affected!maternal!nutrition.!maternal!body! composition!to!foetal!programming!of!adult!disease. ! 185.& Roseboom.! 1998)..!Since!the! famine!ended!abruptly.!February!07.!but!the!effects!of!exposure!to!famine!on!glucose!tolerance! were!larger!than!could!be!explained!by!the!small!famineYrelated!reduction!in!birth! weight.!this&is!the!firstevidence!in!humans!that&maternal&undernutrition& during&gestation&is&linked&with&the&risk&of&CHD&in&later&life.!The!transition!from!nutritional!deprivation!in!early!gestation!to!nutritional! adequacy!later!on!may!have!led!to!metabolic!conflicts!resulting!in!disease!in!later!life! Champion)Briefs) 123& .!as!could!be!expected!from!the!relatively!young!age!of!the!cohort.nufs.!2001a).!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult! Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview.!2015.!TessaJ..!Vol.!the!women!who!conceived!during!the!famine!(and!whose! foetuses!were!thus!undernourished!in!early!gestation)!were!well!nourished!in!later! pregnancy.sjsu.!which!may!have!contributed!to!the!above!average!birth!weight!of!their! babies..b)!and&they&appeared&to&have&a&higher& risk&of&CHD!(Ravelli!et!al.! Nevertheless.!a!higher!BMI!(Roseboom!et!al."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology..! People!who!had!been!exposed&to&famine&in&late&or&mid&gestation&had&reduced& glucose&tolerance.!but!that!they&also&feel&less&healthy..AFF:&Disease&Advantage& & &March/April&2015& The&Dutch&famine&shows&a&relation&between&malnutrition& and&cardiovascular&disease&in&later&life.!November!30.!2000c).!people!who!had!been!exposed!to!famine!in!early!gestation!more&often& rated&their&health&as&poor.! <http://www.!Though!the!latter!was!based! on!small!numbers..!Web.!This&indicates!that!they!are!not!only!less!healthy!in! terms!of!objective!measures!of!health.!2000.!We!found!that!people&exposed&to&famine&in&early&gestation&had&a&more& atherogenic&lipid&profile!(Roseboom!et!al.!In! addition.!shown!by!increased!2!h!plasma!glucose!concentrations!(Ravelli!et! al.!1998).edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.pdf>.!somewhat!higher&fibrinogen& concentrations&and&reduced&plasma&concentrationsof!factor!VII!(Ravelli!et!al.!We!also!found!that!those!who!were!light!at!birth!had!increased!2!h!plasma! glucose!concentrations.!1999.!Roseboom!et!al.!2000a. !Web.These!observations!were!not!paralleled!by!reduced!lung!function!or!increased! serum!concentrations!of!IgE.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 124& .!November!30.! 2000).pdf>.! <http://www.!This!suggests!that!the!increased&prevalence&of& symptoms&and&disease&may&be&attributable&to&increased&bronchial& reactivity!rather!than!to!irreversible!airflow!obstruction!or!atopic!disease.! We!found!that!people&who!had!been!exposed&to&famine&in&mid&gestation&had&an& increased&prevalence&of&obstructive&airways&disease!(Lopuhaa!et!al.!2015.& Roseboom.!TessaJ.nufs.! 185.!February!07.sjsu..!Since!the! bronchial!tree!grows!most!rapidly!in!mid!gestation.!"Effects!Of!Prenatal!Exposure!To!The!Dutch!Famine!On!Adult! Disease!In!Later!Life:!An!Overview.!Vol.edu/clariebh/Dutch%20Study.AFF:&Disease&Advantage& & &March/April&2015& Famine&during&gestation&is&linked&to&increased&risk&of& pulmonary&disease."!Molecular!and!Cellular!Endocrinology.!2000.!our&findings&support&the& hypothesis&that&foetal&undernutrition&permanently&affects&the&structure&and& physiology&of&the&airways&during&‘critical&periods’&of&development&that&coincide& with&periods&of&rapid&growth. !Increasing! development!into!marginal!lands!may!in!turn!put!these!areas!at!greater!risk!of! environmental!degradation!(10.!New&challenges&to&food&security&are& posed&by&climate&change&and&the&morbidity&and&mortality&of!human! immunodeficiency!virus/acquired!immunodeficiency!syndrome!(HIV/AIDS).!95%&of&those&are&in&developing&countries.&climate&change&may&result&in&more&intense&rainfall& events&between&prolonged&dry&periods.org/content/302/5652/1917>.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies.!The&agricultural&knowledge&base&will& deteriorate&as&individuals&with&farming&and&science&experience&succumb&to&the& disease!(14).!<http://www.&as&well&as&reduced&or&more&variable& water&resources&for&irrigation.&and&social&impacts.!Many& studies&predict&that&world&food&supply&will¬&be&adversely&affected&by& moderate&climate&change.&In&addition&to&its&direct& health.!February! 09.! However.&In&warmer&or& tropical&environments.&with&an&estimated&42&million&cases&worldwide&at&the&end&of& 2002!(12).&as&well&as&soil&erosion&and&desertification.!and!rural! infrastructure!and!increasing!water!scarcity.!11).! Nevertheless.!many&developing&countries&are&likely&to&fare&badly.&the&disease&also&affects&food&security&and& nutrition.&by&assuming&farmers&will&take&adequate&steps&to& adjust&to&climate&change&and&that&additional&CO2&will&increase&yields!(9).!December!12."!American! Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.&and&these& households&will&have&less&capacity&to&produce&or&buy&food.&crop&yield&growth&has&slowed&in&much&of&the&world&because&of& declining&investments&in&agricultural!research.&economic.!irrigation.!2015.!MarkW.AFF:&Disease&Advantage& & &March/April&2015& HIV&hinders&food&security.!Can!food!security!goals!be!met!in!the!face!of!these!old!and!new! challenges?! Champion)Briefs) 125& .!2003.&The&HIV/AIDS&epidemic&is&another&global& concern.&as&assets&are&often& depleted&for&medical&or&funeral&costs!(13).sciencemag.!Web.&Adult&labor&is&often&removed&from&affected&households.& Rosegrant.&Such&conditions&may&promote&pests&and&disease& on&crops&and&livestock. !and! seed!savers. pdf>! Women&in&many&countries&contribute&the&bulk&of&the&labor&in&food&crops&and& livestock&production&for&home&consumption.&the&informal&economy.&water.!goats.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.!Women! also!often!produce!food!crops!and!tend!smallYscale!livestock!such!as!chickens.!women!predominate!as!gardeners.yale.!Women’s&own&nutritional&status&is&directly&related&to&their&children’s& nutritional&status.&For!example.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!In!some!situations.!December!12.&knowledge.!Women&provide&approximately&80%&of&wild&vegetable&food&collected& in&135&subsistence&societies!(Aguilar.!women!are!less!likely!than!men! to!have!equal!access!to!food!in!their!households.&Overwhelming&evidence&also&suggests&that&empowering& Champion)Briefs) 126& .!wild!food!gathers.&while&men&more&typically&produce& commodities&for&the&market.&and&practices&of& biodiversity.&it&is&usually&women&and&girls&who&have&inadequate&nutritional& status.!Mata.!2003.!February!03.!IUCN).! processing.&Gender&inequities&in&access&to&land.& Sachs.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.!Carolyn.!Despite!their!overwhelming! responsibility!for!labor!in!household!food!provision.!2015.& and&knowledge&limit&women’s&ability&to&produce&food&for&their&households.!In&such& situations.!Typical!gender! divisions!of!labor!in!households!in!most!regions!of!the!world!assign!cooking.&and&the&formal&economy.!Women&perform&the&bulk&of&food&processing&activities&in&the& household.AFF:&Eithics&of&Care/Feminism&AC& March/April&2015& Empowering&women&is&key&to&providing&food&security&and& fighting&child&malnutrition.! Web.! and!sheep!for!household!consumption.! <http://www.! some!household!members!may!have!adequate!food!while!others!do!not.!and!meal!preparation!to!women.!A&key&gender&issue&at&the& household&level&is&intra`household&inequities&in&food&access.!and!QuesadaYAguilar.&labor.& Women&and&men&have&different&uses.!The!value!of!women’s!activities!in!meeting! food!needs!in!difficult!times!and!providing!diverse!diets!has!been!under! recognized. ! The!study!measures!women’s!status!as!decision!making!power!relative!to!their!male! partners!and!societal!gender!equality.!better!nutritional!status!themselves.&where&malnutrition&is&the&worst.!Women’s&status&had&the&strongest&positive& effect&on&children’s&nutrition&in&South&Asia.! Clearly!increasing!women’s!status!in!households!will!improve!nutritional!security!of! household!members.!SubYSaharan!Africa!and!Latin!America.&A&study&using&data&from& 36&developing&countries.!decisionYmaking! authority!in!the!household.!and!are!able!to!provide!better!care!for!their!children.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 127& .&found&that&women’s&status&has&a&positive&impact&on& children’s&nutritional&status&in!South!Asia.AFF:&Eithics&of&Care/Feminism&AC& March/April&2015& women&leads&to&improved&children’s&nutritional&status.&The& reasons&why&women’s&status&improves!malnutrition!are!that!they!have!more! education!and!knowledge. &disempowerment&and&food&and&nutrition&outcomes.AFF:&Eithics&of&Care/Feminism&AC& March/April&2015& Food&security&that&is&attentive&to&gender&relations&are&key&to& preventing&gender&related&violence.!Carolyn.!2015.&But&such&recurring&fluctuations&can& continue&to&be&expected&in&the&global&corporate&food&system&where&people&in&the& global&south&are&dependent&on&food&for&which&prices&are&determined& elsewhere&with&limited&attention&to&the&impact&of&commodity&and&food&price& increases&on&poor&people.! Poor&people&and&women&were&particularly&affected&by&these&price&increases&and& were&unable&to&purchase&sufficient&food."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.&Women&often&lose&their&capacity&to& provide&seeds.!and!weatherYrelated!disasters!has!different! implications!for!women!and!men!in!relation!to!food!security.&and&food&for&their&families&unless&emergency&relief& operations&adopt&gender&sensitive&approaches.!Climate!change!with! increased!droughts.&livestock.!December!12.!or!food&emergencies.&Women&and&girls& tend&to&be&affected&differently&than&men&and&boys&in&emergencies&due&to!conflict.! natural!disasters.&women&and& girls&are&more&vulnerable&to&gender`related&violence&and&may¬&be&able&to& access&their&fields&for&growing&crops&or&grazing&livestock.yale.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.!February!03.! Web.! <http://www.! ! Champion)Briefs) 128& .&In&conflict&situations.& Sachs.!seasonal!shifts.&Conflict&and&civil&unrest&increase&gender`based& violence. pdf>.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.&Programs&that&are& attentive&to&gender&related&concerns&during&periods&of&instability&and& emergencies&will&be&more&likely&to&provide&food&stability&from&year&to&year&and& throughout&the&growing&season.!2003. !not!only!in!relation!to!their!role!as!mothers!or!their! reproductive!function.!Violence&against&women!or!other!practices!that!violate!women’s! rights!may&also&contribute&to&women’s&food&insecurity.! Women&have&specific&dietary&needs.!Web.34!To!ensure! women’s!enjoyment!of!the!right!to!food.!women!throughout!their!life!cycle!should!be!taken!into!consideration!in! realizing!the!right!to!food.!which!also!applies! to!the!private!and!family!sphere.!<http://www.!However.!For!example.!February!05.&including&by&means&of&deprivation&of&food&and&water."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.AFF:&Feminism&AC& & March/April&2015& There&are&gender&specific&implications&to&food&insecurity.!as!well!as!physical!and!mental!impairment.!Malnutrition&of&pregnant!and!breastfeeding!women& can!also!result&in!the!malnutrition.33!In!extreme!cases.!The!special!nutritional!needs!offer!specific!implications!to!food! insecurity.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.!December!12.&because&of& their&lower&status.!the!Convention! on!the!Elimination!of!All!Forms!of!Discrimination!against!Women’s!article!5!obliges!its! State!parties!to!take!measures!“to!modify!the!social!and!cultural!patterns!of!conduct!of! men!and!women.!a&preference&for&male&children&may&lead&to&female& infanticide.& United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!can!include!deprivation! of!food.!the!majority!of!whom!are!women.!Article!12!of!the!Convention!on!the!Elimination!of!All!Forms!of! Discrimination!against!Women!provides!that!women!should!be!ensured!adequate! nutrition!during!pregnancy!and!lactation.ohchr.!Infringement&of&the&right&to&adequate&food&of&women&of&childbearing&age.Women!and!girls!may!face!discrimination!at!home.!with!a!view!to!achieving!the!elimination!of!prejudices!and!customary! and!all!other!practices!which!are!based!on!the!idea!of!the!inferiority!or!the!superiority! of!either!of!the!sexes!or!on!stereotyped!roles!for!men!and!women”.!in!particular!in&relation&to&their&reproductive& health.!2003.!In&many& countries.! including!adolescent!girls.!In!this!regard.!they!receive!less&food&than&the&male&members&of&the&family.!efforts!need!to!be!made!to!rectify!gender! inequality!both!in!the!public!and!in!the!private!sphere.!34.&of& their&children.!it!should!be!noted!that!the!right!to! food!is!relevant!to!all!women.!could&lead&to&life&threatening&complications&during& pregnancy&or&delivery.pdf>.!abuse!of! migrant!domestic!workers.! 2015.!! Champion)Briefs) 129& . !land!sovereignty.&and&family&meals&may&be&sites&of& violence&against&women.!It&survives.!land!and! wealth.!January!11.!Slocum!2006.!cultural!revival!and! Champion)Briefs) 130& .&whiteness&and&power&expressed&in& alternative&food&practices.&and&more&recently.&disease&and&excess&death.!More!recently.!scholars&in&the&food&movement&have&also&begun&to&critique& the&structures&and&relations&of&social&class.&slavery&and&layers&of&racist& institutions&that&have&dispossessed&racialized&groups&of&cultural&pride.!for!example.& Walter.&and&classist&history&of&the& food&movement.&racist.!Lupton! 1996).&both&symbolically&and&materially!(DeVault!1991.!in!genderY!and!classYspecific!ways.!Number!3.!<http://eric.!In!the!food!movement.&the&food&movement.! The&environmental&movement.&organic&and&local&food&production.!through&the& work&of&people&of&color&who&serve.&spaces&and&community&institutions&in&the& food&movement!(Guthman!2008.!selfdetermination.! Rachel!Slocum!(2006:!337)!argues!for&the&importance&of&understanding&and& acknowledging&the&history&of&racism.!calls&to& return&to&more&holistic.!Among!others.!2007).!February!08.!2012.&middle&class& norms.!Pierre.&disproportionately.&colonialism.&welfare&ideology&and&gender&and&class&oppression&is& also&visible&in&the&areas&of&food&insecurity.!Knowledge!And! Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw.&and&class&and&gender& oppression&underlying&the&food&system&in&attempts&to&enact&local&alternatives&to& it:!It!may!be!useful!for!community!food!advocates!to!actively!consider!that&the&US& food&system&was&built&on&a&foundation&of&genocide.ed.!may! simply!mean!additional!labour!for!women.&pedagogies.&have& been&criticised&in&feminist&scholarship&as&repositories&of&male.!In!the! politics!and!activism!of!Indigenous!scholars!in!North!America!and!beyond.!2015.AFF:&Feminism&AC& & March/April&2015& We&must&examine&the&sexist."! Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52.!strong! themes!of!decolonisation.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production.&Institutionalized&racism&intersecting&with& processes&of&colonialism.&practices&and&oppressive&gender&relations.!for!instance.&in&the&hazardous&work&of& farm&labor&and&food&processing.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.! Web. ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 131& .AFF:&Feminism&AC& & March/April&2015& indigenous!pedagogies!in!relation!to!food!are!also!strongly!voiced!(Grande!2004.!with!strong!implications!for!the!study!of!colonialism.!Recently.! gender!oppression.! LaDuke!2005).!2010).!al.!class!and!race!in!the!food!movement.!Suzak!et.!activism!and!culture!as!well! (Green!2007.!Indigenous!scholars!have!begun!to!take!up!the!thorny! political!question!of!feminisms!and!Indigenous!thought. !"Gender.!2015.!There!is!an!urgent!need!for!a!focused! understanding!of!women's!status!and!work!participation!with!respect!to!food!security! for!women!themselves!as!well!as!for!the!family!as!a!whole.!The! methodology!required!to!estimate!female!contribution!to!household!food!security!is! itself!a!problematic!issue.!Correspondingly.! <http://www.& is&by&now&fairly&well&recognised&even&if¬&adequately&reflected&in&mainstream& social&science&literature.!2007.!women&are&losers&in&the&household&level& distributive&process&and&enjoy&lesser&rights&for&disproportionately&higher&work& responsibilities.&and&that&the&"right&to& equality"&is&frequently&denied&to&women.!February!09.!In!general.&with&intra&household& factorsinfluencing&the&distribution&of&resources&and&work&within&the&household.!Work!And!Household!Food!Security.!October!02.!Web."!Economic!and! Political!Weekly.&This&leaves&us&with&hardly&any&data&to&draw&policy&inferences!visYaY vis!operationalization!of!food!security!as!well!as!women's!empowerment.!Given!this.jstor.!women's&own&status&in&terms&of&food&and! nutrition!security&is¬&commensurate&with&the&huge&contribution&they&make&to& household&economy&and&food&security.!Despite&the&literal& recognition&of&women's&role&[IFPRI!2000]!there&is&a&relative&dearth&of&empirical& work&on&how&much&women&actually&contribute&to&food&security&and&through& what&ways.org/stable/4419237?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.!Neetu.! ! Champion)Briefs) 132& .!the!paper!based!on!the!timeYuse!analytical! method!attempts!to!quantify!the!contribution!of!rural!women!to!household!food! security!in!a!rural!area!of!Nanded!district!in!the!state!of!Maharashtra!and!in!the! process!develops!the!methodology!itself.! The!fact!that!the&household&is¬&a&homogeneous&entity.AFF:&Feminism&AC& & March/April&2015& Women&are&disproportionately&harmed&by&food&insecurity.& Choudhary. !"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And! Development.! <http://heinonline.&it&is&necessary&to& analyze&the&structure&of&ownership&of&food&as&a&commodity.!(3)!ownYlabor!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&one's&own&labor&power.!! *Ellipsis!from!source!! Champion)Briefs) 133& .!(2)!productionYbased!entitlement:!one&is& entitled&to&own&what&one&gets&by&arranging&production&using&one's&owned& resources."!Sen!argues!that!an&entitlement& approach&to&the&study&of&access&to&food&and&hunger&is&unavoidable.!possibly!to!take!affect! [sic]!after!the!latter's!death!(if!so!specified!by!him).!1990.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent =1&collection=journals>.!unless!one! wishes!to!perpetuate!"[t]he!…simplicity!of!focusing!on!the!ratio!of!food!to!population! [that]!has!persistently!played!an!obscuring!role!over!centuries.! Amartya!Sen.!not!about!the!relationship!between!persons!and!that! commodity.!Sen!lists!four!major! types!of!entitlement!relations:!(1)!tradeYbased!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&own& what&one&obtains&by&trading&something!one!owns!with!a!willing!party!(or.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.!Asbjorn.!9!In&order&to&understand&hunger&and&starvation.!2015.!or!resources!hired!from!willing!parties!meeting!the!agreed!conditions!of! trade.!and!continues!to! plague!policy!discussions!today!much!as!it!has!deranged!antiYfamine!policies!in!the! past.!emphasizes!that!to!say!something!about!food!supplies!is!to!say!something! about!a!commodity!only.!with!a!willing!set!of!parties).! All&societies&have&developed&rules&to&determine&who&is&entitled&access&to&the& food&produced&within&or&imported&into&that&society.! multilaterally.!in!his!elaboration!of!"entitlements"!in!relation!to!access!to!food!and! starvation.!and! thus!to!the!tradeYbased!and!productionYbased!entitlements!related!to!one's!own!labor! power.& March/April&2015& Eide.!November!30.&One!major!contribution!to!our! understanding!of!the!real!problems!has!been!the!introduction!of!the!concept!of! entitlementsYthe!means!by!which!different!households!or!groups!have!access!to!food.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & & Entitlements&to&food&are&a&societal&norm.!February!05."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.! Web.!These&rules&depend&on&and& reflect&the&nature&of&that&society's&economic&system.!(4)!inheritance!and!transfer!entitlement:!one&is&entitled&to&own&what&is& willingly&given&to&one&by&another&who&legitimately&owns&it. com/2013Y07Y 24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.&To&further&corner&the& field.!Monsanto!simply!drove!prices! through!the!roof.!so!it!also!began&buying!the!biggest!seed!businesses.!found!that&rapidly&increasing& seed&and&pesticide&costs&were&tamping&farmers'&incomes.&Monsanto&offered&steep&discounts&to&independent&dealers&willing&to& restrict&themselves&to&mostly&selling&Monsanto&products.!spending!$12!billion! by!the!time!its!splurge!concluded.!The!company!was!cornering&agriculture&by& buying&up&the&best&shelf&space&and&distribution&channels.!Chris.!The! price!of!corn!rose!259!percent.!"The!Monsanto!Menace.!And!the!cost!of!genetically!modified!cotton!jumped!a! stunning!516!percent.! Monsanto!knew!that!it!needed!more!than!genetically!modified!crops!to!squeeze!out! competitors.&Between&1995&and&2011.&And!the!arrangements! brought!severe!punishment!if!independents!ever!sold!out!to!a!rival.!Seed&prices& soared.!a! research!professor!at!Washington!State!University.!Web.!1990.! February!06.!! ! ! & & & & & Champion)Briefs) 134& .!<http://www.!2015."!The!Village!Voice.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & March/April&2015& & Corporations&have&taken&over&the&world’s&food&supply.villagevoice.!the!cost!of!soybeans!increased!325!percent.!taking!the!biggest!share!for!itself.!November!30.!A!study!by!Charles!Benbrook.!Instead!of!feeding!the!world.!All!its!boasting!about! global!benevolence!began!to!look!much!more!like!a!naked!power!grab.& Parker. ! February!06.com/2013Y07Y 24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.!Web.!Some! Monsanto!agents!pretend!to!be!surveyors.!Monsanto's!lawyer! claimed!the!company!had!an!agreement!with!the!Indiana!Department!of!Agriculture!to! search!his!land.& Parker.! infiltrate!community!meetings.! where!they!secretly!videotape!and!photograph!farmers.!store!owners.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & & March/April&2015& & Government&must&stop&Monsanto&from&bullying&farmers."!using!words!such!as!"gestapo"!and!"mafia"! to!describe!the!company's!tactics.!It's!déjà!vu!all!over!again.!1990.!"The!Pinkertons.!says!Carstensen.!<http://www.! Armed&with&lawyers&and&private&investigators.!November!30.!"You!know!who!does!their! policing?"!he!chuckles!ruefully.!Monsanto!accused!Indiana! farmer!David!Runyon!of!illegally!using!its!soybean!seeds.!Leading!the!charge."!The!Village!Voice.&the&Center&for&Food&Safety&estimated& that&Monsanto&had&pressured&as&many&as&4.!despite!documentation!proving!that!he'd! bought!nonYpatented!seed!from!local!universities!for!years.!One!problem:!Indiana!didn't!have!a!Department!of!Agriculture!at!the! time.villagevoice.!2015.!is!the!private!police!force!that! once!terrorized!union!organizers!from!another!generation.!others&confront&farmers&on&their&land& and&try&to&pressure&them&into&signing&papers&that&give&Monsanto&access&to&their& private&records.!Farmers!call!them!the!"seed!police.!Chris.&the&company&has&embarked&on&a& campaign&of&spying&and&intimidation&to&stop&any&farmer&from&replanting& seeds.500&farmers&into&paying&settlements& worth&as&much&as&$160&million.!the! railroad!goons.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 135& .!and&gather&information&from!informants.!and!coYops.!But!most!cases!never!go!to!trial."!In!one!case.!"The!Monsanto!Menace.!These!are!the!strikebreakers.!In&2006.!Monsanto's!agents&fan&out&into&small&towns.!Runyon!claims!the!company! threatened!to!sue!for!patent!infringement. ! Use&of!those!pesticides&has&soared&as&weeds&and&insects&become&increasingly& resistant!to!them.!Last!year.!The&problem&costs& farmers&more&than&$1&billion&annually.!Since&GM&crops&were&introduced&in&1996.&Weeds!and!insects!are!fighting!back!with!their!own!law:!that!of!natural! selection.!November!30.!Chris.!In!order!to!kill!the!pests.!Syngenta.&Pests!like!RoundupYresistant!pigweed!can! grow!as!thick!as!your!arm!and!more!than!six!feet!high.!But! when!corn!prices!are!high.!2015.! chemical!giants!like!Monsanto!and!Dow!are!developing!crops!capable!of!withstanding! even!harsher&pesticides.&and&an&epidemic&of&weed&and&insect& resistance.& Parker.&more&static&yields.!Many&farmers&simply&abandon&weed`choked&fields.!up!from!34!percent!the!year!before.!Last!year.com/2013Y07Y 24/restaurants/theYmonsantoYmenace/>.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & & March/April&2015& GMO&crops&make&it&harder&to&farm&and&the&government&needs& to&do&something.!Farmers! know!it's!better!to!rotate!crops!and!pesticides!and!leave!fields!fallow!for!a!season.!pesticide&usage&has& increased&by&404&million£s.!1990.!49!percent!of!surveyed!farmers!reported!RoundupYresistant! weeds!on!their!farms.!a!response!to!increased!resistance!to!Monsanto's!pesticides.!reported!that!sales!of!its!major!cornYsoil!insecticide!more!than! doubled!in!2012.villagevoice.!one!of!the!world's!largest! pesticide!makers.!<http://www."!The!Village!Voice.!requiring!removal!by! hand.!"The!Monsanto!Menace.&resulting!in&an&endless&cycle&of&greater&pesticide&use&at& commensurate&financial&and&environmental&cost.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 136& .!who!wants!to!grow!a!less!profitable!crop?!The&result&has& been&soil°radation.!Web.! February!06.!Part&of& the&blame&belongs&to&a&monoculture&that&developed&around&farming. !No.scribd.&according&to&Aristotle.!they&are&natural&in&that&they&are&driven&by&the& universal&biological&necessity&of&obtaining&food.& Cherryl.!"DOES!ARISTOTLE’S!POLIS!EXIST!‘BY!NATURE’?.!Winter!2006.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & & March/April&2015& Political&organization&to&acquire&food&is&natural.!Aristotle&is&at& pains&to¬e&the&diversity&of&the&ways&human&households&structure&their&activity& to&satisfy&the&biological&need&for&food.!as!Aristotle!himself! observes!(Pol.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 137& .!and.&some& around&hunting!including!fishing!and!brigandage.).!4.&human&reproduction&is&characterized&by&the&capacity& to&choose&the&best&time&for&procreation.!some&around& agriculture.!In!particular.!<! http://www.!Moreover.&something&more&is&going&on&in&human&relationships.!1334b29!ff.!February!06.!Web.!These&variations&in&the& organization&of&life&are&‘natural’.&But!note!that!they!are! natural!in!two!different!ways.!XXVII.!they&are&natural&in&that& the&biological&necessity&is&satisfied&in&diverse&ways&devised&in&the&natural&human& mode&of&logos`sociality:!different!groups!of!human!beings!have!employed!practical! rationality!and!speech!to!devise!and!share!distinctly!different!ways!of!organizing!the! activity!of!the!household!in!relation!to!their!environments!in!order!to!satisfy!a! biological!necessity!common!to!all!animals.!thankfully.!in!our!time.!2015.&Some&groups&of&people&structure&their& household&activity&nomadically&around&herding&domesticated&animals.! vice!versa)!is!one!characterized!by!deliberate!choice.!K.!after!scientific!investigation."!HISTORY!OF!POLITICAL! THOUGHT.!First.!he! recommends!legislative!regulation!of!ages!for!marriage.!Vol.com/doc/233962069/DoesYAristotleYsYPolisYExistYbyY Nature#scribd>.! The!selection!of!a!particular!woman!by!a!particular!man!(and.!Second.!! Although&humans&are&motivated&by&the&same&urges&that&lead&certain&animals!—! the!‘social!animals’!Aristotle!refers!to!elsewhere!—!to&create&what&could&be&called& families&in&a&loose&sense.!and!then!various!mixtures!of!the!above. &shelter.!Even!in!the!simplest!social!group.!2015.! <http://www."!HISTORY!OF!POLITICAL! THOUGHT.& Since&the&biological&drives&for&food.!No.&at&least&in&part.! Next!we!have!shown!that!the&developmental&process&of&human&sociality&is&driven& by&a&set&of&two&nested&drives:&the&general&biological&drive&for&mere&life!in!the! mode!of!social!animals!—!food.!4.!The!growth!in!size!and!capacity!from!village!to!polis!may!be! such!that!only!by!hindsight!can!one!see!that!a!new!species!of!social!life!has!been! achieved.&they&are¬& wholly&separable&but&interpenetrate&and&shape&one&another&in&varying& degrees.!while&those&two&drives&may&be&analytically&distinguished.AFF:&Naturalism&AC& & & March/April&2015& Because&political&organization&is&always&driven&by&biological& imperative&even&larger&states&should&naturally&secure& food&for&their&citizens.&security&and&reproduction&—&and&the& specifically&human&drive&to&live&through&speech&and&reason.&the& fact&that&every&polis&is&constituted&and&organized&by&choices&made&by&practical& reason&does¬&make&the&existence&of&the&polis&artificial&rather&than&natural.!the!peculiar!human!activities!of! speech.!Web.!Vol.com/doc/233962069/DoesYAristotleYsYPolisYExistYbyY Nature#scribd>.!February!06.!there&is&no& reason&to&think&that&the&first&development&of&the&polis&from&a&large&village&or& group&of&villages&need&be&envisaged!—!as!by!some!of!the!critics!—!as&a&radical&and& discontinuous&break.!2015.!security!and!reproduction!and!the!specifically! human!drive!to!operate!through!speech!and!reason!interpenetrate.!K.&Since&Aristotle’s& critics&concede&that&the&family&exists&by&nature&and&since&its&existence&and& organization&depend.!February!09.!"DOES!ARISTOTLE’S!POLIS!EXIST!‘BY!NATURE’?.& Cherryl.!deliberation!and!choice!among!alternatives!are!involved.scribd.&on&choices&made&by&practical&reason.!In!Aristotle’s! view.!XXVII.!the!family.!!!! ! Champion)Briefs) 138& . &and.&various&groups&are&involved&in&the&design.!undermine!investment!in!local!food!production!and!the!development!of! local!capacity.&Peacebuilding&is&a&multidimensional&approach&to&building&lasting& peace&in&the&post`conflict&period.&If.stabilityjournal.!February!03.&food&assistance&can&help&to&transform&the& vicious&cycle&of&food&insecurity&and&conflict&into&a&virtuous&cycle&of&food&security:& the&risk&of&violence&can&be&reduced&(Brinkman&and&Hendrix&2011.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 139& .&Peacebuilding&aims&at&reducing&the&risk&of& relapse&into&violence&by:&addressing&the&root&causes&of&conflicts.org/article/view/sta.!January!27.!2013.!2015.!If&done&right.! for!example.!just! because!food!assistance!efforts!take!place!in!a!protracted!crisis!or!in!a!conflictY affected!country.& Hendrix.&Peacebuilding&is&as&much&about&an&outcome&as&it&is&about&a&process.!They!can.& for&example.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks.&food&security&policies.&however.&programmes&and&projects&can&nonetheless& contribute&to&more&peaceful&societies&through&the&integration&of&a&peacebuilding& approach.&improving& social&cohesion&and&reconciliation&among&groups.!it!does!not!mean!that!they!necessarily!contribute!to!peace.!Cullen.&15).&p.&the&interaction&and&dialogue&among& these&groups&can&build&social&cohesion&and&reduce&the&risk&of&violence.&creating&capacities&and& institutions&that&can&manage&disputes."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.! While&food&assistance&programmes&have¬&always&had&their&intended& consequences.&so&that&they&do¬&evolve&into&war&or& violence.! <http://www.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& March/April&2015& & Food&security&policy&does¬&have&contribute&to&violence&if& done&correctly&it&can&create&a&more&peaceful&society.!Web.bm/82>.&implementation&and& evaluation&of&a&food&security&programme.!Yet. gov/pubmed/20032485>.&These&energy`dense&foods.&U.ncbi.!January!27.!Web.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Chronic!Disease!Among!LowY income!NHANES!Participants.&and& added&saturated/trans&fats.&vegetables.&At& the&most&severe&levels&of&food&insecurity.8).&more&than&14%&of&all&U.&tend&to&be&of&poor&nutritional&quality&and&less& expensive&calorie`for`calorie&than&alternatives&(7.! Food&insecurity&refers&to&the&inability&to&afford&nutritionally&adequate&and&safe& foods&(1).&reduced&food&intake.!and!calcium!(5.&added&sugars."!US!National!Library!of!Medicine!National! Institutes!of!Health.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&insecurity&causes&chronic&disease&and&nutritional& deficiencies&among&children&and&adults.!iron.&hyperlipidemia.&including&hypertension.&Most&adults&living&in&food`insecure&households&report&being& unable&to&afford&balanced&meals.&However.&On&average.!zinc.&households&that&report&being&food&insecure&at& some&time&during&the&year&are&food&insecure&for&7&mo&during&the&year& (2).&and&alterations&in&types&of&food&served& (3–6).!2015.&worrying&about&the&adequacy&of&their&food& supply.!HK.&adults&living&in&food` insecure&households&consume&fewer&weekly&servings&of&fruits.&Dietary&variety&decreases&and&consumption&of&energy`dense&foods& increases.&In&2008.&49&million&people.!including!the!B!complex!vitamins.&Common&household&responses&to&inadequate&food&supplies&include&food& budget&adjustments.nlm.S.9.10).nih.&Each&episode&of&food&insecurity&is&generally&short&in&duration.&and& dairy&and&lower&levels&ofµnutrients.&the& dietary&changes&associated&with&food&insecurity&may&persist&over&extended& periods.!These&dietary&patterns&are&linked&to& the&development&of&chronic&disease.!2013.& Champion)Briefs) 140& .&because&food`insecure&households&often&experience&repeated&food& budget&shortages.! magnesium.& Seligman.&running&out&of&food.&many&adults&report&being&hungry& because&there&was¬&enough&money&for&food&and¬&eating&for&an&entire&day& (2).&households.&were& food&insecure&(2).&and&cutting&the&size&of&meals&or&skipping&meals.! <http://www.!February!03.&including&refined&grains.S. &A&number&of&studies&have&demonstrated& associations&between&food&insecurity&and&overweight/obesity&among&children& and&adult&women&using&both&self`reported&and&objective&measures&of&BMI!(20).12).&chronic&illness.´&infection.! although!results!among!children!have!been!inconsistent!(21–23). ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 141& .&including&increased&rates& of&iron`deficiency&anemia.&and&developmental& and&mental&health&problems!(13–19).&There&have&been&many&studies&suggesting&that&food& insecurity&among&children&has&adverse&health&effects.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& and&diabetes&(11. !Web.!In!El!Salvador.stabilityjournal.bm/82Y>.!an! equitable!response!capacity!of!the!government!also!addresses!a!root!cause.”&“fostering&unity.!to! establish!a!strategic!grain!reserve!system.!the! establishment!of!a!nationYwide!food!security!monitoring!system.!Cullen.!WFP!supported!capacity! development.!Similar! arguments!are!prompting!the!Government!of!South!Sudan.!In!Nepal.”&and&“calming&aggressions&and&the&belligerent&mood”!(Kyrgyzstan).”&“tension& diffusing.! Champion)Briefs) 142& .!as& “confidence&building.! <http://www.!2015.&A&review&of&peacebuilding&activities&found&that&the&impact&of&access&to& social&services&on&communities&was&described&as&“stabilizing.!January!27.! Because!horizontal!inequalities!played!a!role!in!the!Maoist!rebellion!in!Nepal.!which!will!develop!government!capacity!to! address!food!insecurity!and!contribute!to!state!legitimacy!(McCandless!2012).!February!03.!and&as&a&return&to&“normal& life”(Central!African!Republic)!(McCandless!2012).!food&security&interventions&can&support&the&development&of&capacities& and&public&administration&systems.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&programs&can&have&a&stabilizing&effect&that& improves&the&perceived&legitimacy&of&the&country& Brinkman&and&Korbel&writes:.!2009).!for!example.!These& programmes&have&a&proven&track&record&of&changing&attitudes&in&the&aftermath& of&conflict.!with!the!support!of!WFP.! has!helped!the!government!respond!to!food!insecurity!and!contributed!to!the! legitimacy!of!the!state!and!strengthened!stateYsociety!relations!(McCandless!2012).!supported!by!WFP.! !Third.!a!schoolYfeeding! programme!was!started!during!the!civil!war!in!1984.!2013.org/article/view/sta.! procurement!and!the!design!of!the!food!basket!(Bundy!et!al.”&and&potentially&strengthening&the&“spirit& of&collaboration&and&cooperation”!(Uganda).!from!the!institutional!framework!and!oversight!to!logistics."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks.& Hendrix. &food&security&interventions&can&improve&the&sustainability&of&livelihood& systems&and&food&security&outcomes.bm/82Y>.!WFP!and!others.!Web.&For&example.& Hendrix.!Early!outcomes!of!the! programme.&because&of&freedom&of&movement.!water!facilities!and!catchment!areas.stabilityjournal.&the&rehabilitation&and& management&of&water&resources&by&differentðnic&groups&in&Kyrgyzstan& contributes&to&multi`ethnic&reconciliation&and&addresses&underlying&drivers&of& conflict.Safety!net!systems.!hillside!terraces.!A&peacebuilding&programme& among&pastoralists&in&Ethiopia&focusing&on&conflict&management&capacity&also& unintentionally&contributed&to&resilience&because&it&improved&social&cohesion& and&relations&among&communities.!January!27.!swamp! reclamation!structures.&which&made&them&more&resilient&in&the&face& of&drought&or&other&shocks.&access&to&water& and&land&and&more&diverse&livelihoods!(MercyCorps!2012).&and&child&nutrition&support&also&contribute&to& sustainability&and&better&food&security&outcomes.!which!led!to!an! agreement!among!local!leaders!on!the!construction!of!water!systems!and!monitoring! mechanisms!(McCandless!2012).org/article/view/sta.! <http://www.!February!03.!roads.!such!as!dams.!2013.!cash`&and& food`for`work&programmes."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.!2015.!WFP!has!conducted!a!large!road!rehabilitation!project!in!South!Sudan!since! 2006.&including&resource&scarcity&andðnic&tensions.!include!increased!social! cohesion!across!ethnic!lines!(McCandless!2012).! Fourth.!CashY!or!foodYforYwork! programmes!focus!on!(re)building!vital!infrastructure.!which!has!improved!links!in!South!Sudan!and!with!neighbouring!countries!and! helped!revitalized!trade.!Cullen.!a!water!and! sanitation!programme!by!UNICEF!was!radically!adapted!early!on!to!incorporate!a! component!for!negotiations!to!resolve!conflicts!about!water!access.!For! example.!In!Somalia.!which!is!supported!by!FAO.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks.!such!as!school!feeding.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& March/April&2015& & Food&security&interventions&also&improve&the&sustainability& of&infrastructure&and&livelihood.!The!roads!built!so!far!have!halved!the!average!travel!time!to! Champion)Briefs) 143& . &gangs&or&organized& criminal&violence.&for&example.&Safety&nets&can&also&provide&an&important&mechanism&to& prevent&urban&riots&or&other&forms&of&violence&in&reaction&to&sudden&changes&in& access&to&food.!schools!and!health!centres!and!reduced!cereal!prices!in!locations!with!road! access.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 144& .&as&a&result&to&increases&in&food&prices.&Cash`&or&food`for`work&programmes&can&particularly&be&important&in& cases&where&youth&are&vulnerable&to&recruitment&by&rebels.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& markets. !January!27.!Therefore.&Focusing&on&youth&is&essential.!and!other! community!assets.!in!Sierra!Leone.!a!new!programme!targets!youth!by!offering!them! cashY!and!foodYforYwork!activities!that!rehabilitate!roads.!drainage!systems.&In& Liberia.!Cullen.!February!03.!This!percentage!of!positive!replies!was! higher!than!for!skills!learned!or!improvements!in!living!conditions.bm/82>.org/article/view/sta.&had&helped&to&promote& peace&and&reconciliation!(WFP!2009a).& Hendrix.!Web.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&initiatives&promote&social&cohesion&especially& among&young&people&and&groups&withðnic&tension& which&are&the&strongest&contributors&to&unrest&and& violence.&for&example.&2009).stabilityjournal.&various&food&security&interventions&have&contributed&to&social&cohesion.!For!some! time.!Greater&social& cohesion&can&result&even&from&brief&exposure&to&new&community`based& participatory&institutions&(Fearon&et&al.! Fifth.&the&evaluation&of&a&protracted&relief&and&recovery& operation&found&that&90&percent&of&the&1.& particularly&given&the&role&that&unemployed&youth&have&played&in&fueling& violence.!WFP!worked!alongside!other!humanitarian!agencies!to!facilitate! the!return!of!IDPs!in!the!Blolequin!area!of!Côte!d’Ivoire.200&participants&interviewed&believed& that&the&short`term&jobs.& This&comes&about&partly&as&a&result&of&working&closely&with&communities.!2015.!Talks!between!WFP!and!the!two!communities!led!to!an!agreement!whereby! the!parties!would!receive!a!oneYmonth!general!food!distribution!followed!by!three! Champion)Briefs) 145& .!2013.&provided&through&the&operation.!IDP!camps!surrounded!the!village!of!Gohogbehi.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks.!and!the!bridges!joining!the!village!and!the!camps!were! destroyed.!Bitter!land!disputes!erupted! as!IDPs!returned!to!resettle.!mutual!fear!between!the!IDPs!and!Gohogbehi!residents!had!brought!work!on!the! plantations!to!a!standstill.! <http://www."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development. &Food&assistance&has&helped& these&communities&to&develop&social&cohesion!(WFP!2009b).&parents&claimed&to&have&grown&closer&as&a&community.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& months!of!food!for!work!in!exchange!for!rehabilitating!the!bridges.!Doing!so!can!undermine!a!fragile.&involving&communities&in&the&design&and& implementation&of&programmes&and&having&an&inclusive&approach&to& programmes&will&contribute&to&peacebuilding&outcomes.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 146& .&Peacebuilding& outcomes&were&achieved&without&adding&to&–&let&alone&replacing&–&food&security& objectives.&Today.&In&Mindanao&(the& Philippines).&the&two&communities&co`exist&peacefully.!nascent!peace.&These&examples&show&that&peacebuilding&outcomes&can&be&achieved& through&the&process&of&providing&food&security&assistance.&goods&and&people& circulate&freely&and&access&to&the&town&is&ensured.&In& an&evaluation.&and& become&better&able&to&trust&members&and&be&more&sensitive&to&others’&needs.!Yet.&no&groups&should&feel& excluded&or&unfairly&treated.&In&fact.!the!impact!on!peace!can!be!greater!if!conflict!dynamics!are!taken!into! account!in!programme!design.&The&social&interaction& and&joint&analysis&builds&social&cohesion.&and& constructing&the&bridges&together&gave&them&an&opportunity&to&live&and&work& together.!Both& communities&received&their&general&food&distribution&at&the&same&location.&At&a&minimum.&Through&food`for`work&or&training& people&became&more&cooperative&and&took&on&new&projects&together&(WFP& 2009c).&a&school&meals&programme&increased&community&participation.& School&meals&also&strengthened&the&opportunities&for&dialogue&between&the& government&and&targeted&communities. !January!08.&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.N.! The!question!of!what!constitutes!adequate!food!has!been!widely!debated.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.”12!A!comment!within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate! food”!as:!The!availability!of!food!in!a!quantity!and!quality!sufficient!to!satisfy!the! dietary!needs!of!individuals.! <https://willamette.&has&stated&that&food&insecurity&exists&when& people&do¬&have&adequate&physical.!February!03.&social.&The&monetary&costs& required&to&obtain&adequate&food&should&be&at&a&level&that&doing&so&would¬& compromise&other&basic&fundamental&human&rights&or&needs.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&safe&and&nutritious&enough&to&meet&their&dietary&needs.pdf>.! !! &! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 147& .!and! universal!agreement!to!the!term!has!remained!elusive.!2015.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!free!from!adverse!substances.&has&physical& and&economic&access&at&all×&to&adequate&food&or&means&for&its& procurement.&The&Rome&Declaration&and& Plan&of&Action&of&1996&stated&that&the&“right&to&adequate&food&is&realized&when& every&man.13&This&means&that&the&right& to&food&entails¬&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability&to&grow&food&in&a& sustainable&way.&woman&and&child.!and!acceptable!within!a! given!culture.!2010.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is¬&just&the&ability&access&food&but&also& ensuring&that&everyone&has&the&means&to&afford&it.!the!accessibility!of!such!food!in!ways!that!are!sustainable!and!that!do! not!interfere!with!the!enjoyment!of!other!human!rights.14&The&Food&and& Agriculture&Organization&of&the&U.&alone&or&in&community&with&others.&or&economic&access&to&food&that&is& sufficient.!Web."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign. ! Subjacent!poor!live!on!between!$0.!Those& who&live&in&these&extreme&states&of&poverty&find&themselves&without&education.23&Food&production&has&been&ahead&of& population&growth&for&over&half&a¢ury&now.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.22&Contrary&to&intuitive&thought.&they&go&hungry&because&they&lack&the&resources&to& purchase&or&grow&their&own&food.!2015.! <https://willamette.!Web.& with&fewer&assets.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& The&issue&is&generally¬&a&lack&of&food&but&rather&inability& to&afford&it.! Not&surprisingly.!January!08.&food&scarcity&is&generally¬&the&main& problem&in&developing&countries.S.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.50!per!day.50!and!$0.&and&with&little&to&no&access&to&markets.75!per!day.!dollar!a!day.!2010."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.24&People&do¬&go&hungry& because&there&is&a&lack&food.!February!03.&but&it&is&rarely&enough.75!and!$1!per!day.!These!regions!account!for! 72%!of!the!world!population!living!on!less!than!one!U.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!medial!poor!live!on!between! $0.!and!the!ultra!poor!live!on!less!than!$0.pdf>.!and!ultra!poor.21&These&conditions&of&extreme&poverty&make& it&nearly&impossible&to&escape&and&gain&financial&access&to&the&food&they&need&to& survive.25&It&is&the&combination&of&low&income&and&the& rising&costs&of&food.&discussed&next.&They&spend&the&little& money&they&have&on&food.&the&areas&with&the&highest&hunger&rates&coincide&with&the&areas& of&highest&poverty:!SubYSaharan!Africa!and!South!Asia.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 148& .!medial.&Their&hunger&and&malnutrition& in&turn&reduce&their&productivity.20!The! International!Food!Policy!Research!Institute!(IFPRI)!divides!the!extent!of!a! population’s!poverty!into!three!subcategories:!subjacent.&that&create&a&large&portion&of&hunger&in&the& world. 29&Furthermore.&the&World&Bank& has&stated&that&high&food&prices&are&pushing&poor&people&deeper&into&poverty& across&the&globe.&according&to&one&study&by&the&Congressional&Research&Service.& which&can&lead&to&further&health&complications.!2015.!These&factors&have&caused&the&prices&of&even&the&most&basic& grains&and&cereals&to&soar.!January!08.! <https://willamette.!increased!food!and!fuel!consumption!by!middleYincome!countries.!Web.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!such!as!fruits!and!vegetables!and!replace!them!with!food!that!is!more!filling!but! less!expensive.!February!03.! Recent&world&economic&problems&have&also&contributed&to&the&rise&of&global& hunger.&in&turn.! and!exporting!costs.27& For&example.26&This&rise&in&food&prices.!and!global! climate!change.!and! increased!pressure!on!land!use!and!production!of!basic!cereals!for!greater!cultivation! of!bioYfuels.!Department!of!Agriculture!in!May!2009.!2010.!increased!commodity!prices!brought!about!by!drought.pdf>.31!Although&there&is&still&a&sufficient&amount&of&grains&and&other& foods&to&feed&the&world’s&population.&the&poor&tend&to&decrease&their&intake&of&nutritious& foods.!like!roots.&much&of&the&increase&can&be&attributed&to&the&rising&food&prices&of&recent& years.&combined&with&the&fact&that&an&estimated& 61.&the&decrease&in&the&surplus&of&food&stocks& has&caused&the&prices&of&food&to&rise.!factors! contributing!to!rising!food!include:!decreased!international!stocks!of!staple!grains!and! cereals.!floods.! Champion)Briefs) 149& .&has&had&devastating&effects.!transport.5%&of&the&world&lives&below&the&poverty&line.&particularly&in&countries&that&import&most&of&their&foods&and& have&limited&capacity&to&cushion&the&shock&of&high&prices.”28&This.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.S."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.30!As!analyzed!by!the! Economic!Research!Service!of!the!U.& “[o]nce&food&prices&rise.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!The!increase!in!fuel!prices!over!the!last!decade! has!also!contributed!to!the!rising!cost!of!food!due!to!increased!cultivation.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Rising&cost&of&food&and&declining&food&stocks&contribute&to& cost&of&food&harming&impoverished&people.&results&in&malnourishment&of&the&poor. &private&transnational&corporations&(TNC’s)&have&contributed&to& this&process&by&driving&countries&to&reallocate&production&from&domestic&food& crop&to&export&crops.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.44!For!example.!January!08.! <https://willamette.! Furthermore.!from!ten!tons!per! hectare!in!the!1960s!to!seven!tons!per!hectare!in!the!late!1990s!(meaning!that!it!now! takes!more!land!to!produce!the!same!amount!of!rice).46&Many&of&these&workers&fail&to& complain&about&insufficient&wages&because&they&believe&it&is&better&to&be& underpaid&than&it&is&to&be&unemployed.45!The&TNC’s&also&contribute& to&food&insecurity&by&often&failing&to&pay&their&workers&enough&to&purchase& sufficient&import&food&for&their&families.43!Not&only&does&this&have&detrimental&effects&on&hunger.&it& also&is&damaging&to&local&ecosystems.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.42!It!is!estimated!that!each!year!there!are!a!million!hectares! that!are!thus!shifted.!Web.4! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 150& .!2015.&and&with&the&high&unemployment&rates&in& these&developing&countries."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!2010.&resulting&in&lower&amounts&of&crop& production&by&hectare.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.pdf>.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Transnational&companies&aggravate&the&issue&by&decreasing& ecological&productivity&and&exploiting&desperate& farmers.!February!03.!the!International!Rice!Research!Institute!has! found!that!rice!yields!have!steadily!declined!since!the!1960s.&they&do¬&want&to&risk&losing&their¤t&jobs. &families&who&are&already&barely&surviving&may&avoid&taking&their& children&to&the&doctor.&they&face& permanent&consequences&of&stunted&growth.&and&possibly&forced&to&work&to&bring&in&more& money&for&the&family.&thus&damaging&the& children’s&education&and&possibilities&for&a&successful&future.&If&the&children’s&nutritional&needs&are¬&met.!February!03.&they&begin&to&decrease&spending&on& other&necessities.!2010.&Children&have& special&nutritional&needs&at&a&young&age&to&ensure&proper&physical&and&mental& development.& even&for&a&short&period&of&time.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& March/April&2015& & Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&and&are&disproportionately& affected&by&food&insecurity.! Children&are&the&most&vulnerable&to&food&insecurity.&young&girls&who&have&been&pulled&out&of&school&are&likely&to&become& domestic&or&sex&workers.pdf>.&For&example.&as&this&is&the&most&common&and&economic&route&for& Champion)Briefs) 151& .&Thus.&reduced&cognitive&development.”50&Studies&have&shown&that& malnourishment&was&present&in&45%&of&children&who&died&after&contracting& measles&and&60%&of&children&who&died&after&severe&diarrhea.&are&very&vulnerable&to&exploitation.&The&Food&and&Agriculture& Organization&has&stated&that&the&majority&of&the&10&million&children&who&die&each& year&in&developing&countries&“would¬&die&if&their&bodies&and&immune&systems& had¬&been&weakened&by&hunger&and&malnutrition.52&Children&are&affected&by&rising&food&insecurity& in&additional&ways."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.& and&decreased&immune&system&development&leaving&them&susceptible&to&disease.&Many&will&remove&their&children&from&school&so&that&they&can& spend&their&money&on&more&food&instead&of&on&education.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!2015.&their&performance&and&productivity&later&in&life& will&be&detrimentally&affected.&if&the&nutritional&needs&of&children&are¬&met.!January!08.& Furthermore.51&The&possible& long`term&damage&to&children&and&infants&is&nearly&immeasurable.!Web.&Children&who&are& pulled&out&of&school&to&save&money.! <https://willamette.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&when&these&families&and&other&individuals&can& no&longer&cut&their&food&budget&any&further.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&According&to&some& scholars. 177!By!2009.&The&solution&lies&with&the&International&Food&Security&Treaty&(IFST).&the&international&community&can&finally&take&a&united&and&effective& stance&against&hunger.! The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&is&key&to&enforcement& and&international&cooperation&to&end&world&hunger.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.!January!08.!while!nationally!only!a!relatively!few!states!have!officially!recognized!the!right!to! adequate!food!by!incorporating!it!into!their!domestic!legislation."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!February!03.181!In!fact.!2015.!worked!to!place!the!Human!Right!to!food!in!an! international!document.! <https://willamette.!World!hunger!is!on!the! rise.! Without&specific&international&obligations&focused&on&the&right&to&food.&a& product&of&years&of&work&and&dedication&beginning&in&the&1990’s.!volunteers!in!the!United!States!and!Canada!active!in!struggle!to!secure!an! international!right!to!food.178!This!means!that!one!out!of!every!six!people!in!the!world!is!still! hungry!or!malnourished.!2010.&It&is&a&sad&fact&that&the&levels&of&hungry&and&undernourished&people& in&the&world&have&risen!since!the!first!World!Food!Summit!in!1996.!Through!their! joint!effort.)!member!states!have!incorporated!the! right!to!food!into!their!constitutions.02! billion!people.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!The!result!is!a!treaty!that!will!be!used!to!achieve!the!goal!of! ending!world!hunger!and!securing!everyone’s!right!to!food.&By&recognizing&a&fundamental&right&to&be& free&from&hunger&and&working&to&protect&this&right&through&an&international& treaty.179!International&action&without&a&specific&treaty&has¬& been&very&encouraging&in&moving&towards&the&goal&of&international&food& security180&given&that&the&total&number&of&people&living&hungry&continues&to& increase.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!Web.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& these&girls&to&maximize&their&utility.pdf>.&since&they&have¬&learned&any&employable& skills&in&school.!the! number!of!hungry!and!malnourished!people!in!the!world!was!estimated!to!be!1.!only! twentyYtwo!out!of!the!192!United!Nations!(U.&hunger& will&persist.N.182&The&IFST&would&compel&nations&to&never&again& acquiesce&to&this&terrible&form&of&oppression&that&hunger&embodies&and&would& Champion)Briefs) 152& . ! Champion)Briefs) 153& .&promoting& his&or&her&emancipation&from&hunger.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& respect&and&enforce&an&individual’s&legal&claim&to&the&right&to&food.183!Outlined!below!are!seven!key!reasons! which!will!demonstrate!why!the!international!community!cannot!wait!any!longer!for! the!International!Food!Security!Treaty. pdf>.!provide!for!the!extent!and!nature!of!a!party’s!duty!to!ensure!realization! of!the!right!to!food.&but&a&legal&duty.!The!State!Parties!to!the! present!Covenant!recognize!the!right!of!everyone!to!an!adequate!standard!of!living!for! himself!and!his!family.!February!03.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&has¬&worked.!2010.! <https://willamette.&A&treaty&provides&a&clear&outline&of& guaranteed&rights&that&countries&must&protect.!and!housing!and!to!the! continuous!improvement!of!living!conditions.!including!adequate!food.` related&initiatives&will&continue&to&be&undermined.”! Champion)Briefs) 154& .!Social.& The¤t&approach.&where&participating&nations&agree&to&non`binding& standards&that&they&cannot&require&others&to&follow.!and!allows!for!“progressive!realization”!without!sufficient! explanation.!clothing.!The&IFST&is&needed&to&clearly&and&outline&signing&parties’&obligations& and&duties&to&effectively&decrease&the&levels&of&world&hunger&and&malnutrition.185!The!ICESCR!does! not.!The!State!Parties!will!take!appropriate! steps!to!ensure!the!realization!of!this!right.!2015.!January!08."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.!however.!There!are!many!references!in! international!human!rights!documents!to!the!fundamental!right!to!food!and!the!right! to!be!free!from!hunger.186&A&uniform&treaty&is&needed&to&confront& this&international&epidemic&of&hunger&because.!Web.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&“[u]nless&and&until&the&accountability&of&global&actors&is&more&clearly& defined&under&international&law.!including!the!International!Covenant!on!the!Economic.!recognizing!to!this!effect!the!essential! importance!of!international!coYoperation!based!on!free!consent.&as&legal&scholar&Smita&Narula&has& reasoned.N.&The& ineffectiveness&of&this&approach&is&shown&in&the&alarming&rate&of&worldwide& hunger.&the&potential&impact&of&both&domestic&and&U.&The&IFST&will&serve&as&a&reminder&that&the&right&to&food&for&all&is¬&just& a&political&choice.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& The&IFST&is&key&to&enforcement&and&accountability.! The&IFST&will&ensure&that&governments&are&held&accountable&for&any&violations&of& the&fundamental&right&to&be&free&from&hunger.! and!Cultural!Rights!(ICESCR)184!which!states!in!Article!11(1). !February!03.!2010.!2015.!“[T]hey!must!know!nothing.192&Accurate&information&makes&enforcement&possible.! The&IFST&defines&mechanisms&for&enforcement&and&reporting&that&all&parties&to& the&treaty&would&be&required&to&follow.&then&resources&can&more&easily&be&allocated&to&those&who&need&it&the&most.!policyYmakers!often! ignore!or!hide!the!information!and!claim!ignorance!to!justify!remaining!passive.&If&hunger&conditions&prove&to&be& dire.!obtaining!reliable!data!remains! a!major!challenge.&it&can&exact& Champion)Briefs) 155& .pdf>.”191!Provisions&in&the&IFST&will&ensure&that&parties&who&sign&will&never& again&be&able&to&hide&behind&a&lack&of&information&when&they&choose&to&do& nothing&to&stop&world&hunger.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&and&where&they& reside.!Web.189!Even!in!countries!where!data!is!available.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& March/April&2015& & The&IFST&is&key&to&accountability&because&it&requires& participating&states&to&report&their&data&meaning&they& can’t&backslide&or&hide&failures.&The&old&approach&used&by&countries.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&why&they&are&hungry.&The&treaty’s&reporting&requirements.190! As!one!commentator!put!it.N.&where& ignorance&was&bliss.&The&IFST&will& require&parties&to&provide&information&on&the&level&of&hunger&to&the&U.& Even&if&the&IFST&does¬&solve&the&hunger&problem&right&away.&are&critical&to&ensuring&compliance.&which&is& needed&for&the&enforcement&of&the&right&to&food.&would&now&qualify&as&a&direct&violation&of&the& responsibilities&to&guarantee&the&right&to&food&security&under&the&IFST’s& reporting&requirements."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.& both®arding&the&number&of&hungry&in&a&country&and&how&well&a&party&is& complying&with&its&duties.&can&we&design&truly&effective&policies&to&remove&or&lower&the&obstacles&to& their&enjoyment&of&the&right&to&food.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!January!08.”188!However.!in!order!to!be!allowed!to!do! nothing.! <https://willamette.& It&is&“only&by&knowing&who&the&hungry&are. !A&country&that&ratifies&the&treaty&will&never&again&be&able&to& passively&let&hunger&exist&in&the&world&because&it&would&have&agreed&to&do& everything&in&its&power&to&fight&it.&The&shame&of¬& taking&appropriate&action®arding&a&country’s&obligations&toward&reducing&the& levels&of&preventable&hunger&may&give&incentive&to&parties&to&fulfill&their& obligations.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 156& .AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& pressure&against&the&indifference&to&hunger&and&thus&obviate&enforcement&by& preventing&a&hunger&crisis&from&arising&in&the&first&place. &As&a&consequence.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&the&countries& where&they&are&either&incorporated&or&do&business.! <https://willamette."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& March/April&2015& & The&IFST&is&also&key&to&checking&back&international& corporations&to¬&exploit&their&workers&if&they&wish&to& business&in&participating&countries.!January!08.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 157& .&the&incentive&to&make&money&at&the& cost&of&driving&up&the&levels&of&hunger&up&may&continue&to&be&too&great.!February!03.!Web.!2010.& they&will&need&to&consider&their&obligations&vis`a`vi&IFI’s&and&TNC’s&within&their& borders.!2015.pdf>.&will& be&obligated&to&respect.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.&being&parties&to&a&treaty.! A&treaty&will&also&increase&the&accountability&of&Trans`National&Corporations& (TNCs)&and&International&Financial&Institutions&(IFIs)&working&worldwide.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&and&fulfill&the&right&to&food.&protect.&While& such&IFIs&and&TNCs&themselves&are¬&obligated&by&the&treaty.193&In&the&absence&of&enforceable&national&and&international&law&for& private&international&institutions&to&follow. & International!Human!Rights!Clinic.!2015.195&In&fact.!while!an!attempt!to!solve!the! world!hunger!problem.!February!03.! <https://willamette.!January!08.&Often.196!Economic!approaches!to! dealing!with!hunger.!are!often!argued!to!be!the!most! efficient.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.”194!The&trickledown&economic& approach.!but!sometimes!the&most&economically&efficient&policy&is&often&morally& unacceptable.!including!various!WTO!policies.&hurting&the&rural&poor&and&taking&away& protections&while&increasing&the&profits&of&business.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& Purely&economic&approaches&to&food&security&are&inadequate& at&addressing&the&problem&only&the&IFST&can&solve.!2010.!Web.!it!would!“seem!improbable!that!the! legal!framework!constructed!by!the!WTO!would!offer!an!adequate!basis!for!defending! the!human!right!to!food!against!potential!threats.&where&it&is&assumed&money&will&flow&from&the&rich&who&receive&it&all& the&way&down&to&the&poor&who&need&it.!This!approach.&when& developing&nations&are&given&money&to&help&solve&their&hunger&issues.pdf>.!makes!the!mistake!of!applying!an!economic!approach!to!food.! Given!past!criticism!over!the!WTO’s!methods.!financial!organizations!such! as!the!World!Trade!Organization!(WTO)!have!been!responsible!for!trying!to!solve!the! world’s!hunger!problem!because!food!supplies!are!classified!in!the!same!category!as! other!international!imports!and!exports."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.& studies&have&illustrated&that&economically`focused&trade&liberalizations& exacerbate&the&economic&inequalities.197&This&is&because&the&economic&approach&emphasizes&mere& averages&and¬&individual&rights.198&An&approach&that&focuses&more&on& individual&human&rights&obligates&countries&to&ensure&the&fulfillment&of&basic& Champion)Briefs) 158& .! The&purely&economic&approach&that&has&been&previously&employed&to&combat& hunger&will¬&solve&the&hunger&problem.&In!the!past.&those&who& are&most&vulnerable&to&oppressive&hunger&are&least&likely&to&get&help.&has&been&shown¬&to&work. &The&IFST&will&bring&the& right&of&access&to&food&to&the&forefront&of&international&human&rights&law&by&creating&an& obligation&to&enforce&that&right ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 159& .199&The& International&Foods&Security&Treaty&emphasizes&that&food&is&no&ordinary& international&commodity.200!When&the&International&Food&Security&Treaty&comes&to&fruition.&but&a&fundamental&human&necessity.& hunger&will&decrease&significantly&even&if&it&is¬&eradicated.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& human&rights&without&discrimination&at&the&individual&level.&it& will&emphasize&that&trade&in&food&should&be&distinguished&from&the&other&trading& sectors.&For&that&reason. 203& The&nations&of&the&first`world&cannot&afford&to&continually&be&seen&as&indifferent& to&the&suffering&of&the&developing&world&around&them&when&the&levels&of&hunger& in&the&first`world&nations&are&so&much&lower&than&they&are&everywhere&else.!February!03.&and&borders.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 160& .AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& The&IFST&is&also&key&to&ensuring&international&security&and& reducing&civic&conflict.!Web.!2010.pdf>.201&pointing&out&how&“Massive&hunger&poses&a&threat&to&the&stability&of& governments.!2015.!January!08.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.&but&it&also&serves&to& enhance&national&security.&People&can&become&desperate&when&they&do¬&have& enough&to&eat&while&others&around&them&have&more&than&enough.! <https://willamette.&If&everyone&has&enough&to&eat.!United!States! Secretary!of!State!Hillary&Clinton&spoke&out&about&the&issue&of&national&security&as& it&relates&to&food&security&during&the&Clinton&Global&Initiative&Conference&in& 2009.”202&The&IFST&will&improve&national& security&by&improving&access&to&food&worldwide&and&preventing&events&such&as& the&food&riots&that&have&occurred&in&more&than&sixty&countries&since&2007.&then&those&who&have& plenty&to&eat&are&safer.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&societies.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.! The&right&to&food&could&stand&solely&on&moral&grounds. edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An!International!Food! Security!Treaty.&As&countries&are&getting&more&and& more&interdependent.”204&The&IFST&provides&a&plan&of&action&toward&a&goal& that&can&no&longer&be&seen&as&an&impossible&objective.!Web.& there&will&continue&to&be&“gaps&in&the&legal&analysis&and&theoretical&holes&which& fail&to&adequately&address&the&right&to&food.&As&legal& scholar&Henry&J.&Individually.”207!International&treaties&work&as&a&sword&to&fight&seemingly& insurmountable&social&problems&and&as&a&shield&that&can&protect&the&most& vulnerable&members&of&the&global&society.!February!03.! <https://willamette.pdf>.&“No&program&springs&full&blown&from&the&bare& declaration&of&the&right.! Social&problems&very&rarely&solve&themselves&without&a&plan&of&action.”!leaving!the!concept!of!food!security! open!to!criticism!which!allows!it!to!“be!dismissed!as!impassioned! rhetoric.!January!08.205&An&effective&plan&of& action&counters&feelings&of&complacency&and&helplessness&in&the&face&of&world& hunger."!Williamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International! Food!Security!Treaty!Campaign.AFF:&Generic&Utilitarian/Himan&Rights&AC& & March/April&2015& The&IFST&is&a&key&starting&point&to&ending&world&hunger.&but& internationally.&The&law&is&a&force&that&motivates&people&to&do&things&that&they&would¬& otherwise&feel&that&they&could&or&should&do.!2010.&the&right&to&food&becomes&an&issue&that&cannot&be& effectively&addressed&solely&with&within&national&boundaries.!2015.&rights& discourse&gives&out&and&action&becomes&a&necessity.206&Only&a& mechanism&like&the&IFST&can&ensure&food&security&worldwide.&hunger&does¬&stand&a&chance&when&different&nations&work& together.& International!Human!Rights!Clinic.& countries&might¬&be&completely&able&to&feed&their&populations.&Steiner&put&it.&enforceable&law&that&this&treaty&seeks&to&create.! ! Champion)Briefs) 161& .&At&a&certain&point.&Without&the&uniform. "!UN!Human!Rights.!However.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 162& .!2015.!United.!2010.&has&physical&and&economic&access&at&all×&to& adequate&food&or&means&for&its&procurement.&woman&and&child.!The!right!to!adequate!food!shall! therefore!not!be!interpreted!in!a!narrow!or!restrictive!sense!which!equates!it!with!a! minimum!package!of!calories.!and!which!ensure!a!physical!and!mental.ohchr.& permanent&and&unrestricted&access.&12&of&the&United&Nations& Committee&on&Economic.!This&definition&is&in&line&with&the&core&elements&of& the&right&to&food&as&defined&by&General&Comment&No.!individual!and!collective.org/EN/Issues/Food/Pages/FoodIndex.! For!the!Special!Rapporteur.!February!03.aspx>.!proteins!and!other!specific!nutrients.!either!directly!or!by!means!of!financial! purchases.!States&have&a&core& obligation&to&take&the&necessary&action&to&mitigate&and&alleviate&hunger&even&in& times&of&natural&or&other&disasters.! January!08.&to&quantitatively&and&qualitatively&adequate&and&sufficient&food& corresponding&to&the&cultural&traditions&of&the&people&to&which&the&consumer& belongs.!Social!and! Cultural!Rights!in!those!states!which!are!party!to!it).&Social&and&Cultural&Rights!(the!body!in!charge!of! monitoring!the!implementation!of!the!International!Covenant!on!Economic.!the&right&to&food&is&the&right&to&have®ular.!"Special!Rapporteur!On!The!Right!To!Food.& Nations.!The!right!to! adequate!food!will!have!to!be!realized!progressively.&alone& or&in&community&with&others.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& A&right&to&food&is&enshrined&in&international&law.!fulfilling! and!dignified!life!free!of!fear.! <http://www.The&Committee&declared&that& “the&right&to&adequate&food&is&realized&when&every&man.!Web. (2)!Motherhood!and!childhood!are! entitled!to!special!care!and!assistance."!Article!25.! (1)&Everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of&living&adequate&for&the&health!and! wellYbeing!of!himself!and!of!his!family.!2015.!sickness.!clothing.! <http://www.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 163& .& UDHR.!and&the&right&to&security&in&the&event& of!unemployment.!whether!born!in!or!out!of!wedlock.!including&food.un.! February!03.!February!09.!All!children.! shall!enjoy!the!same!social!protection.!housing!and!medical! care!and!necessary!social!services.!disability.shtml#a25>.!Web.org/en/documents/udhr/index.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&Universal&Declaration&of&Human&Rights&guarantees&food& security.!2015.!old!age!or!other!lack!of! livelihood!in!circumstances&beyond&his&control..!"Universal!Declaration!Of!Human!Rights.!widowhood. org/documents/ga/res/41/a41r128.!February!03.!United.!Web.un.!!Effective!measures!should!be!undertaken!to!ensure!that!women!have!an! active!role!in!the!development!process.!2015.!employment!and!the!fair!distribution!of! income.! <http://www.&at&the&national&level.!1986.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&Declaration&on&the&Right&to&Development&requires&states& to&provide&food&security.!"Declaration!On!The!Right!To!Development.!!Appropriate!economic!and!social!reforms! should!be!carried!out!with!a!view!to!eradicating!all!social!injustices.![including]&food.!health! services."!UN!General!Assembly.! April!12.!housing.&all&necessary&measures&for&the& realization&of&the&right&to&development&and&shall&ensure.htm>.!education.& Nations.! States&should&undertake.!! Champion)Briefs) ! 164& .&inter&alia.&equality&of& opportunity&for&all&in&their&access&to&basic&resources. pdf>.!April!12.!"International!Covenant!On!Economic.!The&States&Parties&will&take&appropriate&steps&to&ensure&the& realization&of&this&right.!1986."!UN! General!Assembly.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 165& .!and!to!the!continuous!improvement!of!living! conditions.!Social!And!Cultural!Rights.&recognizing&to&this&effect&the&essential&importance&of& international&co`operation&based&on&free&consent.!clothing!and!housing.!United.! <http://www.!The&States&Parties&to&the&present&Covenant&recognize&the&right&of&everyone&to& an&adequate&standard&of&living&for&himself&and&his&family.& Nations.&including&adequate& food.&Social&and&Cultural& Rights&mandates&that&states&should&provide&adequate& food&for&their&citizens.!Web.nesri.!February!03.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& & The&International&Covenant&on&Economic.! 1.!2015.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Economic_Social_Rights_Co venant. ! 2015.pdf>.!to&the&extent&permitted&by&public&and&community&resources.& International!Conference!of!American!States.!clothing.! Article!XI.!"American!Declaration!Of!The!Rights! And!Duties!Of!Man.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 166& .!Every&person&has&the&right&to&the&preservation&of&his&health&through& sanitary&and&social&measures&relating&to&food.!Web."!Ninth!Conference.!February!03.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&American&Declaration&of&the&Rights&and&Duties&of&Man& includes&a&right&to&food&security.! <http://www.!2015.org/sites/default/files/uploads/American_Declaration_of_t he_Rights_and_Duties_Man.!housing!and!medical! care.!February!09.nesri. !guidance!for!parents!and!family!planning!education!and!services.! February!09.!the!application!of!readily!available!technology!and!through!the!provision! of![provide]&adequate&nutritious&foods&and&clean&drinking`water.&shall& take&appropriate&measures:!(a)!To!diminish!infant!and!child!mortality.! <http://www.! Article!24!1.!(d)!To!ensure! appropriate!preYnatal!and!postnatal!health!care!for!mothers.!States&Parties&recognize&the&right&of&the&child&to&the&enjoyment&of&the& highest&attainable&standard&of&health&and&to&facilities&for&the&treatment&of&illness& and&rehabilitation&of&health.!(c)!To!combat!disease!and! malnutrition.!2015.!through.!taking!into! consideration!the!dangers!and!risks!of!environmental!pollution.!(e)![and]!To&ensure& that&all&segments&of&society.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&Convention&on&the&Rights&of&the&Child&includes& provisions&for&food&security.&in&particular&parents&and&children.!(f)!To!develop!preventive! health!care.!States& Parties&shall&pursue&full&implementation&of&this&right&and."!UN!General!Assembly.pdf>.!Web.!February!03.nesri.!"Convention!On!The!Rights!Of!The!Child.!(b)!To! ensure!the!provision!of!necessary!medical!assistance!and!health!care!to!all!children! with!emphasis!on!the!development!of!primary!health!care.& have&access&to&education&and&are&supported&in&the&use&of&basic&knowledge&of& child&health&and&nutrition.!United.&States&Parties&shall&strive&to&ensure&that&no&child&is& deprived&of&his&or&her&right&of&access&to&such&health&care&services.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 167& .org/sites/default/files/uploads/Convention_on_the_Rights_ of_the_Child.!the!advantages!of!breastfeeding.!including!within!the!framework!of!primary!health!care.& Nations.!2015.!2.&are&informed.&in&particular.!inter! alia.!hygiene!and! environmental!sanitation!and!the!prevention!of!accidents. AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& States&have&a&duty&to&provide&food&security&for&children.&in&accordance&with& national&conditions&and&within&their&means.!the!conditions! of!living!necessary!for!the!child's!development.! February!09.& particularly&with®ard&to&nutrition.!clothing!and!housing.&mental.!2015.&spiritual.!where!the!person!having! financial!responsibility!for!the!child!lives!in!a!State!different!from!that!of!the!child.& Nations.! Article!27!1.!"Convention!On!The!Rights!Of!The!Child.!Web.!as!well!as!the!making!of!other!appropriate! arrangements.&moral&and&social& development.org/sites/default/files/uploads/Convention_on_the_Rights_ of_the_Child.!2.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 168& .!2015.pdf>.!The!parent(s)!or!others!responsible!for!the!child!have!the!primary! responsibility!to!secure.!States!Parties!shall! take!all!appropriate!measures!to!secure!the!recovery!of!maintenance!for!the!child! from!the!parents!or!other!persons!having!financial!responsibility!for!the!child.!States&Parties&recognize&the&right&of&every&child&to&a&standard&of& living&adequate&for&the&child's&physical.! States!Parties!shall!promote!the!accession!to!international!agreements!or!the! conclusion!of!such!agreements.!States&Parties.!within!their!abilities!and!financial!capacities.!February!03.!both! within!the!State!Party!and!from!abroad.!4.&shall&take&appropriate&measures&to& assist&parents&and&others&responsible&for&the&child&to&implement&this&right&and& shall&in&case&of&need&provide&material&assistance&and&support&programmes.! <http://www.!3.nesri."!UN!General!Assembly.!In!particular.!United. ! <http://heinonline.!Contemporary!human!rights!are!defined!in!the!UDHR.!1990.2!"!The&Declaration&states&that&"everyone&has&the&right&to&a&standard&of& living&adequate&for&the&health&and&well`being&of&himself&and&his&family.!probably!800!million! go!hungry!every!day.!of!the!approximately!5!billion!persons!now!living.! But!while!this&doctrine&frequently&has&been&reaffirmed&by&various&human&rights& institutions.!as!integral!components!of! the!contemporary!human!rights!system.!Social!and!Cultural! Rights!states!that!"[t]he!States!Parties!to!the!present!Covenant!recogniz[e]!the& fundamental&right&of&everyone&to&be&free&from&hunger.! Web.!The!Universal!Declaration!of!Human!Rights! (UDHR)!4!is&very&clear&on&this&point.! adopted!in!1948!and!elaborated!in!a!number!of!subsequent!instruments.!to!adequate&food.!Asbjorn.&including& food…!"26!The!International!Covenant!on!Economic.!approach!to!human!rights.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& International&law&codifies&food&security&as&a&human&right.!social.!and!cultural!rights!on!the! other!sideYboth!becoming!fundamental!tenets!of!the!U.everyone&in&the&global& community!has&the&right&to!food.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And! Development.!it!has!not!sufficiently!been!reflected!in!practice.23!This!vision!also!led&to&the&inclusion&of& economic&and&social&rights.!February!05.!as!evidenced!in!the&Charter&of&the&United!Nations22and& the&International&Bill&of&Human&Rights.!or!more!precisely.!with!the!indivisibility!and!interdependence!of! civil!and!political!rights!on!one!side!and!economic.N.&including&the&right&to&food.!and!many!more!do!not!have!adequate!food.& Eide.!November!30.29! Unfortunately.!27!These!two!international! instruments!have!been!widely!embraced.2!"!Thus.!either!at!the!national!or! the!international!level.!2015.&Social&and&Cultural& Rights.!Legal!and!political!arguments!have!been!used!to!prevent!the! realization!of!these!rights.! Roosevelt's!vision!of!freedom!from!want!in!1941!was!broadly!endorsed!by!the! international!community.!The&two& documents&primarily&cited&as&identifying&the&right&to&food&as&a&human&right&are& the&UDHR&itself!and&the&International&Covenant&on&Economic.!! *Ellipsis!from!source!! Champion)Briefs) 169& .journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent =1&collection=journals>.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems. ! <http://heinonline.!Food!aid!is!also!viewed!by!WFP!as!contributing!to!human!development! Champion)Briefs) 170& .!November!30.! emphasizing!that!it!should!respect!the!dignity!and!selfYrespect!of!its!recipients.!points! to!the!possibility!of!the!explicit!application!of!a!human!rights!perspective!in!the! future!WFP!took!a!particular!and!active!interest!in!the!General!Assembly!Resolution! on!the!Right!to!Development69!and!in!this!context!has&pointed&to!the!connection! between!food!aid!and!right!to!development!issues!which.&and&a& precondition&to&development.!By!providing!food!as!relief!during!emergencies!or!as!a! resource!in!support!of!development!activities.!The!right!to!development!is!seriously!in! jeopardy!whenever!the!right!to!food!cannot!be!fulfilled.& the&achievement&of&the&right&to&food&and&contributes&toward&laying&the& foundations&on&the&basis&of&which&the&goals&envisaged&in&the&Declaration!on! the!Right!to!Development!can&be&achieved.& Eide.!in!the!words!of!the! Programme!itself:!assumes!greater&clarity&when&the&RIGHT&TO&FOOD&is&placed&in& its&proper&context&as&the&most&fundamental&of&all&human&rights.!Asbjorn.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& International&mechanisms&exist&to&transfer&food&to&those&in& need.! Web.!February!05.!WFP&promotes.!Since!its!establishment.&in&a&concrete&way.!The!main!point!at!issue!for! WFP!is!how!food!aid!can!be!used!to!accelerate!development!and!selfYreliance!by! removing!the!obstacles!that!prevent!nations!and!peoples!from!exercising!the!right!to! development.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent =1&collection=journals>.!2015.!WFP& has!increasingly!sought&to!respond!to!the!specific!needs!of!recipient!groups!and! to!coordinate!food!aid!with!the!promotion!of!sustainable&development&and&food& self`reliance.."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein..!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And! Development.! The&World&Food&Programme!(WFP)Ythe!Food!Aid!Organization!of!the!United!Nations! SystemYwas&established&in&1961&to&facilitate&the&transfer&of&food&from&countries& with&food&surpluses&to&countries&with&food&shortages.!The!increasing!attention!given!by!WFP!to!the!nature!of!food!aid.!1990. !which!are!always!directed!to!the!poor.!In!the!case! of!Sudan.!70!Concrete!signs!of!WFP's! desire!to!overcome!obstacles!to!the!realization!of!the!right!to!food!are!evident!in!its! efforts!to!ensure!the!safe!passage!of!food!for!people!threatened!by!hunger."7'!! ! *Ellipsis!from!source!! ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 171& .! This!effort!is!"one!of!the!largest!and!most!dramatic!relief!operations!ever!mounted!by! the!United!Nations.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& since!the!rations!provided.!WFP&was&involved&in&persistent&negotiations&which&led&to&a&1989& agreement."&between&the&United&Nations& and&the&government&of&Sudan&for&the&safe&delivery&of&food&to&all&corners&of&Sudan.&known&as&the&"corridors&of&tranquility.!alleviate!the!serious! effect!of!underYnourishment!on!human!development. !Accessibility&requires&economic&and&physical&access&to&food&to& be&guaranteed.! Food&must&be&available.!such!as!fishing.& United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.! including!to&the&physically&vulnerable.!Adequacy&means&that&the&food&must&satisfy&dietary&needs.!could!be!another! Champion)Briefs) 172& .!sex.!For! example.!living!conditions.!the!sick.!Physical!accessibility!means!that!food&should&be&accessible!to!all.!For! example.!"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.!such!as!school!fees.!Access!to!food!must!also!be&guaranteed&to&people&in&remote&areas&and& to&victims&of&armed&conflicts&or&natural&disasters.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&UN&is&clear:&everyone&should&get&food&based&on& international&law.!so!that!they!can!reach!markets!by!public! transport.!Individuals&should!be!able!to!afford!food!for!an&adequate&diet&without& compromising&on!any!other!basic&needs.!for&whom&it&may&be&difficult&to!go!out! to!get!food.!Web.!the!affordability!of!food!can!be!guaranteed!by!ensuring!that!the!minimum! wage!or!social!security!benefit!is!sufficient!to!meet!the!cost!of!nutritious!food!and! other!basic!needs.&as&well&as&to&prisoners.!it&means&that&food&should&be&available&for&sale!in! markets!and!shops.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.!to!guarantee!physical!access!to!food!to!people!living!in!remote!areas!the! infrastructure!could!be!improved.!health."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!persons!with! disabilities!or!the!elderly.!such!as!children.!medicines!or!rent.!or!through!other&ways!of!obtaining!food.!if!children’s!food!does!not!contain!the!nutrients!necessary!for!their!physical! and!mental!development.!which!can!contribute!to!obesity!and!other!illnesses.!34.!1990.!taking!into! account!the!individual’s!age.! 2015.ohchr.!it!is!not!adequate.&accessible&and&adequate:!6!Availability&requires!on!the! one!hand!that!food&should&be&available&from&natural&resources&either& through!the!production!of!food.!<http://www.!February!05.!Economic!accessibility!means!that!food!must!be! affordable.!occupation.!On!the!other!hand.pdf>.!November!30.!Food!that!is!energyYdense!and!lowY nutrient.!by!cultivating!land!or!animal! husbandry.!hunting!or! gathering.!etc.!For! example. AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& example!of!inadequate!food.!Adequate&food&should&also&be&culturally&acceptable.!such!as!contaminants!from!industrial!or!agricultural! processes.!hormones!or!veterinary! drugs.!Food&should&be&safe&for&human&consumption&and&free& from&adverse&substances.!For!example.!including!residues!from!pesticides.! Champion)Briefs) 173& .!aid! containing!food!that!is!religious!or!cultural!taboo!for!the!recipients!or!inconsistent! with!their!eating!habits!would!not!be!culturally!acceptable. ! 2015.!water!and!other!resources.!The&right&to&food&requires& States&to&provide&an&enabling&environment&in&which&people&can&use&their&full& potential&to&produce&or&procure&adequate&food&for&themselves&and&their& families.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 174& .org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.!Many&assume&that!the!right! to!food!means!that!Governments&have&to&hand&out&free&food&to&anyone&who&needs& it.AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& Governments&only&need&to&provide&the&conditions.!"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.!the&State&must&provide&food&directly.!The!right!to!food!is!not!a!right!to!be!fed.!They!conclude!that!this!would!not!be!feasible!or!might!cause!dependency.!Individuals&are&expected&to&meet&their&own&needs.!1990.!February!05.To&be&able&to&do&this.!for!instance!because!of!an!armed!conflict.!To! produce!his!or!her!own!food."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.&a&person&must& live&in&conditions&that&allow&him&or&her&either&to&produce&food&or&to&buy&it.!November!30.!34.!However.& United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!Web.ohchr.!http://www.&They&don’t& need&to&distribute&the&food.!seeds.!but!primarily!the!right!to! feed!oneself!in!dignity.! and!to!buy!it.&when&people&are¬&able&to&feed&themselves&with&their&own& means.pdf! The&right&to&food&is&NOT&the&same&as&a&right&to&be&fed.!through! their!own!efforts!and!using!their!own!resources.!a!person!needs!land.!natural!disaster!or!because!they!are! in!detention.!This&is&a& misunderstanding.!one!needs!money!and!access!to!the!market. AFF:&International&Law&AC& & March/April&2015& The&international&legal&right&to&food&shares&connections&with& the&idea&of&food&security.!Food!sovereignty!is!an!emerging!concept!according!to! which!peoples!define!their!own!food!and!own!model!of!food!production!(such!as! agriculture!and!fisheries).!These!three! concepts!are!different.!"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.!it!obliges!States!to!ensure!their!trade!or!other!policies!serve!this!aim.! 2015.!including!tradeYrelated!ones.!trade!policies!and!practices!that!serve! people’s!rights!to!food!and!to!safe.!Social!and!Cultural!Rights!requires!its!State!parties!to!take!the!measures! necessary!for!an!equitable!distribution!of!world!food!supplies!in!relation!to!need!(art."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.9!!however.!healthy!and!ecologically!sustainable!food! production.!food& security&exists!“when!all!people.!Web.!34.!safe!and!nutritious!food!that!meets!their!dietary!needs!and!food! preferences!for!an!active!and!healthy!life.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.8!!Food!sovereignty!is!suggested!as!a!concept!that! promotes!an!alternative!model!for!agriculture.!at!all!times.!social!and!economic! access!to!sufficient.!the!concept!of!food!security!itself!is!not!a! legal!concept!per!se!and!does!not!impose!obligations!on!stakeholders!nor!does!it! provide!entitlements!to!them.!have!physical.!However.!A!right!to!food!sovereignty!is!recognized!under!some!national! laws.!The!right!to!food!also!addresses!States’!obligations!beyond!their! borders.!1990.!determine!the!extent!to!which!they!want!to!be!selfYreliant! and!protect!domestic!food!production!and!regulate!trade!in!order!to!achieve! sustainable!development!objectives.!The&right&to&food&places&legal& obligations&on&States&to&overcome&hunger&and&malnutrition&and&realize&food& security&for&all.!<http://www.!although&there&is&some&overlap.!November!30.ohchr.!there!is!currently!no!international!consensus!on!it.! 11!(2)!(b)).& United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.!For!example.! Champion)Briefs) 175& .!the!International!Covenant!on! Economic.”7!!It!is&a&precondition&for&the&full& enjoyment&of&the&right&to&food.!According!to!FAO.!While!it!does!not!prescribe!any!specific!model!to!achieve!such! distribution.!February!05.!The&right&to&food& is&a&human&right&recognized&under&international&law&that&provides&entitlements& to&individuals&to&access&to&adequate&food&and&to&the&resources&that&are&necessary& for&the&sustainable&enjoyment&of&food&security.! The&right&to&food&is&different&from&food&security!and!food!sovereignty.pdf>. !!But&of& course&it&is&impossible&to&uphold&the&common&good&so&understood&and&yet&to& Champion)Briefs) 176& .com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!November!30.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& Communities&need&agreements&about&what&the&common& goods&each&individual&is&entitled&to&are&in&order&to&end& the&tolerance&of&structural&injustice.!of!goods!that!each&of&us&can&achieve&only&with&cooperation& with&others!whether!it!be!through!the!construction!of!roads!and!highways!organized! by!the!state!or!through!the!pooling!of!individual!savings!in!mutual!funds.&&For&this&is&a&thought&that.! it!is!to!such!collective!goods!and!to!such!conditions!that!they!are!referring.!one!hundred!years!after!Shaw!and!Chesterton.!they! were!of!course!in!conflict.!Alasdair.&A!thought!that.!!We&have&no&problem&with&the¬ion&of&collective& goods.&characteristically.! February!03.!!So&why&is&this&so?&&What&is& it&that&is&missing?&The&answer&is&that&we&lack&anything&like&a&shared&adequate& conception&of&common&goods.!is!as! unfamiliar!as!it!was!to!those!who!Chesterton!castigated.&we& do¬&have.!2015.!<https://www.!when! politicians!or!Catholic!bishops!employ!the!idiom!of!the!common!good!in!their!rhetoric.!Web."!Paper!presented!at!the!Fall!Conference!of!the! Notre!Dame!Center!of!Ethics!and!Culture!entitled!"Your!Light!Will!Rise!in!the! Darkness:!Responding!to!the!Cry!of!the!Poor".& MacIntyre.!1990.!Commonly.&Only&with&this& agreement&can&we&stop&being&heedless&towards&the& impoverished.!!And&we& have&no&problem&with&the&claim&that&certain&conditions&must&be&satisfied&if&a& civil&and&orderly&social&life&is&to&be&sustained&and&that&we&all&of&us&have&a&shared& interest&in&ensuring&that&those&conditions&are&satisfied.youtube.!!But!their&[Shaw&and&Chesterton’s&]shared&claim&that&how& we&think&and&feel&about&poverty&depends&on&how&we&understand&our&common& humanity&is&far&more&important.!"Heedlessness.!any!sense!that!the!deprivations!were!also! an!injury!to!them.! What!they!agreed!in!identifying!as!missing&in&far&too&many!was!any![is&a]&sense& of!their!common&humanity&with&the&poor.!About!how!that!common!humanity!should!be!characterized.!of!public!goods. !!The!lives!of!human!beings!can!go!wrong!in!ways!that!members!of! other!species!can’t!go!wrong.!!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 177& .!famine.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& tolerate&–&indeed&to&ignore&–&those&structural&injustices!that!I!have!identified.!elephants!and! dolphins!go!wrong!it’s!always!because!of!external!causes:!injury.!!When!the!lives!of!chimpanzees.! predators.!!So& what&stronger&and&richer&conception&of&common&goods&is&it&that&we&need?!!What! part!does!the!concept!of!such!a!common!good!play!in!human!life?!!What&makes& human&beings&distinctive&among&other&beings&is&that&their&flourishing&–&whether& as&individuals&or&as&groups&–&depends&upon&their&directing&themselves&towards& the&achievement&of&certain&goods!and!that!they!can!fail!to!direct!themselves! towards!those!goods!either!because!they!misconceive!them!or!because!of!a!certain! wilfulness!or!both.!disease.!wolves. !Web.!wellY designed!instruction!from.!and&critical&interaction!with!family.!<! http://www3.&of&communication.&without&an&institutional&framework&that&provides&stability&and& security&over&time!a!variety!of!forms!of!association.and&opportunity!to!work!no&one&is&likely&to&be&able&to&develop& his&or&her&powers&–&physical.pdf>! To!this!it!can!be!replied!that!there&are&indeed&many&different&ways&of&leading&a& good&human&life.&if&an&individual&is&to&become&and&sustain& her`&or&himself&as&an&independent&rational&agent.!and! colleagues.&and&long`term& planning&are&impossibl[e]y.!!These&goods& are&goods&without&which&excellence&in&activity&is&often&impossible."!2013.!less!choiceYworthy.&but&that&there&are&at&least&four&sets&of&goods&that&are& characteristically&needed&by&every&human&individual&if&she&or&he&is&to& flourish.!!Lives&that&are&significantly&defective&in&any&one&of&these&respects& are&judged&worse.!friends.nd.&and&of&inquiry&and& understanding.edu/~undpress/excerpts/P03062Yex.!!!!! Champion)Briefs) ! 178& .!clothing.&moral.&of&self`knowledge.!!And&fourth.!education.!!First.that!is.&exchange.!than!lives!that!are!not.& MacIntyre.!"On!Having!Survived!Academic!Moral!Philosophy!Of!The! Twentieth!Century.!physical! exercise.&and!so!the!key! to!our!various!uses!of!goodwith!regard!to!them!is!a!shared!conception!of!excellence!in! activity.!Alasdair.&without&adequate&nutrition.& everyone&benefits&from&affectionate&support!by.!February!06.!!Third.!Second.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& Though&there&is&a&multiplicity&of&ways&one&might&lead&a&good& life&there&are&essential&things&which&are&good&for& humans.&aesthetic—adequately.!2015.&intellectual.!shelter.&she&or&he&needs&powers&of& practical&rationality.!of!what!it!is!to!live!virtuously. !rules!ands!virtues! that!are!definitive!of!our!moral!life!can!be!adequate!that!does!not!explain…how! that!form!of!life!is!possible!for!beings!who!are!biologically!constituted!as!we! are.!!That!development!has!as!its!starting!point!our!initial!animal! condition.!his!book!Dependent'Rational'Animals!(MacIntyre.edu/~undpress/excerpts/P03062Yex."!Western!Political!Science!Association!Annual!Conference.!!The!first!is!that!no!account!of!the!goods.!that!up!to!now!there!has!not!been!more! engagement!with!or!use!of!his!insights!within!green!political! theory.pdf>! It!is!surprising.!and!nonYhuman!species!such!as!dolphins!and!great!apes! –!not!to!mention!his!critique!of!capitalism.!2015.!economic!growth!and!embracing!of!a! localist!political!perspective.!he!admits!that!he.!or!at!least!a!vision!of!moral!and! political!life!which!is!compatible!with!the!main!contours!of!green!political! theory.!February!06.!by!providing!us!with!an!account!of!our!development!towards!and!into!that! form!of!life.!and!his!more!recent!embracing!of!an!understanding!of!the!animal! natures!of!humans!–!including!the!recognition!of!the!affinity!between!humans! as!‘practical!reasoners’.!a&failure&to&understand&that&condition&and!the!light! thrown!upon!it!by&a&comparison&between&humans&and&members&of&other& intelligent&animal&species&will&obscure&crucial&features&of&that![human]& Champion)Briefs) 179& .!!was!in!error!in!supposing! an!ethics!independent!of!biology!to!be!possible…and!this!for!two!distinct.[1]!!!Indeed.!but! related!reasons.!John.!Web.!1999)!can! be!viewed!as!outlining!a!‘green’!perspective.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& Humans&live&in&a&state&of&vulnerability&which&requires& humans&be&concerned&with&the&things&they&are& dependent&upon.! 2013.nd.!!He!begins!with!an!all!too!rare!acknowledgement!of!intellectual! error.!given!MacIntyre’s&acknowledgement&of&human&vulnerability!and! dependence.!! http://www3.!"MacIntyre!And!Havel!As!Green!Political!Thinkers:!Unreasonable!Thinking! In!Turbulent!Times.& Barry.!!As!he!puts!it!in!the!preface.!!Secondly. ! !! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 180& .AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& development.!!Against& dominant&strands&of!political!thought!and!prevailing!European!culture.! 1999:!x.&but&as&fundamentally&constitutive&of& what&it&means&to&be&human.!(MacIntyre.&&One)such)failure.'of'immense'importance'on'its'own'account.&and&also&the& ineliminable&vulnerability&and&dependence&of&human&beings!–!MacIntyre! articulates!arguments!central!to!green!normative!thinking.!!Green!thinking!has! as!a!central!orientating!theme!the!need!to!transcend!the!species!barrier!in!our! moral!and!political!thinking.'is) the)nature)and)extent)of)human)vulnerability)and)disability.!as!well!as!politically!salient.!!It!also!holds!that!humans!are!dependent!in!all! sorts!of!ways!(on!fellow!humans!and!the!nonhuman!world).!and!that!this! dependence!is!normatively!significant.!but!are)animals.!an& acceptance&of&human&vulnerability&and&dependence&is&viewed¬&as&some& ‘abnormal’&or&deviation&from&the&moral&or&political&norm&we&should&expect& or&strive&towards&for&human&beings.!emphasis!added).!!In!pointing!out!these!two!salient!facts!–! that!humansare!not!just!like!animals. youtube.& workplaces.&both&of&the&local& and&the&wider&world.!2014.!But&there&are&also&aspects&of&our& everyday&lives&of&which&we&may&be&in&some&marginal&way&aware&but&of&which&we& don’t&attend.! There&are&salient&aspects&of&our&everyday&lives&that&engage&our&attention& recurrently!and!inescapably:!aspects!of!our!shared!lives&in&households."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!and!cultural! happenings!that&secure&more&or&less&of&our&attention&from&time&to&time:&wars.&We&take&care¬&to&attend.&we& take&care&to&exclude&from&consciousness&facts&that&would&cause&us&too&much& discomfort&if&we&were&to&attend&to&them.! <https://www.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.!!So!there!are!questions!that!it!may! seem!obvious!to!ask.!Alasdair.& MacIntyre.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& There&are&certain&evident&facts&about&the&world&around&us& that&we&ignore.&strange&occurrences&reported&in& the&media&(“Fat!Man!Breeds!Thin!Ostriches”).&&There&are&other&aspects.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 181& .!but!which!we!rarely!ask.&schools.!facts!that&would&put&us&to&the&question& in&ways&we&don’t&want&to&be&put&to&the&question.!economic.!aspects!of!social.& drastic&changes&in&the&weather.! October!31.!February!06.&But&it’s¬&just&that&we&don’t&attend.!2015.&neighborhoods.!"Heedlessness.!Web.&crime&statistics.!political. !"Heedlessness.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.& MacIntyre.!Web.!and! many!of!them!immigrants.!and!retail! enterprise.!!So!we&can&afford&to&buy& and&enjoy&the&cheap&food&from&the&supermarket&as&we&do&only&because&so&many& farm&workers!work!fullYtime!for!the!best!wages!that!they!can!get.!!According!to!the!National! Agricultural!Workers!Survey.500&dollars&and&for&families& between&15.25&an&hour.youtube.!are&as&low&as&they&are.500&dollars.! October!31.!<! https://www.!published!by!the!Department!of!Labor.!!But!one&important&and&indispensable&cause&of&our&food&being&as& cheap&as&it&is&that&that&wages&of&farm&workers.&&The&average&annual& income&for&individuals&is&between&10.! Begin&in&the&supermarket.&&Thirty&percent&of&farm&workers&have&an& income&that&places&them&below&the&federal&poverty&line.!!For!the!food!that!American&consumers&buy&in&supermarkets.!!It’s!not!just!that!our!society!is!a!society!of!the!better!off!and!the!worse!off!but! that!it’s!a!society!in!which!those!which!are!better!off!are!so!in!key!part!because!the! poor!are!poor.&is.!February!06.!2015.!Alasdair.!most!of!them!Latin!American.!!We’re&as&well`to`do&as&we&are&only&because&they&are&as&poor&as&they& are.!2014.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& We&ignore&that&our&access&to&cheap&food&comes&at&the& expense&of&other&people."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.!!I&call&the&comfortable&frame&of&mind&which&avoids&attention&to& such&facts&“heedlessness.000&and&12.!and!yet!live&in& poverty.”!!!!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 182& .000&and&17.!farm&workers& on&average&work&for&42&hours&a&week&for&$7.!transportation.!What!makes!it!cheap!is!a! complex!matter!involving!the!economics!of!farming.!any!supermarket.&compared& with&all&other×&and&places&is&amazingly&cheap.!!A&first&generally&unasked&question& is:&whence&this&extraordinary&quantity&and&quality&of&extraordinarily&cheap& food. "!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.! Consider&another&example&by&returning&to&the&supermarket!and!asking!another.!in!Englewood&there&is&an&absence&of&what&economists&call& “effective&demand.&as&here.!2014.!"Heedlessness.&a&food& jungle!rather!than!a!food!desert.&on&the&south&side&of&Chicago.&&While& within&three&miles&of&where&I&wrote&this&paper&there&are&seven.& MacIntyre.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.! October!31.!Greater&Englewood.&but&by&the& consistent&struggle&of&community&organizations&and&by&the&intervention&of&the& city!of!Chicago.!!Therefore.!February!06.!!Why!this!contrast?!Why&do&some&have&to&choose&between& numerous&stores&while&others&have&either&to&do&without&or&to&engage&in&political& struggle?!!In&West&Englewood&over&32&percent&of&the&population&have&incomes& below&the&poverty&level.&&In&its&9&square& miles&there&have&been&up&until&now&only&two&full&service&grocery&stores.!Alasdair.!question:!why&is&there&a&supermarket&here?&&To&which&the& immediate&response&may&be&“but&surely&there&are&supermarkets& everywhere?”&&This&however&is&false.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& Those&who&have&been&discarded&by&our&economy&do¬&have& access&to&food.!!Soon&in&Greater&Englewood&there&will&be&a&Whole& Food&grocery.youtube.”&a&lack&of&incentives&for&the&executives&of&supermarket!chains! to!open!supermarkets.!which!is!about!to!be! no!longer!such.!!Food&deserts&turn&out&to&be&areas&whose&population&has&to& a&large°ree&been&abandoned&by&the&agencies&of&economic&growth.!Web.!2015.! generally!unasked.!!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 183& .&A&grocery&brought&there¬&by&market&forces.! <https://www.”!Consider!one!of!them.&&There&are&large&areas&of&this&country&which& have&been&described&as&“food&deserts.&&In&East&Englewood&the&figure&is&almost&44& percent. !"Heedlessness.&but&that& distributes&its&incentives&and&rewards&so&that&they&are&made&available&to&some& but&withheld&from&others.!!An&economy&that¬&only&imposes&the&hard&life&of& the&working&poor&on&some&so&that&others&better&off&may&benefit.&rather&than&to&one&that&has&been&discarded.&&We’ve&learned&to&put&it&out&of&mind.& MacIntyre.!2014.!!!!!! ! Champion)Briefs) 184& .!Web.!<! https://www."!Notre!Dame!Center!For!Ethics!and!Cultre.! But!those&who&benefit&rarely&take¬e&that&it’s&generally&only&by&happenstance& that&they&belong&to&one&of&those&populations&that&the&economy&needs&for&its&labor& force.!!Heedlessness&is&inattention&to& structural&injustice.!and!we!lead! more!comfortable!lives!because!we’ve!learned!this.!2015.&&This&structural&injustice&does¬&strike&us&every&time& that&we&visit&the&supermarket.! October!31.!!Here!then!is!a!second!kind!of!injustice!that!s!inflicted!by! the!structure!of!the!economy.&that&they&inhabit&a&food&jungle& rather&than&a&food&desert.com/watch?v=ccwTDBMn9Fs!>.youtube.AFF:&MacIntyre&AC& & March/April&2015& There&is&structural&injustice&in&the&economy®arding&who& has&access&to&food.!February!06.&but&heedlessness&prevents&us&from& being&aware&of&this.!Alasdair. !would&likely&push&up&world&grain&prices.!intelligence!agencies.!The&problem&is& now&so&clearly&linked&to&global&security&that&the&U.!LesterR.!has&begun&to&monitor& the&situation!with!the!kind!of!attention!it!once!focused!on!Soviet!military!maneuvers.&creating&social&and&political& instabilities&in&Third&World&cities—as!previous!WORLD!WATCH!articles!have! pointed!out!(see!box.S.!With! its!booming!economy!and!huge!trade!surpluses.!The!challenge!now! facing!the!Chinese!government!is!how!to!meet!the!soaring!water!needs!of!its!swelling! urban!and!industrial!sectors!without!undermining!both!its!own!agriculture!and!the! world’s!food!security.!China&can&survive&its&water& shortages&by&simply&importing&more&of&its&food.!1998.!New&information&on&the&deteriorating&water& situation&has&confirmed&the&imminence&of&this&possibility.!if!not!addressed!by!strong!new! measures.!But&lowincome&countries&with&growing&grain&deficits&may¬&be&able&to& pay&these&higher&prices.ca/~mdzahidu/brhamaputra_diversion/lester_brian.pdf >."!World!Watch.! Any&major&threat&to&China’s&food&self`sufficiency.! <http://www.!because!it!can!afford!to!pay!more! for!grain.S.ualberta.!2015.!page!12).!"China.!For!the!1.& Brown.!The&decline&in&China’s&capacity&to&irrigate&its&crops&is& coming&at&a&time&when&depleted&world&grain&stocks&are&near&an&alltime&low.&which&is&a&national&security& concern.AFF:&Political&Instability/Conflict&Adv.!August!07.&AC& March/April&2015& China’s&water&is&running&dry.!higher!grain!prices!could!quickly!become!lifeYthreatening.3!billion!of!the!world’s!people!who!live!on!$1!a!day! or!less.&National&Intelligence& Council&(NIC).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 185& .!February!06.!the!umbrella!over!all!U.!Web. !Australia.!"China's!Water!Shortage!Could!Shake!World!Food!Security.& Brown.! ! Champion)Briefs) 186& .AFF:&Political&Instability/Conflict&Adv.!initially!because! demand!was!not!growing.! steadily!increased!their!exports!from!less!than!60!million!tons!in!1960!to!200!million! tons!by!1980.!The!global!total!has! fluctuated!around!200!million!tons!per!year!for!nearly!two!decades.!With!the!scope!of!its!analysis!limited!to!China.! If!China&is!facing!everYgrowing!water!deficits!in!agriculture.! <http://www.!the!NIC!study!simply!assumes! that!the!needed!175!million!tons!of!grain!imports!will!be!readily!available!from! exporting!countries.!Argentina.!LesterR.!August!07.!1998.!but!the!trends!in&the&principal&exporters—the!United!States.!2015.!then!it!is&also!facing&a& growing&gap&between&its!rapidly!rising!demand&for&food&and&the&ability&of&farmers& to&expand&production.!and!the!European!Union—raise!doubts!about!this! assumption.!there&has&been&no&growth&in&world&grain& exports!even!though!the!United!States!has!returned!to!production!all!the!cropland! idled!under!its!farm!commodity!programs!(see!Figure!2)."!World! Watch.!which!produce!85!percent!of!the!world’s!grain!exports.!These!countries.! it!goes&over&200&million&tons—the&equivalent&of&total&world&grain&exports& today.!If!the!NIC!projections!of!the&need&to&import!175!million!tons! in!2025!is!extrapolated!to&the&year&2030!to!mesh!with!our!projected!time!horizon.! Canada.ualberta.pdf >.&AC& March/April&2015& China&must&fix&its&food&production&or&cause&international& chaos.!February!06.!but!more!recently!because!of!an!inability!to!produce!more! for!export.!Web.!But!since!1980.ca/~mdzahidu/brhamaputra_diversion/lester_brian. !even!though!the!space!needed!to!produce! fodder!for!meatYproducing!livestock!mayYin!the!case!of!grainYbe!ten!times!greater! than!the!space!needed!to!produce!grain!for!direct!consumption!by!people!to!provide! Champion)Briefs) 187& .!we&must&pay&attention&to&who&produces.!as!many!have!in!the!past.!Moreover.!abundance!can!be!found!amidst!squalor.¬&for&those!who&have&needs.!that!increased! production.!it!is!an!oversimplification!to! analyze!the!problem!merely!in!terms!of!rich!countries!and!poor!countries.&producers& produce&for&those&who&can&pay.journals/tlcp1&div=25&g_sent =1&collection=journals>.!storage.!In!simple!economic! terms.!Asbjorn.!to!tackle!the!global!food!problem.! <http://heinonline.&what&is&produced.!For!example.! Web.!2015.!Thus.& and&who&will&consume&what&is&produced.!As!matters!exist.!February!05.!In!poor! countries.!1990.!In!rich! countries!not!everyone!is!rich."!Transnational!and!Contemporary!Problems.!November!30.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.!If&those&who&were&hungry&had&the&economic&resources& to&turn&their&need&for&food&into&effective&demand&for&food&in&economic&terms.!we!must!look!into!the!causes!and! manifestations!of!poverty!in!different!parts!of!the!world!and!explore!ways!in!which!it! can!be!overcome.!Instead!of!assuming.!"Food!Security!And!The!Right!To!Food!In!International!Law!And! Development.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Hunger&is&a&problem&of&poverty&rather&than&lack&of&food& resources.!and!not!on!needs.& then&producers&would&supply&food&for&the&hungry.!pockets&of&poverty&exist&almost&everywhere.!and!marketing!are!necessary!to!advance!the!enjoyment! of!the!right!to!food.!For!some!it!may!come!as!a!surprise!that!hunger!is!not!due!to! an!average!lack!of!food!in!the!world!or!within!individual!States.!not!food! availability.!not!everyone!is!poor.&it&is¬&rare&to&find&substantial&food&export&from&the®ion& wherein&famine&occurs.! Hunger&and&limited&access&to&food&are&primarily&problems&of&poverty.!transport.!the! increased!purchasing!power!of!richer!consumers!leads!to!increased!demand!for!meat! and!hence!increased!production!of!livestock.&which&is&very& elastic.& Eide.!Even&in& times&of&famine.&the&supply&of&food&depends!mostly!on&effective&demand. !but!include.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& the!same!amount!of!calories.!flowers.!which!are!in!demand!by!those!whose!food!needs!are!met."!High!purchasing!power!also!diverts!food!resources!to! pets.!inter! alia.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 188& .!agricultural!products!are!not!necessarily!food.&those& with&limited&purchasing&power&tend&to&lose&out&to&those&with&higher&purchasing& power&as&resources&that&could&be&used&to&produce&low`cost&food&are&used&for& more&costly&purposes.!Additionally.!In!short. !"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.!February!05.!Sometimes!the!denial! of!access!to!land!takes!the!form!of!forced!evictions.!Even!when!they!can!produce! agricultural!products.!Web.pdf>.&or&from&obtaining&knowledge&on&nutrition.ohchr.!1990.!as!well!as!to! markets.!34.!struggling!to!survive!in!rural!areas.& United!Nations!Office!of!the!Commissioner!for!Human!Rights.&extractive&industries!or&development&projects."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!are!denied!their!right!to!food!when!they! cannot!afford!adequate!food!and!other!basic!needs!because!their!wages!are!too!low.&including& exclusion&from&decision`making&and&from&access&to&justice.!<http://www.!Lack&of&access&to& education.!lack!of!access!to!markets!may!prevent!them!from!selling!their! products!and!buying!other!foods!necessary!for!an!adequate!diet.!Very!often.&for&example.!In! such!competition&the&rural&poor&are&often&at&a&considerable&disadvantage&as&a& result&of&discrimination&and&a&denial&of&various&human&rights.!The&denial&of& access&to&land&can&occur.!and!information!and!technologies!can&also& prevent&them&from&improving&their&productivity&and&protecting&the& environment.&in&the&context&of&unfair&competition&over& land&with&large&agribusiness.!such!as!land.!necessary!for!negotiating!job!security!and! Champion)Briefs) 189& .!information!and!technology.!including!vocational!training.!such! as!sharecroppers!and!agricultural!labourers.! Another!10&per¢&are&pastoralists.!lack!of!access!to!land!and!other! productive!resources!can!lead!to!the!denial!of!the!right!to!food.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& The&majority&of&malnourished&people&are&in&poverty.28!The&rural&poor&often&lack&access&to&sufficient& productive&resources.! 2015.&fisherfolk&and&forest&users.29!water.!November!30.!fertilizers!and!seeds.! The&vast&majority&of&people&suffering&from&hunger&and&malnutrition&are&poor!and! marginalized.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.!Landless!workers.! They!may!not!enjoy!freedom!of!association.!as!most!individuals! and!households!in!rural!areas!are!dependent!on!such!resources!either!to!produce!food! for!themselves!or!as!a!source!of!income!to!purchase!the!food!they!need.!The!remaining!20! per!cent!live!in!urban!areas.!About!50&per¢&of&people& suffering&from&hunger&are&smallholders&and&20&per¢&rural&landless&people. !George!McGovern.&or& credit``all&of&which&prevent&upward&economic&mobility``and&you’ve&got&a&person& who&is``in&a&word``trapped.&Factor&in&a&lack&of&access&to&education.!Web.! February!06.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 190& .!When&economic&hardship&strikes.&and&no&health&care.!In!that!case.! Sen.!puts!it!in!blunt!terms:!“If&we&fail& to&do&this.!February!09.!org/site/News2?page=! NewsArticle&id=12729&news_iv_!ctrl=0&abbr=usc_>.!<http://uscatholic.!Few!countries!have!a!social!security!system.claretians.&the&rural&poor& may&face&food&insecurity.!particularly!one! that!functions!well!in!rural!areas.!former!ambassador!to!the!United!Nations’!food!agency!and! coauthor!of!Ending!Hunger!Now!(Augsburg!Fortress).&illness&drains&financial&resources.!"Recipe!For!A!Hungry!Planet.”&The&biggest&problem&facing&the&hungry&is&the&poverty& trap:&the&cyclical&combination&of&no&money."!US!Catholic.!shame& on&you.!2015.!Tara.&no&food.& Dix.&financial&services.&drained&finances& lead&to&malnutrition.&! Hunger&and&poverty&are&linked&in&a&cycle.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& decent!wages.& Malnutrition&leads&to&illness.!either.&we&will&stand&condemned&before&the&bar&of&history.!2015.&and&shame&on&me. !irrespective!of!the!group."!Futures!Vol.&mental&agony.!Web.!ethnicity.!only!those!with!prejudices!and!biases!participate.& Poorcide&may¬&be&actual&physical&elimination&of&the&poor&in&a&massive&scale.&moral°radation&and&spiritual& dissipation.&but&poverty& kills&indiscriminately.!"The!Futures!Of!The!Poor.!February!06.!Genocide&means¬&just&massive&killing&(which&we&can&call&direct&or& physical&genocide)&but&also&includes&calculated&attacks&on&and&constant&efforts&at& undermining&the&basic&human&dignity&and&life`support&systems&of&a&particular& group&of&people&(which&may&be&described&as!the!indirect!or!structural&genocide).&&Genocide&takes&place&in&pockets&of&human& polity.&Leading&a&‘rich&lifestyle.! genocide.&poverty& is&widespread.!3!pp!339Y351.&or!even!worse.&but&poverty&tortures&and&condemns&you&to&a&slow&and& painful&death.&But&the&victims&of&poverty&can&only&watch&themselves&being&taken& for&granted.&being&taken&advantage&of&by&the&privileged.!the&‘economic&worth’&factor&forms&the&basis&in&‘poorcide.&but&poverty& causes&physical&pain.!of&genocide&may&be&able&to&take&some& precautions.P.!we!can!distinguish!between!direct!and!indirect!or!physical!and!structural.&Poverty°rades&human&beings.!27.!1995.& but&it’s&a&slow`pace&silent&holocaust.&A&particular&group&of&people&is&massacred&in&genocide.!gender.!the&victims.!Extending!the!analysis!of!physical!violence!and!structural!violence!to! genocide.!but!we&are&all& complicit&in&the&poverty&crime.com/science/article/pii/001632879500004G! ! Although!race.!or!potential!victims.!! Champion)Briefs) ! 191& .!However!fickle!and! fragile.!2015.!generation!and!political!powerlessness!all!contribute! to!poverty.sciencedirect.&In!a! genocidal!act.&or&letting&the&problem& persist&is&the&definite&complicity&in&the&crime&of&poorcide.&Unlike&genocide.! http://www.!no.!S.&negates&human&dignity&and& wastes&human&resources.&It&is&an&economic&group!(or!class)!discriminated&against&in& poorcide.! Genocide&just&kills&you.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& We&ought&to&reject&food&insecurity&and&poverty.! February!09.&but&poverty&afflicts&humanity&all&over&the&world.&systematically&rooted&and&popularly&accepted.& Udayakumar.’&the&genocide& of&the&poor.&genocide&prompts&physical&elimination. !Web.!Mabub!ul! Huq!(as!cited!in!Shariff.!the&poverty&line&in& India&measures&only&the&most&basic&calorie&intake.!Anita.!the&poverty&line&stands&at&368& rupees!($9.!2015.&millions&of&poor.!Social!Cohesion.!February!06.!“Nearly&one`third&of&the&total&number&of& absolute&poor&in&the&world&live&in&India.!p.400&calories&in&urban&and&rural&areas&is&grossly&insufficient."!Review! of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal!Volume!5.&What&is&more&distressing&is&that&while& 46%&of&India’s&people&survive&in&absolute&poverty…about&two&thirds&are& ‘capability&poor’&i.100&`&2.!1999.!February!09.&According&to&Guruswamy&and& Abraham!(2009).!45)!states.!the&Indian&Council&of&Medical&Research(ICMR).! 2009).&but& only&the&satiation&of&hunger.org/operation.pdf#page=15!>.!And!Disability.&and&education.e.& transport.&they&do¬&receive&the&minimum&level&of&education&and& health&care&necessary&for&functioning&human&capabilities!Notwithstanding!the!fact! that!official!figures!show!a!decrease!in!poverty.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& In&India&poverty&and&hunger&are&so&intimately&linked&that& government&measures&of&poverty&don’t&even&fully& appreciate&the&problem&of&hunger.!but!the!fact!that!only!the!basic!calorie! intake!is!considered!as!critical!is!alarming! Champion)Briefs) 192& .!"Guest!Editorial:!Human!Security.&health&care.!prescribes&3.&Consequently.biasfree.&clothing.800& calories&for&an&adult&male&doing&heavy&activity&and&2.&fuel.!For!example.&unskilled& wage&laborers&in&India&who&do&heavy&manual&labor&every&day.& Ghai.!“At!present.!A&nutritious&diet&itself&would&cost&around&573&rupees!($!15!USD)!per!capita! per!month.! 2015.!Issue!3.925&calories&for&an&adult& female&carrying&out&heavy&activity.!just!about!enough!to!buy!650!grams!of!food!grains!every! day.&recording¬&nutrition.&a&stipulation&of& 2.! Poverty!has!been!analyzed!in!innumerable!ways.!let!alone!the!cost!of!securing!other!basic!needs”!(Infochange.&such&measures&do¬&incorporate&the&costs&of&shelter.20!USD)!and!559!rupees!($14!USD)!per!person!per!month!for!rural!and! urban!areas!respectively.!However.! <http://www. !2014.! December!01.!To!properly!diagnose!and!address!disparities!in!food! systems.!2015.!If! Allen!(2010)!is!correct.!to&understand&food&injustices&requires&understanding&the& root&causes&and&the&dynamics&of&structural&hierarchies&that&underlie&or& contribute&to&injustices.!and!that!a&robust&and&comprehensive&understanding&of& food&system&disparities&is&required&for&an&effective&strategy&to&achieve&food& justice.!the!definitions!of!food&justice¤tly!being!offered&by& scholars&and!activists!omit&important!aspects&of&the&disparities&inherent&to&food& systems.!the!commonly!appealed!to!caseYstudies!of! inequalities!within!food!systems—even!those!offered!by!proponents!of!distributionY centric!definitions!of!food!justice—suggest!that!participative!disparities!are!at!the! root!of!the!most!important!distributional!disparities.!However.! <http://link.!This!suggests!that!there&has& been&a&failure&to&adequately&recognize&food&justice’s&participative&aspects.!Clement.! That!being!said.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& In&order&to&examine&food&security."!Springer.!Present&definitions&tend&to&conceptualize&food&justice&in&distributive& terms&as&being&a&matter&of&improving&wages&and&conditions&for&those&working&in& the&food&system&and&ensuring&and&the&fairness&in&which&fresh&and&healthy&food&is& distributed&amongst&eaters.!Rather.&we&must&examine&social& inequalities.com/article/10.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 193& .!February!07.!Web.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!then!only!considering!the!distributive!disparities!within!food!systems!is! insufficient.springer.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.& Loo.!those&concerned&with&food&justice&must&examine&the&participative& inequalities&that&are&the&basis&of&material&and&distributive&injustices.!Redefining! the!concept!of!food!justice!in!more!participative!terms!could!help!to!make!this!clear. ! December!01.&It&focuses&on&who&gets&what&food&and&how& those&producing&food&share&earnings&and&profits.&inequities&in&the&labour& process&and&unfair&returns&for&key&suppliers&along&the&food&chain.! perhaps!with!the!exception!of!the!phrase!‘‘inequities&in&the&labour&process’’—which! is!ambiguous.the& maldistribution&of&food.! In&the&last&15&years&or&so&there&has&been&a&melding&of&environmental&justice&and& food&security.!The!first!of!these!is!that! offered!by!Lang!and!Heasman!(2004).!Groups&and&individuals&who&had&been&concerned&about& environmental&disparities&began&to&become&interested&in&food&security.! <http://link.! availability.!2014.!Clement.!emphasizes&distribution.!This!definition.!Offering!a!full!accounting!and!taxonomy!of!the!definitions!that!have!been! offered!for!‘‘food!justice’’!is!outside!of!the!scope!of!this!paper!but!there!are!a! manageable!number!of!definitions!that!are!most!often!cited.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 194& .!Web.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&and&environmental&justice&are&intrinsically& linked.!2015.!Because&of&the&importance&and&influential& nature&of&the&concept&of&food&justice&there&have&been&several&attempts&to& define!it.!February!07.!This!resulted!in!the!development!of!the!notion!of!food!justice."!Springer.& Loo.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.! As!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!out!this&idea&of&food&justice&is&a&powerful&one& and&has&become&the&basis&of&a&movement&in&its&own&right&independent&from&the& environmental&justice&movement.&poor&access&to&a&good&diet.!They!define!food&injustice&as&follows:&….com/article/10.springer.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!and!access. &the&disparities& experienced&by&farm&and&food&workers&may&seem&prima&facie&to&be&distributive& ones.000&h&over&the&34.& This&averages&to&approximately&28&h&of&work&per&week.& Loo.inequalities®arding&who&receives&benefits&and&who& experiences&the&burdens&associated&with&those&benefits.&transported.com/article/10.! December!01.&However.!2015.!Web.!So!far.!scholars!such!as!Gottlieb&and&Joshi&(2010)!and!Alkon!and!Agyeman! (2011a)!tend!to!suggest&that&eliminating&the&disparity&between&who&benefits&and& who&bears&the&cost&of&how&food&is&produced."!Springer.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 195& .! <http://link.!They&seem.&it&is&unlikely& that&workers&in&fact&work&a&consistent&30`h&workweek.!they!likely!work! very!long!hours!during!planting!and!harvest!and!then!must!find!alternative!sources!of! income!during!the!interim.!Brown!and!Getz!(2011)!report!that!the&average&farm& worker&in&California&works&only&1.&and&distributed&would& involve&improving&the&ability&of&food&and&farm&workers&to&participate&in& governing&the&food&system.!while&they&define&food&justice&in&terms&of& distribution.!February!08.!as!they!have!been!described!above.!2014.!and!are.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.! Finally.!Clement.springer.&farm&workers&have&little&assurance&that& they&can&routinely&get&work.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&protects&labor&workers.!Rather.!However.!the!aboveY discussed!distributive!disparities—!even!if!one!only!considers!what!those!offering! distributive!accounts!of!food!justice!have!written!about!them—are!attributable!to! participative!disparities.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!Further.!given&that&agriculture&is&seasonal&and&that&there&is&only&intermittent&need& for&labor&during&the&growing&season.5&week&growing&season. !Their!caseYstudies!also!suggest!that!the!poor! working!conditions!of!agricultural!laborers!only!improved!after!those!laborers!were! able!to!organize!to!better!negotiate!with!their!employers.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 196& .&(3)&the&willingness&of&employers&to&accept& high&attrition&rates&amongst&unskilled&laborers.!2014.!Clement.&and&(4)&the&hiring& undocumented&immigrant&workers&who&are&unable&to&protest&poor&conditions& due&to&a&lack&of&legal&recognition.!2015.!Of!these! factors!there!are!four!that!appear!to!particularly&[factors]&contribute&to&the&poor& conditions&experienced&by&farm&workers:&(1)&misleading&recruitment&practices.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Farm&workers&live&in&poor&conditions&`&four&warrants.! December!01."!Springer.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.! Accounts&of&the&poor&conditions&experienced&by&farm&workers&seem&to&suggest& that&those&conditions&are&often&associated&with&factors&that&limit&the&ability&of& workers&to&make&choices&or&self`advocate&to&pursue&their&interests.!February!08.& (2)&the&use&of&threats&and&violence.!Web.& Loo.springer.com/article/10.! <http://link. 1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Immigrant&labor&workers&are&tricked&into&poor&work& conditions.Such&misinformation&then!serves&as&a&manner&in& which&workers&are&coerced&into&working&in&subpar&conditions&and&for&wages&that& keep&them&impoverished.! From!the!narratives!within!the!United!States!Department!of!State!(2013)!Trafficking! in!Persons!Report!2013!it!seems!that!human&smugglers&and&contractors&mislead& undocumented&workers&in&a&number&of&ways.! December!01.springer.& Loo.!Workers!are!thusly!led!to!believe!that!it!would!be!much! easier!for!the!workers!to!repay!the!debts!they!incur!during!the!emigration! process.com/article/10.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 197& .&First."!Springer.!Web.!2014.!2015.& human&smugglers&often&suggest&to&potential&undocumented&workers&that&their& jobs&will&be&less&laborious&or&unpleasant&and&that&their&wages&will&be&much& higher&than&will&in&fact&be.!February!08.&workers&are&often&recruited& in&their&home&countries&under&false&pretenses®arding&the&locations&where& they&will&be&transported.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.!Second.!Clement.!Being&misinformed&in&such&a&manner&makes&it&difficult&for&workers&to& make&informed&decisions®arding&whether&the&offered&work&conditions&and& remuneration&are&acceptable.! <http://link.!While!the!workers!may!request!to!be!brought!to!specific! locations!within!the!United!States!(such!as!in!locations!near!family!members)!they!are! often!brought!to!locations!where!they!can!be!hired!out!by!the!smugglers. & Loo.! <http://link.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 198& .!Specifically.com/article/10.!2015.&This&is& one&of&the&key&underlying&reasons&that&farm&workers&often&face&such&terrible& conditions&as&describe&above.!I! refer!to!the!recent!trend!of!agricultural!employers!actively!recruiting!undocumented! immigrants.! December!01."!Springer.&at&present&the&importing& of&undocumented&laborers&from&Asia&and&Central&and&South&America&has&become& so&rampant&that&upwards&to&90&%&of&the&farm&laborers!(and!more!than!30!%!of!all! those!employed!within!agriculture)!in&the&United&States&are&undocumented.!Web.springer.!February!08.!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!out!that!since&World&War&II&there&has& been&a&concerted&effort&to&recruit&undocumented&immigrants&for&farm&labor&in& the&United&States.!2014.!According!to!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010).!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Legal&reform&is&key&to&help&farm&laborers&`&they&have&been& exploited&for&decades.!Clement.! The&importance&of&legal&protections&supporting&workers’&ability&to&negotiate&and& organized&is!further!highlighted!by!the!final!manner!in!which!participative& injustices&contribute&to&distributive&inequalities&for&farm&workers.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>. AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& "Food&deserts"&disproportionately&exist&in&low&income& communities.!Specifically!it!found! that!grocery&stores&serving&lower`income&populations&were—when&compared&to& Champion)Briefs) 199& .!A!study!carried!out!and!published!by!the!Food! Empowerment!Project!(FEP)!(Ornelas!2010)!found!that!similar!was!true!in!Santa!Clara! County!in!California.!and!convenience! stores!in!lowerYincome!neighborhoods!when!contrasted!to!higherYincome! neighborhoods—it!also!found!that!the&quality&of&food&was&much&poorer&in&the&few& available&full`service&grocers&in&the&lower`income&areas.! For!example.! Another&category&of&disparities&that&have&been&seen&as&of&primary&importance&in& the&arena&of&food&justice&are&disparities&in&access&to&food&between&different& populations.!February!08.!within!the!city!of!Chicago!more!than!half!a!million!residents!of!primarily! AfricanYAmerican!neighborhoods!have!veryYlittle!or!no!access!to!a!market!selling! fresh!produce!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).& Loo.!In!the!context!of!the! United!States.!The!FEP!study!found!that!not!only!were!there!proportionally!far! fewer!grocery!stores!relative!to!liquor!stores.!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.!Web.! December!01.!The!example!of!this!that!is!most!often!cited!can!be!found!in!the!food! deserts!that!are!found!within!communities!of!color!and!lowYincome!communities.!the&majority&of&food&deserts&are&found&in&two&sorts&of&communities:& lowerincome&and&communities&of&color&in&inner`cities&and&rural&communities.! <http://link."!Springer.!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!note!that&most&African` Americans&living&in&Chicago&had&to&travel&twice&as&far&to&get&to&a&grocery&store& than&to&get&to&a&fast&food&restaurant.springer.!Ornelas!2010).1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.&In& these&areas&available&food&is&generally&heavily&processed&and&sold&at&fast&food& restaurants.!2015.! According!to!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!the!term!‘‘food&desert’’&was&first&coined&in& the&England&to&describe&communities&or&neighborhoods&where&there&were&no& fullservice&grocery&stores&and&little&fresh&food&available.&liquor&stores.!fast!food!restaurants.!2014.com/article/10.&and&bodegas!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010. 6! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 200& .!stores!in!lowerYincome!areas!were!much!less!likely!to!carry! stock!when!compared!to!stores!in!higherYincome!areas!(Ornelas!2010).&about&12&%&as&likely&to&carry&fresh&organic&fruit.& and&never&carried&fresh&organic&vegetables&(Ornelas!2010).!Even!when!it!came!to! frozen!or!canned!produce.&which& were&substantially&more&likely&to&be&sold&in&stores&serving&lower`income& communities!(Ornelas!2010).!This&pattern& was&repeated&for&all&products&with&the&exception&of&tobacco&products.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& stores&serving&higher`income&populations—only&half&as&likely&to&carry&fresh&non` organic&fruit&and&vegetables. &Second.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Two&reasons&why&chain&grocers&don’t&solve.000!square!feet.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 201& .! <http://link.com/article/10.!While!historically!grocers!operated!stores!that!were! smaller!than!20.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!Because!economic! structures!favor!large!chains!to!the!detriment!of!independent!grocers!and!other!smallY scale!distributors!various!vulnerable!communities!are!denied!ready!access!to!fresh! food.!the!shift!from!small!grocers!to!large! chain!markets!has!resulted!in!a!shift!of!food!availability!from!urban!grocers!and!rural! farm!stands!to!suburban!supermarkets.!Specifically.&in& urban&areas.!Clement.springer."!Springer.! December!01.&the&land&required&for&both& floor&space&and&parking&makes&large&supermarkets&and&big&box&stores&is& prohibitively&expensive.000&square&feet&in&floor&space!(Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).!2014.!February!08.!This&shift&from&local&to&chain&grocers& illustrates&a&key&participative&element&of&the&development&of&spread&of&food& deserts.!Web.!it&demonstrates&that&the&distributive&problem&of&there&being& a&lack&of&availability&of&fresh&produce&in&innercities&and&rural&areas&is&due&to&a& large&part&to&control&of&food&distribution—as&the&result&of&market&conditions— being&taken&away&from&members&of&local&communities&and¢ralized&in&the& hands&of&a&number&of&national&and&international&firms.! Something.!This& contributes&to&the&development&and&spread&of&food&deserts&in&two&ways.& Loo.&First.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.!2015.! To!achieve!the!necessary!economies!of!scale!requires!that!big!box!and!chain! supermarkets!be!quite!big.!Because!of!the!two!aboveYdescribed!factors.&to&operate&a&store&that&has&a&floor&space& exceeding&200.000&square&feet&requires&the&ability&to&maintain&a&large&clientele.!that&is&impossible&in&rural&areas&where&population&densities&are&quite& low.!contemporary&big&box&and&chain&supermarkets& often&exceed&200.&where&real&estate&is&often&at&a&premium. &urban&design&and&poor& public&transport&(Bonfi!glioli.!2013.!January!06.&economic&pressures&to&work&long&hours.!Wilkenfeld.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Those&without&readily&accessible&food&are&viewed&negatively.!Amber.!Web.! 2002).!Burns.!Garrard.!Chapman.eY contentmanagement.!Smith.!&!Booth.!What&is&left&unproblematic&in&this&representation&is&that&skill& development&programmes&stop&working&when&income&levels&are&below&a&certain& threshold.!Mahoney.!For&single&working&parents&or&double&working& parent&households.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem! Represented!To!Be?.!King.!2007.com/index.!&!Townsend.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 202& .!&!Holding.!2015.! This!focus&on&individual&behaviour&defects&attention&from&structural&issues&such& as&food&supply.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.!King.&as&lower&socioeconomic& neighbourhoods&may&present&more&structural&barriers&to&healthy&eating& compared&to&more&affluent&areas&(Reidpath..!2009).!The&representation&does¬&consider&the&impact&of& socioeconomic&status&on&access&to&healthy&foods.& Bastian.! Booth.!Pagnini."!Health!Sociology!Review.! February!09.!2006).!<http://ojs.&time&pressure&may&be&a&barrier&to&preparing&healthy& meals&(Booth!et!al. AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Rich&countries&horde&food&and&countries&have&to&rely&on& trade&for&food&security.! It!was.!through!the!WTO.! Withdrawal!of!these!subsidies!may!lead!to!some!advantages!for!developing!countries.!February!09.!October! 11.&Subsidies&to&the&farmers&in&the& rich&countries&vary&from&one`third&of&the&farmers'&income&in&the&US&to&one`half&in& the&EU&to&two`thirds&in&Japan.!Web.&the&question&of&depending&on&international&trade&to&ensure&food& security&of&the&country&was&debated.!2015.jstor.!"Concerns!On!Food!Security.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 203& .!however.! This!question!assumes!importance!in!the!context!of!the!pressures!exerted!by!the!rich! countries.! International!trade:!Given&the&accelerating&pace&of&economic&liberalisation&and& globalisation.!The!question!before!the!seminar!was! whether!international!trade!is!a!dependable!mechanism!for!ensuring!food!security.org/stable/4409916>.&we& should&fight&the&subsidies&in&the&rich&countries&and&thereby&seize&opportunities& for&trade&in&agricultural&commodities.& Kannam.!Moreover.!2000.!The!EU!is!the!most! vehement!in!protecting!agriculture.!On!top!of!this.&safety&and&so&on.& accord&high&priority&to&protect&their&agriculture.!despite!their!avowed!commitment!to!free!trade.!to!remove!trade!barriers!in!agricultural! commodities.&The&issue&was&raised&right&at&the&inaugural& address&which&suggested&that&while&reducing&domestic&subsidy&on&food.P.&It&is&in&this&context&that&a&country&like&India& will&have&to&assess&the&viability&of&depending&on&trade&for&its&food&security.!not!clear!whether!this!will!happen!in!future.!the¤t&world&foodstock&is& just&enough&to&take&care&of¤t&requirements&and&any&major&imbalance&in& food&supply&is&likely&to&lead&to&crisis.!K.!The&rich&countries.!<http://www."!Economic!and!Political!Weekly.!there&are&a&number&of&non`tariff&barriers& resorted&to&by&these&countries&in&the&name&of&health. ! Development!assistance!can!be!decisive!for!countries!to!break!the!poverty!cycle!of!too! little!income!to!support!public!infrastructure!and!services!necessary!to!raise!income.& and&transfers&to&match&food&availability&with&individual&food&needs.!Family!planning!alone!will!not!suffice.! <http://www.! Foreign&assistance&is&especially&critical&in&early&stages&when&the&economic&base& of&a&developing&country&is&inadequate&to&provide&even&minimal&development& tools&such&as&improved&agricultural&technology!(Burnside!and!Dollar).& Tweeten.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 204& .!Luther.! But!the!most!important!contribution!of!developed!countries!to!many!developing! countries!is!open!markets.!In&the& intermediate&run.&the&challenge&is&economic&growth&featuring&greater& productivity&to&raise&food&production&and&consumer&buying&power.!Food&security&issues&differ&by&length&of&run.!February!09.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&varies&based&upon&goal.jstor.!1999.&the&challenge&is&for&the&demographic&transition&to&run&its&course&to&zero& population&growth!(ZPG).!and!other!contributors!to!lower!birth!rates! and!ZPG!in!developing!countries.!2015.&open&trade.&the&challenge&is&buffer&stocks.!urbanization.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security.!Many&African&countries.&In&the& short&run&with&given&food&supplies."!Review!of!Agricultural! Economics.!February!09.&They&will&need&to&shift&to&manufacturing&products& for&export&after&advancements&in&agriculture&first&provide&the&economic&base&to& improve&human&capital&essential&for&competing&globally&in&nonfarm&industries& and&attracting&foreign&investment.!That!development!process!will!function!best!if! international!markets!are!open.org/stable/1349892>.&will¬&be&able&to& prosper&on&agriculture&alone.&for&example.!Web.5!Developed!countries!are!mostly!near!or!below! fertility!rates!needed!for!ZPG.!higher!incomes!are! necessary!to!provide!schooling.!gender!equity!in!job!preparation!and! opportunity.!health!care!for!child!survival.!In&the&long& run. !Vol.!1996)!to&poor&outcomes& on&broader&measures&of&well`being.&ranging&from&health&to&behavior&to&school& performance!(see.!No.!Kendall.!2003.!Dunifon!&!KowaleskiYJones.&52&percent& reported&that&at×&they&couldn't&afford&to&feed&their&children&balanced&meals.!February!09.! 2003).!2006.&ranging&from&deficits&in&nutritional& consumption!(see.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 205& .p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.& and&one`quarter&reported&that&at×&they&couldn't&afford&to&give&the&children& enough&to&eat!(Nord.1002/pam.researchers&have&documented&a&variety&of& negative&consequences&of&food&insecurity.com/store/10.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!for!example.!2015.!January! 08.&Eighty`one&percent&of&food`insecure&households&reported& relying&on&only&a&few&kinds&of&low`cost&foods&to&feed&their&children.& Bartfeld.wiley.! Children&in&food`insecure&households&experience&a&variety&of&disruptions&in& their&eating&habits.!Winicki!&!Jemison.!Olson.!4.! <http://onlinelibrary.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!25."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!Judi.!2003b).!Further.!&!Frongillo.!for!example.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Children&are&harmed&by&food&insecurity.!Web. &more&than&half&of&food`insecure&households&are& not&poor!(Nord.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 206& .!&!Carlson.&poverty&and&food&insecurity&are&distinct& phenomena.wiley.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!2004).!Vol.!4.!February!09.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.& Bartfeld.!The!factors!that!moderate!the!relationship!between! income!and!food!security!are!not!well!understood.!Andrews.!poverty&and&food&insecurity&are&closely&linked:&the&prevalence&of& food&insecurity&declines&from&35.1&percent&among&poor&households&to&4.&and&equally&important."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!No.! Much&of&the&research&on&the&determinants&of&food&insecurity&has&focused&on&the& role&of&sociodemographic&characteristics&of&households&and&individuals.!2002).!Not! surprisingly.9& percent&among&households&above&1.! <http://onlinelibrary.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!Food&insecurity&does¬&reach& negligible&levels&until&household&income&exceeds&five×&the&poverty& threshold!(Nord!&!Brent.!Judi.!January! 08.!Web.! Andrews.&but&are&separate& phenomena.com/store/10.85×&the&federal&poverty&line!(Nord.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Poverty&and&food&insecurity&may&correlate.!&!Carlson.&More&than&half&of&poor&households&are¬&considered&food& insecure.1002/pam.!2004).!2006.!25.!2015.!Nonetheless. !Frongillo.&Other&research&highlights&the& relationship&between&food&insecurity&and&low&education!(Daponte!&!Stephens.!Judi.20214/asset/20214_ftp.&welfare&policies.!2006.!January! 08.&lack&of&home&ownership!(Rose!et!al.!unemployment!(Daponte!&! Stephens.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Factors&that&contribute&to&food&insecurity.!poor&health.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 207& .!&!Kendall.! In!addition!to!poverty!status.!Gundersen.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.com/store/10.!&!Oliveira.!Although& research&initially&focused&on&individual&and&household&characteristics.wiley.!February!09.!1998).!Rose.!and&Hispanicðnicity&are& associated&with&higher&rates&of&food&insecurity.& generally&focusing&on&one&or&another&of&these&factors&rather&than&using&a&more& integrative&approach&that&simultaneously&considers&multiple&factors.& Bartfeld.!Rauschenbach.! <http://onlinelibrary.! 1998).!1997).!recent& changes&in&income!(Gundersen!&!Gruber.!lack&of&savings!(Olson.&Such&efforts&have&variously&examined&the&role&of&food& assistance&programs.&and&economic&and&social&contexts.!Vol.&race!(specifically.!2001).!Nord!and!colleagues!(2004)!find!that!single& parenthood.!2004).!4.1002/pam.!Web.! 2004.!2001).&and&social&isolation!(Tarasuk.!African!ancestry).."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.&there& have&also&been&efforts&to&explore&the&role&of&contextual&factors&in&contributing&to& food&security&outcomes.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!2015.!25.!No. !"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.com/store/10.!and! Leachman!(2004)!find!that!state&differences&in&residential&mobility.!Looking!at!subYstate!factors.!evidence&suggests&that&economic&and&social&contexts&at&the& state&and&sub`state&levels&are&linked&to&food&insecurity.!February!09.!Judi.!Suter.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Reductions&of&welfare&and&mobility&contribute&to&food& insecurity."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!though!at!least!some!research&finds&a&link&between& reductions&in&welfare&benefits&and&increases&in&food&insecurity!(Cook!et!al.! <http://onlinelibrary.!Bernell.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.& unemployment.! Results!are!ambivalent.!and!Edwards!(2004)!find!that!food& insecurity&in&Oregon&is&more&common&in&the&context&of&high&unemployment&and& low&wages.wiley.!2006.20214/asset/20214_ftp.& Bartfeld.1002/pam.!No.!Vol.!Weber.!2001).!Nord.&and&housing&costs&are&strong&predictors&of&state&hunger& rates.! Finally.!2002.!examining!data!from!rural!communities!in!New! York.!Tapogna..!Yang!and!Dunifon!(2004).! Borjas.!2015.!January! 08.!find!that!access&to&food&outlets&is¬&linked&to&household&food&security.!Web.!as!well!as!among!households!experiencing!greater!residential!mobility.!4.!Finally.!25.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 208& .! Other!research!has!examined!linkages!between!welfare!policies!and!food!security. &but&states&and&localities&differ&in&other&criteria.&extent&of&outreach&about&program& availability.!2003).&and&the&Summer&School&Lunch&program.& Bartfeld.! Federal&nutrition&assistance&programs`including&the&Food&Stamp&program.!Other!programs!exhibit!still!greater!variation.!January! 08.!for!example!Gabor.com/store/10.!2006.!These!programs!vary!in!important!ways!from!state!to! state.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!such!that!households!in!different! geographic!locations!differ!in!the!availability!of!these!programs!as!sources!of! support.!for!instance.!and!it!is! not!included!in!our!analyses.!4.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.! <http://onlinelibrary.&the& School&Breakfast&and&Lunch&programs.&number& and&location&and&hours&of&application&sites.!2002).!has&nationwide&income&and&asset& criteria."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!2015.!No.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&state&by&state& variations.!In!contrast.!&!Bartlett.! and!recent!research!has!linked!a!variety!of!state!program!characteristics!to! participation!rates!(Kornfeld.&such&as&vehicle& restrictions.&frequency&with&which&eligibility&recertification&is&required.!Estimates!of!state!participation!rates!among!eligible! persons!range!from!under!50!percent!to!over!70!percent!(Schirm!&!Castner.!and!even!from!community!to!community.&including&the&Summer& Food&Service&program.! Botsko.!Hardison.1002/pam.&and&summer&food&programs`represent&a& major&policy&commitment&to&meeting&the&food`related&needs&of&vulnerable& segments&of&the&population.&which&provides&meals&to&children&participating&in&camps& and&other&recreational&programs.! The!availability!of!the!School!Breakfast!program!among!states!ranges!from!42!percent! to!100!percent!of!schools.!25.!2002).&and&job&search&requirements!(see.!Judi.&which& provides&meals&to&students&attending&summer&school.wiley.!Vol.& Similar&variation&is&found&in&the&summer&meal&programs.!and!the!ratio!of!lowYincome!children!participating!in!the! breakfast!program!relative!to!those!participating!in!the!lunch!program!during!2001Y 2002!ranged!from!24!percent!to!57!percent!(Food!Research!and!Action!Center.!February!09.20214/asset/20214_ftp.! Champion)Briefs) 209& .!2003).!there!is!much! less!state!variation!in!the!availability!of!the!National!School!Lunch!program.!Web.!The&Food&Stamp&program. !"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!We! are!interested!in!the!extent!to!which!differences!(across!states!and!over!time)!in!the! availability!and!accessibility!of!food!assistance!programs!are!linked!to!differences!in! food!security!outcomes.!We!operationalize!availability!and!accessibility!of!the!School! Breakfast!program!by!the!average!number!of!students!eating!free!or!reducedYprice! breakfast!per!day!for!each!100!students!eating!free!or!reducedYprice!School!Lunch.!we!construct!a!measure!of! average!monthly!number!of!food!stamp!recipients!divided!by!number!of!poor!persons! (based!on!the!Census!Bureau's!Small!Area!Poverty!Estimates).!and!summer!meal!programs!with!indicators!of!stateYwide! participation!levels.!In!the!case!of!the!Food!Stamp!program.!If!this!is!the!case.!Vol.! <http://onlinelibrary.!Web.1002/pam.!it!is!also! likely!that!programs!are!more!widely!used!by!families!with!greater!need.!we&measure&the&availability&and&accessibility&of&the&Summer&Food& Service&program&and&Summer&School&Lunch&program&by&the&average&daily& participation&per&100&participants&in&the&free&or&reduced`price&lunch&program& during&the&school&year.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&study&account&for&federal&food& assistance.!However.!even!after! controlling!for!observable!characteristics.! Likewise.& Bartfeld.com/store/10.!our!estimates!of!the! relationship!between!program!participation!and!food!insecurity!would!be!biased! Champion)Briefs) 210& .!2015.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!February!09.&Participation&in&School&Lunch&is&frequently&used&as&a& benchmark&against&which&to&measure&School&Breakfast&and&summer&meal& program&participation.!We!characterize!the!availability!and!accessibility!of!Food! Stamps.&because&it&is&much&more&uniformly&available&and&more& consistently&used.!January! 08.!2006.wiley.!4.! Availability!and!accessibility!of!federal!food!assistance!and!nutrition!programs.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!25."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!Judi.!No.!School!Breakfast.!We&treat&higher&participation&among& eligible&families&as&a&proxy&for&greater&program&accessibility.2!There!are!potential! biases!associated!with!these!variables. 3! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 211& .!though.!Note.!making!such!relationships!more!difficult!to!detect.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& downward.!net!of!other! variables!in!the!model.!Our&model&includes&several&measures&of&aggregate&well` being!(see!below)!that&help&control&for&differences&in&need&across&locations.!that! unobserved!characteristics!that!contribute!to!program!participation!are!only!a! problem!to!the!extent!that!they!differ!systematically!across!locations. & Bartfeld.!No.1002/pam.!and!thus!are!intended!to!capture!variation!in!the!availability.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Summer&meal&programs&lower&risk&for&food&insecurity.!2006.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 212& .&having&a&disabled&person&or&a&noncitizen& in&the&household.!2015.&renting&versus&owning&a&home.! these!variables!represent!the!extent!to!which!summer!meal!programs!are!used!by! lowYincome!children.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!25.!Web.&lower&education.!The!interpretation.!Important&predictors&of&food& insecurity&include&lower&income.! Table!2!presents!coefficients!and!odds!ratios!from!the!random!intercept!model! (Equation!3).!February!09.!Vol.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.! accessibility.&single&mother& status.!4.!Judi.!January! 08.com/store/10."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!and!desirability!of!such!programs.!In!contrast.&more&children.!largely!consistent!with!existing!research.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.& Looking&first&at&variables&characterizing&availability&and&accessibility&of&federal& nutrition&assistance&programs.!Most!of!the!household!variables!emerge!as!significant!predictors!of!food! insecurity.! <http://onlinelibrary.!is! that!households&in&states&with&more&widely&utilized&summer&meal&programs&have& lower&risk&of&food&insecurity.!As!discussed!above.! Also!in!Table!2!are!the!coefficients!and!odds!ratios!for!the!contextual!variables.!then.&we&find&that&greater&state&rates&of&participation& in&both&the&Summer&Food&Service&program&and&the&Summer&School&Lunch& program&are&associated&with&a&lower&risk&of&food&insecurity.&and&race/ethnicity&other&than&non`Hispanic&white&or&Asian.!we&find&no&relationship&between&the& extent&of&state`level&participation&in&either&the&Food&Stamp&or&the&School& Breakfast&program&and&food&security&outcomes.wiley. "!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!Our& results&suggest&that&the&greater&the&state&tax&burden&on&low`income&families.5&percent!increase&in&the&odds&of& food&insecurity.!2015.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.7&percent&increase&in&the&odds&of&food& insecurity.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Taxes&increase&food&insecurity.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!with&each&percentage`point&increase&in&the& lowincome&tax&burden&associated&with&a&1.& Bartfeld.!The!overall!tax!burden.!Vol.!whereas!higher!unemployment!rates!are! linked!to!higher!food!insecurity.!Judi.!4.!Web.!is!not!significantly!related!to!food! insecurity.!January! 08.!we!find!that!higher!average! wages!are!linked!to!lower!food!insecurity.!25.!State!economic!characteristics!are!strongly!linked!to!food!insecurity!in!this! model.!No.! <http://onlinelibrary.! We!also!find!some!evidence&that&tax&policy&is&associated&with&food&security.com/store/10.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 213& .&the& greater&the&risk&of&food&insecurity.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!2006.!Focusing!on!job!availability!and!quality.!February!09.1002/pam.wiley.!Median&rent&is&among&the&strongest&predictors:&results&imply&that&a&$100& increase&in&median&rent&is&associated&with&a&17.!in!contrast. !January! 08.!4.!Web.com/store/10.!25.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 214& .!we&find&no&significant&relationship&between&the&overall&tax&burden&and& the&risk&of&food&insecurity.!Vol.!This&is&consistent&with&our&expectations.&we&find&that&the&low`income&tax&burden&is&no&longer&a& significant&predictor&of&overall&food&insecurity.!No.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!2006.wiley.!however.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!Judi."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!we&again&find&that& higher&average&wages&are&linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity.!As! before.!February!09.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& AT&Libertarian&NC&`&There&is¬&significant&relationship& between&tax&burden&and&food&insecurity.!2015.!Turning!to!economic!characteristics.!it&does.1002/pam.!appear! tostrengthen&the&relationship&between&low`income&status&and&food&insecurity` low`income&households&have&a&greater&risk&of&food&insecurity&when&the&low` income&tax&burden&is&higher.! <http://onlinelibrary.! Focusing&on&tax&policy.& Bartfeld. !25.! 2003a).com/store/10.!we&find&that&greater&residential&stability& in&the&state&continues&to&be&linked&to&lower&food&insecurity.&a&situation&that&could& contribute&to&greater&food&security&for&economically&vulnerable&families!(Nord.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Stability&is&key&`&unemployment&is¬&directly&linked&to& insecurity.!Finally."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!No.!but!with!no!differential!impacts!for!particular! income!groups.!2015.!2006.&results&suggest&that&higher&unemployment&may&exacerbate&the& detrimental&impact&of&low&income&on&food&insecurity.wiley.!Median!rent!continues!to! have!a!strong!impact!on!food!insecurity.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!We!also!find!that!higher&poverty&rates&are&linked&to&lower&food& insecurity&among&near`poor&and&low`income&households.!Vol.1002/pam.!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 215& .! The&unemployment&rate&is&no&longer&linked&to&the&overall&food&insecurity&rate.&This&could&indicate& that&the&cost&of&living&is&lower&in&high`poverty&areas.! <http://onlinelibrary.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!February!09.!4.!Web.!looking!at!social!context.!January! 08.& however.& Bartfeld. &a&lower&tax&burden.!Web.&and&a&stronger&labor& market.!Our!results!suggest!that!such!families& may&benefit&even&more&than&other&households&from&a&context&characterized&by&a& more&accessible&Food&Stamp&program.AFF:&Poverty&AC& & March/April&2015& Family&who&are¬&poor&still&struggle&with&food&security.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!January! 08.& Bartfeld.1002/pam.!February!09.!No.!This&pattern&of&results&suggests&that&there&may&be&a&particularly& vulnerable&segment&of&the&population.&whose&ability&to&meet&food` related&needs&is&most&affected&by&the&economic&and&policy&context.!is!the!finding!that!context&matters&most&for&families&that& are&economically&vulnerable&yet¬&poor.!Previous! research!has!not!examined!whether!certain!subYgroups!of!the!population!are! especially!susceptible!to!contextual!factors.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 216& .!Judi.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!25.! More!surprising.!2015.! <http://onlinelibrary.!2006.wiley.!perhaps."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!doing!so!is!an!important!contribution!of! this!work.&those&who&are&in&precarious&financial& circumstances&yet&who&have¬&fallen&into&poverty.!Vol.!4.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.com/store/10. !2010.!In&making&explicit&the¢rality&of&race&to&the&study&of& food.!Bringing!together!antiYracist! theory!and!food!research.& Slocum.!By!‘food’.&tasting!and!picking.!If!food!studies!is!understood! narrowly."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.!Food&must&be&understood&within&circulations&of&power&and& race&must&be&analyzed&with&a&keen&awareness&as&to&what&is&politically&at&stake&in& the&use&of&this&concept.&and&what&does&that&definition&mean&to&our&subject&of& study?&We&might&ask&what&does&food&become&when&we&consider&race&and.edu/content/35/3/303! The&study&of&race&is&critical&to&understanding&food.& conversely.!2015.!this!paper!proposes!that!we&can&better&understand& farming&and&provisioning.!ecologically.! Web.&how&might&we&view&race&differently&through&food&practices?!What! difference!does!race!make!in!the!fields!where!food!is!grown.sagepub.!February!03.!vegetable!or! mineral!into!something!to!eat!and!then!all!that!is!involved!in!what!happens!next!to! bodies!and!societies.!institutionally!or! historically!in&this&context.com.!I!mean!all!the!processes!that!make!animal.AFF:&Racism&AC& & March/April&2015& Race&is&crucial&in&food&studies.ezproxy.!the!places!it!is!sold!and! the!manner!in!which!it!is!eaten?!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 217& .! http://phg.!it!will!be!difficult!to!see!the!variety!and!abundance!of!scholarship!on!race! and!food!that!exists.!Rachel.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food.!going& hungry!and!gardening!by&paying&attention&to&race.&one&might&ask&what&is&race!politically.!eating!and!being!eaten.snhu. !hunting!or!raising!animals!on!them.AFF:&Racism&AC& & March/April&2015& The¤t&status&of&food&security&threatens&the&sovereignty& of&indigenous&peoples.!The!realization!of!indigenous!peoples’!right!to! food!depends!crucially!on!their!access!to!and!control!over!the!natural!resources!on! their!ancestral!lands.!and!to!guarantee!effective!protection!of!their!rights!of!ownership! and!possession”!(art.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet34en.!NO!DATE.!as!they!often!feed!themselves!by!cultivating!these!lands!or!by! collecting!food.!Food!and!its!procurement!and! consumption!are!often!an!important!part!of!their!culture.!34.pdf>.! Understanding!what!the&right&to&food!means&to&indigenous&peoples&is.!Indigenous!peoples!have!their!own!concepts!of!what!constitutes! adequate!food.!“Governments! shall!take!steps!as!necessary!to!identify!the!lands!which!the!peoples!concerned! traditionally!occupy.!The&confiscation&of&lands& without&the&free.!14!(2)).!as!well!as!of!social.!also!affirms!that!indigenous&peoples&have&the& right&to&use&and&develop&the&lands&that&they&possess&by&reason&of&traditional& Champion)Briefs) 218& .& .!The!United!Nations!Declaration!on!the!Rights!of! Indigenous!Peoples.!"The!Right!To!Adequate! Food.ohchr.! therefore.! however.!fishing.! <http://www.!It!is.!important!to!provide!indigenous!peoples!with!legal!titles!to!their!ancestral! lands.&prior&and&informed&consent&of&the&indigenous& peoples!concerned!and!the!lack&of&legal&recognition&of&indigenous&forms&of& landownership&are&serious&obstacles&to&the&realization&of&the&right&to&food.!Web.!adopted!in!2007.!UnitedNationsOfficeoftheCommissionerforHumanRights.!Indigenous&perceptions&of&livelihood&security& are!inextricably!grounded&in&their&sociocultural&traditions&and&their&special& relationship&to&ancestral&territories&and&resources.!more&complex&than&merely!examining!statistics!on!hunger&and& malnutrition.! economic!and!political!organization."!Human!Rights!Fact!Sheet!No.!According!to!Convention!169!of!the!International!Labour!Organization!(ILO)! concerning!Indigenous!and!Tribal!Peoples!in!Independent!Countries.!and!their!aspirations!are!divorced!from!mainstream!development!and! conventional!economic!criteria.!2015.!February!05. !There!is!concern!that!recent&developments&in&international& intellectual&property&rights®imes.30!The!FAO!Right!to!Food! Guidelines!suggest!that!States!should!take!measures!to!“prevent!the!erosion!of!and! ensure!the!conservation!and!sustainable!use!of!genetic!resources!for!food!and! agriculture”.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 219& .!seeds.!including!for!the!protection!of!traditional!knowledge!and!equitable! participation!in!sharing!benefits!through!the!participation!of!local!and!indigenous! communities!in!relevant!decisionYmaking!(Guideline!8).!control.!as!well!as!to!community!knowledge!gained!over!generations!are!also! threatened.!26)!and!that!States!should!give!due!recognition!to!indigenous!land! tenure!systems!(art.AFF:&Racism&AC& & March/April&2015& ownership!(art.!31).!such!as!seeds!traditionally!cultivated!by!indigenous! communities.!The!United!Nations! Declaration!on!the!Rights!of!Indigenous!Peoples!also!recognizes!indigenous!peoples’! right!to!maintain.!27).!protect!and!develop!the!manifestations!of!their!sciences.!such!as!the!World!Trade!Organization’s! Agreement!on!TradeYrelated!Aspects!of!Intellectual!Property!Rights!(TRIPS).!may& protect&“inventions”&of&business&enterprises&and&research&institutions&based&on& indigenous&communities’&traditional&resource&and&knowledge&and&deprive&them& of&free&access&and&use&of&such&resource&and&knowledge.!Indigenous!peoples’!access!to!and!control!over!plant!and! animal!genetic!resources.! technologies!and!cultures.!including!genetic!resources.!and!knowledge!of!the! properties!of!fauna!and!flora!(art. !<http://eric.& re`learning&and&re`valuing&traditional&foodwork!–!including!growing.!is&partly&about&the&recovery&of&lost&knowledge&and& cultural&practices.!This&pedagogy&then&helps¬&only&to&undo&the& legacies&of&racism.! Web.AFF:&Racism&AC& & March/April&2015& Education&is&key&to&undo&the&racist&view&of&the&US&food& system.!This&sort&of&learning.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.!Number!3.!rituals!and!food!ceremonies!in!the!life!of! Tsyunhehkw^!(e.!January!11.!Pierre.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production.!but&also&to&establish&a&more&just& system&of&food&security.!as!it!is!described!by!the!Oneida!organizers!and!public! descriptions!of!Tsyunhehkw^.!Knowledge!And! Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 220& .!for!example.! The!two!cases!present!an!educational&curriculum!which&is&in&part&about&learning.ed.!the!Oneida!Harvest!and!Husking!Bee).&colonialism&and&dispossession&and&the&whiteness’&upon&which& the&US&food&system&is&built!(Slocum!2006).!is!to!teach!a! common!Oneida!identity!through!the!act!of!preparing!and!eating!traditional! foods.!it!is!means!of!reviving!collective!Oneida!identity! through!food.!2012.g.! these!are!in!fact!pedagogical!acts.&relational&and&spiritual&learning& alongside&others&in&the&community.!preparing.&but&is&also&about&embodied.!Part!of!the!intent!of! organizing!the!many!shared!meals.! processing!and!harvesting!food.!2015.& Walter.!but!also!eating!food:!as!reYenvisioned!practices.!February!08."! Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52.&cultural&identity&and&health&for&racialised&groups!such! the!Oneida!and!marginalised!African!American!urban!youth. !Pierre.!Number!3.&and&with&what&results.S.&distribution&and&consumption&in&the&food&movement.!Knowledge!And! Consumption:!The!Public!Pedagogies!Of!Growing!Power!And!Tsyunhehkw.!In!both!cases.ed.&curriculum&and& educational&processes.&both&in&these&and&other&sites&of&public&pedagogy&in&the&food& movement.!By!contrast.!as& it&moves&away&from&its&white."! Australian!Journal!of!Adult!Learning!Volume!52.&How&and&where&this&learning&occurs&in&practice.!"Educational!Alternatives!In!Food!Production.&is&fertile&ground& for&further&research.! It!is!evident!from!this!study!that!Tsyunhehkw^!and!Growing!Power!act! as!sites!of!public!pedagogy!which!disrupt&and&create&educational&alternatives&to& dominant&racialised&and&classed&ideologies&and&practices&in&the&U.AFF:&Racism&AC& & March/April&2015& Public&pedagogy&disrupts&whiteness&in&the&food&movement.!<http://eric.&socially&aware&conceptualizations&and& practices&of&production.!it!is! not!clear!how!they!take!up!an!understanding!of!gender!oppression!in!their! educational!work.gov/?id=EJ1000194>.!January!11.!These!pedagogies!are!cognizant!of!historical!legacies!of! racism.!colonialism!and!class!oppression!and!work!to!overcome!them.! Web.&food&system.!they&contribute&to&more&critical.&and&how& it&might&be&encouraged&by&adult&educators.! As!such.& Walter.!the&importance&of&informal&and& transformative!adult!learning&is&evident&in&their&aims.&that&is.&middle&class&foundations&toward&more&broadly& inclusive&incarnations.! ! Champion)Briefs) 221& .&who&is&mobilised.&how&these&sites&mobilise& people&to&social&action.!2012.!2015.!February!08. sandiego.¬&just&towards&those&with&whom&we&are&socially&close)&to& aid&people&when&they&are&in&dire&necessity&and&a&social&duty!(i.!Web.!MORAL!THEORY.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& On&pain&of&contradiction&we&must&recognize&the&right&to& subsistence&as&a&general&duty.&Arguably.!January!03.! It!must!be!recognized.!February! 06.edu/~peffer/Essays/World%20Hunger.!AND!RADICAL!RAWLSIANISM.!"WORLD!HUNGER.! <http://home.!it!seems!to!me.!that!we&have&a&general&duty&(i.!a!duty!of!social! justice)&to&establish&social&arrangements&that&address&the&standard&threats&that& we&might&all&face.&out&of&respect&for&ourselves&and&others&we&must&recognize&the&duty&to& aid&those&in&dire&necessity! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 222& .e.doc>.e.&no&rational&and&reasonable&person&would&deny&this& because&all&rational&and&reasonable&persons&know&that&the&exigencies&of&human& existence&mean&that&we&all&may&need&such&help&at&some&point&in&our&lives.%20&%20Radical%20Rawlsianism.%20Moral%20 Theory.& Peffer.& Therefore."! International!Journal!of!Politics!and!Ethics.!Rodney.!2003.&a&duty& towards&all&humans.!2015. !The!globalization!of!the!food!system!and&the& influences&it&has&had&on&particular&actors!within!the!system!(farmers.! retail.)!and&”justice”& benefits&(improved!diet.!etc).! sustainable!development.edu/~pgay/etext/CommuityFoodSecurity.! Hendrickson.!the!nature!of!the!food!product!(or!its!durability.!or!Kloppenburg.!marketing.!etc.!food&system&issues&are&significantly.!though!not! exclusively."!Antipode.!public!health!aspects.!1995.!This!includes!the!way!food!is!grown.!land!use!considerations.!the!distance!it!travels!to!reach! its!final!end!market.!and!Stevenson!(1994)!define!as!a!”regional!foodshed”!approach).!this&alternative!food!system!or!”food!regime”!represents&significant& environmental!(reduced!hazards.!as!Friedmann! describes!it)!and!what!food!is!available!or!accessible!(Friedmann.!Koc.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 223& .)!has&created&major&environmental&as&well&as&equity!or! ”justice”impacts.!etc.!etc.pdf>.!1994.! Further.!2.!economic!security)!that!have!also!become!central! environmental!justice!considerations.!Web.!1994)& Each&of&those&food&system&elements&contain&an&environmental&core!(e.g.)!as&well&as& broader&social&questions!(community!access!and!control!of!a!production!system.!greater!community!control!over!resources.!Vol.! <http://harvey.!urban!greening.!environmental&questions..!No.!December!04.! production!hazards.!A&food&security&agenda&seeks&to&address& those&questions!(the!distance/durability!factors)!in!part!by!offering!a!counter! paradigm!(what!Friedmann!(1993)!calls!locality!and!seasonality.!February!07.!Robert.binghamton.!""First!Feed!The!Face":!Environmental!Justice!And!Community!Food! Security.!28.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& The&global&food&system&links&environmentalism&with&social& justice.& Gottlieb.! More!broadly!stated.!2015. !2015.! <http://www.!Web.5&billion&more&than&an&existing&food&subsidy&program!that! covers!325!million!people.2%&of&GDP!in!the!fiscal!year!ended!March!31).! itself!a!government!body.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& India’s&food&security&program&is&financially&unsustainable.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 224& .!it's!unaffordable.!"New!Delhi's!Hunger!Games.!says&the&real&cost&may&be&high&as&$42&billion&per&year.! Meanwhile.!But&the&Commission&for&Agricultural&Costs&and&Prices.!Sadanand."!The!Wall!Street!Journal.!Finance!Minister!Palaniappan!Chidambaram!is!telling!foreign!business! and!government!leaders!that!Delhi&is&serious&about&reining&in&its&fiscal&deficit& (budgeted&at&5.!The&government&claims&the&program&will&cost!about! $22!billion!a!year.! To!start!with.!hunger&is& yesterday's&battle.!February!07.&the&program&would&still&be&illogical.!1995.!Even&if&India&could& afford&such&spending.& Dhume.wsj.!or!$4.!Simply!put.!It's!hard!to!see!how!he! can!square!that!assertion!with!such!a!large!new!entitlement.com/articles/SB10001424127887323393804578557050745 156758>.!December! 04. !"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh.&"They&are& often&seen&as&a&burden&to&the&family.newY ag.!they!were!able!to!rent!a!plot!of! land!and!start!growing!pumpkins.&but&once&they&are&able&to&contribute&to&the& family&income&they&get&more&respect."! Champion)Briefs) 225& .&by& sensitising&members&on&disability&and&making&sure&that&people&with&disabilities& were&included&in&all&group&activities.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can& be&used&to&empower&people&with&disabilities.!People!with!disabilities! were!also!assessed!and!disability!workers!decided!whether!physiotherapy.&but&also&their&social&status&and&self` confidence.!GDA's&were&assisted&by&a&team&of& specialised&trainers&who&provided&group&members&with&information&to&help& them&select&and&implement&income&generating&activities.! December!04.!generating!their!own! income.&"Earning&their&own&income&has&proved&to&be&a&very& empowering&exercise&for&women&with&disabilities.info/en/focus/focusItem.!<http://www.!They!also!keep!ducks.!they!were!soon!able!to!eat!and!sell!the!eggs!and! provide!a!few!hens!to!another!group!member.&The&success&of&women& with&disabilities&in&income&generation&activities&has&been&equal&to&the&success& rate&of&women&without&disabilities.!medical! treatment!or!specific!devices!would!be!needed!to!improve!their!ability!to!take!part!in! WVG!activities.php?a=3072>.&So&the&income&generating&activities&have& not&only&improved&their&economic&status.&Some&GDAs&have&reported&that&women&with& disabilities&took&their&activities&more&seriously&and&were&therefore&able&to& achieve&better&results.!1995.! Group&Development&Agents&(GDA)&supported&the&functioning&of&the&groups.!February!07.!After!receiving!the!birds!and! training!on!how!to!raise!chickens.!they!are!no!longer!fully!dependent!on!their!brother.!In!return!they!received!a!goat!from! another!group!member.!With!the!profit!they!made."!New!Agriculturist.!Fiona.!Now.!2015.!Web.& Williams."&Bruijn&explains.Molida!and!Hena!chose!to!raise!chickens. &Some&GDAs&have&reported&that&women&with& disabilities&took&their&activities&more&seriously&and&were&therefore&able&to& achieve&better&results.!Now.!<http://www."!New!Agriculturist.!they!were!able!to!rent!a!plot!of! land!and!start!growing!pumpkins.Molida!and!Hena!chose!to!raise!chickens.php?a=3072>.!Web.newY ag.!generating!their!own! income.info/en/focus/focusItem.&"Earning&their&own&income&has&proved&to&be&a&very& empowering&exercise&for&women&with&disabilities.!In!return!they!received!a!goat!from! another!group!member.!After!receiving!the!birds!and! training!on!how!to!raise!chickens.!People!with!disabilities! were!also!assessed!and!disability!workers!decided!whether!physiotherapy.!They!also!keep!ducks.! Group&Development&Agents&(GDA)&supported&the&functioning&of&the&groups.! December!04.&So&the&income&generating&activities&have& not&only&improved&their&economic&status.!1995.!"Mainstreaming!Disability!In!Bangladesh.&but&also&their&social&status&and&self` confidence.!they!are!no!longer!fully!dependent!on!their!brother.!medical! treatment!or!specific!devices!would!be!needed!to!improve!their!ability!to!take!part!in! WVG!activities."&Bruijn&explains.&by& sensitising& members&on&disability&and&making&sure&that&people&with&disabilities& were&included&in&all&group&activities.!Fiona.!February!07.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Income&Generating&activities&as&a&method&of&food&security&can& be&used&to&empower&people&with&disabilities."! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 226& .!they!were!soon!able!to!eat!and!sell!the!eggs!and! provide!a!few!hens!to!another!group!member.!2015.!GDA's&were&assisted&by&a&team&of& specialised&trainers&who&provided&group&members&with&information&to&help& them&select&and&implement&income&generating&activities.&but&once&they&are&able&to&contribute&to&the& family&income&they&get&more&respect.&"They&are& often&seen&as&a&burden&to&the&family.& Williams.!With!the!profit!they!made.The&success&of&women& with&disabilities&in&income&generation&activities&has&been&equal&to&the&success& rate&of&women&without&disabilities. AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Increased&income&and&food&consumption&leads&to&increased& beef&consumption.& Schroeder,!Ted.!"Income!Growth!And!International!Meat!Consumption."!Journal!of! International!Food!and!Agribusiness!Marketing.!September!01,!1996.!Web.! February!07,!2015.! http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J047v07n03_02?journalCode= wifa20#preview! With& technological& adoption& and& trade& liberalization,& per& capita& incomes& have& grown& rapidly& in& industrialized& countries.& Income& growth& has& resulted& in& increased& per& capita& meat& consumption.& Projecting& future& meat& consumption& requires& quantifying& the& relationship& between& per& capita& income& and& meat& consumption.&This&study&estimates&the&relationship&between&income&growth&and& meat& consumption& using& data& from& 32& countries.! Beef,! pork,! poultry,! and! lamb! income!elasticities!declined!at!different!rates!as!income!levels!increased.!High&income& countries& have& experienced& relatively& constant& per& capita& meat& consumption.& Low& income& counmes& with& low& income& growth& have& had& stagnant& meat& consumption.& Low& income& countries& with& growing& incomes& have& experienced& increasing& meat& consumption.! Countries! such! as! China! characterized! by! relatively! large! income! growth! and! moderate! population! growth! have! experienced! large! increases!in!total!meat!consumption.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 227& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Livestock&used&to&satisfy&beef&demand&is&the&leading&cause&of& warming.& Walsh,!Jason.!"How!Does!Meat!In!The!Diet!Take!An!Environmental!Toll?."!Scientific! American.!September!01,!1996.!Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=meatYandY environment)hs>.! By&the&numbers,&Pachauri&is&absolutely&right.&In&a&2006&report,&the&U.N.&Food&and& Agriculture&Organization&(FAO)&concluded&that&worldwide&livestock&farming& generates&18%&of&the&planet's&greenhouse&gas&emissions&—&by&comparison,&all& the&world's&cars,&trains,&planes&and&boats&account&for&a&combined&13%&of& greenhouse&gas&emissions.&Much&of&livestock's&contribution&to&global&warming& come&from&deforestation,&as&the&growing&demand&for&meat&results&in&trees&being& cut&down&to&make&space&for&pasture&or&farmland&to&grow&animal&feed.&Livestock& takes&up&a&lot&of&space&—&nearly&one`third&of&the&earth's&entire&landmass.&In&Latin& America,&the&FAO&estimates&that&some&70%&of&former&forest&cover&has&been& converted&for&grazing.&Lost&forest&cover&heats&the&planet,&because&trees&absorb& CO2&while&they're&alive&—&and&when&they're&burned&or&cut&down,&the&greenhouse& gas&is&released&back&into&the&atmosphere.&&Then&there's&manure&—&all&that&animal& waste&generates&nitrous&oxide,&a&greenhouse&gas&that&has&296×&the&warming& effect&of&CO2.&And&of&course,&there&is&cow&flatulence:&as&cattle&digest&grass&or& grain,&they&produce&methane&gas,&of&which&they&expel&up&to&200&L&a&day.&Given& that&there&are&100&million&cattle&in&the&U.S.&alone,&and&that&methane&has&23×& the&warming&impact&of&CO2,&the&gas&adds&up.&& ! ! Champion)Briefs) 228& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& An&overwhelming&majority&of&Americans&across&all& ideological&groups&support&the&government's&role&in& ensuring&food&security.& ,!FoodResearchandActionCenter.!"Americans'!Views!On!Hunger."!Hart!Research.! January!10,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://frac.org/pdf/frac_tyson_oct_2014_public_view_hunger_poll.pdf>.! A&majority&look&to&the&government&for&leadership,&and&recognize&the&strengths&of& the&federal&nutrition&programs.&The&belief&that&the&government&needs&to&display& leadership&in&the&fight&against&hunger&is&very&strong.&More&than&80&percent&of& Democrats&and&70&percent&of&Independents&look&to&the&federal&and&local& government&to&lead,&and&50&percent&of&Republicans&believe&that&the&federal& government&has&responsibility.&61&percent&agree&that&“we&should&support&and& improve&government`sponsored&food&assistance&programs&so&that&more&people& who&are&struggling&can&get&the&help&they&need.”&Eighty`one&percent&of&Democrats,& 60&percent&of&Independents,&and&39&percent&of&Republicans&agree&with&this& statement.!People!believe!that!the!child!nutrition!programs!–!especially!school!meals! and!the!Women,!Infants,!and!Children!(WIC)!program!–!are!leading!to!better!outcomes! for!children!by!helping!them!learn!and!improving!their!overall!health!and!wellY being.!By&more&than&three&to&one,&Americans&believe&that&spending&on&such& programs&should&increase&(50&percent)&rather&than&decrease&(15&percent).&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 229& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Concerns&of&overpopulation&are&based&on&a&false& understanding&of&how&populations&sustain&themselves.& Ellis,!Erle.!"Overpopulation!Is!Not!The!Problem."!NY!Times.!January!10,!2014.!Web.! February!07,!2015.! <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/14/opinion/overpopulationYisYnotYtheY problem.html?_r=0,!>.! MANY&scientists&believe&that&by&transforming&the&earth’s&natural&landscapes,&we& are&undermining&the&very&life&support&systems&that&sustain&us.&Like&bacteria!in!a! petri!dish,!our!exploding!numbers!are!reaching!the!limits!of!a!finite!planet,!with!dire! consequences.!Disaster!looms!as!humans!exceed!the!earth’s!natural!carrying!capacity.! Clearly,!this!could!not!be!sustainable.!This!is!nonsense.!Even!today,!I!hear!some!of!my! scientific!colleagues!repeat!these!and!similar!claims!—!often!unchallenged.!And!once,!I! too!believed!them.!Yet!these&claims&demonstrate&a&profound&misunderstanding&of& the&ecology&of&human&systems.&The&conditions&that&sustain&humanity&are¬& natural&and&never&have&been.&Since!prehistory,&human&populations&have&used& technologies&and&engineered&ecosystems&to&sustain&populations&well&beyond&the& capabilities&of&unaltered&“natural”&ecosystems.&The&evidence&from&archaeology&is& clear.!Our!predecessors!in!the!genus!Homo!used!social!hunting!strategies!and!tools!of! stone!and!fire!to!extract!more!sustenance!from!landscapes!than!would!otherwise!be! possible.!And,!of!course,!Homo!sapiens!went!much!further,!learning!over!generations,! once!their!preferred!big!game!became!rare!or!extinct,!to!make!use!of!a!far!broader! spectrum!of!species.!They!did!this!by!extracting!more!nutrients!from!these!species!by! cooking!and!grinding!them,!by!propagating!the!most!useful!species!and!by!burning! woodlands!to!enhance!hunting!and!foraging!success.!Even!before!the!last!ice!age!had! ended,!thousands!of!years!before!agriculture,!hunterYgatherer!societies!were!well! established!across!the!earth!and!depended!increasingly!on!sophisticated!technological! strategies!to!sustain!growing!populations!in!landscapes!long!ago!transformed!by!their! ancestors.&The&planet’s&carrying&capacity&for&prehistoric&human&hunter`gatherers& Champion)Briefs) 230& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& was&probably&no&more&than&100&million.&But&without&their&Paleolithic& technologies&and&ways&of&life,&the&number&would&be&far&less&—&perhaps&a&few&tens& of&millions.!The!rise!of!agriculture!enabled!even!greater!population!growth!requiring! ever!more!intensive!landYuse!practices!to!gain!more!sustenance!from!the!same!old! land.!At!their!peak,!those!agricultural!systems!might!have!sustained!as!many!as!three! billion!people!in!poverty!on!nearYvegetarian!diets.!The!world!population!is!now! estimated!at!7.2!billion.!But!with!current!industrial!technologies,!the!Food!and! Agriculture!Organization!of!the!United!Nations!has!estimated!that!the!more!than!nine! billion!people!expected!by!2050!as!the!population!nears!its!peak!could!be!supported! as!long!as!necessary!investments!in!infrastructure!and!conducive!trade,!antiYpoverty! and!food!security!policies!are!in!place.!Who!knows!what!will!be!possible!with&the& technologies&of&the&future?&The&important&message&from&these&rough&numbers& should&be&clear.&There&really&is&no&such&thing&as&a&human&carrying&capacity.&We& are¬hing&at&all&like&bacteria&in&a&petri&dish.&Why&is&it&that&highly&trained& natural&scientists&don’t&understand&this?&My&experience&is&likely&to&be& illustrative.&Trained&as&a&biologist,&I&learned&the&classic&mathematics&of& population&growth&—&that&populations&must&have&their&limits&and&must& ultimately&reach&a&balance&with&their&environments.!Not!to!think!so!would!be!to! misunderstand!physics:!there!is!only!one!earth,!of!course!!It!was!only!after!years!of! research!into!the!ecology!of!agriculture!in!China!that!I!reached!the!point!where!my! observations!forced!me!to!see!beyond!my!biologists’s!blinders.!Unable!to!explain!how! populations!grew!for!millenniums!while!increasing!the!productivity!of!the!same!land,!I! discovered!the!agricultural!economist!Ester!Boserup,!the!antidote!to!the!demographer! and!economist!Thomas!Malthus!and!his!theory!that!population!growth!tends!to!outrun! the!food!supply.!Her!theories!of!population!growth!as!a!driver!of!land!productivity! explained!the!data!I!was!gathering!in!ways!that!Malthus!could!never!do.!While! remaining!an!ecologist,!I!became!a!fellow!traveler!with!those!who!directly!study!longY term!humanYenvironment!relationships!—!archaeologists,!geographers,! environmental!historians!and!agricultural!economists.!The!science!of!human! sustenance!is!inherently!a!social!science.!Neither!physics!nor!chemistry!nor!even! biology!is!adequate!to!understand!how!it!has!been!possible!for!one!species!to!reshape! Champion)Briefs) 231& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& both!its!own!future!and!the!destiny!of!an!entire!planet.!This!is!the!science!of!the! Anthropocene.!The!idea!that!humans!must!live!within!the!natural!environmental! limits!of!our!planet!denies!the!realities!of!our!entire!history,!and!most!likely!the! future.!Humans&are&niche&creators.&We&transform&ecosystems&to&sustain& ourselves.&This&is&what&we&do&and&have&always&done.&Our&planet’s&human` carrying&capacity&emerges&from&the&capabilities&of&our&social&systems&and&our& technologies&more&than&from&any&environmental&limits.!Two!hundred!thousand! years!ago!we!started!down!this!path.!The!planet!will!never!be!the!same.!It!is!time!for! all!of!us!to!wake!up!to!the!limits!we!really!face:!the!social!and!technological!systems! that!sustain!us!need!improvement.!There&is&no&environmental&reason&for&people&to& go&hungry&now&or&in&the&future.&There&is&no&need&to&use&any&more&land&to&sustain& humanity&—&increasing&land&productivity&using&existing&technologies&can&boost& global&supplies&and&even&leave&more&land&for&nature&—&a&goal&that&is&both&more& popular&and&more&possible&than&ever.&The&only&limits&to&creating&a&planet&that& future&generations&will&be&proud&of&are&our&imaginations&and&our&social& systems.!In!moving!toward!a!better!Anthropocene,!the!environment!will!be!what!we! make!it.! !! !! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 232& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Justice&requires&distribution&of&food.& Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.! December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.! On!the!other!hand,!those!more!concerned!about!participative!justice!are!less! concerned!about!endpoints!and!are!more!concerned!about!process.!Rather!than! focusing!on!specific!distribution!of!valued!and!disvalued!things,!participative&justice& focuses&on&how&differences&in&power&or&recognition&between&different& individuals&and&communities&lead&to&those&distributions.!For!one!adopting!a!more! participative!approach!to!justice!achieving&justice&is¬&only&a&matter&of& redistributing&goods,&it&is&a&matter&of&correcting&disparities&in&social,&political,& and&economic&standing&to&allow&those&who&have&been&historically& underprivileged&to&advocate&for&their&concerns.!In!other!words,!one&who&favors&a& more&participative&understanding&of&justice&would&require&more&than& distributions&be&fair,&they&would&require&that&the&procedures&underlying&those& distributions&fairly&include&all&relevant&parties&in&deciding&how&benefits&and& burdens&are&shared.!There!have!been!a!number!of!reasons!given!for!framing!justice! in!participative!terms.!One!that!is!suggested!by!Young!(1990)!is!that!people!are! heterogeneous!when!it!comes!to!their!preferences!and!their!understanding!of!what! counts!as!a!fair!distribution!of!benefits!and!burdens.!If&people&have&differing& understandings&of&fairness&in®ards&to&distribution&then&it&is&unlikely&that&any& given&distribution&would&be&universally&accessible.!Further,unless&one&includes& an&adequately&broad&range&of&perspectives&in&decisions®arding&distributions,& distributions&would&tend&to&favor&those&included&in&decisions&and&disadvantage& those&excluded.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 233& AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Food&justice&requires&a&system&when&individuals&are& represented&in&its&governing.& Loo,!Clement.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice."!Springer.! December!01,!2014.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.! ! It&would&be&a&good&start&to&make&land&available&for&people&to&grow&food&and&to& create&the&infrastructure&to&allow&for&the&development&of&local&food&systems.!Yet,! one!could!do!this!while!largely!excluding!people!from!decisions!and!governing.!Many& autocratic®imes!such!as!the!Khmer!Rouge!in!Cambodiahave&redistributed&land& and&resources&and&built&infrastructure&that&allowed&for&the&development&of&local& food&systems.!However,&it&would&be&odd&to&say&that&those&living&under&those& regimes&achieved&participative&food&justice.&Participative&food&justice&would& require&something!more;!it!would!require&that&all&individuals&must&be& substantively&included&in&the&governing&of&the&food&system&that&they&are& dependent&upon.!The!suggestion!that!justice!requires!that!people!can!exercise!rights! comes!closer!but!still!is!too!vague!for!an!adequately!participative!account!of!food! justice.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 234& !Web.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 235& .!This!only!calls!attention!to!various!categories!that!may!be!relevant!when! examining!how!benefits!and!burdens!within!the!food!system!are!distributed.&distribution.&there&is&a&recognition&that& the&inclusion&of&marginalized&perspectives&has&played&a¢ral&role&in&undoing& distributional&disparities&and&that&the&genesis&of&many&distributional&disparities& is&the&intentional&exclusion&of&various&groups&from&control&of&the&food&system.! Given!such!recognition.! However.! December!01.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.!Alkon!and!Agyeman!(2011b)!suggest! that!through&a&food&justice&lens&that&analysis&of&food&systems&should&attend&to&the& effect&of&race&and&class&in&the&production."!Springer.!it!seems!that!food&justice&ought&to&be&defined&with& participation&being&at&least&as&important&as&distribution.!2014.!The! continuing!emphasis!on!distribution!in!the!definition!of!food!justice!is!somewhat! surprising.! <http://link.&It&should& also&be&about&participation.!2015.!But.&and&consumption&of& food.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.& Loo.springer.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Food&justice&shouldn’t&just&be&about&participation.com/article/10.!As!I!will!show!below.!Clement.!Alkon!and!Agyeman!(2011b)!only!recognize!the!importance!of!participation! orthogonally.!February!08.!the!manner!in!which!they!suggest!food&problems& should&be&understood&through&the&lens&of&food&justice&is&still¢ered&on& distribution&rather&than&participation.!even&if&one&considers&the&work&of&those&who&have& defined&food&justice&in&the&above&distributive&terms.!It!does! not!suggest!that!the!inequalities!in!the!food!system!should!also!be!understood!in! terms!of!how!communities!of!color!and!lowYincome!communities!have!had!their! perspectives!excluded!from!decisions!regarding!the!governing!of!the!food!system.!They!note!that!activism&on&the&part&of&the&individuals&living&with& low`income&communities&or&communities&of&color&have&played&an&important&part& in&achieving&food&justice. &are&the&consequence&of&inadequate&social&policies&and&programmes&and& unfair&economic&arrangements.! Champion)Briefs) 236& .! A!converse!perspective!is!offered!through!a!focus!on!the!social!determinants!of!health! and!governments’!role!to!intervene!to!ensure!its!citizens!are!afforded!equal! opportunities!and!access!to!health!care!and!education.!While!the!report! acknowledges!economic!growth!of!a!country!is!undoubtedly!important.&capable&and&adequately&financed.eY contentmanagement.!WHO.! 2008.!In!order!to! achieve!this.!The&provision&of&income&and& housing&is&considered&the&responsibility&of&government.!goods!and! access!to!services!as!a!result!of!poor!social!policies!and!programmes."!Health!Sociology!Review.!Bell.!This&increased&role&for&government&was&found&through& stakeholder&discourse&on&addressing&the&social&structural&elements&of&food& security&such&as&individual&financial&resources&versus&cost&of&food.! February!09.!2015.!as!it!provides! required!resources!to!invest!in!the!improvement!of!the!lives!of!the!population.!In&order&to&improve&equal&access&to&goods&and& services&an&increased&role&for&government&is&proposed&through&creating&a&strong& public§or&that&is&committed.!2013.& Bastian.&adequate& cooking&and&food&preparation&facilities&and&greater®ulation&of&the&food& industry&in&order&to&change&how&food&is&produced&and&sold.!The!recent!World!Health!Organisation!commision!on!the!social! determinants!of!health!(WHO.!&!Taylor.!Web.php/hsr/article/view/2075>.!strengthened!government!and!governance!is!required!along!with! increased!private!sector!accountability!(Marmot.!it! highlights!how!this!growth!alone!without!appropriate!social!policies!brings!little! benefi!t!to!improving!the!unequal!distribution!of!goods!and!services.!"The!Responsibilisation!Of!Food!Security:!What!Is!The!Problem! Represented!To!Be?.!Under&this& perspective&poor&and&unequal&living&conditions.!Amber.!Friel.&including&unequal&access&to& food.!January!06.!2008)!highlights!how!health!inequalities!within!and! between!countries!are!caused!by!an!unequal!distribution!of!power.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Food&Security&is&promoted&by&a&welfare&state.com/index.!<http://ojs.!Houweling.!2008).&which&is&a&move&back& towards&a&role&for&‘big&government’&or&greater&government&intervention&in&free& market&economies.!income. wiley.!2006.! <http://onlinelibrary.!Likewise.¬&only&because&of&the&direct& impact&of&jobs&on&income.&emotional.!particularly!in!housing.com/store/10.&but&also&because&quality&job&opportunities&reduce& economic&uncertainty&and&increase&the&overall&economic&strength&of&a& community.1002/pam.!Judi.!the&cost&of&living&is&important."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.& Bartfeld.20214/asset/20214_ftp.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 237& .!Web.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!There!is!substantial! geographic!variation!in!costs.!Finally.!No.&both&because&of&possibilities& for&mutual&assistance&and&because&of&greater&access&to&information&about& available&resources.!February!09.&Social&support&represents&a&stock&of&resources`financial.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Community&connections&are&key&to&food&security.!Vol.!25.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!2015.& and&informational`on&which&households&can&rely&for&potential&assistance.!We! expect!that!households&may&experience&less&food&insecurity&when&there&are& strong&connections&among&community&members.&the&social&connections& among&members&of&a&community&may&play&a&role&in&influencing&household&food& security.&Job&availability&and&quality&are¢ral.!4.!January! 08.!and!this!has!important! implications!for!the!availability!of!money!for!food.! We&expect&food&insecurity&to&be&lower&when&economic&conditions&are&more& favorable. !and!importantly.com/store/10.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!No.wiley.!provide!estimates!of!the!magnitude!of!the!relationship.& Bartfeld.&yet&such&a& relationship&has&been&difficult&to&document&due&to&issues&of&self`selection&among& potentially&eligible&persons.!Likewise.! Overall.1002/pam.!Judi.!Web.!It!makes!sense!that!food&assistance& programs&would&have&a&beneficial&impact&on&food&security.! <http://onlinelibrary.!it&makes&sense&that&food&insecurity&would&be&worse& when&families&have&less&disposable&income.!Results!are!intuitively!plausible.!Our!results!confirm!that!food&insecurity&is&less& common&when&the&Food&Stamp&and&Summer&Nutrition&programs&are&more&widely& available!and!utilized.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Infrastructure&and&community&connections&are&key&to& prevent&food&insecurity&`&studies&prove.!providing!new!evidence!to!policymakers!about!the!benefits!of! these!programs.!25.!Our!results!confirm! this!pattern.!February!09.!Vol.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!4.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 238& .!January! 08.!2006."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!2015.&such&as&would&happen&in&a&context& characterized&by&high&housing&costs&and&a&high&tax&burden.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!but!also!shed!new!light!on!the! factors!associated!with!food!insecurity.!findings&from&this&study&lend&strong&support&to&the&concept&of&a&food& security&infrastructure&that&promotes&household&food&security&among& community&members. wiley.com/store/10.!4.&state.20214/asset/20214_ftp.! the!finding!that!tax!burdens!on!lowYincome!households!play!a!role!highlights!the! potential!importance!of!progressive!tax!structures!in!reducing!food!insecurity!among! vulnerable!families.!Judi.!Web.!2015.&results&support&the¬ion&that&efforts&to& address&food&insecurity&would&benefit&from&a&multifaceted&approach&that& acknowledges&the&importance&of&both&personal&and&community&resources&in& ensuring&households&are&able&to&meet&their&food`related&needs.!25.!February!09.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Affordable&housing&is&another&alternative&to&promote&food& security.!January! 08.& Bartfeld.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.&whether&pursued&at&the&local.!Vol.! <http://onlinelibrary.!2006.&or&national&level.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 239& .!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!Looking!beyond!food! assistance.&offering&promising&possibilities&for& expanding!access!(Food!Research!and!Action!Center.!And.!2005).!the&large&and&robust&relationship&between&housing&costs&and&food& insecurity&suggests&that&efforts&to&promote&affordable&housing&could&be&an& important&strategy.! Recent&federal&initiatives&have&sought&to&remove&some&of&the&administrative& barriers&to&providing&these&programs.!Taken&as&a&whole.1002/pam.!No. !Web.!2015."!The!Ralph!and! Goldy!Lewis!Center!for!Regional!Policy!Studies!UCLA.!Robert.&Communities& have&a&stake&in&their&neighborhoods.bepress.! taxis.& Gottlieb.!the&food&system&itself&can&be&seen&as& having&become&a&focal&point&in&urban&demands&for&social&justice&and&community& development&needs.3! Champion)Briefs) 240& .!use!of!vans.AFF:&Rawlsian/Social&Contract&AC& March/April&2015& Food&access&problems&harm&community&values.!jitneys.com/rgottlieb/36/>.!shared!delivery!services).&and&making&them&more&habitable&in& physical.!One!clear!community!improvement!in!terms!of!food! security!is!greater!access!to!food!sources..!Food&access&problems&in&turn&spill&over& into&public&transportation&concerns&and&opportunities&to&create&more&innovative& public/private&or&non`profit&transportation&strategies!(e.&many&urban& residents&feel&estranged&from&or&marginalized&by&the&food&system.&The&1992& riots&in&Los&Angeles&underlined&the&representation&of&inner&city&neighborhood& food&stores&as&hostile&forces&rather&than&community&resources.g.! Without&a&stake&in&the&production&or&distribution&of&their&food.!1995.!"Community!Food!Security:!Policies!For!A!More!Sustainable!Food! System!In!The!Context!Of!The!1995!Farm!Bill!And!Beyond.!January!05.!In!this!context.&functional.! February!09.!<http://works.&and&environmental&terms&with&respect&to&food&system& relationships&can&provide&significant&benefits&in&the&form&of&community& development&objectives. 02&billion&people&living&with&hunger&and&the& number&continues&to&grow.1!!One!billion!of!those!going!hungry!are!in!the!developing! world.!2015.!February!03.!February!09."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at! Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty! Campaign.!Campaign.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.&the&number&grew&by&approximately&one`hundred&million& people.!Web.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An! International!Food!Security!Treaty.!2015.AFF:&Rule&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Hunger&is&a&large&and&growing&problem.! Currently!there&are&an&estimated&1.pdf>.& International!Food!Security!Treaty.! <https://willamette.3!!Although&the&international&community&has&made&progress&over&the& past&forty&years&by&reducing&the&percentage&of&the&world’s&population&who&suffer& from&hunger.&the&total&number&of&people&living&with&hunger&continues&to& increase&as&the&world’s&population&increases.2!!In&2009&alone.4!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 241& . !and!the!argument!looks!sound.!And!Morality.&and&medical&care&for&the& refugees.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 242& .& there&would&be&enough&to&provide&food.!This.!"Famine.!there&is&no!reason!why!I!should!give!more!than!anyone!else!in!the!same! circumstances!as!I!am.!It!may!convince!us.!It&is&more&or&less& certain&that¬&everyone&in&circumstances&like&mine&will&give&$5.!Therefore&by& giving&more&than&$5&I&will&prevent&more&suffering&than&I&would&if&I&gave&just&$5.!2015.pdf?acceptTC=true>.!therefore!I!have!no!obligation&to&give&more&than&$5.!however.!Web.!shelter.!Each! premise!in!this!argument!is!true.!of!course.!is!the!actual!situation.&shelter.!it!would!be!obvious! that!the&argument&has&no&bearing&on&a&situation&in&which&it&is¬&the&case&that& everyone&else&gives&$5.!So!there!will! not!be!enough!to!provide!the!needed!food.!November!30.! No.! <http://www.& Singer.!1971.!Affluence.&government&should&give&as& much&as&possible.!Vol.! The!view!that!numbers!do!make!a!difference!can!be!made!plausible!if!stated!in!this! way:!if&everyone!in!circumstances!like!mine&gave&$5&to&the&Bengal&Relief&Fund.!3.!The!argument!would!be!sound!if!the!conclusion!were:!if! everyone!in!circumstances!like!mine!were!to!give!$5.!I!would!have!no!obligation!to! give!more!than!$5.!February!05.org/stable/pdfplus/2265052.!1.AFF:&Rule&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& When&there&are&no&other&actors.!although!the!conclusion!is! not!stated!hypothetically.!and!medical!care.!If!the!conclusion!were!so!stated.! unless!we!notice!that!it!is!based!on!a!hypothetical!premise.jstor."!Philosophy!&!Public!Affairs.!Peter. !"Disability.&this&had&increased&by&19%!(Ziegler.&yet&this&aspect&has&been&overlooked&in&public&policies&of&many& countries! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 243& .”&28&million&in&countries&in& transition.!Issue!3.&20%&of&the&world’s&population&suffered& from&extreme&under`nutrition.!is&a&grave&threat&to&human& security.Despite&the& modernization&of&food&production&and&distribution.biasfree."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal! Volume!5.!several!decades!of!research!and!efforts!to!achieve!food!security!have!been! unsuccessful!in!finding!sustainable!solutions!to!hunger!around!the!globe.1!The&continuing&reality&of& hunger.&This&figure& includes&815&million&in&“developing&countries.!PandyaYLorch.&Jean!Ziegler.AFF:&Rule&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Hunger&is&a&serious&issue.pdf#page=15!>.!reported!that!in&1990.&2004a).! However.!February!06.! Nestorova.!Web.&by&1999.&exacerbated&by&the&rising&food&prices&of&2008!(see!Grebmer.&the&politics&of&food&systems& and&economic&restructuring&have&increased&hunger&and&malnutrition&that& threaten&the&well`being&of&millions&of&people&worldwide.! <http://www.!Fritschel.!2015.!&!Yohannes.!2008).!the!Food!and!Agricultural!Organization!estimated!that!852& million&people&worldwide&were&undernourished&(FAO.! 2004).!2015.!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:Advancing!The! Human!Security!Agenda.!February!09.&and&9&million&in&“developed&countries”.!In!2000Y2002.!Olofinbiyi.org/operation.& Hiranandani.!Vanmala.!UN! rapporteur!for!food. AFF:&Rule&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Agricultural&growth&needs&to&be&matched&with&social& guarantees&against&hunger.!Cash&transfer&programmes&are&an&important&tool&for&social& protection&and&poverty&reduction&strategies.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 244& .!The&provision&of&predictable®ular&cash& transfers&to&poor&households&can&both&promote&investment&and&mitigate&risk.!<http://www.&both&on`&and&off`farm.!2015.! health.& FAO.!This.& thus&stimulating&production&and&productivity&increases.!they!can!also!enhance!the! productive!capacities!of!beneficiary!households!who!typically!have!few!assets!and! limited!access!to!financial!services.!FAO.!February!09."!Rome.!school&meal& programmes&can&be&designed&to&procure&food&from&smallholder&farmer& organizations!and!cooperatives.&Interventions&to&boost&agricultural& productivity&growth&are&most&effective&in&promoting&food&security&when& complemented&by&social&protection&measures.!in!turn.!nutrition!and!education.&raises&producer&incomes&while& stimulating&the&local&supply&of&more&nutritious.!While!their!focus!is!on!food!security.fao.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!February!06.&diverse&and&safe&foods&by&small& family&farmers.!For!example.! Web.!particularly!of!children.!2015.! Integrated&actions&are&key&to&fight&hunger.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World. AFF:&Rule&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&promotes&economic&egalitarianism.&comprised&only&10%`20%!(Dixon!and!Hamilton.!130).&wealth&in&1990.!In&the&poorest®ions&of&Africa&and&Asia&in& 1994.!A&sense&of& community&is&required.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security.!for&asset&redistribution.!With!economic!growth.&human&resources&comprised&60%&of&all&assets&and&"natural"&capital.jstor.!February!09.!opY! portunities!for!redistribution!through!human!resource!investments!dwarf!those!from! land!redistribution!and!are!likely!to!induce!less!violence.! 130).!could!be!a!force!for!more!equitable!asset!distributions.!if!rates!are! graduated.&and&that&civil&cohesive`&ness&can&enhance&their&capacity&to&tax&property& to&fund&local&schools&and&roads! Champion)Briefs) 245& .!of&the&$16& trillion&in&U.&People&in& smaller&political&entities&more&easily&see&the&connection&between&taxes&and& services.! <http://www.!Luther.S.!Web.& Tweeten.!Other!redistributional!options!offer!greater!promise.&devolution&of& authority&to&local&communities&is&long&overdue&in&many&countries.!however.& including&ag`&ricultural&land.!after!reviewing!substantial!land!reform! literature.!2015.!notes!that&in&countries&where&rural&poverty&is&widespread&and&closely& associated&with&the&power&of&the&landowning&class.!1999.!but!property!taxes! have!been!used!for!a!century!or!more!in!developed!countries!and.&"Land&reform&becomes&the& only&option&for&improving&rural&livelihoods&rapidly&and&substantially.!February!09.!For!example.!Barraclough!(p.! Economic&outcomes&will&be&more&egalitarian&and&food&security&greater&if&the& standard&model&is&applied&to&countries&with&more&equal&initial&distributions&of& asset&ownership.! 16)."!Review!of!Agricultural! Economics.!p.&up&to&85%&was&human&capital&and&only&4%&was& farm&real&estate!(Tweeten!1997).org/stable/1349892>.!Property!taxes!are!not!widely!used!in!developing!countries."!Yet!he! cautions!that!land!reform!"cannot!normally!be!a!policy!option!for!governments"!(p.&As&such. currentconcerns.!August!11.000.129.!7)!Sao!Tomé!and! Principe!and!8)!Chad.& Kyalangilwa.!2015.!3)!Congo!Brazzaville.205!inhabitants)!and!Oceania!(33.581!inhabitants).157.!It&would&be& able&to&feed&two&billion&people&which&is&about&the&number&of&people&living&in& Africa!(918.!2008.php?id=628>.!with!exception!of!Cameroon.549!inhabitants)!or!Africa! and!Europe!(734.166!inhabitants)!and&America&(902.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& The&Democratic&Republic&of&the&Congo&can&bargain&with&the& West&over&food&resources.!464!(XXXVI).!The!following!table!shows!the! surfaces!of!the!farmland!that!is!under!cultivation!at!present!and!the!amount!of!land! that!could!be!used!for!agriculture!in!the!near!future.!From!table!1!we!can!clearly!see! that.! The&Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!today!has!80.!!The! Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!is!one!of!the!Central&African&countries.! which!grow!along!the!Congo!basin!and!are!under!special&world!protection.!February!06.!the!share!of!farmland!under!cultivation!in!all!other! countries!of!Central!Africa.!6)!Equatorial!Guinea.000& square&km&of&farmland&at&her&disposal&ranking&directly&after&Brazil.ch/index.!which!is!predominantly!covered!by!tropical!rain!forest.!Considering!the!population!growth!(the! population!of!Central!Africa!doubles!every!twenty!years!and!is!made!up!mainly!by! underY18YyearYolds!(67%).!which!was!ratified!on!23!February!and!on!1! March!1976!by!the!African!Union.!is! nominal!in!relation!to!their!total!area.!4)! Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo.!it!is!urgently!necessary!that!each!country!of!this!region! turns!15%!of!its!land!into!farmland!for!cultivation.!"The!Democratic!Republic!Of!The!Congo!Can!Feed!All!Africa! And!The!Countries!Of!The!European!Union.!Joseph!M.!<! http://www.!the!region!of!Central!Africa!consists!of!the!following! countries:!1)!Cameroon.!According! to!the!resolution!CM/Res."!Current!Concerns.!2)!Central!African!Republic.!These!countries!have&enormous&forests!at!their!disposal.! Web.594.000!ha!and/or!800.!With!respect!to!the!Democratic! Champion)Briefs) 246& .!5)!Gabon.014.!The! following!table!gives!some!information!on!the!surface!of!the!eight!countries!and!the! percentage!of!farmland!under!cultivation!(see!table!1). !due!to!a!lack!of!experience.000.!the&Democratic!Republic! of!the!Congo!will&have&used&only&35.!table!2)!With&the&land&prepared& for&cultivation&until&2018.!which!will!then!be!converted!into!bio!fuel.000!inhabitants!Y!and&to& nourish&an&additional&2&billion&people.! thus!34.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Republic!of!the!Congo.&plan&to&intensify!the!production&of&bio&fuels.000!square!km.!which!lie!fallow!at!present.!the!farmland!is!80.!The!country!already! possesses!enormous!areas!of!arable!farmland.2&million&of&its&80&million&ha&of& farmland.!they!neglected!and! finally!abandoned!it.!are!Brazil!and!the& Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo.!During!this!period.000!hectares!or!800.!concerned!about!the!gradual!decrease!of!oil! production.!!The&government!of!the!Democratic!Republic!of! the!Congo!must&immediately&be&watchful&and&by&all&means&avoid&being&dazzled&by& the&enticing&offers&of&billions&of&US&Dollars.000.!(cf.!so! that!they!can!produce!palm!oil!there.!envisaged! for!that!purpose!on!the!ground!of!their!cultivation!capacities.!but!it!is!out!of!the!question!that! areas!in!the!tropical!rain!forest!will!be!deforested!to!that!end.!However.&Central&Africa&would&be&able&to&guarantee&food& sovereignty&for&its&population!–!by!then!about!150.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 247& .!The!countries.!Dictator! Mobutu!!made!sure!that!politicians!of!his!clan!were!able!to!seize!it!when!some!land! was!nationalized!in!1974.!This&money&will!be!promised!by!the! investors!in!order!to!acquire!licenses!for!the!use!of!millions!of!hectares!of!farmland.115%!of!the!total!area!of!the!country.!Countries&of&the&west.!Such! investments!must!not&categorically&be&rejected. !In!1980.!hotels!and!restaurants!with!rural!cuisine!etc.!more!than!80%!of!the!Congolese!in!rural!areas!were!living!on! welfare.!2015.!&! Champion)Briefs) 248& .php?id=628>.!JosephM.!Civil!Engineering!and!Reconstruction!must! do!something!about!it.!Traffic!and!Infrastructure.!while&thousands&of&tons& of&corn&are&rotting&&in&the&district&of&Tanganyila.! This!isolated&location!of!cultivation&areas&increased&the&population’s&&economic& insecurity!!and!led!to!the!migration!of!the!rural!population!away!from!the!country! into!the!cities.!rice.!for!example.! You!may!agree!that!the&Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!does¬&fail&to&feed&its& population.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& The&DRC&can&increase&its&bargaining&power&by&providing&food& security&for&its&people.!usually!dirt!roads!which!can!be!repaired!within!a!sensible!period!of! time.&The&reason!is!always!the! same:!missing!routes!of!transportation!for!the!agricultural!products.!in!addition.& Kyalangilwa.!The&federal!state!government&must!now!particularly!invest&into&the& national&infrastructure&and&do&its&utmost&to&make&the&agricultural&routes&of& transportation.!"The!Democratic!Republic!Of!The!Congo!Can!Feed!All!Africa! And!The!Countries!Of!The!European!Union.!However.!The!Ministers! for!Agriculture.!February!06.ch/index.!Then!the!people!will!certainly!return!from!the!cities! and!move!back!into!the!country.!their!products!rotted!because!connecting!roads!were! missing.!They!build! houses!there.!Unfortunately.! Web.!2008.!the! inhabitants!of!Lubumbashi!(Katanga)!deplore!a!lack!of!corn.currentconcerns.!many! inhabitants!of!Bukavu!already!acquire!plots!of!farmland!along!this!road.& but!in!1984.!The!farmers!active!in!agricultural!production!continue!toproduce&food.!The& Democratic!Republic!of!the!Congo!must¬&be®arded&as&a&country¬&capable& of&feeding&its&population.!However.!<http://www.!these! roads!are!still!waiting!to!be!completed!about!150!km!before!Bukavu.!passable&in&all&seasons.!so!that!the!farmers!will!not!be!discouraged!and!give!up.!shops!and!soon!also!factories!for!the!processing!of!agricultural!products! (oil."!Current!Concerns.!The!same!is! true!for!the!recently!opened!traffic!axis!in!the!equator!province.!The!reYestablishment!of!the!transport!axis!Bukavu! Kasongo!via!Mwenga!Kamituga!is!mentioned!as!an!example.!grain).!on!which!the!food!could!have!been!transported!to!the!consumer!centers.!August!11. !including!various!resolutions.& International!Food!Security!Treaty."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at! Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty! Campaign.! <https://willamette.!and!World!Conferences.&and&to&oblige&countries&to&establish&their&own& related&national&laws.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!But! the!problem!remains.!Campaign.pdf>.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Just&states&ought&to&participate&in&an&international&treaty&to& guarantee&food&security&through&domestic&legislation& and&ratification&of&a&treaty.!The&International&Food&Security&Treaty&Campaign&believes& the&surest&way&to&end&hunger&throughout&the&world&is&through&the&International& Food&Security&Treaty&to&establish&enforceable&international&law&guaranteeing& the&right&to&be&free&from&hunger.!declarations.!2015.!February!03.! The&number&of&people&who&suffer&from&inadequate&food&is&higher&than&it&has&ever& been&in&history.&even&though&there&is&enough&food&to&feed&every&person&on&the& planet.!2010.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 249& .&There!have!been!numerous!efforts!over!the!years!to!greatly!reduce!and!even! end!hunger.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An! International!Food!Security!Treaty.!Web. pdf>.!2015.!alone!or!in!community!with!others.!Web.& International!Food!Security!Treaty.!The!Rome!Declaration!and! Plan!of!Action!of!1996!stated!that!the!“right!to!adequate!food!is!realized!when!every! man.! <https://willamette.&the&accessibility&of&such&food&in&ways&that&are&sustainable&and&that& do¬&interfere&with&the&enjoyment&of&other&human&rights.&free&from&adverse&substances.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An! International!Food!Security!Treaty.&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.&and& universal&agreement&to&the&term&has&remained&elusive.13![QUOTE]!This& means&that&the&right&to&food&entails¬&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability& to&grow&food&in&a&sustainable&way."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at! Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty! Campaign.!has!physical!and!economic! access!at!all!times!to!adequate!food!or!means!for!its!procurement.14!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 250& .!The! monetary!costs!required!to!obtain!adequate!food!should!be!at!a!level!that!doing!so! would!not!compromise!other!basic!fundamental!human!rights!or!needs.!2010.”12!A!comment! within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate!food”!as:!![QUOTE]!The& availability&of&food&in&a&quantity&and&quality&sufficient&to&satisfy&the&dietary& needs&of&individuals.! The&question&of&what&constitutes&adequate&food&has&been&widely&debated.!woman!and!child.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& The&campaign&clarifies&what&accessibility&means.!February!03.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.!Campaign.&and&acceptable&within&a& given&culture. &the&accessibility&of&such&food&in&ways&that&are&sustainable&and&that& do¬&interfere&with&the&enjoyment&of&other&human&rights.14!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 251& .!Campaign.& International!Food!Security!Treaty.!"End!Hunger!Through!Law:!An! International!Food!Security!Treaty.pdf>.!The!Rome!Declaration!and! Plan!of!Action!of!1996!stated!that!the!“right!to!adequate!food!is!realized!when!every! man.!February!03.!2010."!International!Human!Rights!Clinic!at! Willamette!University!College!of!Law!for!the!International!Food!Security!Treaty! Campaign.! The&question&of&what&constitutes&adequate&food&has&been&widely&debated.!woman!and!child.!has!physical!and!economic! access!at!all!times!to!adequate!food!or!means!for!its!procurement.!alone!or!in!community!with!others.!2015.!Web.”12!A!comment! within!the!Declaration!defined!the!term!“adequate!food”!as:!![QUOTE]!The& availability&of&food&in&a&quantity&and&quality&sufficient&to&satisfy&the&dietary& needs&of&individuals.&free&from&adverse&substances.edu/wucl/pdf/clp/FinalEndHungerByLawEHTL5Y8Y 10.13![QUOTE]!This& means&that&the&right&to&food&entails¬&just&physical&access&to&food&or&the&ability& to&grow&food&in&a&sustainable&way.&but&economic&accessibility&as&well.!The! monetary!costs!required!to!obtain!adequate!food!should!be!at!a!level!that!doing!so! would!not!compromise!other!basic!fundamental!human!rights!or!needs.! <https://willamette.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& A&countries&obligation&would&be&three`fold.&and&acceptable&within&a& given&culture.&and& universal&agreement&to&the&term&has&remained&elusive. AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& GMO&Crops&Plan:&Demographic&pressures&will&rise&in&the& future.!intensification!of!chemical!input!use!and!further!genetic!discoveries.!farmers!in!developing!and!developed!countries!nearly!doubled!their!perY hectare!output!of!cereal!production.!Jikun.!1).!falling!food!prices.!the!demographic!pressures!in!the!twentyYfirst! century!will!be!unprecedented.!increasing!yields!during!this!time!by!3.!February!05.!The&world’s&population&will&reach&8&billion&by& 2025.!estimate!that!food&and&feed& production&must&continue&to&rise&annually&by&1.& Huang.!August!08.!the!inputYresponsive!plant! varieties!of!the&Green&Revolution.!And.!!! Champion)Briefs) 252& .!Growth&rates!of!yields&have&slowed!during!the!period!between& 1987&and&2001(Fig.&Science&has&helped&us&in&the&past.! 2002.!Past&success.!With!the!exception!of! Africa.!still!expanded&annually&by&about&0.!Vol.!increased!food!trade!and!rising!consumption! led!the!way!to!lower!malnutrition!and!falling!poverty!rates!in!many!parts!of!the! world.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.&raised& food&production&to&levels&that&no&one&would&have&dared&predict.16%! annually.!increasingly!wealthy!and!urbanized!consumers!and!the!2!billion!new! mouths!will&demand&40%&more&food.&By&2020.! With!the!exception!of!several!short!periods!(for!example.!although!actually!trending!down!slightly!worldwide!(–0.!however.&Global&yields& rose&by&2.!Web.nature.!together!with!subsequent!investments!in!water! control.!6).pdf>.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor."!Nature.25%&in&developing&countries.!Rosegrant!et!al.2%&to&satisfy&the&demand&of&the& world’s&population&by&2020!(ref.!1).!418.!the!midY1970s).!2015.!the! developing!world!also!has!played!an!important!role!and!has!been!a!major!beneficiary.42%&annually&between&1961&and&1966!(Fig.!while!the! industrialized!countries!have!contributed!significantly!to!the!world’s!food!supply.!Sown&area.!world&food& production&has&expanded&continuously&since&the&1960s.!does¬&guarantee&a&food&abundant&world&in&the& coming&decades.!With! more!food!available.! From!a!world!facing!the!prospects!of!severe!global!famine.04%! per!year).!Moreover.! <http://www. ! <http://www.!Vol.!February!05.&wheat&and&other&crops&can&increase&yields&by&20%!(ref.!Virmani!et!al.! The!spread!of!hybrid!rice!in!China!and!the!associated!rise!in!yields!demonstrates&the& validity&of&this&approach27.!new& technologies&for&these®ions&almost!certainly!will&depend&on!increased! investment!in!research!on!advanced&breeding&techniques.!Plant!physiologists!have!also!created!a!model!for!a&new&plant& type!that!could!potentially&increase&rice&yields!by&30%!(to!nearly!15!tonnes!per! hectare.!Jikun.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor.!2015."!Nature.!2).!August!08.! 2002.!which!will!allow!easier!and!cheaper!seed! production28.!Web.!if!it!is!combined!with!hybrid!variety!development)!by!increasing!the!plant’s! inherent!production!efficiency29.!believe!extension&of&hybrid`variety& development&to&rice.!China’s!plant!breeders!have!been!working!on!a!new! approach!to!producing!hybrid!rice.pdf>.nature.!26).! Because!much!of!the&exploitable&yield&gap&between&the&farm&and&experimental& station&has&been&eliminated&in&many&of&the&world’s&favourable&areas.& Huang.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 253& .!new&plant`type&lines&that&yield&20%&more&than&traditional&varieties&in& tropical&areas&have&moved&into&seed&board&trials!(Fig.&crop&physiology&and& molecular&biology7.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& GMO&Crops&Plan:&Today's&environment&requires&genetic& engineering&to&raise&global&crop&yields.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.!IRRI!scientists!report!that!farmers!in!China’s! subtropical!provinces!are!already!using!the!first!generation!of!this!new!technology!—! after!several!years!of!testing!on!experimental!stations!in!the!Philippines!and! Indonesia.!418. "!Nature.!Vol.!Nearly!all! of!the!scientists!surveyed!(97%)!also!believed!that!waterYsaving!technologies!will! affect!agricultural!production!in!the!coming!20!years!(Table!1.!February!05.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.!Breeders!and! Champion)Briefs) 254& .!Although!China’s!GM!crops!include!those!that! are!insect!resistant.!Jikun.!believe&they&can&improve&the&quality&of&hybrid&rice&varieties&to& enable!them!to!tap!the!hybrid!vigour!that!can!provide!up!to!15–20%&higher& yields.pdf>.!As!such.&soya&beans.!Interestingly.! Based&on!the!responses!of!scientists!from!25!research!institutes!and!university! departments!in&China.!Web.!scientists!work!on!a!much!broader!range!of!products.!the!second!largest!effect!will!be!to! increase!the!nutritional!value!of!cereals!and!reduce!the!use!of!inputs!that!are!causing! environmental!and!health!concerns.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& GMO&Crops&Plan:&China's&agricultural&plan&solves&the&future's& global&famine.&rapeseed&and& other&crops.!in!part! because!they!are!nearly!all!employed!in!the!public!sector.! also!means&that&the&nation&needs&to&invest&in&both&types&of&programme.!China’s&scientists.nature.!row!5).!Plant&biotechnologists.!marker`assisted&selection&and&tissue&culture&to&produce&a& new&generation&of&technology!(Box!1).!at!least!in&a&developing&country&such&as&China.!who!were!the!first!to!create!and!commercially! extend!hybrid!rice.! <http://www.!August!08.! rows!1!and!2).!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor.!418.!2015.!believe&that&they&have&the&potential&for& using!transformation.! 2002.!The&complementarity&between&biotechnology& and&traditional&crop&breeding.!they!can& undertake&research&on&crop&technologies&that&may&be&difficult&to&protect&from& the&perspective&of&intellectual&property&rights.& Huang.!whereas!scientists! predict!that!the!main!effect!of!future!technologies!from!traditional!crop!breeding!and! genetic!engineering!will!be!increasing!yields.!all!but!one!scientist!(97%)!predicted&important&discoveries& in!the!areas!of!both!conventional!crop&breeding&and&genetic&engineering!(Table!1.!who!already!have!created!an!impressive!array! of!GM!technologies.!Breeders&are!also!developing&hybrids&for&wheat. AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& molecular!biologists!forecast!that!droughtYtolerant!varieties!would!become! increasingly!available.!Identification&of&genes!that!can!combat!abiotic!stresses.!Agronomists!foresee!new! types!of!plastics!that!can!be!used!in!a!profitable!and!sustainable!way!for!capturing!soil! moisture!and!irrigating!crops!more!efficiently.!such! as!shortYterm!drought.!should!enable!scientists!to!create!varieties!that!can! greatly!improve&yields!in!the!favourable!rainYfed!areas.!Because!many!of!the!new!marginal!areas!are!in!relatively!poor! regions!of!the!country.!indirect!effects!on! efforts!to!alleviate!poverty.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 255& .!Genetic&and&agronomic&approaches& to&saving&water&may&also&be&able&to&slow&or&halt&the&long`term&trend&of&China’s& falling&sown&area.!the!new!technologies!will!have!positive. & Huang.!"Enhancing!The!Crops!To!Feed!The!Poor.!Vol.nature.!February!05.!the!public!sector!dominates!research! expenditures!in!traditional!agricultural!research!fields!and!in!biotechnology.!2015.!Brazil.&Governments& accounted&for&about&two`thirds&of&agricultural&research&spending&in&the&mid` 1990s!(about!US$22!billion)43.!Jikun.!governments& are&responsible&for&making&them.! <http://www.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& GMO&Crops&Plan:&the&Chinese&Plan&requires&government& investment.!agricultural&research!in!many!countries!is!in!crisis.! Because!many!agricultural&research&investments&are&public&goods.!the!governments!of!China34.!and!the!high!returns!to! their!investments.!Although! funding!of!traditional!fields!has!waned.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 256& .pdf>.!the&promises&of&basic&biology&and& biotechnology&have&induced&leaders&to&increase&public&spending&on&agricultural& research.!For!example.&many&basic&scientists&from& research&institutes&and&universities&outside&the&traditional&agricultural&research& system&have&begun&working&on&agriculture&related&topics.!India46!and!South! Africa38!have!each!made!major!investments!in!agricultural!biotechnology!research!in! the!past!decade.! 2002.!But!despite!this!large!total.!Funding& levels&are&insufficient&to&generate&a&steady&flow&of&technology.!Poor!incentives!in! large!public!bureaucracies!often!dampen!the!effectiveness!of!public!research! organizations45.!Because&of&these&investments."!Nature.!Public!investment!will!almost!certainly!continue! to!be!one!of!the!main!sources!of!funding!in!the!coming!years.!In&developing&countries.com/nature/journal/v418/n6898/pdf/nature01015.!Web.!August!08.!418. &and&especially&to&get&enough&nutritious& food.&including&learning.!mood!swings!and!general!fatigue.!Even!at!the!maximum.”!It’s!a!way!of!life.2!million!adults!and!children!struggled!with!hunger!last!year.&he&or&she&receives&fewer&benefits.In!the!context!of!the! recession.! The&Agriculture&Department&presented&an&alarming&report&charting&those& hungry&children.buffalonews.&As&a&person’s&income&increases.!Web.com/!149/story/507058.&vital&to&breaking&the&cycle&of&poverty.!<http://www.! Overall.!it!costs!25!percent!to!30!percent!more! than!food!stamp!benefits!to!purchase!a!minimally!adequate!diet.!The&problem&boils&down&to&a&lack&of& money&or&assistance&to&get&enough&food.&The& food&stamp&program&is&a&strong&one.!Imagine!a!child!going!through!the!same! thing.!2015.!"Ease!Childhood!Hunger!Improvements!In!Food!Stamp!Program!And! Other!Efforts!Could!Boost!Nutrition.Obama!pledged!to!expand!food!aid!in!an!effort!to! alleviate!childhood!hunger!by!2015.&and&highlighting&the&fact&that&close&to&one&in&eight&Americans& struggles&for&adequate&food.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Food&stamps&are&necessary&to&break&individuals&from&the& cycle&of&food&insecurity.&are&harder&to&implement&with&a& classroom&of&hungry&children.!August!08.!Particularly!in!big!cities.&but&inadequate&to&provide&a&healthy&diet&for& a&month.!that&was&before&the&economic& downturn.As!groceries!and!gas!prices!rose.!economists&from&both&the&left&and&right&agree&that&the&single&best& Champion)Briefs) 257& .!which!was!a! slight!increase!from!35.!so!did!the!number!of!empty!stomachs.!2002.5!million!in!2006.! February!06.&Educational& initiatives.&Little.html>.!as!suggested!by!the!Food!Research!and!Action!Center.Journalists!and! members!of!Congress!who!have!taken!the!“food!stamp!challenge”!and!attempted!to! live!on!the!benefit!for!a!week!have!shared!their!experiences!YY!the!difficulties!in! planning.&gets&done&on&an&empty&stomach.!an!antiY hunger!group.!except!it’s!not!a!“challenge.!The! average!is!$3!to!$4!in!food!stamps!a!day!per!person.!The&group&recently&called&for&a&boost&in&food&stamp&benefits.!Any!new!initiative!needs!to!be! launched!immediately."!Buffalo!News.!the!benefit! is!just!not!enough.!To!make!matters!worse.& News.!36.!an!ambitious!goal.!Buffalo. AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& stimulus&is&food&stamps&because&people&spend&them&so&quickly.!but!food!stamps!tend!to!be!more!helpful! than!tax!rebates.!to!be!put!in!the!next!stimulus!package.!Extended! unemployment!benefits!are!also!necessary.!! Champion)Briefs) 258& .!The!Food!Research!and!Action!Center!is!pushing!hard!for!a! temporary!boost.!six!to!18!months. pdf! Another&rationale&for&providing&food&stamps&is&that&it&strengthens&the&private& sector&food&market.!Beneficiaries!can!purchase!manageable!quantities!as!needed! (assuming!the!stamps!are!in!small!denominations)!in!conveniently!located!stores! rather!than!at!centralized!distribution!points.!This!problem!is!avoided! with!food!stamps.!!! ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 259& .! September!2002!.!a&food&stamp& program&may&provide&the&demand&needed&to&strengthen&and&improve&the& system.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SPY DiscussionYpapers/SafetyYNetsYDP/0225.!However.!Beatrice.!"FoodYBased!Safety!Nets!And!Related!Programs.&Food&stamps&give&purchasing&power&to&poor&consumers&that&they&can&use& in&private§or&food&stores.!February!06.!Direct!distribution!of!food!can!cause!problems!for! the!beneficiaries!in!transporting!the!bulky!foodstuffs!home.!beneficiaries!will!need!to!incur!the!costs!of!traveling!to! places!where!stores!are!available.& Rogers.!but!until!this!happens."!World!Bank.!! http://siteresources.&Direct&distribution&of&food&commodities&establishes&a& parallel&marketing&system&that&draws&some&demand&away&from&the&private& sector.worldbank.!if&the&private& food&retailing&system&is&inaccessible!or!thin!in!certain!areas.!adding!to!overall!demand.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Food&stamps&create&an&economic&demand&for&more&stores.!2015.!Web. ! <http://www.&safety&nets&can&make&an&important& contribution&to&poverty&reduction&and&development&through&linkages&and& synergies&with&family&agriculture.&cannot&provide&for&themselves.!In!fact.&safety&nets&must&be&designed&and& implemented&with®ard&to&other&human&rights.! February!06.! Food&safety&nets&can&be&an&effective&way&to&provide&food&security.!Web.& FAO.fao.!2011.!and!to!the!principle!of!nonY discrimination.! social!and!cultural!as!well!as!political!rights.!in!particular!other!economic.!2015.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Food&safety&nets&are&a&good&idea.!Therefore!food&safety&nets&could&play&a&relevant&role&in&increasing& productivity&and&thus&economic&growth&and&should&be&considered&an&investment& and&a&contribution&to&long`term&development.!if&adequately&designed.&including&reducing&the& gravity&of&food&emergencies."!Right!to!Food.&and&thus&in&assuring&the&right&to&food.&!!Social!and!food! safety!nets![they]&serve&as&a&method&by&which&States&may&fulfill&their&obligation&to& provide&for&the&implementation&of&the&right&to&food&for&those&who.¬&just&welfare! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 260& .&As&all&human& rights&are&interdependent&and&interrelated.&for&reasons& beyond&their&control.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food.&health&and&education& programs.!Social!and!food!safety!nets& play&a&key&role&in&fighting&transitory&and&chronic&hunger.pdf!>. org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.&using& buffer&stocks.! February!06.&reducing&volatility&risk&at& domestic&market&and&allowing&precisely&a&direct&effect&on&the&income&and&food& availability&of&the&most&vulnerable&groups.!It&is&argued&by&many&actors& that&this&measure&would&facilitate&the&intervention&in&the&food&supply&when& extremely&high&food&volatility&situations&attempt&the&adequate&right&to&food&of& the&most&vulnerable&groups.fao.&help&vulnerable& populations.!In!any!case!if&the&option&to&stabilize&prices.pdf>.! <http://www."!Right!to!Food.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food.!transparency!and! Champion)Briefs) 261& .!An&ambitious&post&harvest& program!(there!is!already!a!vast!experience!in!this!field)!would&significantly& increase&the&offer&at&national&and&subnational&level.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Food&stocks&could&make&intervention&easier.&is&taken&the&challenge&consists&in&stipulating&a&stocks&mechanism& which&is&less&expensive&and&more&efficient&than&in&the&past&and&that&its’& management&reaches&the&most&vulnerable&population&avoiding&disruption&of&the& normal&market&operation.!2015.!national!and!local! levels!is&one&of&the&most&proposed&measures!recently.!It!would!be!also!important!to!work!at!the!scale!required! to!promote!food!stocks!managed!by!individual!or!community!farmers!(under!a! cooperative!modality!whenever!would!be!possible).& FAO.!By!contrast.&and&prevent&speculation&causing&price& volatility.!Web.!A&rights&approach&also&needs&to& promote&measures&to&provide&more&reliable&information&about&stocks& management&in&the&international&food&commodities&markets.&It&would&offer& better&knowledge®arding&the&stocks!level!availability.! The&availability&and&use&of&strategic&food&stocks!at!regional.!2011.!other!relevant!groups!defend!that!these! kind!of!measures!are!not!only!extremely!costly!but!also!have!a!limited!success!in! reducing!the!volatility!of!prices. "!Right!to!Food.! Market®ulation&and&transparency&would&reduce&price& volatility.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 262& .!many&initiatives&are&being&promoted&to& increase&control&over&[food]!these!markets.!stocks!and! sales!and!its!perspectives!would&be&very&helpful&to&limit&speculative&initiatives&as& well&as&for&the&more&correct&market&functioning.&All&those&measures&would&render&potential& speculative&movements&more&difficult.&The&experience&of&the&soaring& food&prices&in&the&second&semester&of&2010&shows&that&more&and&specific& information&related&to&possible&shocks!(climatic!mainly)!would&help&to&reduce&the& food&price&volatility&phenomenon.&one&of&the&main&structural&measures&proposed&to& avoid&potential&speculative&movements.! <http://www.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food.!Regulatory&initiatives&could&be& considered&as&an&effective&tool&to&protect&the&right&to&adequate&food.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& accountability!in!their!management.!Information!which!is! reliable!and!easily!available.pdf>.!2015.& Until&those&changes&are&ready.& FAO.&focusing&on&the&protection&of&the&most&vulnerable&groups& against&short&term&movements!which!produce!an!excessive!food!price!volatility.! Although!controversy!already!exists!around!the!possible!impact!on!food!prices!due!to! speculative!activities!in!future!markets.!Web.&is&to&provide&more&transparency&and& increased&information&on&food&commodities&markets.!2011.! February!06.&An&attentive& design&should&be&done.!related!to!the!real!situation!of!production. &fish&can&provide&up&to&180&calories&per& capita&per&day.!Equally!important!is!the!fish’s!contribution!to!calorie!supply.!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa.dlib.!2004.!February!07.!the!proportion!of!dietary!protein!that!comes!from!fish!is!extremely! high:!47%&in&Senegal.!where!fish!has!been!a!central!element!in!local!economies!for! many!centuries.! <https://dlc.!28.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!November!30.indiana.!Where&there&is&a& lack&of&alternative&locally&produced&protein&and/or&where&a&preference&for&fish& has&been&developed&and&maintained.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 263& .& Bene.!Christophe.! This!share.!Vol.!In!West!African!coastal! countries.&and&63%&in&Sierra&Leone&and&Ghana!(Table! 1).! FAO!estimates!that!fish&provides&22%!of!the!protein&intake&in&sub`Saharan&Africa.!WorldFish!Center! Quarterly.&in&Gambia.!however.!2015.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Fish&Plan:&Increased&fishing&can&help&curb&food&insecurity&in& Africa.!for!instance."!NAGA.&62%.!Web.!can!exceed!50%&in&the&poorest&countries(especially!where! other!sources!of!animal!protein!are!scarce!or!expensive). !Web.!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa.&For!those!who!cannot!afford!to!buy!food!–! especially!not!meat!–!fish&obtained!through!the!household’s!own!fishing! efforts!(subsistence)!is!essential.!a!total!of!some!30!to!45! Champion)Briefs) 264& .!WorldFish!Center! Quarterly.!Studies!have!shown!that!in! many!regions.!28.! Using!a!(conservative)!ratio!of!1!to!5!for!household!size.&fishing&for&subsistence&plays&a¢ral&role& in&sustaining&human&well`being.!2004.!fish&–!unlike!many!other!high!protein!foods!–!is&consumed&more& equally&among&household&members.&including&women&and&children.!February!07.!Inland!and! coastal!fisheries!and!related!fish!processing!and!trading!provide!full!or!partY time!employment&to&between&6&and&9&million&people&in&sub`Saharan&Africa1.!Christophe.!those!big!or!small!ones!caught!by!the!youngest!son!on!the!edge! of!the!river!after!school!hours.!the&commercial&value!(a!few! dollars)!does¬&reflect&the&invaluable&contribution&in&terms&of&proteins.!For!these!fish.dlib.!or!between!food&security& and&starvation.!These!subsistence!catches!are!not!simply!the!fish!brought!back!home! by!fullYtime!fishers!as!part!of!their!remuneration!share!or!their!daily!catch.indiana.!between!recovered!health!and!prolonged!illness.!even!mainly.& calories&andµnutrient&intake&for&the&entire&family.!the!generation!of!incomes& derived&from!wages!in!the!fisheries!sector!or!from!fish&trade&is&often!even!more! important!as!an&indirect&contribution&to&food&security.!it!can&make&the&difference&between!good!and!bad! nutrition.!or!speared!in!seasonal!ponds!by!the!wives!or!the! daughters!during!collective!fishing!festivals.! Over!large!parts!of!sub`Saharan&Africa.!November!30.!These!fish! are!also.!While!fish!as!a!subsistence!product!is!an!important! source!of!direct!food!security!for!fishing!households.! <https://dlc.& Bene.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!2015.!Additionally."!NAGA.!Vol.! the!fact!that!women&may¬&systematically&need&men&to&acquire&these&fish!on!a! subsistence!basis!reinforces!the!fundamental!role!that!fish!can!play!in!food!and! nutritional!security!in!Africa.!or!caught!by!the!men!in!the!floodplain! during!the!flood!recession!season.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Fish&Plan:&Fish&provide&subsistence&and&economic&growth&to& villagers. !But!investments&to&improve&environmental&management& are&also&required&to&sustain!fisheries.&promote&and&protect& small`scale&labor`intensive!(both!coastal!and!inland)!fisheries.!Small`scale&integrated&fishing`farming& systems&will&provide!alternative!and/or!additional!employment&opportunities& forgrowing!rural!populations!in!remote&areas.&driven& by&the&increasing&demand&of&the&urban&population&for&higher`quality&fish& products.!Christophe.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& million!people!(men.!November!30.!28.!usually! amongst!the!less!educated!and!unskilled!labor!in!Africa.!women!and!children)!in!Africa!therefore!depend!indirectly!on! fish!for!their!livelihoods.!Finding!the&appropriate&institutional&settings!(either!public.!Aquaculture!will!play!an! increasing!role!in!food!security!in!Africa.dlib.! Champion)Briefs) 265& .!"Fish!And!Food!Security!In!Africa.!2004.!2015.!irrigated! agriculture.!opportunistµ&or&small`scale&enterprises&will&mushroom.!Sustained&efforts&are!therefore!needed&to&support."!NAGA.!in!periY urban!areas.edu/dlc/handle/10535/2485>.!WorldFish!Center! Quarterly.!hydroYpower!dams)!is&leading&to&high&environmental& degradation.!These&inland&fisheries!provide!the!basis!of!the!livelihoods!–!and! therefore!the&indirect&support&to&food&security&–&for&millions&of&people.!Closer!to!the!urban!centers.indiana.!Investments&in& applied&research&and&capacity&building&will&be&required&to&improve&and& strengthen&the&socio`institutional&mechanisms&underpinning&the&fisheries& management&process.! Fish&Plan:&Africa&must&support&increased&aquaculture&to& provide&for&citizens..!especially!in!inland& fisheries!where&increasing!pressure!on!land!and!water!(through!e.& will&require&substantial&investment&and&capacity&building.!Web.! <https://dlc.& Bene.!February!07.! Capture&fisheries&will&continue&to&provide&the&bulk&of&fish&food&in&Africa&for&many& decades.!Vol.g.!private!or! public!private!partnerships)&that&ensure&the&creation&and&maintenance&of&efficient& extension&services&to&support&these&new&rural&and&peri`urbanµ`enterprises. !those&who&are&interested&in&promoting& food&justice&must&have&clear&goals&to&contextualize&their&efforts.& Loo."!Springer.!2015.!This!I!suggest! demonstrates!the!need!for!a!redefining!of!the!concept!of!food!justice!to!better!capture! the!importance!of!participative!equity!in!addition!to!the!importance!of!distributive! equity.! <http://link.!Further.!Web.!and!other!programs!aimed!to!strengthen!the!ability!of!individuals! and!communities!to!contribute!to!governing!food!systems!as!steps!to!achieve!food! justice.7!defining!food!justice!in!more! participative!terms!highlights!potential!roles!for!improving!education.!disclosure.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!Given!that! participation!at!least!minimally!requires!consent.&Thinking&about&food& justice&in&terms&of&participation&also&can&be&useful&for&thinking&about&specific& practical&steps&that&can&be&taken&to&address&unfair&distributions.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Must&have&clear&goals&in&order&to&overcome&food&injustices.!To!again!paraphrase!Allen!(2010).springer.!2014.!Clement.!Further.!it!is!widely!acknowledged!that!the!solutions!of!both! problems!would!involve!remediation!of!those!participative!disparities.! In!the!above!two!sections!I!have!made!the!argument!that!two!of!the!central! problems—poor!working!conditions!for!farm!workers!and!food!deserts—for!the!food! justice!movement!and!food!justice!scholarship!are!ones!that!are!the!result!of! participative!disparities.&This&further&requires&reflection&and&consideration& of&the&economic.! December!01.&and&cultural&forces&and&other&participative&inequities& that&result&in&the&material&and&distributive&inequities&that&are&of& concern.&political.com/article/10.!February!08.! outreach!programs.&framing&food&justice&in&participative&as&well&as&distributive& terms&does&more&than&simply&recognize&the&fact&that&many&problems&of& distribution&can&be&understood&in&terms&of&participation.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 266& .&This&requires&a& comprehensive&understanding&of&food&injustices&and&an&understanding&of&forces& that&result&in&those&injustices. AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Education&is&key&to&promoting&food&security&in&these®ions.& Tweeten.&Improved&science&and& education&also&can&address&problems&of&disease.!An! economic!base!to!fund!research!in!developing!counY!tries!is!essential!to!adapt! agricultural!technology!from!elsewhere!to!local!circumY!stances!and!to!develop! environmentally!friendly!farming!systems.&pestilence.&and&well`paid&civil&servants&to&protect& common&prop`&erty&such&as&tropical&forests&from&destruction!(Southgate!and! Whitaker).!Luther.!2015.!1999.!which!in!turn!do!not!replant!or!otherwise! practice!good!environmental!stewardship.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security.! <http://www.&and& tribalism&that&threaten&food&security."!Review!of!Agricultural! Economics.! A&principal&advantage&of&economic&growth&is&that&it&provides&resources&to&fund& critical&services&such&as&education&and&research.org/stable/1349892>.!February!09.&infrastructure&such&as&all` weather&roads&and&irrigation&facilities.jstor.!Greater&produc`&tivity&on&"safe"& cropland&reduces&pressure&for&peasants&to&expand&cropping&to&tropical&rain& forests&and&other&fragile&lands&rich&in&biological&diversity.!February!09.&Economic&growth&funds&science&and& technology&essential&to&improve&agricultural&and&national&productivity.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 267& .!Loggers&are&followed&by&hungry& peasants&who&convert&the&land&to&farming.!Web.&ignorance.!Indiscrim`&inate&logging&of&tropical&forests&rich&in&biodiversity&but& with&fragile&soils&often&occurs&because&poorly&paid&members&of&government&are& "bought&off"&by&logging&companies. "!American! Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.!If!we!take!such!an!approach.sciencemag.& Rosegrant.!<http://www.!2015.&and&farm`&and&community`based&agricultural&and&natural&resources& management.&water& resources.& including&human&resources.!December!12.!MarkW.&but&also&boost&incomes&and&reduce&poverty&in&rural&areas&where& most&of&the&poor&live.&we&can&expect&production& between&1997&and&2050&to&increase&by&71%&for&cereals&and&by&13&1%&for&meats.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies.! Achieving&food&security&needs&policy&and&investment&reforms&on&multiple&fronts.&rural&infrastructure.org/content/302/5652/1917>.!Web.& A&reduction&in&childhood&malnutrition&wouldfollow.&and&from&85&million&to&19&million&in&South&Asia!(Fig.! 1).&agricultural&research.!2003.!Progressive&policy&action&must¬&only&increase&agricultural& production.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 268& .!February! 09.!the&number&of& malnourished&children&would&decline&from&33&million&in&1997&to&16&million&in& 2050&in&sub`Saharan&Africa.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Multifaceted&laws&are&key. ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 269& .&particularly&in&dry&and&remote&areas.& Rosegrant.&or&for&minor&crops&that&are& neglected&by&formal&breeding&programs!(44.!February! 09.!2003.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Must&take&multifaceted&approach&to&change&agriculture.!"Global!Food!Security:!Challenges!And!Policies.&we&need&collective&action&at&the&local& level.!There!have!been!several! successful!programs.!43)."!American! Association!for!the!Advancement!of!Science.!Another&priority&is&participatory&plant&breeding&for&yield& increases&in&rainfed&agrosystems.!Web.!45).! ! To&implement&agricultural&innovation.org/content/302/5652/1917>.&as&well&as&the&participation&of&government&and&nongovernmental& organizations&that&work&at&the&community&level.!2015.!including!those!that!use!water!harvesting!and!conservation! techniques!(42.&It&may&be& the&only&feasible&route&for&crop&breeding&in&remote®ions.&Farmer& participation&can&be&used&in&the&very&early&stages&of&breed&selection&to&help&find& crops&suited&to&a&multitude&of&environments&and&farmer&preferences.!MarkW.sciencemag.!December!12.!<http://www.&where&a&high&level&of& crop&diversity&is&required&within&the&same&farm. !Increasing&food&security&is&an&official&FSP&goal&and&a¢erpiece&of&food& stamp&policy&debate.&Federal& Government's&largest&intervention&against&hunger&and&food&insecurity.oxfordjournals.1!million)!than!the!federal!cash!assistance!program.!Parke.&at&all×.! This&research&seeks&to&estimate&the&effect&of&Food&Stamp& Program!(FSP)!participation&on&food&security.!2015.&healthy&life.!measuring!the!program's!impact!on!food!security!has! proven!difficult.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Food&security&justifies&food&stamps.!the!program!provided!more!benefits!($18!billion)!and!served!more!people! on!average!each!month!(19.& Wilde.!Web.&Official&food&security&estimates&are&based& on&eighteen&survey&items&about&symptoms&of&food&hardship&in&the&past&twelve& months.!February!09.!January!01."! Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!Yet.!Unobserved!factors!may!influence!measured!food!security!and!the! FSP!participation!decision.!The!potential!problem!of!selection!bias!is!stark! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 270& .!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data!Approach.&access&to& enough&food&for&an&active.!In!fiscal! year!2002.! <intlYaepp.!The&federal&government&classifies&a& household&as&"food&secure"&if&all&household&members&have.!2005.org/content/27/3/425.! Temporary!Assistance!for!Needy!Families.full>.S.&The&FSP&is&the&U. !greater!outreach!efforts.! & Champion)Briefs) 271& .AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& Policy&makers&should&increase&access&to&food&assistance& programs&to&people&who&are¬.wiley.! both!within!and!among!states.!for!example.!Gabor!et!al.!Availability!and!participation!in!Summer!Nutrition! programs!continues!to!lag!considerably!behind!that!for!meal!programs!during!the! school!year.!2004).!Research!has!begun!documenting! the!importance!of!local!program!characteristics!in!increasing!food!stamp!utilization! among!eligible!persons.!participation!has!declined!over!the!past!several!years.!and!that!research!identifies!a!number!of!strategiesYincluding! less!frequent!recertification!requirements.!Our&findings&suggest&such&efforts&may&be&particularly& beneficial&to&families&who&are&economically&vulnerable&yet¬&poor..20214/asset/20214_ftp.!more!application!sites.!No.!January! 08.!The!wide!variation!in!availability!of!Summer!Nutrition!programs.& Bartfeld.1002/pam.!Bartlett!&! Burstein.&are&linked&to&food&insecurity."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.&This&is& consistent&with&research&showing&less&extensive&food&stamp&coverage&among& those&who&are&eligible&at&higher&income&levels&(see.!Vol.com/store/10.&the&evidence&that&more&accessible&Food& Stamp&and&Summer&Nutrition&programs&may&be&linked&to&lower&food&insecurity& suggests&that&policymakers&may&wish&to&explore&strategies&for&increasing&the& availability&and&utilization&of&these&programs.&both&in&and&out&of&the&food&assistance&arena.!2015.& suggests&that&food&insecurity&need¬&be&viewed&as&an&intractable&problem.&many&of&which&are& at&least&to&some°ree&subject&to&policy&influence.!and!fewer!vehicle!restrictions!and!job! search!requirements!(see.& Focusing&on&food&assistance&programs.!February!09.!2003)Ythat!states!and!localities! may!wish!to!pursue.!Web.!2006.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!makes!the!expansion!of!these!programs!a!promising! target!for!intervention!as!well.!Judi.!4.!for!example.! <http://onlinelibrary.!it&may&be&a&problem&that&can&be&at&least&partially&ameliorated&through& systematic&policy&initiatives.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!and!nationwide.&The& finding&that&theoretically&plausible&contextual&characteristics.! Rather.! Results&have&a&number&of&implications&for&policymakers&and&planners.!extended!hours!at! application!sites.!25. "!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!Judi.!2015.&with&both&sets& of&variables&playing&important&roles.!results!presented!here!make!important!inroads!in!explaining!the!wide! disparity!in!food!insecurity!rates!found!among!states.1002/pam.& Bartfeld.! Overall.!An&important&next&step&is&to&consider&how& states&with&high&food&insecurity&differ&in&the&relative&importance&of&high`risk& populations&versus&less&favorable&contextual&characteristics.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 272& .!4.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& We&must&tailor&policy&to&the&specific&problems&of&insecurity.!Web.!2006.20214/asset/20214_ftp.com/store/10.&States& characterized&by&the&latter&may&be&particularly&promising&targets&for&reducing& food&insecurity&via&tailored&policy&initiatives.!No.!February!09.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!January! 08.wiley.!Vol.! <http://onlinelibrary.!our&results&suggest& that&almost&all&of&the&between`state&variance&in&food&insecurity&can&be&explained& by&the&household&and&contextual&variables&included&in&the&model.!25.!Indeed.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>. &if¬&for&adoption&of&these& policies&in&the&immediate&term.&community&development.!"Community!Food!Security:!Policies!For!A!More!Sustainable!Food! System!In!The!Context!Of!The!1995!Farm!Bill!And!Beyond.& Gottlieb.!Robert.! populist!and!social!justice!agendas.&at&least&for&initiating&a&longer&term&process&for& establishing&a&sustainable&food&system&based&on&the&principles&of&community& food&security&and&the®ional&planning&and&community&empowerment& principles&associated&with&them.!January!05.! February!09.&and&urban&food/anti`hunger& discourses.!1995.!it!also!identifies!the!potential!for!a!new!type!of!political! force!linking!urban!and!rural."!The!Ralph!and! Goldy!Lewis!Center!for!Regional!Policy!Studies!UCLA.! ! Champion)Briefs) 273& .com/rgottlieb/36/>.!It!has!sought!to!do!this!in!part!by!identifying!the!links!between! constituencies.!environmental!justice!and!resource!conservation.!In!doing!so.!Web.AFF:&Specific&Plans& & March/April&2015& We&must&act&now&for&food&security.!The&time&is&ripe.!<http://works.! The&policy&proposals&and&overall&policy&analysis&outlined&above&represent&an& effort&to&broaden&and&integrate&the&distinctive&sustainable&agriculture.!2015.bepress.!and!policies!through!a!common!framework!based!on!food! security!concepts.& environmental.!issues. !This&insistent& feeling&of&hunger&remained&even&after&years&of&a&low&diet.!after&about&three&weeks.!Vol.!partly!dozing!but!for! the!most!part!in!genuine!deep!sleep.!and!by!what!means!he!could!supplement!the!meagre!rations.!was!still!present.!the! number!of!hours!that!an!adult!male!would!wish!to!remain!in!bed.!G.!however."!The!Lancet.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!Only!when!death!was!imminent!did!the!desire!for!food!slowly!vanish! and!the!grossly!emaciated!prisoner!become!resigned!to!his!fate.!January! 05.& Leyton.!1995.! The!reactions!to!the!reduction&of&diet!from!that!of!a!frontYline!soldier!to!that!in!table! II!can&be÷d&into&many&stages.!!!! Champion)Briefs) 274& .!but!the!major!portion!was!a!lack!of!memory!for!recent!events.!would!forget! the!cards!that!had!been!played.&the&whole&thought!of!the!prisonerYofY war!was&concentrated&on&his&food.&with!the!result!that&the&half`starved&man&would&go&to&the& greatest&lengths&of&ingenuity&and&dishonesty&to&obtain&small&amounts&of&extra& nourishment.&First.!His!chief!concern!was!how!long!it!was!to!the!next! meal.sciencedirect.!The!ability!to!make!and! maintain!even!severe!physical!exertion.!steadily&rose&from&the&normal&eight&hours&to& sixteen&or&more&out&of&the&twenty`four.!The!young!athlete!trying!to!keep!fit! found!that!he!could!no!longer!run.!Finally!the&only&way&to&rouse&a&man&from& his&bed&was&by&the&mention&of&food.!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation.!The&desire&for&sleep!would!increase!.!248.!Issue!6412.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Malnutrition&causes&drastic&physical&and&social&effects&within& weeks.!for!instance.!February!04.!there!was!the&loss&of&the&natural&feeling& of&well`being.!2015.! <http://www.!Loss!of! consciousness!from!this!cause.!The!next!notable!abnormality!was!a! progressive!mental!and!physical!lethargy.!Web.!Part!of!this!was!certainly!lack!of!power!of! concentration.!The!experienced!cardYplayer.!of!which!he!seemed!to! be!aware!some!weeks!before!it!happened.&It&appeared&even&to& increase&with&time.!A!growing!feeling!of!hunger!followed!and!gradually!increased!in! intensity!until.!Shortly!after&this&came&rapid&fatigue&in& mental&and&physical&effort.!was!never!observed.!though! the!memory!for!distant!ones!was!still!normal.B.!when!life!depended!on!it.!even!walking!left!him!exhausted!and!faint. ! <http://www.!The!reaction!to!the!infection!was! very!poor.!Issue!6412.&and&a&further&4%&had&pleural&effusions&which&were&almost& certainly&tuberculous.! The!incidence!of!acute!diseaseYe.!1995.!and! syphilis!was!as!rare!as!would!be!expected!in!the!type!of!patient!examined.!February!04.g.!2015.sciencedirect.!Tuberculous!ulceration! of!the!gut!was!occasionally!present.! Clinical!edema.!! Champion)Briefs) 275& .!Chronic!diseaseYe.!however.g.!Among&the![nourished]!British!the&figure&was!similar!to!that!at!home.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Among&comparative&studies.!The& course&was&extraordinarily&rapid.!in&the&incidence&of&pulmonary& tuberculosis.!Very!seldom!was!chronic!fibroid!phthisis!seen.!Web.!The&types&of&this&disease&were&somewhat&different&from&those& generally&seen!in!England.&and&the&commonest&type& almost&bronchopneumonic.!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation.!Necropsy!revealed!that!the&final&cause&of&death&was!not!often!generalised! miliary!tuberculosis.!and!this!in!a!hospital!that!did!not!receive!patients!already!diagnosed!as! tuberculous.!G.!The&onset&was&more&rapid.!January! 05..&where&large& cavities&and&massive&tissue&breakdown&were&most!typical.!A!most! remarkable!difference!was!shown.!248.& Leyton.! and!the!classical!evening!temperature!was!only!found!in!the!most!advanced!cases.!the!disease!being!usually!confined&to&the&lungs.!Among!2000![malnourished]&Russians!radiography&detected&tuberculous& infiltration&in&15%.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!diabetes."!The!Lancet.!malaria!and!dysenteryYin!British!and!Russian! patients!was!very!similar.!was!no!commoner!in!the!tuberculous!than!among!the!rest!of!the! patients.B.!Vol..!and! this!was!found!to!be!due!to!tuberculous!infection!of!the!suprarenal!glands.!carcinoma.!Of!the!2000!Russians!examined.!tuberculosis!in! the!sputum.!nephritis.&malnourished&patients&become& more&susceptible&to&tuberculosis.! radiography!of!about!500!patients!showing!an!incidence!oflung&lesions&in&about&1` 2%.&the&patient&often&dying&in&less&than&six&months& after&radiography&had&shown&no&sign&of&disease.!184!had!Myc.!Only!one!case!of!Addison’s!disease!was!seen.!The!pulseYrate!remained!within!normal!limits!until!shortly!before!death. !This!depression!cannot!be! explained!by!an!abnormal!bloodYcalcium!level.&to&obtain&food&when& his&life&is&endangered&by&starvation.& deterioration&proceeds&rapidly.!Issue!6412.! <http://www.!Vol.B.& Leyton.!neither!cyanosis!nor!dyspnea!is!present!in!undernourishment.!Besides!this!it!must!be!remembered!that!the!instinct!of!selfYpreservation!is! one!of!the!most!powerful!in!animal!life.&especially&when&he&sees&others&behave&like&him.!January! 05.!G.!and!that!this!is!the! underlying!cause!of!the!depression!of!the!nervous!system.!The!effect!of!starvation!on!the!mental!outlook!of!the! patient!can!roughly!be!assessed!according!to!his!outlook!before!starvation.com/science/article/pii/S0140673646900438#>.!Similar!effects!have!been!observed!in!severe!anemia!(Wolff! 1936)!and!among!people!exposed!to!a!reduced!oxygen!tension!at!high!altitudes.!and!modern!civilized!man’s!existence!is! seldom!threatened!by!lack!of!food.!hence!it!is!not!surprising!that!the&half`starved& man&will&go&to&any&lengths.!The!loss&of& memory.!2015.! The!changes&in&the&nervous&system&were&constant&and&uniform.sciencedirect.!and!the!sluggish!reflexes.!the!slowed! movement.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Malnourished&individuals&cannot&function&in&society.! Champion)Briefs) 276& .!can!all!be&explained&by!a!depression!of!the!vital! activity!of!the!nerveYcell.!since!this!is!normal!or!reduced!in! starvation!and!not!increased."!The!Lancet.&and&it&seems&that&the&silent& areas&of&the&brain&which&control&the&character&suffer&very&early&from&deficient& nutrition.!February!04.!248.&even&stealing&from&his&friends.&leading& to&a&vicious&cycle&of&hunger.!the!confused&and&uncooperative&state.!His!power! of!selfYcontrol!and!his!conduct!as!a!civilized!being!last!just!so!long!as!he!can!maintain! the!veneer!he!has!developed!in!society.! the!lack&of!power!of!concentration.!Web.!the!slowness&of&mental&reactions.!the!rapid&fatigue&of!the!mind.!Though!some!of!the!effects!of!starvation!on!the!nervous! system!can!be!explained!in!this!way!(the!slower!heartYrate!would!not!improve! matters).!"The!Effects!Of!Slow!Starvation.&Once&the&first&barriers&are&broken&down.!1995.!None!of!the!other&hardships!suffered!by! fighting!men!observed!by!me!brought&about&such&a&rapid&or&complete& degeneration&of&character&as&chronic&starvation.!It!has! been!proved!that!in!these!conditions!the!cause!is!poor&oxygenation&of&the& tissues!(Leedham!1938).!May!it!not!be! that!the!reduction&in!the!plasma`protein&level!only!indicates!that!all!the!body& tissues&are&suffering&from&part&of&a&general&protein`starvation. !134.!For&the& analysis&of&risk&factors&for&fair/poor&health.52×.& although&the&interaction&was¬&significant.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& & US&relief&programs&targeting&food&security&help&create& healthy&households.!Vol.full>.&being&food&insecure&increased& the&odds&of&fair/poor&health&by&1.!This!interaction! indicated!that!receiving&Food&Stamps&attenuated!(but!did!not!eliminate)!the& association&between&food&insecurity&and&fair/poor&health.!6.!For!children!in& households¬&receiving&Food&Stamps.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 277& .!whereas&for&those&receiving&Food&Stamps.!A&similar&pattern&was&seen&for&TANF.!JohnT.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among! Human!Infants!And!Toddlers.&a&significant&interaction&was&found& between!currently!receiving!Food&Stamps&and&food&insecurity.&being&food&insecure&increased&the&odds& of&fair/poor&health&by&2.! <http://jn.nutrition.!February!04.!Web.!2004.org/content/134/6/1432.11×.!In!the!analysis!of!hospitalization!since! birth.!No.!2015.!January! 06."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition.!there!was!no!significant!interaction!between!receiving!Food!Stamps!or!TANF! and!food!insecurity.!controlling!for!the!other!covariates!in!the! model.! Separate!sets!of!models!with!interaction!terms!were!estimated!to!test!whether! receiving!Food!Stamps!or!TANF!benefits!modified!the!associations!between!food! insecurity!and!health!status!or!hospitalization!(results!not!shown!in!tables).& Cook. 15–1.!134.!2015.! WIC.!household!receipt!of!SSI.82).56.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Models&show&that&households&that&lack&food&are&more&likely& to&be&unhealthy.!95%!CI!1.!children&in&the!CYSNAP!sample!living!in&food`insecure& households&had&nearly&twice&as&great&odds&of&having&their&health&status&reported& as&“fair/poor”&as&those&for!similar!children!in&food`secure&households![adjusted! odds!ratio!(AOR)!1.!February!04.!Vol.!Food!Stamps.!health!insurance!and!daycare!status.31.!after!controlling!for!potential!confounders!(AOR!1.full>.!respectively).!whereas!children&in&households&that& were&food&insecure&with&hunger&had&almost&two&and&one`third×&as&great& odds!of!their!health!being!reported!as!fair/poor!as!children!in!food!secure!households! (AOR!2.Children!in&both&food`insecure&groups!(without!and! with!hunger)!had!nearly!a&third&greater&odds&of&being&hospitalized&than!children!in! foodYsecure!households.!!! Champion)Briefs) 278& .02).!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among! Human!Infants!And!Toddlers.06–1.90.73.& Cook.!foodYinsecure)!food&security&status& predictor!(Table!3).org/content/134/6/1432.52!and!AOR!1.!food!insecure!without!hunger.! <http://jn.!6.nutrition.!children&in&households& categorized&as&food&insecure&without&hunger&had&odds&of&health&being&reported& fair/poor&nearly&three`quarters&again&as&great&as&those&in&food`secure& households!(AOR!1.48)!after!adjusting!for!potential!confounders.!JohnT.16–1.!food!insecure!with! hunger)!food!security!status!predictor(Table!4).!or!TANF.!Children!in!foodYinsecure!households!had!approximately! a!third!again!as!great!odds!of!being!hospitalized!since!birth!as!foodYsecure!children! (AOR!1.!95%!CI! 1.!2004.!95%!CI!1.18]!after!adjusting!for!study!site.!child’s! race/ethnicity.S.!No.66–2.31.! caregiver’s!age.! In!models!using!a&dichotomous!(foodYsecure!vs.32.!mother!born!in!the!U."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition.!January! 06.48–2.!95%!CI!1.29.!95%CI!1.!In!models! using!a&3`category!(food!secure.!employment.!95%!CI!1.!Web.!marital!and!education!status.89–2. 29).!JohnT.&low`income& children!in!households!utilizing!urban!medical!centers!represent&a&sentinel& population&at&high&risk&of&adverse&health&outcomes.24– 27).&and&may&exhibit&health& effects&of&food&insecurity&at&levels&of&clinical&severity&or&at&prevalence&rates&that& are¬¬ed&among&children&in&the&general&population!(44–51).!and&poor&health&in&children&and&adults!(11.!This!study! evaluates!whether!in!innerYcity!settings.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&insecurity&lowers&levels&of&child&development.!6.!No.org/content/134/6/1432.!Not!being!able!to!purchase!enough!nutritious!food.S.!February!04.!Earlier!versions!of!food&security&measuressimilar!to!the! 18Y!item!U.12.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 279& .!Young.!including!malnutrition!(38–43).!The&association& of!micronutrient!and!proteinYenergy!deficits&with&impaired&immunity&and&wound& healing!and!thus!with!increased!risk!of!serious!illness!is!alsowell&established!(29– 37).!January! 06.! <http://jn.!Food!Security!Scale!were&associated&with&inadequate&intakes&of& several&important&nutrients!(10–15).full>."!The!Journal!of!Nutrition.!behavioral&and&psychosocial&dysfunction&in&children&and&adults!(16.!cognitive&developmental&deficits!(16– 23).!young!children!in!households!exposed!to! food!insecurity!have!significantly!different!odds!of!experiencing!negative!health! outcomes!than!similar!children!in!foodYsecure!families.& Cook.!can&contribute!to!adverse!health!effects!or!exacerbate&poor&health& caused&by!other!factors.!2004.! Household!food!insecurity!is!a!concern!to!pediatricians!because!it!has!implications!for! child!health!in!several!ways.28–30).nutrition.!Recent!research!also!suggests!that!affective&or&psychologic&stresses!such!as! those!accompanying!resourceYconstrained!food!insecuritycan&influence&child&health& and&well`being&adversely.!Web.!"Food!Insecurity!Is!Associated!With!Adverse!Health!Outcomes!Among! Human!Infants!And!Toddlers.!134.!2015.!Vol.&independent&of&associated&nutritional&deficits!(23– 25.!and!the! resultant!emotional&or&psychologic&stresses&arising&in&the& household. pdf?acceptTC=true>.!qualify!the!point!so!as!to!make!it:!if!it!is!in!our! power!to!prevent!something!very!bad!from!happening.!and!not!to!promote!what!is!good.&or&doing&something&that&is&wrong&in&itself.!Web.!3.!without!thereby!sacrificing! anything!morally!significant.jstor.!November!30.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& We&should&look&at&comparative&moral&costs&and&benefits&of& any&policy.!"Famine.&while&the&death&of&the&child&would& presumably&be&a&very&bad&thing.! No.& Singer.&comparable&in&significance&to&the&bad&thing&that&we&can& prevent.!2015.! My!next!point!is!this:!if&it&is&in&our&power&to&prevent&something&bad&from& happening.!comparably!important."!Philosophy!&!Public!Affairs.&I&ought&to&wade&in&and&pull&the&child&out.!morally.!I!could!even.!as!far!as!the!application!of!my!argument!to! the!Bengal!emergency!is!concerned.! !! !!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 280& .&but&this&is&insignificant.!Vol.org/stable/pdfplus/2265052.!An&application&of&this& principle&would&be&as&follows:&if&I&am&walking&past&a&shallow&pond&and&see&a&child& drowning&in&it.!Peter.&This&will&mean&getting& my&clothes&muddy.&or&failing&to&promote& some&moral&good.!from!the!moral!point!of! view.&without&thereby&sacrificing&anything&of&comparable&moral& importance.!1971.!Affluence.!we!ought.&we&ought.!And!Morality.!and!it!requires!this!of!us! only!when!we!can!do!it!without!sacrificing!anything!that!is.!morally.!1.!This!principle!seems!almost!as!uncontroversial!as!the!last!one.! <http://www.!to&do&it.!to!do!it.!February!05.!By!"without!sacrificing!anything!of! comparable!moral!importance"!I&mean&without&causing&anything&else&comparably& bad&to&happen.!It!requires!us! only!to!prevent!what!is!bad. !Still."!All!You!Can!Excerpt.!live&in&a& condition&described&by&the&federal&government&as&“food&insecurity.!they&discover&the&shocking&reality:& hunger&amidst&a&sea&of&plenty&is&a&phenomenon&as&American&as&baseball.&jazz.! <http://joelberg.& and&apple&pie.!Most!alarmingly.&health&care.!despite&living&in&a&nation&with&so&many&luxury&homes!that!the! term!“McMansion”!has!come!into!popular!usage.5&million&Americans.!2015.&or& proper&child&care.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& 36&million&Americans&are&food&insecure.&like&heat.!Primarily!because!federal!antiYhunger!safety!net!programs!have!worked.!Joel.!2008.!millions&of&American&adults&and& children&have&so&little&ability&to&afford&food&that&they&do&go&hungry&at&different& points&throughout&the&year`and&are&otherwise&forced&to&spend&money&on&food& that&should&have&been&spent&on&other&necessities.!February!06.!including!12.net/book/allY!youYcanYexcerpt/>.!January!11.!the&problem&has&only&gotten&worse&in&recent& years.”&which& means&their&households&either&suffer&from&hunger&or&struggle&at&the&brink&of& hunger.&Today&in&the&United&StatesYbecause!tens!of!millions!of!people!live! below!the!meager!federal!poverty!line!and!because!tens!of!millions!of!others!hover! just!above!it!Y!35.!! Champion)Briefs) ! 281& .6!million!children.! American!children!are!no!longer!dying!in!significant!numbers!as!an!immediate!result! of!famineYlike!conditions!Y!though!children!did!die!of!malnutrition!here!as!recently!as! the!late!1960s.!Web.!"!Introduction!Y!Hunger!Amidst!Plenty:!A!Problem!As!American!As!Apple! Pie.! When&people&look&at&the&facts!for!themselves.& Berg. &consumers&and& states.& producers.!2011.fao.!In!the!case!of!events&provoking&soaring&prices.&and&the&state.& FAO.!2015.!This&phenomenon&puts&at&risk&decisions&made&by&producers&about&what& and&how&much&to&produce.! Volatility.&people& with&low&incomes&have&significantly&reduced&purchase&capacity&and&the& inequalities&are&expanded.pdf!>.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN."!Right!to!Food.&results&in&harmful&effects&to&producers.&thus&generating&considerable&social&tension! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 282& .AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Price&volatility&can&trigger&large&scale&harms&to&the&poor.! <http://www.!Web.!in&terms&of&significant&and&frequent&changes&in&the&direction&and& magnitude&of&food&prices.!This&situation&may&be&a&threat&for&the&states&also&because&they& may&confront&high&inflationary&situations&with&unexpected&fiscal&and&budgetary& repercussions.! February!06.!During!2006!and!2008!period!for!example!the!increased! prices!were!a!major!factor!in!the!increase!in!the!number!of!hungry!people!to!more! than!one!billion.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food. ! February!06.! <http://www.&but&also&failed&to&achieve&the&expected&results.!Consequently&the&different&measures&implemented&were¬&only& insufficient.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food.!partly!due&to&the&low&food&prices&which&existed& during&the&past&decade&(in!real!terms).pdf!>.!2011.& FAO.! !FAO&studied&&the&different&policy’s&tools&applied&in&81&countries&in&the&past&food& prices&crisis&during&2006&and&2008.!Web.!2015.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.!there&were&no&incentives&to&invest&in&the& agricultural§or&and&the&public&capacity&to&operate&in&the&rural&area&was& dismantled.!Governments!turned!mainly!to!measures!which!could!be!implemented!in!a! fast!and!simple!way.!!! Champion)Briefs) ! 283& .!However.fao."!Right!to!Food.&Analyzing&the&measures&used&we&realize&that& the&main&part&were&initiatives&addressed&to&mitigate&the&high&level&prices&to&the& consumer.!The!decrease!in!food! prices!which!occurred!in!the!second!semester!of!2008!provoked!many!governments!to! deactivate!those!measures!thereby!obtaining!only!short!term!results.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& When&prices&are&low&states&often&stop&preparing&for&food& volatility. &It&entails&placing&food&security!and!nutrition!at&the&top&of&the& political&agenda&and&creating&an&enabling&environment&for&improving&food& security!and!nutrition!through&adequate&investments.& FAO.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& There&needs&to&be&strong&political&commitment&to&food& security&to&solve&hunger.fao.!Institutional! reforms!are!also!needed!to!promote!and!sustain!progress.!2015.!February! 06.!Regions!as!well!as!countries! have!strengthened!their!political!commitment!to!food!security!and!nutrition! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 284& .!Web."!Rome.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.&stakeholder&participation&and&a&strong&evidence&base.!FAO.!<http://www.! Sustained&political&commitment&at&the&highest&level&is&a&prerequisite&for&hunger& eradication.!2011.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World.&legal& frameworks.&better&policies. &the&number&of&hungry&people&has&fallen&by&over&200&million.! Since&1990–92.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Solving&hunger&is&possible.& FAO.!<http://www.!2015.!with!the!assistance!of!the!international!community!as!needed.&history&proves.!by& finding&individual&sets&of&action&that&respond&to&their&national&needs&and& specificities.!Web.!FAO.!2011.fao.&This& is&proof&that&we&can&win&the&war&against&hunger&and&should&inspire&countries&to& move&forward.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World.!February! 06.!This!is!the!first!step!to!achieving!the!other!MDGs! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 285& ."!Rome.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>. 7!percent!(Figure!1).!If&the¤t&trend&of&a&reduction&of&about&0.!Web.8&percent&in&2015!–!1.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Solving&hunger&is&possible."!Rome.&particularly& in&sub`Saharan&Africa&and&Southern&and&Western&Asia.&and&from&23.&we’re&making&good&progress.!This!means! that!the!MDG!1c!hunger!target!of!halving!the!proportion!of!undernourished!people!by! 2015!is!within!reach.!February!06.&the&trend&in&hunger& reduction&can&be&accelerated!to!meet!the!MDG!hunger!target.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.5&percent&per& year&since&1990–92&continues.4&percent&to&13.&the&prevalence& of&undernourishment&has&fallen&from&18.! The&decline&in&the&share&of&hungry&people&has&been&more&impressive&than&the& reduction&in&absolute&numbers.!Between&1990–92&and&2012–14.7&percent&to&11.!With&greater&efforts.!<http://www.& FAO.1!percentage!points! above!the!MDG!target!of!11.! 2015.fao.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 286& .!FAO2011.5&percent&in&developing&countries.&the&prevalence&of&undernourishment&in& developing®ions&would&reach&12.3&percent&at&the&global& level.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World. !<http://www.!Web.&access&to&food&remains&an&important&challenge&for&many&developing& countries.&Despite&considerable&improvements&over&the&last&two& decades.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World.!2011.!stunting.& FAO."!Rome.! Many&developing&countries&have&made&significant&progress&in&improving&food& security&and&nutrition.!FAO.!Large!challenges!remain!in!the!area!of!food! utilization.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Even&though&progress&has&been&made&across&the&globe&there& are&still®ions&where&more&effort&needs&to&be&made.&due! to!income!growth!and!poverty!reduction!in!many!countries! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 287& .&At&the&same& time.!February! 06.!2015.!underweight!and!micronutrient!deficiencies&remain&stubbornly& high.org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.fao.!even!if!significant!progress!has!been!made!over!the!last!two!decades.6&&even&where&availability&and&access&no&longer&pose&problems.&but&this&progress&has&been&uneven&across&both®ions& and&dimensions&of&food&security. org/publications/sofi/2014/en/>.!Without&these&measures.&with&food&production&now&well&in&excess&of& consumption.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 288& ."!Rome.&with!the!agriculture!sector!becoming!an!engine!of!domestic!economic!and! employment!growth!for!countries!in!the!region.&Several&countries&in&the®ion&have&successfully&addressed&this& challenge&with&targeted&social&protection&measures.& FAO.!overcame&its&food& availability&problems&decades&ago.!which!have!significantly! improved!access.&States&need&to&ensure&security.!particularly!South!America.!<http://www.&underscoring&that& economic&growth&alone&is¬&enough&to&ensure&sustainable&food&security&and& nutrition.!However.!February!06.!"The!State!Of!Food!Insecurity!In!The!World.! 2015.&such&growth&has¬&been& sufficiently&inclusive&to&ensure&access&to&food&for&all.& Latin&America&proves.!Web.! Latin&America!as!a!subregion.&Latin&America&has&established&itself&as&a&major&agricultural& exporter.&progress&towards&food&security&in&the& region&would&have&been&limited&or&possibly&even&reversed.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Growth&alone&can’t&solve.!FAO!2011.fao. &food&preferences&and&other®ional&factors.!October!11.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& India&needs&food&security&now.&The&total&number&of& malnourished&people&in&India!(around!300!million)!is&equal&to&the&total& population&of&the&US&or&the&population&of&Latin&America&and&Africa&put&together.! 2000.jstor.!2015.&There&is&no& alternative&to&continued&domestic&policy&support&for&foodgrains&and&oil&seeds.&both&in&terms&of&population&and&geography.& World&prices&are&generally&volatile&and&world&supply&is&controlled&by&a&few& countries&and&their&multinational&corporations&and&as&such&excessive& dependence&on&world&trade&may&threaten&the&country's&food&security.&rich&or&poor.!K."!Economic!and!Political!Weekly.!However.&considers&food&security&as&closely& related&to&its&national&interest&and&security.org/stable/4409916>.P.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 289& .!"Concerns!On!Food!Security.&India&will& have&to&adopt&a&cautious&policy&with®ard&to&trade&in&food.! The!lessons!of!these!critical!factors!should!not!be!lost!sight!of!in!our!continuing! process!of!economic!liberalisation.& Kannan.&Given&the&size&of& the&country.!February!09.&and&the&diversities&in& agro`climatic&conditions.!Web.!Trade&may&be&encouraged&to&manage&food& supply&taking&into&account&the&contingencies&from&time&to&time.!<http://www.! Going!by!the!experience!in!such!international!fora!as!the!World!Food!Summit!and!the! WTO!where!every&country.!The&total&production&of& foodgrains&in&India&equals&the&world&trade&in&foodgrains.! there!are!also!some!advantages!for!India!for!improving!food!security!due!to!WTO!and! intellectual!property!rights.!it!is!likely!to!remain!a!matter!of! national!concern!with!or!without!economic!liberalisation. !Web.! <http://www.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& We&must&look&at&availability&and&utilization&when&examining& food&security.!Luther.!However.&(b)&price&was&excessive`a& situation&that&freer&trade&or&larger&stocks&might&have&diminished.&or&(c)&they&did& not&have&access&to&transfers`a&situation&that&a&greater&sense&of&community&would& have&diminished.!perhaps!it!is!not! surprising!that!accessibility!is!the!major!constraint!to!food!security.&smallholders..!2015.! The&widespread&practice&of&defining&food&security&as&access&to&food&does¬& recognize&two&other&important&dimensions&of&food&security`availability&and& utilization.&landless&peasants.&and&hired&agricultural&workers& often&are&poor&and&lack&access&to&food&(Barraclough."!Review!of!Agricultural! Economics.!February!09.!The&very&young.& the&elderly.&or&stocks&and&is¬&now&of&overriding&interest.!Amartya!Sen!observed!that!even!in!the! severe!Bengal!famine!of!1943!food!was!available.!42).!p.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 290& .& imports.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security.&Given!the!high!likelihood!that!food!will!be!available!in!world! markets!for!anyone!with!buying!power!in!the!foreseeable!future.org/stable/1349892>.!1999.&Availability&of&food&refers&to&the&supply&of&food&from&production.&given&the&rising&per& capita&global&supply&apparent&in&table&2.!many&people&did¬& have&access&to&food&because&(a)&they&lacked&buying&power`a&situation&that&higher& economic&productivity&would&have&diminished.jstor.& Tweeten. !2015.&hence.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 291& .& food&production!(availability)!is&also&buying&power!(accessibility)!for!many! people.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Access&is&key.! Because&most&food`insecure&people&live&in&rural&areas&of&developing&countries.! <http://www.!February!09.!1999.jstor.!It&is&important&to&emphasize&that&food&consumers&outnumber&producers& in&every&country."!Review!of!Agricultural! Economics.!raising&access&to&food&by&increasing&productivity&and&real&incomes& of&food`insecure&people&remains&the&principal&route&to&food&security.org/stable/1349892>.!"The!Economics!Of!Global!Food!Security.!Web.& Tweeten.!Luther.&arbitrarily&raising&food&prices&above&market&levels&by& government&programs&or&other&nonmarket&means&usually&diminishes&rather& than&enhances&food&security&even&though&food&producers&gain.! Nonetheless. !<http://www.!29).! Despite&per&capita&world&food&supplies&being&more&than&adequate&to&provide& food&security&to&all.3&billion&people&with&incomes&of&less&than&$1&per&day!(updated!from!World! Bank!1990.!Web.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency.org/stable/1349892>.!Because&it&is&the&poor&who&lack&access&to&food.!will&have&to&escape&poverty&and&food&insecurity&through& economic&growth.!2015.!1999.&Most&of&the&world's&poor.&Heavy&dependence&on& transfers&could&discourage&local&production&and&create&an&unhealthy& dependency&of&poor&nations&and&individuals&on&rich&nations.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Infrastructure&is&key&to&food&security.&food&or&income&transfers&among&nations&cannot&be&the& principal&instrument&to&end&food&insecurity.!p.& alleviating&food&insecurity&means&alleviating&poverty.!reliable!transfers.&and& individuals.!Luther.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 292& ."!Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.jstor.&South.& the&1.&Massive&food&transfers&would&destroy&incentives&for&local&food& producers.!One!reason!is!because!altruism!is!too! limited!and!fickle!to!provide!sufficient.!A!nation!must!have!a!"pie"!of!purchasing!power!to!divide!and!share! among!its!foodYinsecure!people.& Tweeten.&and&Southeast& Asia!from!1979Y1981!to!1990Y1992!(table!1).&Economic&growth&largely&was&responsible&for&the&158&million& reduction&in&numbers&of&undernourished&people&in&East.&agencies.! February!09. !The&aggregate&result&of&Jones&&&Thornton&(2003).! For!instance.&hides& considerable&variability&within&and&between&countries.! The&links&between&climate&change&and&food&security&have.!2015.! 2005).!These!effects!of!temperature!were!considered!sufficiently!detrimental!that!they! would!largely!offset!any!increase!in!yield!as!a!consequence!of!increased!atmospheric! carbon!dioxide!(CO2)!concentration.!Gregory!et!al.g.! February!09.& also&ignores&the&fact&that&maize&is&commonly&used&as&fodder&as&well&as&food&as& part&of&a&complex&production&system.&as&they&point&out.!Fuhrer! 2003)!have&further&assessed&the&potential&consequences&of&changes&in&climate&on& the&growth&and&yield&of&crop&plants.!Similarly.Several&reviews&(e.!simulations!of!maize!production!in!Africa!and!Latin!America!using! climate!data!from!the!HadCM2!model!to!generate!characteristic!daily!weather!data!for! 2055!predicted!an!overall!reduction!of!10%!(Jones!&!Thornton!2003).AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Climate&change&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.ncbi.! <http://www.& Gregory."!The!Royal!Society.!(1999)!summarized!experimental!findings!on!wheat!and! rice!that!indicated!decreased!crop!duration!(and!hence!yield)!of!wheat!as!a! consequence!of!warming!and!reductions!in!yields!of!rice!of!about!5%!0CY1!rise!above! 32!0C.!Web.&and.!food!production.!This.!P.!to!date.!largely!been& explored&in&relation&to&impacts&on&crop&productivity!and!hence.nlm.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.J.!uses&a&process`based&crop&production&model&(such!as!the!crop! environment!resource!synthesis!family)!to&link&climate&to&plant&physiological& processes.!11Y29Y05.!Amthor!2001.&Yield&can&then&be&modelled&for&a&uniform&crop&and&upscaled&to&a& larger&area&normally&within&some&form&of&geographic&information& system&(GIS).& pollutants&and&further&interactions&with&climatic&factors&(see!also!Long!et!al.!and!other! similar!projections.&concluding&that&the&earlier`anticipated& benefits&of&CO2&fertilization&would&be&largely&offset&by&nutrient&limitations.&though.! Champion)Briefs) 293& .nih.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate. & Gregory.& further&undermine&the&food&systems&upon&which&food&security&is&based.nih.! The&spectre&of&climate&change.! February!09.!has& increased&concerns&about&achieving&food&security&especially&for&poor& people!(Gregory!&!Ingram!2000.!2015.! <http://www.ncbi.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate.!Web.&and&land&cover.&in&turn.nlm.!There&is& also&concern&that&meeting&the&global&demand&for&food&resulting&from&higher& population&and&changing&dietary&preferences&will&further°rade&the& environment&both&through&additional&destruction&of&native&vegetation&and& increased&intensification&of&cropped&areas&(Tilman!et!al.&together&with&other&global&environmental& changes&such&as&changes&in&water&availability.!2001.&and&altered& nitrogen&availability&and&cycling&(all!strongly!influenced!by!human!activities).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 294& .!P."!The!Royal!Society.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!2001).!This&may.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Climate&change&harms&food&security.!11Y29Y05.J.!Rosegrant!&!Cline!2003).!Parry!et!al. ! Recognition&that&food&security&depends&on&robust&food&systems&that&encompass& issues&of&availability.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&depends&on&availability.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate.!GECAFS!is!an!interdisciplinary!research! programme!that!aims!to!improve!understanding!of!the!relationship!between!food! systems!and!the!earth!system!to!deliver!scienceYbased!tools!for!analysing!socioY economic!and!environmental!consequences!of!strategies!seeking!to!adapt!to!climate! and!other!environmental!changes.&access.!led&the&international&global& change&research&community&to&establish&the&joint&project&global&environmental& change&and&food&systems!(GECAFS)!in!2001.!Web.!2015.! <http://www.&and&utilization.nlm.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 295& .&access&and&utilization!(not!merely!production!alone).nih.& Gregory.J.!P."!The!Royal!Society.ncbi.! February!09.and& consequently&that&the&nature&of&key&research&issues&changes&as&questions&more& related&to&food&security&are&formulated!(figure!1).!11Y29Y05. &that&of&eradicating&extreme&hunger&and& poverty&calls&for&halving&of&hunger&and&poverty&by&2015&in&relation&to&1990.!P.!"Food!Crops!In!A!Changing!Climate.!favourable!macroY economic!and!trade!policies.!2004).!While&increased&agricultural&productivity&is& a&key&step&in&reducing&rural&poverty!(Von!Braun!et!al."!The!Royal!Society.&the&member&states&of&the&United&Nations&committed&themselves&to&eight& Millennium&Development&Goals.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1569578/>.!Climate&change&will&add&a&further& dimension&to&the&challenge&of&ensuring&food&security&for&all&with&the&poor&most& vulnerable&because&of&their&restricted&options&for&coping.ncbi.! Champion)Briefs) 296& .J.nih.!land!and! markets!are!also!required!for!fast!rates!of!growth.nlm.! <http://www.! In&2000.&The&first&goal.&Adaptations&of&food&systems&via& interventions&in&availability.!This!paper! demonstrates!that!climate!change!is!only!one!of!several!changes!affecting!food! systems!and!that!its!relative!importance!varies!both!between!regions!and!between! different!societal!groups!within!a!region.&each&with&specific.!Web.!and!access!to!credit.AFF:&Util&AC& & March/April&2015& We&must&fight&climate&change&to&provide&food&security.&measurable&targets&that& should&be&met&by&2015.!11Y29Y05.& Gregory.! February!09.!2015.!good!infrastructure.!This! goal!specifically!recognizes!the!agricultureYhungerYpoverty!nexus!and!the!limited! coping!capability!that!poverty!induces.&access&and&utilization&are&possible&to&cope&with& climate&change&at&different&scales&although&their&feedbacks&to&the&earth&system& have&yet&to&be&fully&assessed. Champion Briefs March/April 2015 Lincoln-Douglas Brief Evidence for the Negative . ! 2015.& YifuLin.!If!they!find!that!the!losses!due!to!this!member's!default!are!larger!than!the! gains!from!the!economies!of!scale.jstor.!No.!Vol.!because!of!the! heterogeneity!in!personal!preferences.!December!12.!abilities.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.!the&members&of&a&collective&can& decide&whether&they&want&to&participate&in&the&collective&in&the&next&round.!The&gain&from&the&economies&of&scale.!6."!Journal! of!Political!Economy.!Web.!Justin.!at!the!end!of!each!production!round.13!Certainly.!a!member!may! determine!that!he!or!she!will!be!better!off!by!reneging!on!the!agreement.!the!other!members!in!the!collective!have!to!decide! whether!to!stay!in!the!collective!and!allow!this!member!to!be!continuously!derelict! toward!the!agreement!or!to!withdraw!from!the!collective!and!resume!household! farming.!Otherwise.!A!self`enforcing&agreement!among&collective&members!in! which!each!one!promises!to!provide!as!much!effort!as!on!the!household!farm!is& an&effective!alternative!when!supervision!is!too!costly.!nevertheless.!To!make!a!collective!an!efficient!institution.!That!is.!<http://www.&certain&gains&can&be& obtained&by&pooling&the&land&and&farm&tools&of&several&households!(Chinn! 1980).!some!effective!substitute!for! supervision!is!required.!the!collective!will!disintegrate.!the&deprivation&of&the&right&to&withdraw&has&a& significant&impact&on&the&incentive&structure&of&the&collective.!they!will!withdraw!from!the!collective.!is&overshadowed&by& the&incentive&issue&arising&from&the&difficulties&of&supervision&in&agricultural& production.!Because!in& China&a&household's&landholding&is&highly&fragmented&and&the&size&is&often&too& small&for&that&household&to&raise&a&draft&animal&alone.!the& possibility&of&the&collective's&collapse&obliges&the&would`be&shirker&to&rethink& the&position:&Should&the&member&break&the&promise&and&let&the&collective& Champion)Briefs) 298& .pdf>.!When&the&freedom& to&quit&exists.!98.! Those!who!find!that!they!are!better!off!being!members!of!the!collective!will!retain! their!membership.!When!this!is!the!case.NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC& March/April&2015& Collective&labor&is&liable&to&incentive&problems.! From!the!game!theory!point!of!view.!1989.!and!endowments.!the! member!breaks!the!promise!and!does!not!contribute!as!much!to!production!as!initially! proposed.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961.!February!05.!However. NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC& March/April&2015& collapse&or&honor&the&commitment&and&prevent&the&disintegration&of&the& collective?&Shirking!in!the!current!round!definitely!leaves!the!member!better!off!at! the!end!of!this!round.!even!if!the! collective!collapses.&This!implicit!threat!also!guarantees!that!the! production!in!a!voluntarily!formed!collective!will!be!at!least!as!good!as!the!sum!of! production!of!a!group!of!households!working!separately.&it&is&the&threat&of&a&collective's&collapse&that&greatly& reduces&the&incidence&of&shirking.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 299& .!the!member!will!honor!the! agreement.'4!At!the!worst.!But!if!the!collective!collapses.!If!the!discounted!present!value!of!future! losses!is!larger!than!the!oneYtime!gains!in!this!round.!Therefore.!household!production!will!remain!at!the!same!level!reached! before!the!formation!of!the!collective.!the!gains!from!the!economies!of! scale!are!lost!from!the!second!round!on. &The&collective&is&besieged&by&the& "prisoner's&dilemma.&the& incentives&to&work&in&a&compulsorily&formed&agricultural&collective&must&be& low.! However.!the& self`enforcing&agreement&cannot&be&sustained!in!a!oneYtimeYgame!collective! (Telser!1980)."!Journal! of!Political!Economy.!from!the!viewpoint!of!the!possibility!of! withdrawal.!Conversely.!<http://www.NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC& March/April&2015& Collectivized&food&production&is&uniquely&difficult.!Since& supervision&in&agricultural&production&is&extremely&difficult&and&too&costly.pdf>.!A&peasant&will¬&work&as&hard&as&on&the&household&farm&(Lin! 1988).!when&a&collective&is&imposed.!Therefore.!6.!Consequently.!Justin.!Web.!98.jstor.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961.!No.!February!05.!If!supervision!is!effective!and!rewards!are!closely! related!to!each!individual's!effort!contribution!in!production.& YifuLin.!the!incentives&will&be&low."'! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 300& .!It& becomes&impossible&to&use&withdrawal!either!as!a!way!to!protect!oneself!or!as!a! means!to!check!the!possibility!of!shirking!by!the!other!members.!if&supervision&is&ineffective!and!rewards!are!not!closely!related!to! each!individual's!effort!contribution!in!production.!December!12.! 2015.!Vol.!work!incentives!will!be! high.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.!1989.&the&productivity&level&of&a&collective&will&be&lower&than&the& level&reached&on&the&individual&household&farm.!Supervision&becomes&crucial!in!establishing!work!incentives!and! productivity!levels!in!the!collective.!the&nature&of!the!collective!is&changed&to&that&of&a&one`time&game. !Vol.!98.!1989.org/stable/pdfplus/2937756.!the&pattern&of&collectivization¬&only&in& China&but&also&in&the&Soviet&Union&and&other&countries&shows&that&the&initial& success&of&this&movement&was!followed&by&severe&difficulties&and&a&long&period&of& stagnation&in&agriculture.some& members&of&a&collective&may&take&advantage&of&the&low&supervision&in&the& collective&and&attempt&to&evade&the&responsibilities&stipulated&in&their&self` enforcing&agreement.jstor.!the!disintegration!of!some!collectives!is! inevitable.!even!though!the!overall!performance!of!the!movement!is!successful.!However.!Consequently.!December!12.!6.!abilities.!No.!is! well!respected.!the!selfYenforcing!agreements!in!most!collectives!can!be! sustained!and!the!overall!agricultural!performance!is!improved.! 2015.!However.!in!general.pdf>.NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC& March/April&2015& Collectives&eventually&become&compulsory&–&which&destroys& productivity&and&individual&rights.!"Collectivization!And!China's!Agricultural!Crisis!In!1959Y1961.!Web.!Since!effective!supervision!in!agricultural!production!is!too! costly.!At! the!initial!stage!of!a!collectivization!movement.!the!success!of!an!agricultural!collective!depends!inescapably!on!a!tacit! agreement!of!selfYdiscipline!established!by!the!collective!members.!collectivization!has!been!promoted!as!a!strategy!for!the! development!of!agriculture."!Journal! of!Political!Economy.!a!selfY enforcing!agreement!can!be!sustained!only!if!the!members!of!the!collective!have!the! right!to!quit!the!collective!when!the!other!members!do!not!honor!their!agreement.!zealous& political&leaders!of!a!collectivization!movementmay&interpret!differently!the& Champion)Briefs) 301& .!however.! In!the!developing!countries.& YifuLin.!there&is&a& built`in&danger&in&the&initial&success&of&a&collectivization&movement.!Justin.20!This!paper!attempts!to!explain!this!phenomenon!by!the! following!arguments.!The! collapse!of!some!collectives!is!like!a!safety!valve!for!the!collectivization!movement.!It! makes!potential!violators!of!the!selfYenforcing!agreement!realize!that!honoring!the! agreement!is!to!their!advantage.!Consequently.!and!other!endowments.!<http://www.!Encouraged!by!the!initial!success.!February!05.!However.!Because!of! the!differences!in!their!time!preferences.!the!right!to!withdraw. &a&devastating&agricultural&crisis`like&the&one&in&the&Soviet&Union&between& 1929&and&1932&and&the&one&in&China&between&1959&and&1961&`follows& immediately.!To!prevent!the!further!collapse!of!other! collectives.!and!the!safety!valve!is! removed.!the!right!to!withdraw!is!deprived.NEG:&Anti`Communism/Communitariansm&NC& March/April&2015& withdrawal!of!some!individual!members!from!the!collectives.!The&collectivization&is&thus& changed!from!a!voluntary!to&a&compulsory&movement.&agricultural&performance&declines&gradually.!These!individuals!are! viewed!as&the&enemies&of&the&movement.! ! Champion)Briefs) 302& .!If&this&change!in!the!nature!of!the!colleCollctivization!movement!happens& gradually.!If&this&change&happens& swiftly. &to&sustain&it&and& to&bear&responsibility&for&its&results.!Yet&his&life&depends&on&such&knowledge—and&only& a!volitional!act!of!his!consciousness.!His!percepts!might!lead!him!to!a!cave.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 303& .!a!process&of&thought.&A&sensation&of&hunger&will&tell&him& that&he&needs&food!(if!he!has!learned!to!identify!it!as!“hunger”).!if!one!is! available—but!to!build!the!simplest!shelter.!Web.!But!man’s! responsibility!goes!still!further:!a&process&of&thought&is¬&automatic!nor! “instinctive”!nor!involuntary—nor!infallible.!by&the&guidance&of&mere&percepts.! how!to!forge!tools.!he!needs!a!process!of!thought.!he!has!to!discover!the!rules!of!thought.!how!to!make!an!airplane.! February!06.!No& percepts&and&no&“instincts”&will&tell&him&how&to&light&a&fire.pdf>.org/uploaded_files/1/files/iaYlabY3Y supplemental.!how!to!make!a!wheel.!2015.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Our&only&natural&right&is&the&opportunity&to&act.!He&has&to&discover&how&to&tell&what&is&true& or&false&and&how&to&correct&his&own&errors.!Ayn.!he!has!to!discover!how!to!validate!his! concepts.!how!to!perform!an! appendectomy.!his!conclusions.!to!direct!his!thinking.!how!to!weave!cloth.!Nature&gives&him&no&automatic&guarantee&of&the& efficacy&of&his&mental&effort.&can&provide&it.& Rand."!Ethics!in!Our!Time.!the! laws!of!logic.!as! animals!do.!Man&cannot&survive.!"The!Objectivist!Ethics.!<http://www.! Consciousness—for!those!living!organisms!which!possess!it—is!the!basic!means!of! survival.&Man&has&to&initiate&it.!how!to!produce!an!electric!light!bulb!or!an!electronic!tube!or!a! cyclotron!or!a!box!of!matches.!He!cannot!provide!for!his!simplest!physical!needs!without!a!process!of! thought.!1961.!September!02.nscp.!For!man.!but&it&will¬&tell& him&how&to&obtain&his&food&and&it&will¬&tell&him&what&food&is&good&for&him&or& poisonous.!the!basic!means!of!survival!is!reason.!He!needs!a!process!of!thought!to!discover!how!to!plant!and!grow!his!food!or! how!to!make!weapons!for!hunting.!his!knowledge. !but!not!free!to!avoid! the!abyss!he!refuses!to!see.!the!selfYstarter!and!the!driver.”!Man!is!free!to!choose! not!to!be!conscious.!Ayn.!A!being!who!does!not! know!automatically!what!is!true!or!false.!by&his&own&effort.!He!cannot!achieve!his!survival!by! arbitrary!means!nor!by!random!motions!nor!by!blind!urges!nor!by!chance!nor!by! whim.&discovered&and&produced& by!him—by!his!own!choice.!Web.pdf>.!what!is!good!for!him!or!evil."!Ethics!in!Our!Time.!cannot!know!automatically!what!is!right!or! wrong.!with!no!limits! set!to!the!knowledge!he!can!acquire!and!to!the!enjoyment!of!life!he!can!achieve.!but!not!free!to!escape!the!penalty!of!unconsciousness:! destruction.!by!his!own!mind.!1961.!That!which!his!survival!requires!is!set!by!his!nature!and!is!not!open!to!his! choice.!but!it!is!a! machine!without!a!spark!plug.! February!06.!a!machine!of&which!his!own!will&has&to&be&the&spark& plug.&The&potential&is!a!superlative!machine:!his!consciousness.!The&material&is&the&whole&of&the&universe.!he!is!a!specific!organism!of!a!specific!nature! that!requires!specific!actions!to!sustain!his!life.!to!a!living!consciousness.org/uploaded_files/1/files/iaYlabY3Y supplemental.!Man&is&the&only&living&species&that&has&the&power&to&act&as&his&own& destroyer—and&that&is&the&way&he&has&acted&through&most&of&his&history! Champion)Briefs) 304& .!2015.!he!is!free!to! unfocus!his!mind!and!stumble!blindly!down!any!road!he!pleases.!September!02.!He&is& not&exempt&from&the&laws&of&reality.!for!any!conscious!organism.!is!the!means!of! survival.!every!“is”!implies!an!“ought.&but¬&free&to&succeed&with&it.!But& everything&he&needs&or&desires&has&to&be&learned.!He&is&free&to&make&the&wrong& choice.!He!is!free!to!evade!reality.!Knowledge.!Yet!he!needs!that!knowledge!in!order!to!live.!he!has!to!discover!how!to!use!it!and!he!has!to! keep!it!in!constant!action.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Humans&naturally&act&to&deprive&themselves&of&basic& necessities.nscp.!<http://www.& Rand.!"The!Objectivist!Ethics.!whether! he!will!choose!the!right!goals!and!values!or!not.!What!is!open!to!his!choice!is!only!whether!he!will!discover!it!or!not.! Nothing&is&given&to&man&on&earth&except&a&potential&and&the&material&on&which&to& actualize&it. ! When&households&experience&very&low&food&security&in&the&United&States.&food&security&is¬&a&chronic&problem."! United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!experience.umn.& ColemanYJensen.!The!food!security! measurement!methods!used!in!this!report!are!designed!to!register!these!occasional!or! episodic!occurrences.!households.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& In&the&US.!in!how!many!days.!2013.!2015.!whether!they! occurred!during!the!30!days!prior!to!the!survey.S.pdf>.!Alisha.!The&questions&used&to&assess&households’&food&security& status&ask&whether&a&condition.&and&households&can&be&classified&as&having&very&low&food& security&based&on&a&single.!February! 06.!the! resulting!instances!of!reduced&food&intake&and&disrupted&eating&patterns&are& usually&occasional&or!episodic!but!are!not!usually!chronic.!December!09.!<http://ageconsearch.!These! analyses!reveal!that!in!2013:! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 305& .edu/bitstream/183589/2/ERR173.! Analyses!of!additional!information!collected!in!the!food!security!survey!on!how! frequently!various!foodYinsecure!conditions!occurred!during!the!year.!or!behavior!occurred&at&any&time&in& the&past&12&months.!provide! insight!into!the!frequency!and!duration!of!food!insecurity!in!U.!"Household!Food!Security!In!The!United!States!In!2013.!severe!episode&during&the&year.!It&is&important&to&keep& this&aspect&of&the&measure&in&mind&when&interpreting&food&insecurity&statistics.!if!so.!and.!Web. !"The!Food!Stamp!Program!And!Food!Insufficiency.!More!generally.!These!services!provide!short!term!relief!for! households!with!few.!Finally.!these!programs! constitute!an!important!overlooked!component!of!the!food!assistance!safety!net.!December!11.!eligibility!requirements.!Vol.!Craig."!American! Journal!of!Agricultural!Economics.!the!impact!of!other!more!informal!food! assistance!sources!like!soup!kitchens!and!food!banks!is!also!worth!researching!to! assess!their!effects!on!food!insufficiency.jstor.)!Alternative!estimation!procedures!may!lead! to!somewhat!different!findings.! Future!research!should!concentrate!on!lessening!these!sources!of!bias.& Gunderson.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Food&security&programs&are&econometrically&flawed.org/stable/1244700?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents>.&the& possible&overreporting&of&food&insufficiency&by&food&stamp&participants.! This!small&impact&of&food&stamps&on&food&insufficiency&may&still&be&surprising&to& policy&makers.!The!increased! merging!of!administrative!records!with!surveys!may!be!especially!helpful!in! addressing!the!final!source!of!bias.! <http://www.!Web.! February!06.&and&the& underreporting&of&food&stamp&participation&by&food`sufficient&households.!2003.!No.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 306& .!The!small!impact!may!also!be!due!to!the!structure! of!the!probit!model!and!the!small!number!of!households!reporting!food!insufficiency.!food!stamp!and!nonYfood!stamp!households!both!may!turn!to!soup! kitchens!and!food!banks!for!assistance.!at!the!margin.!83.!when!facing!food! insufficiency.!2015.!if!any.!the!lack!of!statistical!significance!of!many!of!the!variables!may!also! be!associated!with!the!small!sample!size.!The!small&impact&could&perhaps&be&due&to!three!sources!of!bias! discussed!in!this!article:!the&existence&of&unobserved&variables&effecting&both&the& decision&to&receive&food&stamps&and&the&propensity&to&receive&food&stamps.! (More!generally.!4.!It!may!be!that. NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& The&top`down&bureaucratic&model&of&government&doesn’t& work&anymore.!No.&an& organization&must&be!lean.&In&the&public§or.! In!this!environment!of!rapid!change.!Vol.!fast!on!its!feet.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 307& .& Osborne.!4.!In!other! words.!responsive!to!its!customers.!People!watched!three!television!networks!and!read!three!news! magazines.&To&be&effective&today.!David.!A!generation!ago!we!were!a! mass!society.! <http://www.!the!old!topYdown&bureaucratic&monopolies& delivering&standardized&services&are¬&effective.pdf?acceptTC=true>.&however.! one!size!still!fits!all."!Public!Productivity!and!Management! Review.! Society&is&being&transformed¬&only&by&technological&changes&but&by&social& changes&as&well.!February!07.!1992.jstor.!Today&we&have& become&used&to&hundreds&and&hundreds&of&choices.!They!looked!at!and!read!and!talked!about!the!same!things.!November!30.!capable&of& adjusting&to&constant&change.!able!to!improve!productivity!continually.!Fiscal!Pressures!and!productive!Solutions:!Proceedings! of!the!Fifth!National!Public!Sector!Productivity!Conference.&it&needs&to&be&entrepreneurial&rather&than&bureaucratic.org/stable/pdfplus/3381012.!"Reinventing!Government.!16.!Choice!is!something!that!must!be!addressed!in!the!public!sector.!Only&27&percent&of&households&in&the&United&States& today&still&fit&the&traditional&definition&of&a&family.!2015.! Web.!Consider!how!rapidly!two`income&families&and&single`parent& families&became&the&pattern. !using!a!maximum!likelihood!model!with!a!fairly!strong! parametric!distributional!assumption!to!control!for!selection!bias.!Gundersen!and! Oliveira!used!data!from!the!1991Y2!Survey!of!Income!and!Program!Participation! (SIPP)!to!estimate!the!effect!of!food!stamps!on!food!insufficiency.!their!statistical! approach!was!crossYsectional.!A&few&studies&have&sought&to& measure&the&FSP's&effect&on&food&insufficiency&or&food&insecurity.!Among&low`income&nonparticipants.!January!01.7%!in!2001!and!10.& Wilde.! The&U."! Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!2003.1%&of&American& households&were&food&insecure&in&2002.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Food&stamp&had&a&negative&impact&on&food&security.!2015.! <intlYaepp.!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data!Approach.!Andrews.!Web.!Food&stamps&were& negatively&associated&with&food&sufficiency&in&least&squares®ression&models.& but&there&was&no&association&in&models&that&sought&to&correct&for&selection&bias.!up!from!10.!While!the!SIPP!is!a!panel!survey.&the&rate&was&28.!which!is!an!older! measure!of!foodYrelated!hardship.!Parke.org/content/27/3/425.1%!in! 1999.!In!their!model.!This!pattern!shows!that!program!benefits!are!targeted!to!a!population! with!an!especially!high!rate!of!food!insecurity.4%.!and!vice!versa.!FSP!participation!may!influence! food!sufficiency.&Department&of&Agriculture&(USDA)&estimated&that&11.7%!(Nord.! and!Carlson).oxfordjournals.!February!09.&the&rate&of&food&insecurity&was& 51.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 308& .!Among&low`income&food&stamp&participants.S.full>. !Of&households& classified&as&food&secure&in&2001.&food&security&status&more&commonly& deteriorated!(20.!Food&security&transitions&were&strongly&related!to&food&stamp& transitions!(table!2).!February! 09.& Conversely.org/content/27/3/425.!food!security!status! less!commonly!deteriorated!(9.9%)!and!more!commonly!improved!(27.!2003.!January!01.full>.!Transitions&into&FSP&participation&were& associated&with&transitions&into&food&insecurity.7%).! To!a!large!degree.!By!contrast.!"The!Effect!Of!Food!Stamps!On!Food!Security:!A!Panel!Data! Approach.!<intlYaepp.& Rosegrant.!only!41%!were!food! secure!in!2002.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& FSP&leads&to&increased&insecurity.4%).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 309& .oxfordjournals.!almost&90%&of&households& which&received&food&stamps&in&neither&year&were&food&secure&in&both&years."!Review!of!Agricultural!Economics.!For&households&that&entered& FSP&participation&between&2001&and&2002.&only&43%&of&households&which&received&food&stamps&in&both&years& were&food&secure&in&both&years.!Web.!By!contrast.!As!one!might!expect!from!the!positive!crossYsectional! association!between!food!stamps!and!food!insecurity.!2015.!food!security!status!was!persistent!(table!1).&95%&were&food&secure&in&2002.!for! households!that!exited!FSP!participation!between!2001!and!2002.9%)!and&less&commonly&improved!(14.!Mark!R.!of! households!classified!as!food!insecure!with!hunger!in!2001. wiley.!we&interpret&residential& stability&as&a&proxy&for&social&connectedness&among&community&members.! Because!the!model!controls!for!employment!and!income!at!the!household!level.20214/asset/20214_ftp.!Judi.!February!09.! <http://onlinelibrary.!Web.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Residential&stability&is&a&greater&indicator&of&security&than& poverty.!a&higher&share&of&residents&with&a&bachelor's°ree&is&associated& with&a&greater&risk&of&food&insecurity.!January! 08.!The&poverty&rate&has&no&link&to&household&food&security.1002/pam.!Finally.!greater&residential&stability&in&the& state&is&linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity.!rather!than!as!proxies!for!current!household! circumstances."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.!No.!25.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.!2015.com/store/10.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!Contrary! to!expectations.!4.& Bartfeld.!we! interpret!these!variables!as!indicators!of!the!availability!and!quality!of!job! opportunities!households!have!faced!over!the!past!12!months.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 310& .!as!well!as!of!the!overall! economic!strength!of!the!state.!Vol.&which& may&be&linked&to&greater&access&to&information&about&community&resources& and/or&to&increased&availability&of&support&from&others&in&the&community.!2006.!As!noted. &near`poor.&First.&we&find&no&evidence&that&summer&meal& programs&have&a&differential&impact&on&food&security&for&poor.&we&find&that&state`level&Summer&School&Lunch& participation&(though!not!Summer!Food!Service!program!participation)!is&also& linked&to&lower&odds&of&food&insecurity&among&childless&households."!Journal!of!Policy!Analysis!and!Management.! ! Champion)Briefs) 311& .20214/asset/20214_ftp.!a!more!theoretically!sound!pattern.!February!09.& Bartfeld.!4.!"StateYLevel!Predictors!Of!Food!Insecurity!Among!Households!With! Children.&two&aspects&of&our& findings&suggest&caution.!Second.! <http://onlinelibrary.1002/pam.!No.!While&we&find&statistically& significant&coefficients&on&both&summer&meal&variables.!Web.!suggesting!that!the!former!may!be!proxying!for! other!unmeasured!state!attributes.! This!differs!from!our!findings!for!stateYlevel!Food!Stamp!participation!and!for!the!lowY income!tax!burden.!Vol.p df?v=1&t=i5ypcrr7&s=677f29152fdb60be531699c308dcf287e4df68d3>.!where!the!only!significant!relationships!to!food!security!are! among!nearYpoor!and!lowYincome!households.& Further&analysis&of&the&relationship&between&summer&meal&programs&and&food& insecurity&is&essential&to&understanding&the&potential&benefits&of&such&programs.wiley.&the&households&for&which&such&programs&are&most&relevant.!Judi.!2015.&a&result& with&no&theoretical&justification.!25.&or&low` income&households.!2006.NEG:&Anti`Government&Intervention&NC& March/April&2015& Bartfeld&and&Dunifon&admits&their&results&are&incomplete.com/store/10.!January! 08.! We!note!that!readers!should!exercise!caution!in!their!interpretation!of!the!apparent! relationship!between!summer!meals!and!food!security. !adding&just&one& 3`ounce&serving&of!unprocessed!red&meat!YY!picture!a!piece!of!steak!no!bigger!than!a! deck!of!cards!YY!to&one's&daily&diet&was&associated&with&a&13%&greater&chance&of& dying&during!the!course!of!the!study.!lowYfat! dairy!or!legumes.!published!online!Monday!in!the!Archives!of!Internal! Medicine.!Crunching!data&from!thousands!of!questionnaires!that!asked&people&how& frequently&they&ate&a&variety&of&foods.!Web.!"Any!red!meat!you!eat!contributes!to!the!risk."! said!An!Pan.!and!fish.!The!Harvard! researchers!hypothesized!that!eating!red!meat!would!also!be!linked!to!an!overall!risk! of!death!from!any!cause.!the!researchers!also!discovered!that! replacing!red!meat!with!other!foods!seemed!to!reduce!mortality!risk!for!study! participants.!according&to!a!longYrange!study&that&examined!the!eating&habits&and&health& of!more!than!110.!the!nitrates!used!to!preserve! them.!2015.! <http://articles.com/2012/mar/13/health/laYheYredYmeatY 20120313>.!The!team!said!choosing!poultry&or&whole& grains!as!a!substitute!was&linked&with&a&14%&reduction&in&mortality&risk.!a!postdoctoral!fellow!at!the!Harvard!School!of!Public!Health!in!Boston! and!lead!author!of!the!study.!and!the!chemicals!created!by!highYtemperature!cooking.!Previous!studies!had!associated!red!meat! consumption!with!diabetes.!2012.!Eryn.!And!the!results!suggest!they!were!right:!Among&the& Champion)Briefs) 312& .!was&linked&to&a&20%& higher&risk&of&death!during!the!study.!all!of!which!can!be!fatal.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Feeding&people&beef&just&makes&them&more&likely&to&die.!heart!disease!and!cancer.!February!05.000&adults&for&more&than&20&years.!such!as!a!hot!dog!or!two!slices!of!bacon.latimes.!7%.!Eating!a!serving!of!nuts&instead&of&beef!or!pork!was&associated&with&a& 19%&lower&risk&of&dying&during!the!study.!Pan!said.!"All!Red!Meat!Is!Risky.! Any!amount!and!any!type!YY!appears!to!significantly!increase!the!risk!of!premature! death.! Scientists!aren't!sure!exactly!what!makes!red!meat!so!dangerous.!10%.!August! 03.!Even!worse.!A!Study!Finds.!adding!an!extra!daily!serving! of!processed&red&meat."!The!Los!Angeles!Times.!For!instance.!pork!and!lamb.!but!the!suspects! include!the!iron!and!saturated!fat!in!beef.& Brown. !February!06.!!Taking! Months!!“We&haven’t&seen&any&signs&yet”&of&recovery&in&U.S.”!said!Wendy!Voss.! <http://www.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aaJBmKr4Ywp8! >.!!“We!saw!record!increases!in! market!share!last!year!for!both!pork!and!beef.!!Slower`than`forecast&exports&may&curb&cattle&prices&in&Chicago&and&erode& earnings&of&producers&such&as&Tyson&Foods&Inc.7!percent!decline.S.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& 37.!Tokyo!time.!it!will! be!more!difficult!to!get!to!that!7!percent!growth.!2015.!beef!exports.S.!said!yesterday!in!an!interview!in! Tokyo.S.! Beef&exports&from&the&U.S.”!Mark!Jagels.S.&so&did&mortality&risk.!U.&particularly&the&prime& cuts.! feedlot!managers!slashed!purchases!of!young!cattle!by!12!percent!last!month.&the&world’s&largest&producer.! according!to!a!Bloomberg!News!survey.!2012.!may!climb!to!1!million!metric!tons!this! Champion)Briefs) 313& .!Ava.698&men&and&83.!Web.644&women&who&were&tracked.&! Beef&consumption&and&production&is&shrinking.&as&meat&consumption& increased.bloomberg.!Meat!Export!Federation.!!Cattle!futures!traded!at!82.!"U.!but!with!recession!in!place!now.!Prices!slumped!to!the! lowest!since!June!2006!on!March!30!and!lost!21!percent!in!the!past!year."!Bloomberg! News.&may&miss&a&7&percent& growth&forecast&made&by&an&industry&group&for&this&year&as&the&global&recession& spurs&consumers&to&cut&spending&on&expensive&foods.&as&the&recession!saps&export&and& domestic&demand.&problem&as&all&markets& have&experienced&a&reduction&in&demand&for&beef.!a!MelbourneYbased!senior!analyst!at!food!and!agribusiness! banking!specialist!Rabobank!Groep!NV.& Takada.!executive!committee! member!of!the!U.!“It!will!take!more!months.!Terri!Carstensen!at!the!Iowa!Beef!Industry!Council!said!yesterday!in! the!same!interview!in!Tokyo.!!“It’s¬&just&a&U.”!!The!federation!forecast!on! March!5!that!U.!August!03.&beef& consumption.!including!offal.!The!World!Bank!said!this!week!the!global!economy!will!contract! 2..S.9!percent!this!year!compared!with!a!previous!forecast!for!a!1.!May!Miss!Beef!Export!Target!On!Global!Recession.m.525!cents!a!pound! on!the!Chicago!Mercantile!Exchange!at!5:33!p. !rose!29! percent!to!14.S.!!U.!and!maybe!an!election!in!Japan!in!August.S.S.!he!said.!!An!agreement!on!easing!the!limit!would!be!delayed!because!of!“some!issues! with!the!new!administration!in!the!U.S.!without!providing!further!details.!based!in!Springdale.S.S.!Jagels!said.815!tons.!Forestry!and!Fisheries.!!U.! Wheat!Associates!Inc.!!Tyson!Foods.! Changing!the!age!limit!to!30!months!would!be!“very!beneficial”!as!almost!90!percent! of!U.”!she!said!! Champion)Briefs) 314& .!beef!before!banning!the!product!in!December!2003.S.S.!because!of! a!discovery!of!bovine!spongiform!encephalopathy.!representing!9.!up!8.!supplies!more!affordable!to!foreign! buyers.!!Japan!Imports!!Japan!imported!150.!10!when!he!will!dissolve!the!lower!house!of!parliament!and! call!elections.!Shipments!from!Australia.!Rabobank’s!Voss!said.709!tons!of!beef!in!the!four! months!ended!April!30.!said!May!4!its!net!loss!widened!to! $104!million!in!its!fiscal!second!quarter!as!sales!of!beef!declined!11!percent.!the!biggest!supplier!to!Japan.!beef!sales!to!Japan!would!increase!if!the!Asian!country!eased!a! rule!that!restricts!imports!to!meat!from!cattle!aged!20Ymonths!or!younger.!cattle!slaughtered!for!beef!are!under!that!age.”!he!said.!!U.!!Mexico!and!Canada!were!the!largest!export!markets!for!U.!!“Our!perception!is!that!it!will!go!into! next!year!before!anything!will!be!worked!out.!President!Alan!Tracy!said!June!15!that!world!wheat! consumption!may!rise!as!some!consumers!shift!from!meat!to!cereals!amid!the! economic!slowdown.9!percent!from!138.”! Jagels!said.!!Japan!was!the!largest! export!market!for!U.!!“They&thought&they’d&grab& back&market&share&quickly&and&that&isn’t&happening.!The!government!replaced!the!ban!in!2005!with!the!age!restriction! to!exclude!meat!from!older!cattle!that!it!said!were!at!greater!risk!of!the!brainYwasting! disease.!in! Washington!state.4!percent! to!119.&beef&shipments&to&South&Korea&had&fallen&short&of&“some& expectations”&after&a&ban&on&imports&of&the&product&imposed&because&of&BSE& concerns&was&lifted&last&year.S.!Japan’s!Prime!Minister!Taro! Aso!must!decide!by!Sept.362!tons!a!year!earlier.!gained!6.!beef!last!year.!known!as!mad!cow!disease.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& year!as!consumers!in!Japan!and!South!Korea!seek!cheaper!alternatives!to!domestic! meat!and!as!the!dollar’s!drop!could!make!U.484!tons!in!the!period.!Imports!from!the!U.! Jagels!declined!to!say!which!markets!were!performing!below!expectations!so!far!this! year.6!percent!of!total!Japanese! purchase.!Arkansas.!according!to! the!Ministry!of!Agriculture. !the!all!fresh!domestic!retail!beef!demand!index!increased! from!a!low!of!76!to!a!peak!of!92.&The&long`run&decline&in&retail& beef&demand&contributed&to&a&reduction&in&cattle&industry&size.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 315& .!2009.pdf>.&domestic&retail&beef&demand&weakened&and& subsequently&declined&every&year&through&1998.!domestic!beef!demand!began!to!strengthen.S.! <http://www.&Before&the&late!1970s.!particularly!in! relation!to!competing!meat!sectors!such!as!poultry!and!pork.!Beef!Demand!Drivers!And!Enhancement!Opportunities:!A! Research!Summary.& Mintert.&growth!in!the!U.&starting&about&1980.&the&beef&industry&increased&in& size.! Web.&In& response&to&growing&product&demand.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Higher&demand&will&greatly&increase&production&of&beef.! Large&shifts&in&domestic&beef&demand&have&had&substantial&impacts&on&the&beef& industry.!before!weakening!again!from!2005!through!2008.!"U.!In!1999.info/livestock/marketing/bulletins_2/industry/dema nd/Beef_Demand_Drivers_January_2009.!From!the! late!1990s!through!2004.!James.!following!nearly! 20!consecutive!years!of!decline."!Department!of!Agricultural!Economics.!February!06.!economy!and!rising&consumer& incomes&contributed&to&beef&demand&increasing&for&a&sustained&period.S.!2015.&However.!January!01.agmanager. !reported!FAO.!the!UN’s!Food!and! Agriculture!Organization!(FAO)!presented!Livestock’s!Long!Shadow.!Web.!2015.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Increased&meat&production&causes&global&warming.!Jens.!conspicuous! in!its!absence!from!the!debate:!the&food&industry.!such!as!heavy!industry!and!the!transportation!sector.!What!we!eat!accounts!for! approximately!a!third!of!the!average!Swedish!family’s!impact!on!climate.! Climate&change&is!developing!into!the!greatest&threat&ever&to&our&world’s& survival.!That&is&in&fact&a& greater&impact&than&that&of&all&of&the&world’s&land&transportation.&for&example.!and!other!grains!for!biofuel!production.europa.!while!in!Brussels!giving!its!support!for!increases!in! the!same.!The&meat&industry&and&livestock&raising& contribute&18%&of&the&total&emissions&of&greenhouse&gases.!and!the!roll!the!EU!plays!in!it.!Without!claiming!to!have!all!the!answers.!a!400!page!report! on!livestock!raising!and!climate!change.!There!is!a!relatively!high!awareness!of!and!preparedness!for!some!of!the! worst!emissions.!gives!the!impression!of!working!to!abolish!the!hated! export!refund!for!meat!products.! This!report!investigates!the!impact!of!the!continually!increasing!consumption!of!meat! on!climate!change.! January!05.!on!its!home!turf.!2007.!we!nevertheless!offer!our!views!in! a!discussion!that.!We!also!divulge!how!the!Swedish! government.!Last!autumn.!"The!Livestock!Industry!And!Climate!Change.!remarkably!enough.!But!one&of&the& most&damaging&contributors&to&climate&change&is.Certain&kinds&of&food&cause&many×& more&damage&than&others:&meat.! And!that!brings!us!right!back!to!meat!production.!corn.& Holm.!Is!that!rational?!Why!not!produce!less!meat!and!raise!fewer!animals! Champion)Briefs) 316& .!February!06.!Over!a!third!of!all!grain!harvested! becomes!fodder.!The!figures! for!the!rest!of!Europe!are!about!the!same.pd f!>.!is!one!of!the!most!important! questions!for!our!future:!What!are!we!going!to!do!with!the!world’s!grain!and!what!is! the!optimal!way!to!use!the!world’s!farmland?!Climate!change!is!expected!to!bring! about!an!enormous!demand!for!wheat."!Animal!Rights!Sweden.! <http://ec.eu/budget/reform/library/focus/meat_climate_report_en.!along!with!the!greenhouse!effect. !Today’s! wasteful!meat!production!doesn’t!bear!its!own!environmental!costs.!“People!need!to! understand!that!what!we!eat!is!an!important!environmental!issue.!Let!us.”!Exactly.! build!the!foundation!of!an!environmentally!friendly!and!sustainable!food! consumption.!let!meat!bear!its!own! environmental!costs!and!work!to!make!modern!vegetarian!food!cheaper.!It!is!just!as! the!researcher!Annika!CarlssonYKanyama!says!in!the!report.!at&the& dinner&table! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 317& .NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& on!food!crops.!thereby!freeing!grain!for!feeding!more!people!and!even!have!a!surplus! for!biofuel?!We!conclude!this!report!with!some!concrete!demands!that!can!be!pursued! on!both!the!EU!and!national!levels:!Abolish!meat!subsidies.!therefore.The&struggle&against&climate&change&begins&here!and!now. !January!05.!is!examining!if! adding!garlic!to!cow!feed!can!reduce!their!methane!production.!regurgitate!it!as!cud!and!eat!it!again.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Cattle&produces&harmful&methane&which&contributes&to& climate&change.!In&New&Zealand.!In! any!case.! but!early!results!indicate!that!garlic!cuts!cow!flatulence!in!half!by!attacking!methaneY producing!microbes!living!in!cows'!stomachs![Source:!BBC!News].!With!millions!of!ruminants!in!Britain.!To!understand!why!cows!produce!methane.!where!cattle!and! sheep!farming!are!major!industries.! Cows&emit&a&massive&amount&of&methane&through&belching.!Ruminants!have&four&stomachs&and&digest&their& food&in&their&stomachs&instead&of&in&their&intestines.!while!others&say&it's&up&to&500&liters&(about!132!gallons)!a!day.!Jacob.!A!threeYyear!study.!goats.!2015.!The!study!is!ongoing.!Cows&contribute&3&percent&of&Britain's&overall&greenhouse&gas& emissions!and!25!to!30!percent!of!its!methane.!Statistics!vary!regarding!how!much!methane!the!average!dairy! cow!expels.!February!07.!34&percent&of&greenhouse&gases&come&from& livestock.!Ruminants!eat! food.!that's!a!lot!of!methane.!"Do!Cows!Pollute!As!Much!As!Cars?.!but!also!produce&methane.!it's!important!to!know!a! bit!more!about!how!they!work.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 318& .!begun!in!April!2007!by!Welsh!scientists.htm>.!as!humans!do.!The!researchers!are! also!looking!to!see!if!the!addition!of!garlic!affects!the!quality!of!the!meat!or!milk! produced!and!even!if!the!animals!get!bad!breath.! 2007.& Silverman.! including!10!million!cows."!HowStuffWorks.howstuffworks.!sheep!and!several!other!animals!belong!to! a!class!of!animals!called!ruminants.!Cows.!a!strong!push!is!underway!to!curb!methane!emissions! there.!Web.com/mammals/methaneYcow.!with!a!lesser!amount! through!flatulence.! <http://animals.!Some&experts&say&100&liters&to&200&liters&a&day&(or!about!26!gallons!to! about!53!gallons).!The&stomachs&are!filled!with!bacteria!that! aid!in!digestion.!an!amount!comparable&to&the&pollution&produced& by&a&car&in&a&day. NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Beef&consumption&is&at&an&all&time&low."!Farm! Progress.!January!05.com/blogsYbeefYconsumptionYmayYhitYrecordYdeclinesY yearY8402>.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 319& .& Newport.!2015.! When!we!consider!pounds!of!consumption!per!person!instead!of!percentages.! <http://beefproducer.!Private!economistYconsultant!Bill!Helming!says!this!has! been!a!40!decline!over!38!years!from!1976!to!2013.!Beef&consumption&per&person&decreased&37.!the! numbers!seem!even!more!revealing.! •!Even&more&so&the&US&is&posting&a&long.!which!is!a!gain!of!more!than!two!percentage!points!per!year.9& pounds&and&chicken&consumption&per&person&increased&41.!or!just!over!one!percentage!point! loss!per!year.!February!07.! The!real!trends!and!the!ones!that!concern!me!are!twofold:!•!Consumers!overall!are! moving!beef!purchasing!away!from!wholeYmuscle!cuts!and!toward!ground!beef.!This!is! almost!a!poundYforYpound!tradeoff!as!consumers!have!fled!higherYpriced!beef!and! migrated!to!the!chicken!section!of!the!meat!case!for!their!protein!shopping.&almost&uninterrupted&decline&in&per& capita&beef&consumption.!2007.!Web.!chicken!consumption!per!person!increased!99!over!that! same!38Yyear!period.!By!comparison.6£s.!"“Beef!Consumption!May!Hit!Record!Declines!This!Year”.!Alan. !2015.!Beef!demand! is!not!beef’s!relative!share!of!total!meat!consumption.!a!meat!demand!system!was!estimated! using!quarterly!time!series!data!over!the!1982!to!1998!period.!Per!capita! consumption!is!beef!production!(net!of!changes!in!cold!storage.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Increased&access&to&food&causes&increase&in&beef& consumption.!James.!Beef!demand!is!not!per!capita!beef!consumption.!food!safety!problems.!and!exports)! divided!by!population.!The!system!included! factors!accounting!for!prices!of!competing!meats!and!total!consumer!expenditures.!This!share!concept! simply!reflects!production!of!beef!relative!to!production!of!competing!meats!and!does! not!include!information!regarding!prices.!Since!many!beef!demand!determinants.!Finally.!it!is!useful!to!stipulate! what!beef!demand!is!not.!The!impacts!of!individual!demand!determinants!on!beef!demand!were! calculated!each!year!from!1992!through!1998.&even&if&beef& demand&remains&unchanged.& Mintert.!Model!results!indicate!beef!demand!is! inelastic!with!respect!to!beef!price!and!that!pork!and!poultry!are!weak!substitutes!for! Champion)Briefs) 320& .!but! changes!in!the!share!of!consumer!income!spent!on!beef!do!not!provide!a!measure!of! whether!beef!demand!is!increasing!or!decreasing&since&changes&in&income&alone&can& cause&changes&in&the&share&of&consumer&income&spent&on&beef.!Web.! changing!consumer!demographics.! Because!there!is!considerable!confusion !surrounding!demand.!"Focus!On!Beef!Demand.!As!a!result.info/livestock/marketing/bulletins_2/todays_market /Focusonbeefdemand.!change!at!the!same!time.!imports.!as!well!as!beef! production.! February!07.!health!information.!January!05.!2007.! and!seasonality.!Consumer!income!level!affects!beef!demand.!it!is!impossible!to!accurately!assign!relative! demand!shifts!to!individual!demand!determinants!through!casual!observation!of! trends!and!beef!demand!shifts.!Observing!per!capita!consumption!over!time!without! consideration!of!price!provides!little!information!regarding!beef!demand.!beef!demand!is!not!the!share!of! consumer!income!spent!on!beef."!AgManager.agmanager.pdf>.! <http://www. S.!Consumer!willingness!to!spend!a!larger! proportion!of!total!income!has!been!an!important!source!of!economic!growth!for!the! U.!beef!expenditures!represent!a!progressively!smaller!proportion!of! total!consumer!expenditures.! Moreover.!on!average.!consumer!willingness!to!spend!income! increases.&Changes&in&total&per&capita&expenditures&occur& when&personaldisposable&income&increases.!or!a!combination!of!the!two.!taken!together!with!findings!from!other!consumer!research! indicates!many!consumers!are!willing!to!pay!for!a!high!quality!product!(i.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 321& .!As!a!result.!or!if&disposable& income&declines.!quantity!demanded!will!be!less!responsive!to!price!changes)!in!the! future.&it&will&have&a&negative&impact&on&beef&demand.!For!example.!Over!1982!to!1998.!beef!quantity!demanded!declined!0.!however.! Demand!model!results!indicate!beef!demand!increases!0.!given!a!1!percent!increase!in!retail!pork!and!poultry!prices.!This!implies!beef!demand!will!become!even!more! inelastic!(i.!price!is! less!of!an!issue!if!quality!is!high).!consideration!should!be!given!to!devoting! resources!to!research!focusing!on!quality(especially!tenderness)!measurement.!per!capita! beef!consumption!was!not!highly!responsive!to!changes!in!pork!and!poultry!prices.! These!elasticity!estimates!indicate!relative!prices!matter.!economy!in!recent!years.!Responses!to!competing!meat!price!changes! were!much!smaller!as!beef!quantity!demanded!increased!0.!consumer!expenditures!rose!from!less!than! 90!percent!of!disposable!income!in!the!early!1980s!to!near!98!percent!by!1999.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& beef.e.!This!means!beef!demand!was!a! major!beneficiary!of!increasing!consumer!expenditures.e.02! percent..!This!result.90!percent!for!a!1!percent! increase!in!total!per!capita!expenditures.04!percent!and!0.!Beef&demand&was&highly&responsive&to&changes&in&total&per& capita&expenditures&on&all&goods.! Making!it!easier!for!consumers!to!select!the!quality!product!they!desire!will!encourage! consumers!to!buy!beef..61!percent! given!a!1!percent!increase!in!beef!price.!respectively.!but !if!consumers!choose!to! increase!savings!in!the!future!(in!lieu!of!consumption). "!Time!Magazine.NEG:&Beef&DA& & March/April&2015& Beef&consumption&ensures&global&hunger.& Nash.!Web.! ! Champion)Briefs) 322& .! 2015.& "It's& about& the& maldistribution& of& resources.& "Hunger& isn't& about& actual& scarcity.975344.9171.& a& researcher& for& San& Francisco`based& Food& First.00.& for& instance.& Indirectly.com/time/magazine/article/0.html>.! Grain& fed& to& cattle& could& feed& the& hungry.& a& growing& cattle& population& threatens& humans& on& the& low& end& of& the& economic& scale&with&hunger.& then.& farmland& that& formerly& grew& staples& for& human& consumption& is& being& switched& to& grow& grain& for& beef& that& only& the& wealthy& can& afford."& declares& Stephanie& Rosenfeld."&The& link& is& often& very& subtle:& in& countries& like& Egypt& and& Mexico.! <http://content.time.&but&quite&often&the&reasons&have&to&do&with&beef.!January!05.!"The!Beef!Against.!2007.!JM.& People& are& hungry& for& different& reasons&at&different×.!February!07. & Essex.!February!03.!Examining&food& security&as&a&facet&and&expression&of&social&reproduction&undergoing&intensive& rescaling&highlights&the&contradictory&impacts&of&neoliberal&geopolitics&on&daily& life.”&Again.& particularly&tothe&extent&that&the&state&becomes&a&market&facilitator&rather&than& a&guarantor&of&social&welfare."! Human!Geography.&and&communities&to&exercise&social&entitlements&that&should& produce&food&security.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&politics&are&really&a&means&of&neoliberal& developmentalism&to&scale&and&reproduce&capitalist& relations.&As&a&primary&component&of&social&reproduction.&and&thus&on&the&experience&of&space&and&scale.&“[i]n&a&world&of&multiple.&and&people’s&abilities&to& shape&these.com/index.! <http://www.&there&by&challenging&the&ability&of&individuals.!January!05.&divergent&claims&about&scales&…&those&global& worlds&that&most&affect&us&are&those&that&manage&tentatively&productive&linkages& with&other&scale`making&projects.&food& security&is&also&a&means&throughwhich&scale&is&produced&both&discursively&and& materially.In&terms&of&scale.& households.&Thus&the&geographical&imagination&that&identifies&food&insecurity&as& a&linchpin&of&geopolitical&insecurity&forms&a&key&aspect&of&constituting&and& reinforcing&processes&of&neoliberalization&and&militarization.!2015.hugeog.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.&As&Tsing(2005:58)&argues&in&examining&the&contradictions&of& universalist&claims&underpinning&contemporary&imperial&and&neoliberal& practices.&food&security&comprises¬&just&an& objective&of&developmentalisms&of&all&stripes.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.&but&also&a&contentious&object&in& Champion)Briefs) 323& .!Jamey.!Web.!2007.! Regionalizing!food!policy.&the&political&and&economic& commitments&of&neoliberalization&reshape&the&strategic&and&policymaking& environment&through&which&food&security&networks&and&institutions&operate. !2005a:4).&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex.!2015.!even!in!the!US.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& constituting&and&challenging&the&production&of&scale&through&neoliberal& geopolitics.!Within&this&new&imaginary.&and&insecurity.&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate& management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable& populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID.! <http://www.&The&US&Agency&for& International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms& of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID.!Jamey.! Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the& ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy& for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling& populations.hugeog.! While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested.!2008).!2007.!2005b:19Y23).!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.!January!05.!Web.&food& security&is&a&product&of&good&governance.& Essex.!in!press).&danger.This&raises& Champion)Briefs) 324& ."! Human!Geography.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.! it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding! institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both! neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.!conversely.&and& deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of& foreign&aid!(Essex.!February!03.&food&security&becomes&a& proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.&especially&“fragile&states.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development& and&developing&states.”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how& the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has& produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal& conceptualizations&of&risk.com/index.&The&institutionalization&of& this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade& and&narrow. &and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.!During!theCold! War.&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to& improve&food&security&through&foodaid.! 1985).!b.&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in& developing&states.! 1993).!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key& to&expanding&agro`foodexports.&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities.!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant& “administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee.&also&take&into&account&their&international&and& multilateral&context&and&determinants.&national.!b.&who&often& cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’& parochial&interests.!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end.&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs& Champion)Briefs) 325& .&US&food&aid&often&failed&to& alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it& deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins.!and!reforming!USAID.!Garst!and!Barry.&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the& global&food&system.&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories& of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs.!c).!Shepherd.A&full& analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security.& and&militarism&must.&Institutions&operating&at&local.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under& conditions&of&neoliberalization.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid.2000.&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest& donor.!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist.!2007a.&neoliberalization.&even&those&that&were¬&food&insecure(Kodras.reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis.& and&international&scales.&its& programs&have&received&the&most&attention.!The!US!government!itself! has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a.!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the! problems!of!food!aid.!1990.!2005:13).&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid& policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can& worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters.!divided!across!six! programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of! Agriculture).&however.&are& important&food&policy&actors.!though! proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal! management.2002.&Most& food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies.&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.&and&how&this&differs&from& past&approaches&Historically.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid. !! Champion)Briefs) 326& .&The&ideological&and& material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security.&provide&the& necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and& neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.&especially&those& that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.&including&its&ability&to&construct&and& steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs. !Crucially.!2007.!Indonesian!state!building."! Human!Geography.! Yet&even&amid&the&extension&of&militarism.!the!basis!of!what!is!understood!as! “oppositional”!has!broadened!to!include!places!and!populations!that!are!outside! Champion)Briefs) 327& .!January!05.&lest&it&undermine&the&bedrock&of&neoliberalism&–&the&faith&that&free&markets& are&the&ultimate&arbiters&of&social&good.& Essex.!February!03.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is&used&by&wealthier&states&as&a&means&of& playing&state&building&with&“weaker&nations”&in&order&to& control&and&condition&local&population&breeding& militarism&and&coopting&them&into&the&neoliberal&system& that&ultimately&exploits&them.! <http://www.hugeog.&Food`for`work&programs&in&Jakarta&and&the& militarized&delivery&of&aid&in&Aceh&offer&instructive&cases&because&they&exhibit& the&contradictory&but&effective&disciplining&of&the&food&insecure&–&populations& that&are&unable&or&unwilling&to&fully&and&adequately&participate&in& neoliberalization&on&its&own&terms&–&through&the&neoliberalization&of&food&aid.&and&to&which&the&US&must&provide&a&shrewd&strategic&answer& made&up&of&equal&measures&“soft”&and&“hard”&power.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.com/index.!and! internationalizing!capitalism!operate.& food&insecurity&comprises&a&fundamental&part&of&the&underdevelopment&that& “breeds”&terrorism.&Thus&part&of&this&scale`making&project&is& the&identification&of&food&insecure&populations&and&their&placement&in&relation& to&the&scales&at&which&US&militarism.!however.&violent&force&must&have&a&selective&and&legitimate&basis&for& use.&Thus&a&militarized&response& to&oppositional&projects&and&forces&is&warranted&to&accompany&and&enforce&the& neoliberal&economic&project.!2015.!Web.&In& the&context&of&post`9/11&neoliberal&geopolitics&and&the&global&war&on&terror.&as&both&cause&and&effect&of& neoliberalization.!Jamey.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia. &These& programs&rely&on&the&repressive&state&apparatus!(i.!Orzeck.&especially&those&concerned&with& development.&as&Friedman&(1999)&so&crassly&puts&it.!1998.&as&potential&sites&of&both&accumulation&and& revolt(Harvey.&demanding&and&deserving&discipline&through& the&market’s&invisible&hand&and.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& neoliberalization!due!to!choice!or!structure!(though!these!are!often!intertwined!in! complex!fashion).!with!particular!attention!to!food!policy!in!Indonesia.!the!US!and!Indonesian! militaries)&working&with&state&institutions.&and& so&the&enhancement&of&food&security&through&militarized&food&aid&programs& becomes&part&and&parcel&of&the&scale`making&project&of&neoliberalization.e.!2007).&and&indeed&produced.Those&who&pose&a&risk&must&have&aid&forcibly&administered.&internationalizing&capital.!The!next!section!briefly!discusses!these!working! relationships!as!they!have!taken!shape!in!the!subYimperial!relationship!between!the! US!and!Indonesia.&the& military’s&invisible&fist.!This!is! followed!by!a!closer!examination!of!the!Jakarta!and!Aceh!case!studies! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 328& .&The&bodies&of&the&hungry&are& marked..&and&the&developmentalist&and& humanitarian&wing&of&international&civil&society. !"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.!Within&this&new&imaginary.& Essex.!2008).!in!press).&danger.”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how& the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has& produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal& conceptualizations&of&risk.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development& and&developing&states.!February!03.! <http://www.!even!in!the!US.! While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested."! Human!Geography.This&raises& questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under& Champion)Briefs) 329& .!Jamey.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.&and&insecurity.!2007.com/index.&food&security&becomes&a& proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.hugeog.&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex.! it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding! institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both! neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&harming&the& ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary&proxy& for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling& populations.!2005a:4).&and& deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of& foreign&aid!(Essex.&food& security&is&a&product&of&good&governance.!2005b:19Y23).!2015.&especially&“fragile&states.&The&institutionalization&of& this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade& and&narrow.&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate& management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable& populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID.&The&US&Agency&for& International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms& of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID.!Web.!conversely.!January!05. &even&those&that&were¬&food&insecure(Kodras.2002.! 1993).2000.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid.& and&militarism&must.!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key& to&expanding&agro`foodexports.!The!US!government!itself! has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a.&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the& global&food&system.!2007a.!2005:13).!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end.!During!theCold! War.&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs& Champion)Briefs) 330& .&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.&neoliberalization.&Most& food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& conditions&of&neoliberalization.&its& programs&have&received&the&most&attention.& and&international&scales.&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid& policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can& worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters.!Garst!and!Barry.&national.!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant& “administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee.A&full& analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security.&are& important&food&policy&actors.!Shepherd.!divided!across!six! programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of! Agriculture).!though! proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal! management.&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in& developing&states.!b.!1990.!c).&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities.&who&often& cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’& parochial&interests.&Institutions&operating&at&local.&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories& of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs.&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to& improve&food&security&through&foodaid.!b.!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the! problems!of!food!aid.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid.!and!reforming!USAID.&however.! 1985).reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis.&and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist.&US&food&aid&often&failed&to& alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it& deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins.&and&how&this&differs&from& past&approaches&Historically.&also&take&into&account&their&international&and& multilateral&context&and&determinants.&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest& donor. &including&its&ability&to&construct&and& steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs.&provide&the& necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and& neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.&especially&those& that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 331& .&The&ideological&and& material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security. !Jamey.&and&a&polarization&of& Champion)Briefs) 332& .!2004.!corruption.&given&the&importance&of&US& food&and&other&aid&to&Indonesia.!and!USAID’s!2004Y08strategic!plan! for!Indonesia!underscored!the!necessity!of!decentralization!for!improving!democracy! and!basic!education!and!human!services!(USAID.& Essex.!the!Bureau!of!Logistics)!as&a&principal&component& of&Indonesia’s&neoliberalization.&In&scalar&terms.!Much!postYcrisis!US!development! aid!in!Indonesia!has!focused!on!decentralization.!January!05.!Web.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.!2007.&This&has&opened&food&security&and&social&reproduction&in! Indonesia!to&the&forces&of&international&finance&and&reinvigorated&imperial& ambitions.!and&the&influx&of& internationalizing&capital&and&market&relations&associated&with&economic& liberalization.!and!nepotism!that!dominates!economic!and!political!decision! making!in!Indonesia!(Vickers."! Human!Geography.hugeog.!2006b).php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.2005:205).&however.&food&security!in!Indonesia!should&be& understood&in&the&context&of&the&rescaling&of&governance.&as&the&maintenance&of&sub` imperialism&has&meant&strengthening&the&repressive&state&apparatus&in&response& to&localizedðnic&insurgencies&and&Islamist&groups.! Food&policy&plays&a¢ral&role&in&this&articulation.! <http://www.com/index.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is&tied&to&the&spread&of&imperialism&and& neoliberal&markets&systems&that&harm&anyone&outside&of& the&market&nexus:.&the&restructuring&of&the&state&food&monopoly& BULOG!(!Badan!Urusan!Logistik!!.&and&the&general¢rality&of&food&security&for& social&reproduction.!2015.!see!also!USAID.!February!03.&which&has&emphasized& decentralization!following!the!collapse!of!Suharto’s!New!Order.!and!is!seen!in!development!efforts!to!build! local!political!and!economic!capacities!and!rights.&expressed&as&a&contradictory&combination&of¢ralizing&and& decentralizing&processes.!The!latter!is!emphasized!as!a!response!to!the!culture!of! collusion.&New& forms&of¢ralization&have&also&occurred. !long!the!state! organ!responsible!for&ensuring&food&security&in&Indonesia&through&manipulation& of&food&prices&and&direct&control&over&food&imports&and&distribution.!The!restructuring!of!BULOG.!and!that! even!though!polarized!income!distribution!may!complicate!the!situation.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& economic&power&associated&with&capitalist&internationalization.&rural& displacement.!The!two!cases!examined!below!demonstrate!how! Champion)Briefs) 333& .&occurred&in& conjunction&with&wider&reforms&tied&to&Indonesia’s&WTO&commitments&and& specific&post`crisis&agreements&with&the&IMF.Such&long`term&measures&demonstrate¯o`trends&and& ostensibly&paint&a&picture&of&successful&liberalization&and&post`crisis&adjustment.!in! this!context!and!according!to!most!economic!and!food!security!indicators.&though&income&polarization.!Indonesia!reduced!its! proportion!of!undernourished!from!9!to!6!percent!of!the!population!between!1990! and!2003!FAO.!It!remains!to!be!seen!if!BULOG!can! meet!the!demands!now!placed!upon!it.& Aggregate&food&security&may&improve.&these&processes&have&led&to&the&restructuring&of&BULOG.!despite!a!projected!slowdown!in!grain!output! growth”!(USDA.2007:10).& but&they&gloss&over&the&precariousness&of&food&security&for&marginal&populations.&With&respect&to& food&security.!even!as!initial!evidence!suggests!that!the! transition!to!a!liberalized!food!economy!holds!potential!for!improved!aggregate!food! security!(Bappenas!et!al!!.&to&a&public&corporation& stripped&of&monopoly&powers&and&subject&to&private&business&competition&and& institutional&principles!(Yonekura.!US!government!food!security!assessments!point!out!that!Indonesia!(along! with!Vietnam)!has!the!highest!per!capita!calorie!intake!in!Southeast!Asia.!Though!not!yet!meeting!WFS!targets.!It!is!important!to!note!here!that.!2004.!Yonekura.&and&unpredictable&fluctuations&in&volatile&international&food& markets&means&that&the&danger&of&food&insecurity&is&heightened&for&those&that& remain&outside&the&market&nexus.!FAO’s!assessment!likewise!emphasizes!Indonesia’s!progress! toward!the!World!Food!Summit!goal!of!halving!the!number!of!chronically!hungry! people!by!2015.!“food! supplies!are!projected!to!be!more!than!sufficient!to!meet!the!nutritional!requirement! cross!all!income!groups!through!2016.!2006:32).&from& apolitically`oriented&state&import&monopoly&focused&on&stabilizing&food&prices& and&supplies&through&subsidies&and&political&fiat.!Indonesia! has!been!relatively!successful!at!promoting!economic!growth!and!improving!food! security.!2005).!2005). !subYimperialism.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 334& .&the&failure&of&such&food&aid&programs&to&provide&lasting& respite&from&food&insecurity&represents&an´&repudiation&of&the&vagaries&of& capitalist&markets&and&the&governance&of&the&neoliberal&state.!and!the!global!war!on!terror!through!the! disciplining!effects!of!food!aid!programs!that!require!e!labor!on!infrastructural! projects!(in!Jakarta)!and!submission!to!military!oversight!(in!Aceh).!Contradictorily.!As&a&key&element& of&social&reproduction.!it! thus!also!provides!grounds!for!the!enforcement!of!militarized!disciplinary!measures! under!neoliberal!globalization!and!its!corollary!of!USYsupported!Indonesian!subY imperialism.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& marginal!populations!are!forcibly!subjugated!to!the!scaleYmaking!projects!of! neoliberalization. !2015.!Within&this&new&imaginary.&capital`centric&understandings&of&security!(Essex.&food&security&becomes&a& proxy&for&measuring&governance&and&state&fragility.!2008).&and&how&this&differs&from& Champion)Briefs) 335& .&The&institutionalization&of& this&imaginary&enforces&a&neoliberal&state&form&devoted&to&facilitating&free&trade& and&narrow.&especially&“fragile&states.”&offers&a&clear&example&of&how& the&amalgam&of&neoliberal&doctrine&and&neoconservative&militarism&has& produced&a&new&geopolitical&imaginary&reliant&on&particularly&brutal& conceptualizations&of&risk.& Essex.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.!2005b:19Y23).! <http://www.This&raises& questions&about&what&good&governance&in&developing&states&means&under& conditions&of&neoliberalization.!conversely.&how&this&has&shaped&the&translation&of&theories& of&food&security&into&tangible&policies&and&programs.!in!press).NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&seems&nice&and&helpful&but&it&ends&up&harming& the&ones&it&intends&to&help&by&serving&as&a&necessary& proxy&for&spreading&neoliberal&ideals&and&controlling& populations.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!2005a:4).&danger.&and& deploys&new&spatial&categories&for&determining&the&appropriate&allocation&of& foreign&aid!(Essex.&The&US&Agency&for& International&Development&cites&food&insecurity&as&one&among&many&“symptoms& of&the&failure&of&governance&in&fragile&states”!(USAID.hugeog.!Jamey.! While!this!political!balance!remains!incomplete!and!highly!contested."! Human!Geography.! it!neverthelesshas!provided!the!context!and!impetus!for!reshaping!longstanding! institutions!and!norms!associated!with!more!restrained!versions!of!both! neoliberalism!and!neoconservatism.!Web.com/index.!2007.&food& security&is&a&product&of&good&governance.!The&post`9/11&US&stance&toward&development& and&developing&states.!even!in!the!US.!January!05.&and&insecurity.!February!03.&defined&in&terms&of&the&appropriate& management&of&risks&that&undermine&food&availability&and&vulnerable& populations’&ability&to&access&and&utilize&it!(USAID. &and&combating&the&spread&of&international&Communism.!Shepherd.! 1993).&provide&the& Champion)Briefs) 336& .!2005:13).&national.!scholars!have!paid!increasing!attention!to!the! problems!of!food!aid.!illustrate&food&aid’s&competing&objectives&and&resultant& “administrative&confusion”!(Murphy!andMcAfee.&and&are&powerful&forces&shaping&the& global&food&system.&The&ideological&and& material&resources&of&the&neoliberal&state.!Since!the!Cold!War’s!end.!The!US!government!itself! has!identified!such!problems!several!times!(GAO!1995a.!1990.&achieving&industrialization&and&food&security&in& developing&states.& and&international&scales.!c).A&full& analysis&of&US&food&aid&policies&and&their&link&to&food&security.&using&aid&as&both&geopolitical&carrot&and&stick.!mechanisms&to&dispose&of&growing&agricultural&surpluses&were&seen&as&key& to&expanding&agro`foodexports.&neoliberalization.&Most& food&aid&went&to&strategic&allies.&Barrett&and&Maxwell&(2005:3)&demonstrate&how&food&aid& policy&“only&sometimes&helps&the&poor&and&hungry&…&[and]&on&occasion&it&can& worsen&their&plight”&because&of&its&“dependence&on&multiple&masters.&including&both&state&and&non`state&entities.&including&its&ability&to&construct&and& steer&forms&of&governance&that&include&capitalist&interests&and&NGOs.2000.”&The&tangled&domestic&politics!of!food!aid.&its& programs&have&received&the&most&attention.&US&food&aid&often&failed&to& alleviate&hunger&because&of&its&many&contradictory&objectives&and&the&way&it& deepened&relations&of&dependency!(Edkins.! 1985).!divided!across!six! programs!directed!by!two!agencies!(USAID!and!the!US!Department!of! Agriculture).!2007a.&and&the&US&has&long&been&the&largest& donor.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& past&approaches&Historically.&especially&those& that&rely&on&the&backing&or&overt&use&of&military&force.!Garst!and!Barry.!and!reforming!USAID.&are& important&food&policy&actors.!During!theCold! War.&Institutions&operating&at&local.!b.&also&take&into&account&their&international&and& multilateral&context&and&determinants.&key&to&both&implementation&of&existing&programs& and&to&advancing&neoliberalized&approaches&to&food&security.2002.&even&those&that&were¬&food&insecure(Kodras.!In&those&states&where&food&insecurity&did&exist.&development&institutions&have&typically&sought&to& improve&food&security&through&foodaid.reviewing!food!aid’s!legislative!basis.!b.!As&the&US&provides&about&two`thirds&of&global&food&aid.&who&often& cause&food&tobe&overused&or&misused&as&a&resource&in&order&to&serve&donors’& parochial&interests.!though! proposed!solutions!have!focused!narrowly!on!improving!internal! management.&however.& and&militarism&must. &are&seen&to&fail&and&must&be&enforced&through&the&discipline& of&hunger&and&food&aid&availability.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!UnderY!and! malnourished!bodies!in!the!unruly!urban!core!of!the!Indonesian!state!are!thus!recast! Champion)Briefs) 337& .&Such&market& rationality&must&be&fostered&through&food&aid.&potential&terrorists&prone& to&the&recruitment&strategies&of&radical&Islamists..! The!important!mediating!and!implementing!role!NGOs!play!is!crucial.!2015.&most&vulnerable&in&periods&of&crisis.&to&the&extent& to&which&they&exist.!the&food&insecure&are&seen&as&a&threat.!as!the!US!and! Indonesian!states!do!not!themselves!run!such!programs.com/index.&though&FFW&also&insists&that&only& those&who&work&will&obtain&food.!Jamey.!January!05.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.hugeog.&are& to&be&managed&through&mechanisms&which&script&their&hunger&as&an&asset&and&a& liability."! Human!Geography.&The&first&step&toward&this&is&to&provide&incentives&that&outweigh& those&offered&by&terrorist&groups.&A&distrust&of&universal&economic&rationality& lies&at&the¢er&of&this&formulation.!joining!Islamist!groups!and/or!remaining!unemployed)!and!the! ideological!and!material!power!of!international!civil!society!funded!by!the!US!state.e.!but!merely!fund!or!provide! logistical!support!to!them.&FFW&articulates&such&local&labor&discipline&in& conjunction&with&both&the&threat&of&violence&if&other&opportunities&are& pursued!(i.! <http://www.&insofar&as&local&labor&markets.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& necessary&basis&for&making&the&abstract&universal&ideals&of&neoliberalism&and& neoconservatism&a&practical&reality.!February!03.! In!this!context.!Web.!2007.!! Food&Security&is&tied&to&infrastructural&development&and& furtherance&of&US`centered&neoliberalism& Essex.&They&both&deserve&aid&and&are&a&threat&without&it.&and&therefore&in&need&of& development.&indicating&an&assumption&that&even&the& impoverished&and&marginal&hungry&are&economically&rational.!This&is&the&thrust&of&neoliberal&and&sub`imperial& governance&–&the&poor&and&the&hungry. !and&US` centered&global&neoliberalism&as&food&security&became&tied&to&processes&of& infrastructural&development&and&geopolitical&securitization&through&the& reconstitution&of&local&labor&markets&under&the&rubric&of&food`for`work.!unregulated!and!unplanned.!as!the!poor!took! up!food!production!on!vacant!land.!Urban!agriculture.!The!requirement!of!labor!force!participation! incorporates!the!scales!of!the!hungry!urban!Javanese!body!and!the!economically! ravaged!urban!village!into!the!wider!scaleYmaking!projects!of!subYimperialism!and! neoliberalization!by!scripting!them!as!potential!threats!to!the!neoliberal!project!as!a! whole.&the&point&is&that&to&do&so.!and!along!canals!and!riverbanks! to!provide!some!basic!subsistence!in!the!absence!of!cash!to!pay!spiraling!food!prices! (Purnomohadi.!and!manages!such!aid.!along!roadsides.&rather.!urban!body!in!postYcrisis! Jakarta!was!thus!nested!in!the!larger!scales!of!Jakarta.&This&is¬&to&suggest&that&the&hungry&poor&in&Jakarta’s&FFW&programs&did& not&benefit&from&the&food&thus&distributed.!paid!in!food!and! connected!to!the!wider!set!of!capitalist!and!internationalizing!relations!that!provides.! delivers.!Java.!are.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& as!a!ready!pool!of!cheap!labor!for!infrastructural!development.!hungry.!NGOs!such!as!Mercy!Corps!are!not!themselves!imperialist!or!militaristic.!1999).!but! are!part!of!much!larger!projects!that!3.! also!increased!throughout!Jakarta!immediately!following!the!crisis.!The!scale&of&the&poor.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 338& .! Likewise.&they& had&to&cede&a&large&measure&of&their&autonomy&over&the&conditions&of&their&own& social&reproduction&to&the&agents&of&international&civil&society&and&the& geostrategic&social&and&political&categorizations&of&the&USand!Indonesian!states.!Indonesia. !Jamey.!but!demonstrate!the&ways&in&which& global&market&relations.!The!Aceh!case!presents!a! Champion)Briefs) 339& .!2015.!The!Jakarta!example!illustrates!how! food!aid.!distributed!through!foodYforYwork!programs!that!require!labor!force! participation!for!access.hugeog.!The!accounts!of!food!aid!and!security!in!Jakarta!and!Aceh! presented!here!are!partial!and!incomplete.!January!05.! <http://www.&aid.&The&violence&visited&upon&these&populations&is¬&an& afterthought&in&global&flows&of&food.!Web.!I!began!this! paper!by!building!from!McMichael’s!(2003:172)!definition!of!food!security!as! “apolitical!relationship”!increasingly!articulated!at!a!global!scale!and!through!market! mechanisms.&are¬&natural&but&rather& the&often&violent&constitution&or&expansion&of&specific&scale`making&projects.&and&national&security&are& enforced&through&the&manipulation&of&food&security&and&social&reproduction&for& vulnerable&populations.!I! have!examined!the!neoliberal!geopolitics!of!food!aid!with!reference!to!subY imperialism!in!Indonesia.&(sub`)imperial&hegemony.!2007.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is¢ral&to&the&reproduction&of&capitalist& social&relations&and&imperialism&we&must&undertake&a& genealogical&examination&is&key&to&resist&such& structures.! Food&security&is¢ral&to&social&reproduction.&and&thus&also&to&the&forcible& connection&of&marginal&and&resistant&places&and&populations&to&networks&of& internationalizing&capital&as&demanded&by&neoliberal&geo&politics.&but&a&desired&objective&within& the&construction&of&a&neoliberal&hegemony.& Essex.!"!The!Neoliberal!Geopolitics!Of!Food!Security:!The!Case!Of!Indonesia.&and&arms.!February!03.com/index.&and&neoliberalization&more&generally.!becomes!the!basis!for!managing!marginal!people!and!places! that!are!deemed!threats!precisely!because!they!are!marginal."! Human!Geography.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1 14:neolibgeofoodsecind&catid=35:2008YissueY1YnumberY2&Itemid=64>.!including!food!aid.!Coupled&with&the&understanding&that&such&market& mechanisms. !becomes!enmeshed!(even!if!not!wholeheartedly!or!by! choice)!in!the!militarized!and!coercive!practices!and!institutions!associated!with!the! US!war!on!terror!and!the!subYimperial!domination!of!the!Indonesian!state!over!its! peripheries.&economic.&are&understood&as&political.!banks.!indicating!the! limits!of!market!relations!as!a!platform!for!social!reproduction!and!neoliberal! hegemony.!the!Indonesian!military!was!relied!upon!to!play!a!more!coercive! role!in!the!distribution!and!control!of!food!aid.!while!also!giving!a!clearer!view!into!the!ways!actors! articulate!divergent!and!seemingly!incommensurate!projects!with!one!another.!but!it!is!not!impossible.&the&hungry.!Sparke! (2004:779)!argues!for!a!situated!understanding!of!domination!“as!a!particular!form!of! hegemony!articulated!(and!thus!both!experienced!and!consolidated)!more!through! Champion)Briefs) 340& .NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& more!directly!militaristic!example!of!neoliberal!geopolitics!in!action.!Such! ethnographic!research!is!difficult!because!of!the!need!to!negotiate!access!to!the! powerful!institutions!and!actors!that!shape!development!strategies.&and&the&way&hunger.!and! Sparke’s!(2004)!analysis!of!geographical!theorizations!of!domination!is!instructive!for! posing!closing!questions!here.!Beginning!with!the!latter.!It!is!troubling.&This&means&interrogating&the&place&of&food&aid.!Also!drawing!from!Hall!and!Gramsci.&Understanding&food&aid&and&food& security&in&light&of&their&dominating&functions&is&useful&in&this&context.&and& social&threats&to&be&managed&or&silenced.!and!Hart’s!(2004)!call!for!critical!ethnographic!research!on! neoliberal!geographies!of!development.!NGOs.!if!not!surprising.!which!offers!a!useful!path!for!further!analysis!and! expansion!of!this!research.!that! within!this!matrix.&and&humanitarianism&in&neoliberal&geopolitics.!including!US!state! agencies.!considered!by!many!a!repository!of! hopeful!action!and!social!justice.!I!would!like!to!conclude!by!considering!Sparke’s!(2004)!discussion!of! hegemony!and!domination.!Hart(2004:98)! argues!that!critical!ethnographic!approaches!can!“illuminat[e]!processes!of! constitution!and!interconnection.!and!private!charitable!foundations.!Hart&(2004)&argues&in&favor&of&critical&attention&to&the&constant&and& contested&articulation&of&categories&upon&and&through&which&power&is& constituted&and&exercised.!instead.& and&more&importantly.!even!international!civil!society.!But! what!questions!must!be!asked!in!pursuing!and!using!such!access?!Following!Stuart! Hall.”!and!can!therefore!prevent!analytical!categories!and! forms!of!praxis!from!ossifying.&food& security. &relational.&and&reflexive&theorizations&of& food&security! Champion)Briefs) 341& .! Sparke(2004:780)!suggests!that!we!should!“investigate!how!the!dominance!that!is! sometimes!coactive!with!consent!in!a!particular!personal!sphere!of!social! reproduction!is!interarticulated!with!dominance!at!other!scales.&and&building&grounded.!How!does!food!aid!delivered!with!a!labor!requirement!or!at!the!end!of!a! gun!constitute!and!complicate!relations!of!dominance!and!hegemony?!What&becomes& of&impoverished&and&vulnerable&populations’&long`term&social&reproductive& capacities&if&food&security&is&made&a&core&object&of&imperial&domination&and& neoliberal&violence?!What!are!the!limits!of!humanitarian!action!and!civil!society!in! the!tangled!politics!of!neoliberalization!supported!by!outright!militarism?!Such& questions&can&only&be&answered&through&critical&engagement&with&the& geographical&and&historical&specificity&of&scale`making&projects&like&those& described&here.”!Rather!than!falling!into!the!trap!of!scalar!bifurcation! that!too!often!places!coercion!at!the!global!scale!and!consent!at!the!national!scale.NEG:&Captialism&Kritik&NC& & March/April&2015& coercion!than!through!consent.!but!which!are!beyond!the!limited!scope! of!this!paper.”!This!points!to!a! number!of!questions!this!research!touches!on. !February! 04.S.!Greenhouse!Gas!Emissions!and!Sinks! contains!anthropogenic!emissions!from!agricultural!activities!(except!fuel!combustion.! including!the!following!source!categories:!enteric&fermentation!in!domestic! livestock.&agricultural&soil& management.!LandYUse!Change."!Fifth!National! Communication!of!the!United!States!of!America!Under!the!United!Nations! Framework!Convention!on!Climate!Change.pdf>.S.!December!06.&were&the&largest&source&of!U.!and!agricultural!CO2!fluxes.!"US!Climate!Action!Report!2010.!In&2007.!emission!sources!accounted!for!in!the! Agriculture!chapter!were!responsible!for!6!percent!of!total!U.&rice&cultivation.! The!Agriculture!chapter!of!the!Inventory!of!U.!<http://unfccc.!2009.!2015.S.!Web.!respectively.&livestock&manure&management.&and&field&burning&of&agricultural&residues.& United!States!Department!of!State.!In!2007.!Agricultural& activities&contribute&directly&to&emissions&of&GHGs&through&a!variety!of!processes.& accounting&for&67&percent.!and!Forestry!chapter).! which!is!addressed!in!the!Energy!chapter.!GHG!emissions.!CH4!and!N2O!were!the! primary!GHGs!emitted!by!agricultural!activities.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Agriculture&to&create&food&contributes&heavily&to&climate& emissions.&CH4&emissions&from& enteric&fermentation&and&manure&management&represented&about&24&percent& and&8&percent&of&total&CH4&emissions!from!anthropogenic!activities.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 342& .! Agricultural!soil!management!activities.!such!as!fertilizer&application&and&other& cropping&practices.!which!are! addressed!in!the!Land!Use.!N2O&emissions&in&2007.int/resource/docs/natc/usa_nc5. !<http://unfccc.!In!contrast.!N2O& emissions&are&estimated&to&rise&from&316&Tg&CO2!Eq.!Between!2005!and!2020.!in!2005!to&332&Tg&CO2&Eq.!recovery.!CH4!captureYandYuse!projects!are!driven!in!part!by!the! prices!of!electricity!and!natural!gas.!However.!these!increases!are!expected!to!be!mitigated!by!greater! control!of!CH4!emissions!from!landfills.! For!example.!December!06.!Web.!which!increase!over!the!projection!period.!in& 2020—an&increase&of&5&percent.&Emissions&from&agriculture.!2015.!in!2005!to&237!Tg! CO2!Eq.!the!largest!source!of! N2O!emissions.!are&estimated&to&increase&from&225!Tg!CO2!Eq.!and!manure!through!increased! flaring.!N2O!emissions!from!transportation!are!estimated!to! decrease!over!the!same!time!period!due!to!improvements!in!vehicle!emission!control! technologies.!CH4!emissions!from!landfills!result!from!waste!deposited!over!a!long! period!of!time.!total!CH4!emissions&are&estimated&to& increase&by&about&8&percent&as&underlying&economic&activity&increases&over&the& projection&period.pdf>.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Greenhouse&gas&emissions&from&agriculture&are&set&to& increase&by&2020.int/resource/docs/natc/usa_nc5.!2009.!February! 04.!and!use.!with!fugitive!emissions!from!increased!natural!gas!production!the! largest!influence."!Fifth!National! Communication!of!the!United!States!of!America!Under!the!United!Nations! Framework!Convention!on!Climate!Change.!"US!Climate!Action!Report!2010.!coal!mines.!in!2020.& United!States!Department!of!State.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 343& . ! December!06.!2015.!Web.!Burning!fossil!fuels!and!wood!is!one! source!of!the!increase!in!atmospheric!nitrous!oxide.!Sewage!treatment! plants!may!also!be!a!major!source!of!this!gas.&the& level&of&nitrous&oxide&in&the&atmosphere&has&increased&by&16%.!At!the!same!time.co.!Since&the&Industrial&Revolution.!it!is&200&to&300×&more& effective&in&trapping&heat&than&carbon&dioxide.! Nitrous&oxide!makes!up!an!extremely!small!amount!of!the!atmosphere!Y!it!is!less!than! oneYthousandth!as!abundant!as!carbon!dioxide.bbc.&! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 344& .! <http://www.!however!the&main&contributor&is& believed&to&be&the&widespread&use&of&nitrogen`base&fertilisers."!BBC!Weather!Center.!Nitrous!oxide!also!enters!the!atmosphere! from!the!ocean.!which!can!then!be! used!by!the!plants.shtml>.uk/climate/evidence/nitrous_oxide.!microYorganisms! remove!nitrogen!from!the!soil!and!put!it!back!into!the!atmosphere!Y!denitrification!Y! and!this!process!produces!nitrous!oxide.!"Climate!Change!Y!Nitrous!Oxide.&the&nitrous&oxide&that&we&release&today&will& still&be&trapping&heat&well&into&the&next¢ury.&Due&to&the&long& time&it&spends&in&the&atmosphere.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Nitrous&oxide&from&agriculture&is&one&of&the&deadliest& greenhouse&gases.!2009.& British!Broadcasting!Company.!This!is!called!nitrogen!fixation.!February!04.!Nitrogen!is!removed!from!the! atmosphere!by!plants!and!converted!into!forms!such!as!ammonia.&lasting&for&up&to&150&years.!However.!Nitrous&oxide&has&one&of&the&longest&atmosphere&lifetimes&of&the& greenhouse&gases. &the&World&Food&Programme&was& left&with&little&decision&but&to&withdraw&from&Somalia&in&2011.!2009.!December!06.! 2015.!"Public!Perception!And!Policy:!Famine!And!Food!Securitization!In! The!Horn!Of!Africa.!Web.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&aid&sometimes&goes&to&terrorist&and&militant&groups.chathamhouse.! <http://www."!Chatham!House.&Much&of&its&food& aid&was&being&lost&to&al&Shabaab.! With!regards!to!an!acceptable!level!of!diversion.pdf>.!February!03.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/home/chatham/pu blic_html/sites/default/files/20131118PublicPerceptionPolicyFamine.& Franks.!Suzanne.& Somalia&is&a&good&example.&This&left&a&lot&more&people&vulnerable&to&famine& but&there&are&very&significant&risks®arding&where&food&aid&will&ultimately&end& up! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 345& . !and! we!have!completed!work!in!5!States.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&assistance&isn't&going&to&the&people&who&need&it.usda.!Inspector!General.594& recipients!in!the!5!States!were&receiving&potential&improper&payments.!Fong.! or!otherwise!invalid!social!security!numbers.6!!Our!analysis!of!the!databases!that!States!check! as!part!of!their!role!in!ensuring!recipient!eligibility!revealed&that&a&total&of&8.! OIG!also!has!been!looking!at!recipients!who!misrepresent&themselves&to&receive& benefits.!Some!of! these!recipients!were&using&the&social&security&numbers&of!deceased&individuals.!Web.!U.!House!OF! Representatives.! <http://www.!2012.!August!03.!while!others!were!receiving!benefits!in! more!than!one!State.1&million&a&month&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 346& .!Office!of!Inspector! General.!OIG!has!conducted!a&series&of&audits&of&10&States&to&assess!how! they!used!participant!databases!to!identify!potentially&fraudulent&recipients.!PhyllisK.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!we!estimate!that!these&recipients&could&be&receiving& about&$1.!In!total.pdf>.S.!2015.&Recently.!Before! The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform.& Fong.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!February!05. S.!and!we!have!found&fraud&and&program!inefficiencies&in!other! aspects!of!SNAP!as!well.!PhyllisK.pdf>.& and&unscrupulous&retailers&profit&at&the&expense&of&the&American&public.&When&trafficking& occurs&unchecked.!Office!of!Inspector! General.!House!OF! Representatives.!U.& Fong.!Fong.&weapons."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!2015.!recipients&have& exchanged&benefits&for&drugs.!In!terms!of!fraud.!February!05.!We!are.&families&do¬&receive&the&intended&nutritional&assistance.! !OIG!has!focused!significant!work!on!disqualified!retailers!who!reenter!the!program! and!continue!to!exploit!it.&People&use&them& to&buy&drugs&and&weapons.!of!course.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 347& .!we!have!seen!many&types&of&trafficking&in& SNAP&benefits.usda.!Inspector!General.!Before! The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform.!2012.!however.!In!some!cases.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.recipients.! <http://www.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&stamps&are&abused&by&the&population.!are&then& able&to&spend&the&cash&however&they&like.&By&giving&a&recipient&$50&in&cash&for&$100&in&benefits.!August!03.!Web.!an! unscrupulous!retailer!can!make!a!significant!profit.&and&other&contraband.!responsible!for!providing!broad!oversight! for!the!entire!program. !5!!While!we!contend!that!FNS!should!consider!disqualified!SNAP!retailers! for!suspension!or!debarment.!etc..!for!example.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.!it&is¬&FNS’&policy&to&do&so.!2015.!but!FNS& concluded&that&our&recommendation&would&need&a®ulatory&change&and&may& not&be&cost&beneficial.!forgery.!Fong.!February!05.!we&found&that&FNS&does¬&verify&SNAP&retailers’&criminal& records&and&therefore&cannot&comply&with&its&own&requirement&to&deny& SNAP!authorization!to&any&retailer&with&a&criminal&history!(i.usda.!in!a!recent!audit.!2012.!even&though&a&conviction&is&adequate&grounds&for& debarment.!Office!of!Inspector! General.!FNS!asserts!that!it!can! Champion)Briefs) 348& .)!reflecting!on!the!business!integrity!of!the!owner.& Fong.!PhyllisK.4!!We! recommended!that!FNS!begin!reviewing!retailers’!criminal!records.!FNS!generally!agreed.!but!from!other! Federal!programs!they!might!exploit.!We!accepted!this!decision!on!the!condition!that!FNS!continue! to!seek!other!options!to!better!ensure!the!integrity!of!retailers!applying!to!participate! in!the!program.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& The&USDA&willingly&allows&corruption&in&the&food&stamp& program.! <http://www.e.!House!OF! Representatives.!embezzlement."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!Web.!Before! The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform.! In!2008.!FNS!is!also!not!making!use!of!one!of!the!most! powerful!tools!available!to!keep!bad!actors!away.!If!FNS!took!steps!to!debar! retailers!with!a!proven!record!of!dishonesty.!we&determined& that&FNS&did¬&debar&any&of&the&615&wholesalers&and&retailers&convicted!in! relation!to!208!OIG!cases.S.pdf>.!However.!not!only!from!SNAP.!Inspector!General.! theft.!In!response!to!our!second!recommendation!for!FNS!to!improve!the! retailer!authorization!process!so!that!it!would!enable!the!successful!prosecution!of! SNAP!traffickers.!U.!“Suspension!and!debarment”!is!a!legal!tool!that! Federal!agencies!can!use!to!protect!programs!from!repeat!abusers!and!ensure!that!the! Government!does!business!only!with!responsible!parties.!those!individuals!would!be!prevented! from!abusing!other!Federal!programs.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.!August!03. !FNS!can!help!protect! the!entire!Government!by!preventing!convicted!program!abusers!from!entering!into! transactions!with!other!agencies.!FNS!should!consider! suspension!and!debarment!on!a!caseYbyYcase!basis.!Rather!than!issuing!a!blanket!rule!that!would!exclude! disqualified!retailers!from!being!suspended!or!debarred.!By!doing!so.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& exclude!retailers!under!the!Food!Stamp!Act.!that!disqualified!retailers!are!unlikely!to! pursue!other!business!with!the!Federal!Government.!and!that!debarring!these! individuals!is!costly.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 349& . !the!store!owner! and!his!brother!were!ordered!to!pay!restitution!and!serve!a!total!of!78!months!of! incarceration.!February!05.!but!the!owner.!should!prevent!that!retailer!from! reentering!the!program.!By&reapplying&to&the&program&using&the&name&of&this&“straw& owner.!acquaintance.!Web.usda.pdf>.!August!03.!2015.!Inspector!General.!U.!or!employee.”&the&disqualified&retailer&sets&up&the&business&again&and&continues& criminal&activities.!Office!of!Inspector! General.!A!few!years&later.!and!his!brother!actually!operated!these!stores!and!used!them!to!defraud&the& Government&of!about!$2&million.!some&disqualified&retailers&have&found&ways&around&this&particular& control.& Fong.! When&FNS&determines&that&a&retailer&is&abusing&the&program.gov/oig/webdocs/IGtestimony120308.3!!In!that!case.! <http://www.!As!a!result!of!our!investigation.!as! the!alleged!owner.!Fong.!The!false!owners!of!these!stores!signed!their!names!on! FNS!documents!to!obtain!authorization!to&accept&SNAP&benefits."!United!States!Department!of!Agriculture.!PhyllisK.!Connecticut.!House!OF! Representatives.!The!group!then!resubmitted!an!application!with!a!different!name!and! Champion)Briefs) 350& .”!often!a!family!member.!his! wife.!While!FNS!is!active!in!disqualifying!abusive!retailers!from!the! program.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&service&retailers®ularly&defraud&the&United&States& Government.!A!recent!news!article!drew!attention!to!an!OIG!case!that!exposed! such!a!scheme!in!Hartford.!in!theory.&a&store&owner&was&deported& after&being&convicted&of&food&stamp&trafficking&fraud.!he&illegally&reentered&the&United!States!and&opened&several&stores&using& other&individuals’&names.!2012.&the&agency&places&it& on&the&disqualified&vendor&list!which.! however.!Our!investigations!have!shown!that!one!of!the!most!common!ways!a& disqualified&retailer&can!circumvent!FNS’!efforts!to!keep!them!out!of!the!program!is! by!enlisting!a&“straw&owner.!One!of!our!investigations!has!even!shown!that!a&group!of!criminals!in& Floridavoluntarily!withdrew!their!store!from!SNAP!in!order!to!avoid!detection!for! trafficking.!"Statement!Of!The!Honorable!Phyllis!K.S.!Before! The!Committee!On!Oversight!And!Government!Reform. !! ! Champion)Briefs) 351& .!On!their!fourth!try.NEG:&Corruption&NC& & March/April&2015& ownership.!Our!investigation! disclosed!that!this!group!trafficked&approximately&$6.!and!FNS!removed!them!from!the!program.!and! were!each!sentenced!to!prison!terms!ranging!from!8!to!48!months!along!with! restitution!orders!ranging!from!about!$350.!four!defendants!pled!guilty!to!wire!fraud!and!SNAP!fraud.!and!continued!defrauding!SNAP!at!the!same!location.000!to!$2.!They!executed&this& scheme!successfully!three×.!Between! March!and!May!2010.2!million.!OIG!investigative!efforts!led!to! their!prosecution.2&million!in!benefits. NEG:&Economics&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&insecurity&quells&insurgent&violence.& Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82Y>.! First,´&insecurity,&such!as!that!caused!by!drought!and!crop!failure,&diminishes& the&resources&available&to&militants.&Military&thinkers&ranging&from&Sun&Tzu4&to& Napoleon5&have&recognized&that&the&ability&to&forage&is&a&binding&constraint&on& militaries&–&especially&those,&such&as&rebel&organizations,&that&lack&sophisticated& logistics&and&support&networks.&Rebel&movements&typically&do¬&grow&their& own&food&and&depend&on&voluntary&or&coerced&contributions&from&the& population.!Drought!depresses!rural!incomes!via!reduced!agricultural!production! making!it!more!difficult!to!find!willing!donors!and!making!civilians!more!likely!to! resist!coercion.!These!dynamics!have!been!evident!in!Somalia.!As!drought!gripped!that! country!in!2010–2012,!the!resulting!humanitarian!emergency!debilitated!Harakat!alY Shabaab!alYMujahideen,!the!main!armed!opposition!to!Somalia’s!Transitional!Federal! Government.!While!alYShabaab!has!been!accused!of!food!aid!theft!and!using!food! denial!as!a!weapon,!environmental!stress!may!have!undermined!its!military!capacity.! Drought!forced!farmers!and!herders!to!flee!regions!considered!alYShabaab! strongholds,!undercutting!the!movement’s!economic!base!(Roble!2011).!As!resources! became!scarcer!–!the!UN!declared!famine!conditions!in!July!2011!–!alYShabaab! resorted!to!levying!higher!taxes!and!confiscating!livestock,!creating!tension!between! the!movement!and!communities!under!its!control.!The!blockage!and!diversion!of!food! aid!angered!tribal!groups!and!sparked!violent!clashes!with!local!militias.6!In! November!2011,!alYShabaab!raided!the!Somali!offices!of!UNICEF,!the!World!Food! Programme,!and!14!other!organizations,!forcing!them!to!suspend!relief!work! (Chonghaile!2011).!Organizations!that!continued!to!provide!aid!were!met!with!new,! higher!“taxes”!–!forced!levies!of!goods!–!on!aid!shipments!the!following!month!(UN! Monitoring!Group!2012).!Though!motivated!by!a!desire!to!avoid!dependency!on! Champion)Briefs) 352& NEG:&Economics&NC& & March/April&2015& Western!organizations,!the!gambit!backfired.!The!increasing!strain!on!affected! populations!caused!alYShabaab!to!lose!support!both!at!home!and!abroad,!contributing! to!alYShabaab’s!military!decline!and!a!wave!of!defections!in!2012.!Second,&food& insecurity&can&hinder&active&political&participation&–&including&participation&in& civil&conflict&–&at&the&individual&level.&People&experiencing´&food&insecurity& invest&virtually&all&their&effort&in&the&pursuit&of&food,&leaving&little&time&and& energy&for&the&pursuit&of!higherYorder!needs!like!political!goals,!community!needs,! and!ideological&ends!(Maslow!1984,!Inglehart!1981).!For!this!reason,!it!is!usually!not! the!most!poor!or!foodYinsecure!who!participate!in!rebellion,!and!civil&conflict&is& relatively&more&prevalent&under&conditions&of&relative&food&abundance&and& better&agro`climatic&conditions&(Thiesen!2012,!Hendrix!and!Salehyan! 2012,!Salehyan!and!Hendrix!2012).!Finally,&the&fact&that&food&denial&is&often& incorporated&into&counterinsurgency&operations&suggests&that´&and&severe& food&insecurity&should&suppress&insurgent&violence!(Macrae!and!Zwi!1992).!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 353& NEG:&Economics&NC& & March/April&2015& Affirmative&claims&that&food&insecurity&breeds&unrest&get&the& causal&link&mixed&up&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity& not&the&other&way&around.& Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.! While&the&causal&link&between&food&insecurity&and&civil&conflict&is&complex,&the& reciprocal&relationship&(where&civil&conflict&causes&food&insecurity)&is&well& established&and&relatively&straightforward.&Violent&conflict&is&an&important& factor&behind&high&food&prices&and&severe&food&insecurity.&Conflict&often&affects& the&ability&to&produce,&trade&and&access&food!(United!Nations!1993).!Conflict& typically&brings&increased&military&spending&–&especially&on&arms&imports&–& which&crowds&out&other&social&expenditures,&contributing&to&food&security&and& child&hunger!(Scanlan!and!Jenkins!2001).!As!of!December!2012,prices&in&war`torn& Syria&had&in&some&cases&sextupled&relative&to&prewar&prices.&The&price&rise&has& been&attributed&both&to&decreased&production&as&a&result&of&bombed&factories& and&dramatic&increases&in&transshipment&costs!(Morello!2012).!In!Mali,!where! conflict!has!disrupted!market!access,!coarse!grain!prices!increased!sharply!by!80–100! percent!above!average!from!late!2011!onwards!in!many!markets!during!the!lean! season!(JuneYSeptember!2012),!with!the!highest!increases!recorded!in!northern!Mali.! In!late!2012!and!early!2013!cereal!prices!had!returned!to!historic!levels!in!most! markets!due!to!good!harvest!following!the!good!seasonal!rains!in!2012.!In!early!2013,! however,!localized!cereal!price!increases!were!noted!as!the!military!intervention! began!in!the!north!(WFP!2013).!As!the!following!vignette!on!the!Sudan!makes!clear,! internally!displaced!persons!and!refugees!often!face!the!most!extreme!insecurity.! These!negative!effects!can!persist!over!the!longer!term.!Children!in!Burundi!and! Zimbabwe!who!experienced!violent!conflict!were!significantly!shorter!(stunted)!than! others,!affecting!their!health,!education!and!economic!opportunities!later!in! life!(Alderman,!Hoddinott!and!Kinsey!2006,!Blattman!and!Miguel!2010).! Champion)Briefs) 354& NEG:&Economics&NC& & March/April&2015& While&in&theory&food&security&might&help&the&poor&in&practice& it&only&helps&the&well&off&at&the&expense&of&those&that& depend&on&selling&agricultural&goods&for&their&livelihood.& Hendrix,!Cullen.!"Food!Insecurity!And!Conflict!Dynamics:!Causal!Linkages!And! Complex!Feedbacks."!International!Journal!Stability!of!Security!and! Development.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.stabilityjournal.org/article/view/sta.bm/82>.! Urban&bias&–&the&tendency&for&governments&in&developing&countries&to&be&more& responsive&to&the&policy&concerns&and&preferences&of&urbanites&at&the&expense&of& rural&dwellers&–&is&well&documented!(Lipton!1977,!Bezemer!and!Headey!2008).!In& all&political&systems,&rulers&risk&removal&from&office&by&force&or&massive&popular& upheaval&if&serious&urban&grievances&are¬&addressed.!However,!the!risks!of! urban!unrest!as!a!result!of!higher!food!prices!are!perhaps!greatest!in!democracies,! followed!by!hybrid!systems!and!then!autocracies.!Regardless&of®ime&type,&rulers& face&general&incentives&to&invest&in&policies&that&disproportionately&favor&those& segments&of&society&that&pose&the&most&threat&and&whose&support&is&most& necessary&for®ime&survival:&urban&dwellers,&the&military&and&the&upper&and& middle&classes&(Bates!1981a,!1981b;Stasavage!2005).!Urban!dwellers!are!more! geographically!concentrated,!are!closer!to!the!seat!of!government!power,!and!face! lower!costs!to!acting!collectively!to!protest!against!the!ruler.!The!military,!by!virtue!of! their!organization!and!armament,!is!well!positioned!to!sabre!rattle.!The!wealthy!and! middle!classes!have!relatively!more!resources,!time!and!energy!to!invest!in!popular! expressions!of!discontent!–!and!more!to!lose.!For&these&reasons,&rulers&have&general& incentives&to&subsidize&urban&food&consumption&at&the&expense&of&rural& producers,&and&target&interventions&during&food&price&spikes&toward& comparatively&better`off&segments&of&society.&These&interventions&–&such&as& general&consumer&subsidies,&price&controls,&and&export&bans&–&harm&rural& incomes&while&doing&little&to&target&aid&to&those&who&are&most&food&insecure.! Champion)Briefs) 355& NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty.& Attalla,!Amber.!"“Food!Sovereignty!Vs.!Food!Security:!Is!There!A!Difference."!Coffee! Kids.!January!27,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.coffeekids.org/foodYsovereigntyYvsYfoodYsecurityYisYthereYaY difference/>.! Food&security&and&food&sovereignty,!although!often!used!interchangeably,!are& considerably&different&concepts.&Food&security,&a&much&more&widely&understood& notion,&refers&to&communities&with&access&to&food.!NGOs!that!work!with!food! security!projects!often!work!with!a!community!to!meet!its!food!needs,!denoting!that!it! currently!lacks!the!quantity!and!quality!of!food!necessary!to!sustain!community! members.!Food&security&does¬&necessarily&stipulate&what&types&of&food&are& provided&or&whether&or¬&that&food&is&local&or&brought&in&from&other®ions,! and!it!does!not!always!require!the!direct!involvement!of!the!community!to!attain!and! administer!that!food!(e.g.,!disasterYrelief!situations!in!which!food!arrives!from!outside! sources).!!Food&sovereignty,&on&the&other&hand,&is&slightly&more&specific&and& elicits&certain&guidelines&that&food&security&does¬&explicitly&mention.&Food& sovereignty&puts&ownership&of&food&systems&into&the&hands&of&the&communities& themselves.!It&involves&a&sustainable,&long`term&process&in&which&a&community& can&establish&its&own&food&systems&and&produce&its&own&local&products&without& being&subject&to&fluctuating&international&markets&or&dependent&on&external& sources!for!the!acquisition!of!seeds.!Food!sovereignty!takes!into!account!the!cultural! and!social,!political,!geographical!and!environmental!context!of!the!community!in! order!to!develop!an!appropriate!plan!of!action!to!address!the!community’s!particular! problems!and!needs.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 356& NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&means&local&control&over&resources.&Food& security&means&being&subject&to&neoliberal&markets.& Zerbe,!Noah.!"Food!Security!Vs.!Food!Sovereignty."!Global!Food!Politics.!January!27,! 2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <https://globalfoodpolitics.wordpress.com/2012/11/30/foodYsecurityYvsY foodYsovereignty/>.! Food&sovereignty&is&thus&embedded&in&larger&questions&of&social&justice&and&the& rights&of&farmers&and&indigenous&communities&to&control&their&own&futures&and& make&their&own&decisions.!!The&difference&between&food&security&and&food& sovereignty&is&important.!As!Windfuhr!and!Jonsen!describe!it!in!their!2005!book,! Food!Sovereignty:!Towards!Democracy!in!Localised!Food!Systems,!“food!security!is! more!of!a!technical!concept,!and!the!right!to!food!a!legal!one,!food!sovereignty!is! essentially!a!political!concept.”!!For!my!part,!I’d!argue!that!food&sovereignty& emphasizes&local&control&and&self`sufficiency,&while&food&security&emphasizes& reliance&on&the&global&economy&based&on&liberalized&agricultural&markets.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 357& NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& The&difference&between&security&and&sovereignty&matters&a& lot.& Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.! The&difference&between&food&security&and&food&sovereignty&may&seem&like&mere& semantics,!but&in&the!hyperYglobalized!world&wherein&transnational&companies& may&privately&own&significant&portions&of!arable!land!in&countries&facing&food& insecurity,&it&is¬&just&a&matter&of&word&play.&[Especially]&When&these& companies&choose&to&export!the!entire!crop!grown!on!such!lands!and&when&the& farmland&has&been&taken&from&uncompensated&smallholder&farmers.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 358& NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&is&both&a&movement&and&a&theoretical&idea& which&contrasts&with&food&security.& Cochrane,!Logan.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!May!07,!2011.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://sites.tufts.edu/jha/archives/1241>.! Food&security&means&the&availability&and&access&to&sufficient&safe&food,&whereas& food&sovereignty&involves&both&ownership&and&the&rights&of&local&people&to& define&local&food&systems,&without&first&being&subject&to&international&market& concerns.!An!important!distinction!must!be!made!between!food!sovereignty!as!a! theoretical!construct!and!food!sovereignty!as!a!movement.!The&food&sovereignty& movement&considers&that&the&practices&of&multi`national&corporations&are&akin& to&colonization,!as!such!companies!buy!up!large!tracts!of!land!and!turn!local! agricultural!resources!into!export!cashYcrops.![1]!As&a&movement,&food&sovereignty& lacks&direction&and&involves&a&great&diversity&of&opinion&and&idea.!As!a!model!to! reYconsider!and!reYevaluate!food,!it!highlights!important!challenges!and!offers! potential!remedies!to!current!challenges.!Food&sovereignty&as&a&theoretical& construct,!which!is!the!definition!that!will!be!used!throughout!this!paper,!relates&to& the&ownership&and&rights&of&food&growers&and&local&communities.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 359& &that&does¬&exclude&other&causes.!February!03.! <http://sites.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& An&emphasis&on&food&security&has&problematically&led&to& foreign&aid&organizations&being&able&to&ignore&structural& problems.!Logan.& Cochrane.!However."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!Web.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 360& .edu/jha/archives/1241>.!2007).&rather&its&prime&interests&are&to&protect&America&and&to&create& opportunities&for&Americans&(Riddell.!2011.!2015.& such&as.! USAID&argues&that&food&insecurity&is&often&a&result&of&poverty!(USAID.!while! ownership.&a&lack&of&sovereignty&or&oppressive&external&factors.!land!rights!and!sovereignty!are!not!mentioned!as!causal!factors.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs.!2011).!USAID& does¬&take&poverty&alleviation&and/or&human&rights&as&its&prime&reasons&for& engagement.!May!07.tufts.!While&it& is&true&that&a&direct&relationship&can&be&found&between&those&who&face&food& insecurity&and&those&who&are&impoverished. ! <http://sites.!food!security.!2015.& Cochrane.!large`scale&land& deals&increase&local&food&insecurity.!Logan.&it&may&also&more&broadly&refer&to&the&mass&purchasing&of& agricultural&lands&by&transnational&companies!(Scoones.!Land&grabbing&is& occurring&on&a&scale&and&at&a&rate&faster&than&ever&known&before&(Food!First.!2009).&and&smallholder&farmers&must&purchase&foods&as& opposed&to&harvesting&it&on&their&lands(Food!First.!February!03.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs.! A&“land&grab”&refers&to&those&land&acquisitions&that&have&caused&displacement.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 361& .&as&arable&land&produce&is&exported&rather& than&reaching&the&local&market.¬&one&positive& outcome&could&be&found&for&local&communities.edu/jha/archives/1241>.& dispossession&and&disenfranchisement.!or.!2011)."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!such!as.!postYconflict!and/or!weak!governance!there!is!less!monitoring!and!control! and!even!greater!negative!impacts!(Mabikke.tufts.!employment! and!environmental!sustainability!(ibid).!When&over&one`hundred&papers&were&presented&at& theInternational!Conference&on&Global&Land&Grabbing&in&2011.!2011.!When!such!acquisitions!occur!in!places!of! conflict.!according!to!the!Institute!of! Development!Studies.!2011).!Furthermore.!Web.! 2011).NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& International&markets&actually&lead&to&more&insecurity& though&land`grabbing.!May!07. tufts.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs.!Furthermore.!due!to! declines!in!available!fresh!water!these!land!deals!have!secured!required!sources!of! both!food!and!water!(Bunting.!2011.& Cochrane.!Web.!however.!May!07.!February!03.!that!these& deals&are¬&only&about&food&security&but&also&water&security.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!Case!studies!in!Ethiopia!demonstrate!that! access!to.!2011)."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!he!notes.!Woodhouse!and!Ganho!(2011)!argue!that!the& role&played&by&water&access&in&land&grabs&cannot&be&under`estimated.! Lester!Brown!(2011)!argues!that!land&purchasing&is&a&part&of&the&global&struggle&to& ensure&food&security.!water!sources!disproportionately!favor!investors!over!local! smallholder!farmers!(Bues.!2011).&including& the&competition&between&local&and&investor&in&acquiring&access&to&water& resources&and&to&sustainable&water&usage.!and!rights!of.&Countries!such!as! Saudi!Arabia!used!to!produce!much!higher!levels!of!wheat!internally.! <http://sites.!2015.!and!thus!avoid!any! potential!problems!that!may!arise!in!the!process.&Food`importing&countries&are&securing&overseas&supplies& by&attempting&to&control&the&entire&supply`chain&of&food`stuffs.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Land&is&purchased&in&foreign&countries&to&provide&security& for&food`importing&countries&ignoring&sovereignty& concerns.!Logan.!as!well!as!coping!with!the!problems!of! creating!pollution!and!chemical!runYoff.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 362& . & Cochrane.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs.!2010).!May!07.!2011.! <http://sites.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 363& .! According!to!Ethiopian!government!sources.!2011).edu/jha/archives/1241>.!Web.!case!studies&from&Cambodia&show&that&land&grabs&do¬&benefit& local&residents.!it&is&thought&that& 60—80%&of&food&production&in&Ethiopia&is&completed&by&women.tufts.!February!03.!over&thirty`six&countries&have&leased& land&within&its&borders&(Vidal.!areas&of&large`scale&plantations&are&more&likely&to&be&poverty` affected&than&prosperous&in&respect&to&the&local&populations(Da!Via.&and&over&time&resulted&in&collective&action&by&the&local& population&against&political&and&commercial&interests&(Schneider.!2010)."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!As!a! parallel!example.!E.!Of&those&who&face&the&brunt&of&food&shortages&and& insecurity&in&Ethiopia.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Land&grabs&hurt&the&poor&and&women&most&of&all.&most&are&women&and&children(USAID.&Thus&the&role&of& gender&is&revealed&by&analysis&of&those&affected&by&land&sales&and& dispossessions!(USAID.!2011).!2015.!2011).!Logan.!Although!estimates!vary.! Furthermore. !were!superficial…and!environmental!and!social! safeguards!were!widely!neglected”!(Economist."!The! Journal!of!Humanitarian!Assistance.!when!1.!2015.! <http://sites.!!The!Ethiopian! economic!development!model&is&one&which&seeks&export`driven¯oeconomic& development&at&the&expense&ofµ`level&communities&and&residents.&in&particular&the&vulnerable.& Cochrane.! The&Ethiopian&government&views&international&investment&and&land`lease&deals& as&means&to&achieve&economic&development.!the!international! community!and!local!residents!reacted!in!opposition.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Land&grabs&pose&a&major&challenge&to&nations&despite&their& efforts&to&develop.!2011b.!Rivo!and!Raphael.&and&that&land&sales&“often& deprived&local&people.!not!only!do!levels!of!poverty!and!food!insecurity!increase!but!so! too!may!political!instability.&of&their&rights…! Consultations.!if!conducted!at!all.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 364& .!2011).!Mathidle.!Web.edu/jha/archives/1241>.!"Food!Security!Or!Food!Sovereignty:!The!Case!Of!Land!Grabs.!resulting!in!the!government! being!overthrown!(Perrine.!The&World&Bank&concludes&that&the&risks&involved& with&such&land`lease&investments&are&immense.tufts.1).!p.!In!Madagascar.& particularly&those&in&remote®ions.&Ethiopian&officials&seem&to&use& interchangeably&the&terms&‘empty’&and&‘unused’&with&the&word&‘uncultivated’.& with&little&or&no&reference&at&all&to&the&people&who¤tly&live&on&and&use& those&lands.!May!07.!2011.3!million! hectares!of!agricultural!lands!were!going!to!be!sold!to!Daewod.!Logan.!February!03.!Thus. !Antonio.!February!03.&you&need&food&sovereignty.&A&new&effort!underway!to!deepen!food!activism!focuses&on&a& more&radical&idea:!The!concept!of!food&sovereignty.! In&the&global&North.! 2011.&much&of&the&past&20&years&of&activism&has&framed&the&concept& of&“food&security”&as&the&right&of&all&people&to&have&enough&food&to&avoid&hunger& and&malnutrition.!2015.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty.!May!07.!<http://civileats.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&security&can’t&solve."!Civil!Eats.&We’ll&never&be&able&to&resolve&the&environmental&and&social&abuses& of&industrial&agriculture&without&changing&who&controls&the&food&system.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 365& .&The&global&food&sovereignty& movement&is&making&the&case&that&reform&of&the&food&system&will&be&insufficient& if&it&does¬&democratize&and&make&more&transparent&the&means&of&food& production.& RomanYAlcalá.!Web. !but!what&about&the&quality&of&that& food?&What&about&the&way&that&people&are&treated&in&the&process&of&producing& that&food?&What&about&the&cultural&traditions&of&food!that!are!left!aside!in!a!purely! calorieYcounting!concept!of!“food!security”?!Zavala!says!that!perhaps!the&biggest& inadequacy&of&the&food&security&concept&is&that&it&fails&to&address&“who&decides& what&the&food&system&is.!certainly.!2015.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.&or&the&cultural& importance&it&holds&to&communities.& RomanYAlcalá.!May!07.!<http://civileats.”! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 366& .!February!03.&It&doesn’t&address&who&is&driving&or&controlling&the& global&food&system&or&the&lack&of&decision`making&power&among&people&to&decide& what&food&system&they&want.&but&it&fails&to&consider&many&other&facets&of&food&like&the& ways&it&is&produced.&the&social&relationships&it&relies&on.!program!manager!of!grassroots!alliances!at!International! Development!Exchange!(IDEX).NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&security&is&anti`democratic&compared&to&food& sovereignty.! 2011.!Web.”! !! Having!enough!to!eat!is!important.! As!Katherine!Zavala.!explains!it:!“Food&security&might&focus&on&hunger&as&a& human&rights&issue.!a!San!FranciscoYbased!organization!that!supports!food! justice!in!the!Global!South."!Civil!Eats.!Antonio.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty. ! He!says:!“Food&sovereignty.”!!That!“taking&part”&is&what&distinguishes&food&security&from& food&sovereignty.&But&because&food& sovereignty&as&a&concept&argues&that&food&systems&are&determined&by&political& and&economic&conditions.com/2013/05/29/fromYfoodY securityYtoYfoodYsovereignty/>.&they’re&mostly&thinking&about&the&bottom&line.!Zavala!reminds! us.!Yes.! 2011.!Web.!2015.!!Direct! action!approaches!like!Occupy!the!Farm!may!not!be!enough.&is&about&rights.! and!communities&should&have&to&take&part&in&effecting&those&conditions."!Civil!Eats.!providing!food!for!people!in!need!is!essential.!May!07.!of!course.!“Those&that&are&in&positions&of&government&and&economic&power&are& restricting&these&alternative&food&system&models.!It!is!also! about!how!we!can!use!foodYbased!activism!to!transform!the!political!and!economic! system!we!live!in.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&is&about&providing&people&the&capacity&to& take&part&in&the&decisions&affecting&them.!<http://civileats.!Even!planting!gardens!in!urban!areas! (full!disclosure:!my!area!of!employment!)!doesn’t!amount!to!food!sovereignty.!And!if!we!all! created!our!own!food!systems.&like&food&security.& RomanYAlcalá.&They’re¬&thinking&about& feeding&people.!Antonio.!because.!"From!Food!Security!To!Food!Sovereignty.!it’s!about!the!rights!we!as!eaters.!how!would!they!profit?”! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 367& .&and&what&makes&food&sovereignty&such&a&compelling&and& important&idea.!citizens.!but!a! soup!kitchen!a!food!bank!or!a!Supplemental!Nutrition!Assistance!Program!(SNAP)! card!is!not!enough!to!create!food!sovereignty.!February!03. !"Food!Sovereignty!As!A!Way!To!Achieve!Food!Security.&the&other&defining&the&way&to&realize& it.!February!03.!It!is!now!an!increasingly! used!concept!in!the!development!debate!seeking!more!control!over!food!production.!and!consumption.org/en/articles/foodYsovereigntyYwayYachieveYfoodY security/>.&peasants&and& other&food&producers&and&civic&organizations&to&see&their&domestic&food&markets& subject&to&the&vagaries&of&international&market&forces.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&solves&security&and&is&hostile&to&market& forces.!There&is&a&difference&between&food&security&and&food& sovereignty.!Christine.!Food!security!means!that!all!people!have!physical!and!economic!access!to!basic! food!at!all!times.! trade.& Maritzová.&the&first&one&setting&the&goal.! <http://glopolis.!May!07.!Web.!as!defined!by!the!United!Nations."!EcoFair! Trade!Dialogue!project.!2015.!2011.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 368& .! The¬ion&of&food&sovereignty&is&rooted&in&the&refusal&of&farmers. e.!May!07.!February!03.!This&is&where&food&sovereignty.!2011.! <http://glopolis.!to! produce!sufficient!and!adequate!food!or!to!raise!sufficient!income!to!buy!food.e.&comes&to&the&forefront&as&it&is&a&policy&framework&that& underlines&the&right&of&nations&and&their&people&to&define&their&own&food& production&systems!(production.!Christine."!EcoFair! Trade!Dialogue!project.!2015.!rules!regarding!tariffs!and!domestic!supports.!especially!in!Africa!(approximately!80%!of! Africa’s!poor!live!in!rural!areas).!distribution.!which!in! turn!is!induced&by&poverty.&a&concept&born& from&civic&mobilization.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& The&only&way&to&provide&security&is&through&alleviating& poverty&and&that&can&only&happen&through&food& sovereignty.& Maritzová.!which!are!decided!within! trade!policies!(especially!through!the!World!Trade!Organization.&the&specificity&of&small`scale&agriculture&must&be& recognized&as&being&the&main&source&of&income&and&livelihood&for&the&poor&in& several&developing&countries.!i.!It!is!thus!not!possible!to!fully!realize! food!sovereignty!without!controlling!the!main!determinants!of!agricultural!policies! today.!Web.&For&that&to&happen.org/en/articles/foodYsovereigntyYwayYachieveYfoodY security/>.!i.& Poverty&eradication&is&thus&a&key&factor&in&the&achievement&of&household&food& security.!Poverty!makes!people!unable!to!feed!themselves.!"Food!Sovereignty!As!A!Way!To!Achieve!Food!Security.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 369& .! The&main&determinant&of&food&insecurity&is&the&vulnerability&of&people.!and!consumption)!without!having!to! depend!on!the!fluctuating!international!markets. !Richard.!2007.!January!03.!11.!improved! access!to!productive!resources!and!the!implementation!a!human!right!to!food.!Web.!"Food!Security!And!Food!Sovereignty."!Centre!for!Rural!Economy! Discussion!Paper!Series!No.!that!the!four!pillars!of!the!framework!can!not!be!isolated!from!each!other! and!that!reform&of&food&and&agricultural&requires&fundamental&change.!This!has!attracted!criticism!from!the!food!sovereignty! movement!–!underpinned!by!a!rejection!of!potential!political!alignments!with!the! leaders!of!Western!nations!–!by!failing!to!combine!the!protection!of!national!markets! (under!the!trade!and!food!pillar)!with!a!change!to!production!models.!Although&this&apparent&contradiction&is&an&important&concept&in&the&food& sovereignty&framework.& Lee.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 370& .! <http://www.people.! Concern&over&the&'mutation&of&the&meaning'&of&food&security&around&agricultural& trade&liberalisation&is&an&important&element&of&food&sovereignty!(see!IUF.pdf>.!Steve!Suppan!of!the!Institute! for!Agriculture!and!Trade!Policy!points!out!that!the!configuration!of!agricultural! policy!and!commodity!prices!is!disproportionally!determined!by!international!trade.&focus&upon&international&trade&is¬&considered& sufficient.edu/~anirtak/foodsov_vs_foodsec.!February!03.&In!a! speech!to!the!World!Congress!of!Young!Farmers!in!2003.!Jacques!Chirac!aligned!food! sovereignty!to!the!argument!for!increased!national!selfYsufficiency!and!the! development!of!local!farming.! given!that!only!10%!of!world!food!production!is!traded!internationally!(Suppan.! 2003).! In!a!paper!on!food!sovereignty!and!trade!liberalisation.ku.!2002).&Advocates&of&food&sovereignty&stress&that&the&framework&is&a&'total& package'.!2015.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Ensuring&food&sovereignty&is&more&than&just&criticizing&neo` liberalism. !<https://ew.!February!06.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&is&a&conceptual&alternative&to&top`down& food&security&programs.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 371& .&peoples&and&states&to&independently& determine&their&own&food&and&agricultural&policies.!2012."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.! Web.! The!concept!of!food&sovereignty&stems&from&the&international&farmers’& movement!‘‘La!Via!Campesina’’2!and!was.!TinaD.uniY hohenheim.pdf>.!The&aim&has&been&to&strengthen&peasants3&and&their&smallholder& agriculture&in&order&to&enhance&their&political&participation&in&national&and& international&arenas&and&their&autonomy.!It& refers&to&the&right&of&communities.!February!01.& Beuchelt.!civil!society! organizations!(CSOs)!and!nonYgovernmental!organizations!(NGOs)!have!readily! integrated!the!concept!into!their!terminology!and!have!contributed!to!its!further! development.!Social!movements.!introduced!in!1996!when!La!Via! Campesina!published!its!manifesto!‘‘Food!Sovereignty:!A!future!without!hunger’’! during!the!NGO/CSO!forum!held!parallel!to!the!World!Food!Summit!(see!Table!2).!2015.!as!a!term.!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which! Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger! And!Poverty!Reduction?.&poverty&eradication&and&food&security.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.&and&to&contribute&towards&rural& development. ! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 372& .!By!way!of! simplification.!TinaD.&environmentally&friendly&and&sustainable&agriculture.!agriculture!and!rural!development!should! be!pursued!to!guarantee!food!security!for!a!national!and!global!population.!<https://ew.!Food&sovereignty&upholds&the&model&of&a&smallholder` dominated.uniY hohenheim.! Web.!2015.!February!06.! The!concept!of!food&sovereignty&aims&to&ensure&the&survival&and&well`being&of& smallholder&food&producers&and&peasants.&who&have&been!largely!neglected! or!excluded&from&broader&processes&of&development.pdf>.!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which! Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger! And!Poverty!Reduction?.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.& Beuchelt."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.!February!01.&involving&large& farm&holdings&and&dominated&by&international&corporations.!The!concept!of!food!sovereignty!raises!the!elementary! question!of!which!type!of!food!production.!there&are&two&contrasting&models&of&agriculture:!the!first!is!one! suggested!by!the!concept!of!food!sovereignty!while!the!second!is!the!current! neoliberal!free!trade!model.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&gives&rights&to&farmers&rather&than&control& to&the&governments&and&corporations.!2012.!La!Via!Campesina!argues! that!smallholder&farmers&should!play!a!more!dominant!role!in!agricultural!policies! which!can!only!be!achieved!if!local!communities!have&better&access!to!and!control& over&productive&resources&and&more&social&as&well&as&political& influence!(Desmarais!2008).& This&is&in&contrast&to&the!neoliberal!free!trademodel&of&industrialized&agriculture& based&on&intensive&chemical&inputs&and&agricultural&exports.&locally`based. !and!the!excluded.!February!01.!Article!2(1)!and!Article!11(2a)!of!the!ICESCR!were!to!be! understood!in!such!a!way!that!governments!should!give!priority!to!smallholders!and! peasant!agriculture!providing!access!to!productive!resources!when!peasants! constitute!the!hungry!and!poor!of!the!population!and!no!alternative!income!sources! are!available!(FAO!2005.!Another!example!of!the!overlap!between!the!two! concepts!is!the!focus!on!smallholders!and!peasant!agriculture.!In&an&analytical&comparison&of&the& declaration&Food&Sovereignty:!A!Right!For!All!of!the!NGO/CSO!Forum!for!Food! Sovereignty!(2002)!and&the&ICESCR.&Otherwise&it&strives&for&the&same& goals."!Agriculture!and!Human!Values.!it&can& be&seen&as&including&the&idea&of&people’s&empowerment(Mechlem!2004).!as&does& the&concept&of&food&sovereignty.!In!addition.pdf>.!Although!not!directly! mentioned!in!the!ICESCR.!TinaD.!the&other&two&to&patents& on&seeds.!The!first!aspect! refers!to!corporate&ownership&of&productive&resources.& Beuchelt.!2015.! Web.!the!legal! approach!entails&a&large°ree&of&overlap&with&the&target&group&of&food& sovereignty&but!also!goes!further!to!include!any!vulnerable!group.!and!pays!particular!attention! to!nonYdiscrimination!…![and]!attempts!to!give!‘voice’!to!all!people’’.&and&animals&as&well&as&the&use&of&GMOs&in&agriculture.!the!marginalised.!Haugen!2009).!2012.!Thus.! According!to!Mechlem!(2004:!646).!The!final!difference!is!in!the!validity!of!the! Champion)Briefs) 373& .&plants.!Haugen!(2009)!found!that!the&majority&of&the& elements&are&similar&in&both&concepts&except&for&three&aspects.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/fsc/Research_publications/Beuchelt_a nd_Virchow_Agric_Human_Values_2012.!February!06.!the&right&to&adequate&food!‘‘focuses!on! vulnerable!groups.!The& concept&of&food&sovereignty&calls&for&a&ban&on&both.!<https://ew.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&has&specific&policy&goals&that&separate&it& from&food`based&rights.uniY hohenheim.!while!the!ICESCR!does!not! make!anyexplicit!statement!(Table!3).!"Food!Sovereignty!Or!The!Human!Right!To!Adequate!Food:!Which! Concept!Serves!Better!As!International!Development!Policy!For!Global!Hunger! And!Poverty!Reduction?. !the!concept!of!food!sovereignty!is!only!part!of!national!law!in!a!very!few! countries.!and! thus!binding.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& concept.!while!the!right!to!adequate!food!is!a!national!and!international!right.! Champion)Briefs) 374& . !Trade&treaties&have&caused& cheap&and&subsidized&food&to&flood&international&markets.&privatization.biasfree.!Madeley.!Rosset.!2015.!2007.!In&India."!Review!of!Disability!Studies:!An!International!Journal! Volume!5.!2007a.!food&security&was& a¢ral&objective&of&economic&planning.!2002.! <http://www.& Hiranandani.! 2007b).& evidence&suggests&that&tens&of&thousands&of&small`scale&and&subsistence&farmers& have&been&pushed&off&the&land!(Sharma.!2006.!!!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 375& .! 2002.pdf#page=15!>.!Rosset.&in&recent&decades&neo`liberal& globalization&in&the&form&of&international&rules&that&encompass&trade& liberalization.!such!as! the!Agreement!on!Agriculture!(AoA)!and!the!TradeYrelated!Aspects!of!Intellectual! Property!Rights!(TRIPs)!have&forced&“developing&countries”&to&open&their& agricultural§or&to&global&agribusinesses&and&to&replace&traditional&farm& saved&seeds&with&genetically&engineered&seeds&(which&are&non`renewable&and& thus&require&repurchase&for&each&growing&season).3!!Trade&and&seed&patenting&policies.!Issue!3.! In&several&countries!that!gained!independence!from!colonialism.&thereby&devastating& local&small`scale&farmers!(IATP.!February!06.!Besides.!Poverty!And!Food!Sovereignty:!Advancing!The! Human!Security!Agenda.!2006).!Sainath.!2006).NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Trade&liberalization&has&led&to&less&food&security¬&more.!2002.!Vanmala.!2009!.&However.!2006).!2000).!Web.!with!the!decline!in!rural! credit!by!nationalized!banks.!Madeley.org/operation.!Countries&such&as&India&have& witnessed&an&epidemic&of&farmer&suicides!since!1997!(Jeromi.!and!the!use!of!genetically&engineered&seeds&have& transformed&agricultural&practices&and&rural&livelihoods&everywhere&(Desmarais.!"Disability.!farmers!are!forced!to!borrow!loans!at!exorbitant!interest! rates!from!private!moneylenders!(Hardikar. ! February!06.!2011.!"Food!Price!Volatility!And!The!Right!To!Food.! <http://www.!Web.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&requires&local&investment&which&means&that&local& sovereignty&is&key.!2015."!Right!to!Food.&this&production&increase&has&to&be&sustainable&and&focus&on&public& efforts&for&poor&smallholder&farmers&and&agricultural&wage`workers4! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 376& .pdf!>.! !!In&a&context&of&soaring&food&prices&any&structural&answer&to&food&price&volatility& must&be&linked&to&re`investment&in&the&agricultural§or.& FAO.org/fileadmin/templates/righttofood/documents/RTF_public ations/EN/issuesbrief_PRICEvolatility_EN.fao.&Under!a!rights! perspective. !http://www.!29 ).!"The!Food!Crisis!And!The!Struggle!For!Food!Sovereignty.waronwant.!29).& it&concentrates&on&the&simple&fact&that&people&have&enough&food&to& eat&rather&than&a&problem&that&address&the&needs.!As!such.pdf! p.&more&people&than&ever&are&classified&as&food&poor!(add!numbers).com/story/2011/11/27/1040252/YAntiYCapitalistY MeetYupYTheYFoodYCrisisYandYTheYStruggleYforYFoodYSovereignty>.!2!as!cited!in! http://www.&neither&the&control&of&people&of&what&they&eat.& It&addresses&the&problem&of&food&provision&as&a&social&welfare&problem&but&does& not&address&where&it&is&produced.! Food)security&is&the&dominant&mainstream&approach&to&dealing&with&poverty&and& hunger.org/attachments/Food! sovereignty!report.&As&is&often&the&case.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&is&conceptually&distinct&from&food&security.&NGOs& and&inter`governmental&agencies&in&collusion&with&MNCs!(both!in!the!centre!and! peripheral!countries).!2015.”There&are&many&problems&with&the&above&approach.!Rome:!!UN!Food!and!Agriculture! Organisation!( FAO ).&Food&insufficiency&is& treated&as&something&which&can&be&addressed&through&aid&and&free&trade&rather& than&deriving&out&of&the&political&and&economic&choices&of&governments.!2003.dailykos.! The¬ion&of&food) Champion)Briefs) 377& .&who&produces&it&or&the&conditions&under&it&is& produced!(see.!February!07.!International!Development!agencies!have!been!advocating.&demands&and&control&over&the& production&of&food.&at&all×.&social&and&economic&access&to&sufficient&safe&and&nutritious&food&which& meets&their&dietary&needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy& life!(Trade'Reforms'and'Food'Security:'Conceptualizing'the'linkages.&how&food&is&produced.!the!IMF.!Clearly!the!current!system!is!not!working:& irrespective&of&increased& food&production.&have& physical.! Even!worse.!the!reasons!for!food!poverty!stem!from!the!very!policies!that!Aid!Agencies.& In&this&case.org/attachments/Food!sovereignty!report.!Web.pdf.!p.&This&term&is&defined&as&existing&“when&all&people.!Ny.&this&approach&tends&to&view&neoliberal& free&trade&as&a&way&of&ensuring&that&the&needs&of&the&population&for&food&are&met.!4Y 27Y11.!World' Bank."!The!Daily!Kos.waronwant.!ch.& nor&the&needs&of&a&population&are&the¢ral&concern.! <http://www.& Brit. &From&the&acceptance&of&the& right&of&people&to&food.&calls&for&land&reform&to&ensure&equal& access&to&land! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 378& .p.org/attachments/Food!sovereignty! report.pdf.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& sovereignty&was&defined&in&2007.&It&deliberately&addresses&the&problems& of&hunger&from&the&point&of&view&of&the&production&of&food&and&the&decisions&of& peasant&producers&and&local&consumers&in&achieving&control&of&food&production& and&distribution&(http://www.&reintroduce&domestic&food& production&under&the&hands&of&peasants.&it&is&able&to&directly&address&the&problems&that&we&are& seeing&where&food&production&and&agricultural&production&is&done&to&ensure& profits&rather&than&the&needs&of&people.!sanitation!and!energy).waronwant.!It&aims&to&eliminate&food&dependency&on&advanced&capitalist& countries&and&the&international&market&for&food.&It&begins&with&the&very&simple&acceptance&of&the& notion&of&the&right&to&food(water.!30). !and!Wiebe.! <http://www.!Web.!2010!and!Fairbairn.!09Y14Y2013.&food& cultures&and&environments”!(Wittman!et!al."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.! The&concept&of&food&sovereignty&emerged&from&La&Via&Campesina&in&the&mid` 1990s&as&a&critique&of&the&concept&of&food&security&and&a&critique&of&the&corporate& food®ime!(Wittman.&and&small&producers&to&challenge&the&global&neoliberal& food®ime.&Food&sovereignty&is&the&“right&of&nationals&and&people&to&control& their&own&food&systems.!Peasant!women!and!women! farmers!participated!in!the!food!sovereignty!movement!from!the!outset.&The&concept& of&food&sovereignty&is&more&fluid&and&nuanced&than&the&concept&of&food&security.!2010).yale.&farmworkers.!2010:2).&production&modes.!The!right!to!food!focuses!on!a!basic! right!to!food!for!all!people!which!supports!culturally!appropriate!and!healthy!food! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 379& .& which&has&been&carefully&defined&by&agricultural&institutions.! February!07.& Each&of&these&components&have&important&gender&dimensions.!2015.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&developed&as&a&criticism&of&food&security& and&is&key&to&female&empowerment.&which&have&often& been&raised&by&women&at&the&grassroots&level.&Several&of&the&key& components&of&food&sovereignty&are:&the&right&to&food.& Sachs. pdf>.&including&their&own&markets.&and&environmental&sustainability.&valuing&farmers&and& farmworkers.!Food& sovereignty!is!not!an!academic!concept!but&the&outcome&of&a&social&movement&of& peasants.&local&production&and&control.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.!Desmarais. &women.!and!farmworkers.&and&in&social&production&be&recognized&and&valued.&From&a&gender& perspective.&boys&and&girls&have& access&to&culturally&appropriate&and&healthy&food.!Carolyn.! <http://www.!Food! sovereignty!pushes!for!a!food!system!based!on!smallYscale!agriculture!rather!than! largescale!commodity!monocultural!systems.!food!producers.&for& the&family.yale.&the&right&to&food&implies&that&men.!The!second!component!of!food! sovereignty!values!farmers.&In&this&context&women’s&contribution& to&food&production&in&the&global&south&is&recognized.&Women&in&the&food& sovereignty&movement&insist&that&their&work&in&production&for&the&market.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.!Web.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&ensures&that&the&agricultural&work&that& women&do&in&LDCs&is&recognized&and&valued.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.!2015.& Sachs.!09Y14Y2013.!peasants. pdf>! The&focus&on&food&as&a&basic&right&is&a&strong&critique&of&the&neoliberal&food& regime&which&treats&food&only&as&a&global&commodity."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 380& .! February!07. ! <http://www.!Web.& Sachs.!Carolyn.!are!more!likely!to! use!sustainable!and!organic!agricultural!practices!(Trauger!et!al.!2009).NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Food&sovereignty&is&key&to&challenging&traditional&gendered& divisions&of&labor.&with&women&having&a&long&and&largely&unrecognized& history&of&seed&saving&and&plant&selection&in&many®ions&of&the&world.&A& complex&dilemma&here&is&how&to&value&women’s&contributions&to&household&and& local&food&provision&without&reinscribing&women’s&traditional&responsibility&for& food&provisioning.! February!07.!09Y14Y2013.!The!fourth! component!of!food!sovereignty!focuses!on!protecting!the!environment!and!reducing! greenYhouse!gas!emissions!with!a!commitment!to!end!agriculture’s!contribution!to! global!warming. pdf>! Knowledge&of&peasants&and&farmers&is&also&valued&by&food&sovereignty&advocates& in&contrast&to&the&privatization&of&plant&breeding&by&transnational&corporations.&Caro&(2013)&puts&forward&the&possibility&of&transforming&both& men’s&and&women’s&work&in&this&realm&through&gender&empowerment&to& challenge&women’s&sole&responsibility&for&food&at&the&household&level.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue.& women&in&rural&areas&are&more&likely&than&their&male&counterparts&to&produce&a& wider&diversity&of&crops&for&family&consumption&and&for&local&markets.!2015.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 381& .edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013.&Also.& Gender&issues&are&key&here.!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision.!Studies!have!shown!that!women!farmers!in!the!U."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.yale.S. !2011.!January!01.& and&speculation.!Peter.!as!I! have!written!elsewhere!(Rosset.!Web.& Rosset.!February!07.&All&of&these&can&only&be&achieved&with& the&kind&of¶digm&shift&that&only&social&movements&can&bring&about.!2009)&the&climate&crisis.!"Food!Sovereignty!And!Alternative!Paradigms!To!Confront!Land! Grabbing!And!The!Food!And!Climate!Crises.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 382& .!2008.! Only&food&sovereignty&based&on&genuine&agrarian&reform.&offers&a&real& alternative&to&the&multiples&crises&we&are&facing.pdf>.&Sustainable&peasant&agriculture&as&another&building& block&of&food&sovereignty&allows&us&to&survive&and&even&mitigate!(LaVia! Campesina.! <http://globalalternatives.!2009a.&and&the& defense&of&land&and&territory&against&land&grabbing.&Food&sovereignty.!b)!is&the&only&way&to&effectively& protect&national&food&economies&from&predatory&dumping."!Society!for!International! Development.org/files/RossetDevYFoodSovAltPar.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Only&a&food&sovereignty¶digm&can&stop&land&grabbing.!2015.&hoarding. !and!Wiebe!(2010)!and!Fairbairn!(2010).&and&ownership&of&resources&by&identifying& the&power&dimensions&inherent&in&food&and&agriculture!(Fairbairn!2010.&and& increasing&productivity&through&high`tech&approaches!(e.&food&sovereignty&highlights& peasant&solidarity."!Rural!Sociology.! According!to!Wittman.&and&(4)&encouraging&transnational&peasant& alliances&that&would&empower&peasant&movements&vis`à`vis&the&state.!February!09.&which&includes:&(1)&land&collectivization&through& radical&agrarian&reforms&with&a&strong&emphasis&on&cooperative&organizing.12011/abstract>.!<http://onlinelibrary.&including&their&own& markets.&further&liberalizing&food&and&agriculture.g.&(3)&supporting&local&agricultural&markets&that&would& promote&local&access&to&food.”!Efe!Can!Gürcan! (2011.&Such&a&partnership& rests&on&a&four`pillar&strategy.!food& sovereignty&emerged&as&a&counterframe&to&the&neoliberal&conception&of&food& security&that&champions&the&principles&of&keeping&the&markets&free&of& government&intervention.&(2)& socializing&participatory&urban&agricultural&practices&(in&light&of&growing&urban& rates&in&the&Third&World).&food&cultures&and&environments.!Wittman!et!al.&production&modes.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 383& .!2011.!Rejecting&the&neoliberal&approach&to&food&as&a®ular& commodity&and&to&peasants&as&atomized&individuals.!the!adoption!of! genetically!modified!seeds).!January!01.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency..wiley.& Otero.!Web.&collective&rights.!forthcoming)!has!argued!that!food!sovereignty!points!to!the!importance!of! state–social!movement!partnership!in!achieving!food!security.!(2010:2)!define&food&sovereignty&as&“the&right&of& nations&and&peoples&to&control&their&own&food&systems.1111/ruso.com/doi/10.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Net&benefit&to&food&sovereignty&over&food&security.!2010).! 2015.!Gerardo.!Desmarais.!Wittman! et!al. &politicised&the& corporate&food®ime.!This&perspective.! <http://www.& McMichael.&The&‘food&sovereignty’&perspective&critiques&the& narrative&of&de`peasantisation&and&its&enabling&policies.&La&Vı´a&Campesina.! ! Champion)Briefs) 384& .!Phil.!January!01.NEG:&Food&Sovereignty&K/PIC&& March/April&2015& Sovereignty&solves&better&for&food&crisis&than&security.!At&a&Food&Security& Summit&in&Rome&in&1996&the&substitution&of&‘sovereignty’&for&‘security’&was&a&way& in&which&the&international&peasant&coalition.gov/pubmed/21591303>.!emerged!in!the!early!1990s!as&a&direct&result&of&the&pressures&on&small& farming&cultures&across&the&world&stemming&from&the&privatisation&of&food& security.!"Food!Security!Politics!And!The!Millennium!Development!Goals.nlm.&and&advocates& protection&of&peasant&farming&as&a&social&and&environmental&necessity&in& promoting&food&security&across&the&world.!2015.!February!09.nih.&so&the&response&by& the&‘food&sovereignty’&movement&has&been&to&offer&an&alternative&interpretation& of&the&problem.!2011.! Just&as&the&official&response&to&the&food&crisis!(an!expression!of!the!more! fundamental!agrarian!crisis)!has&been&‘agribusiness&as&usual’.!and! movement."! Third!World!Quarterly.!via!the!political!mechanisms!of!trade!liberalisation!and!the!belief!in!the! ability!of!transnational!food!corporations!to!‘feed!the!world’.&with&the&goal&now&of& incorporating&small&farmers&into&global&commodity&markets.!Web.&and&the&solution.ncbi. !The! exclusion!of!affected!people!from!planning!the!reconstruction!process!and!the! performances!of!posturing!have!undermined!their!selfYesteem.&By& degrading&those&people&affected&by&the&tsunami&to&bare&victims.sciencedirect.!1998)!–!the!‘‘pure’’! victims!of!nature’s!force.&just&in&the&process&of&handing&over.!Benedikt.&we&can&see&the&‘‘poison’’&of&generous& gifts&as&a&symbolic&expression&of&domination.&bare& victims.!profession! or!identity!other!than!this!fuzzy!victimhood.& Korf.! February!06.!43)!–!or!a!bare!victim!–!without!citizenship!rights.!Slavoj!Zizek!captures!this!paradox!when! he!asserts!that!one!is!deprived!of!human!rights!when!one!is!reduced!to!a!‘‘bare’’! human!being!(2005.!Web.&It&is&here&that&the&humiliation&happens&–&it&is¬&the& tsunami&that&made&these&persons&‘‘victims’’."!Geoforum!38!(2007)!366–378.!2015.!Eye!on!Aceh!(2006)!reports!about!how!recipients!of!aid!felt!forced!into! passivity.!Here.!Victims&become&homo&sacer.&we&derail&them& from&their&political&rights&of&being&(equal)&compatriots.”!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 385& .& What&we&see&and&reproduce&is&a&kind&of&‘‘bare&life’’!(Agamben.!2007.&it&is&during&the&rituals&of&giving&and& of&brokering&aid&in&a&one`directional&way&that&they&become&victimised.!this!is!the!new!homo!sacer!of!Giorgio!Agamben!–! the!bare!victim!placed!outside!of!the!polity.&of&fellow&human&beings.& this&is&symbolised&in&the&rituals&of&giving&aid&in&ceremonies&of&‘‘handing&over’’& relief&items&to&‘‘victims’’.&of&reducing&those&persons&to& recipients&(and¬hing&beyond).!They!are!only!invited!to!become!active!when!they!have!to!return!the!gift!in! performing!the!rituals!of!gratefulness.! <http://www.!reducing!them!to!pure! passivity.NEG:&Gift&K& & March/April&2015& This&self`aggrandizing&motion&to&promote&humanity&through& aid&destroys&the&unique&value&to&these&people’s&lives.! &“Practices&in&the&aid&chain&have&had&humiliating&effects&for&local&agents.&In&theµ`politics&of&aid&giving.!In!a!sense.com/science/article/pii/S0016718506001242>.!"Antinomies!Of!Generosity.!p. ! But.!2015.!our& nation&has&become&a&food`stamp&plantation.!Food!Stamps!Find! Acceptance.!and!the&stigma!of! SNAP."!World!Net!Daily.!a&period&over&which&there&was&no&increase&in&the& rate&of&unemployment.!food!stamps.&Jeff&Sessions.com/2012/07/theYnewY americanYfoodYstampYplantation/>.!07Y13Y 2012..!food!stamps!is!not!welfare.!At!one!time!recipients! received!their!food!stamp!benefits!in!dollar!denominated!paper!vouchers!that!they! had!to!present!at!the!cash!register.!<http://www.!What!has!been!happening!is!that!it!has! become!increasingly!easy!to!qualify!for!SNAP!benefits.!The!most!compassionate!thing!that!can! Champion)Briefs) 386& .!points&out.!the&government&has& been!spending!more!taxpayer!funds!promoting&the&program.!Now!benefits!come!on!a!sharp!looking!electronic! debit!card!that!looks!like!any!credit!or!debit!card.!as!Sen.”&which!means!they! automatically!qualify!by!virtue!of!participating!in!some!other!federal!or!state!welfare! program.!“I!assure!you.”!According!to! CBO.!They!need!not!be!receiving!cash!benefits!from!these!programs.”!The!article!notes!posters!in!New!York!City!announcing!“Applying!for!food! stamps!is!easier!than!ever”!and!quotes!Eric!Bost.!Star.&But& CBO&attributes&only!about!65&percent!of!the!dramatic!growth!in!program!spending! and!the!number!of!recipients!to!the!recession.&is& a&proven&formula.!Web.!And!the&fact&that&SNAP&funds&are& provided&by&the&federal&government.!February!07.!saying.!Sadly.!Simply! having!received!an&information&pamphlet&can&be&enough.!RYAla.wnd.!From&2007&to&2011.&spending&increased&135&percent.& Parker.!as!in!Medicaid.!Bush.!spending!on!this!program!increased& 100&percent&from&2001&to&2006.!"The!New!American!FoodYStamp!Plantation.NEG:&Gift&K& & March/April&2015& Food&stamps&create&a&cycle&of&need&`&the&welfare&state&is&the& new&plantation.!A!New! York!Times!article!in!2010!carried!the!headline!“Once!Stigmatized.!being!perceived!as!a!welfare!program!has&disappeared.!three&fourths&of&recipients&are&“categorically&eligible.&but&administered&and&spent&by&the&states.!head!of!the!program!under!President! George!W.!for&undisciplined&spending&growth. NEG:&Gift&K& & March/April&2015& be!done!today!is!exactly!what!is!not!happening!–!economic!growth.!The!path!to!this!end!is!less.!government.!job!creation!and! getting!folks!to!work.!not!more.!! Champion)Briefs) 387& . &to&remain&in&the&place&of&his&birth.!Since&individual&charity&is& almost&unknown&in&a&country&of&organized&public&charity.".!dogs! his!every!step.!2015.!and.! Legal&charity&affects&the&pauper’s&freedom&as&much&as&his&morality.! ! Champion)Briefs) 388& .!"Memoir!On!Pauperism.&anyone&whose& misfortunes&or&vices&have&made&him&incapable&of&earning&a&living&is&condemned.!Web.& they!necessarily!owe&relief&only&to&the&poor&who&reside&in&their&jurisdiction.!This!is!easily! proved.& under&pain&of&death.! <http://www.!Through&their&Poor&Laws.!if!he!wants!to!establish!a!new!residence.& DeTocqueville.!man!was!forced!against!his!will!to!stay!on!the! land!where!he!was!born.!If!he!leaves.NEG:&Gift&K& & March/April&2015& State&charity&such&as&food&security&programs&just&make& recipients&lazy.!Alexis.!and!of! proportioning!it!to!the!means!of!those!who!must!bear!it.!This! is!the!only!fair!way!of!equalizing!the!public!burden!which!results!from!the!law.opengrey.!notes!his!arrival.&They&have&bound&it&to&the&earth& like&the&medieval&peasantry.!When!local!governments&are!rigorously!obligated!to!aid&the&indigent.&the&English& have&immobilized&a&sixth&of&their&population.!he!moves! through!enemy!territory.!NO!DATE.!infinitely!more!active! and!powerful!than!the!best!organized!national!police!could!be.!February!07.!Legal!charity!keeps!him!from!even!wishing!to!move.!informs!the!public! authority!who!takes!him!to!the!boundary!line.!The!private!interest!within!the!parish.!Then.eu/item/display/10068/418149>. !February!07.&competition& for&land.& Seo.!Food!Security!And!Climate!Change:!A!Vicious!Circle!In!The! Global.!notably!during!2007Y08![6].!Web.&foreign&governments.! <http://www.!Overall.!a!growth!that!would!require!the!increase!of!food!production!from! nearly!6!billion!tons!(gross)!to!9!billion!tons!by!2050![3].&sovereign&wealth& funds.com/books/humanYandYsocialYdimensionsYofY climateYchange/landYgrabYfoodYsecurityYandYclimateYchangeYaYviciousYcircleY inYtheYglobalYsouth>.!these!factors!have!driven!a!change!in!perspectives!of!land! ownership.!the!current!population!will!increase!worldwide!from!nearly!7!billion!to!over!9! billion!by!2050![2].!5].!"Land!Grab.! The&commercialization&of&public&land&in&the&Global&South.!2015.!11Y14Y2012.!Any!one!of!these!factors!will!likely!pose!significant! challenges.&are&certainly&to&be&considered&a&prominent&factor&in&the&list&of&significant& Champion)Briefs) 389& .NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&initiative&drive&up&demand&for&Big&Western& nations&to&exploit&the&global&south&by&land&grabing.&and&energy&will&only&intensify&along&with&the&need&to&reduce&the& many&negative&impacts&of&agriculture&to&the&environment![4.!has&increased&dramatically&in&recent&years&due&to&the& wide&spread&leasing&and&sale&of&land&to&foreign&companies&and&governments.intechopen.&These&land&deals&or& “land&grabbing”.&private&equity&firms&and&domestic&actors&to&buy&or& lease&large&tracts&of&land&outside&their&national&borders&[9].!Kihwan.&Furthermore.!by!the!growing! volatility!of!the!food!market!and!the!political!controversy!surrounding!the!use!of!grain! to!produce!biofuels![7.&water.!Global!food! security!has!been!further!strained.!Recent&trends&indicate&that&the&need&to&provide&food&and! energy!security&at&home&has&led&international&corporations.!8].!which!refers!to!the! medium!and!low!human!development!based!on!the!United!Nations!development! program!report!2005![1].!but!the!sum!of!all!of!them!could!constitute!a!major!threat!to!land! ownership.&The& main&goal&of&these&investors&is&to&secure&food&and&energy&production&for&their& populations&as&multiple&factors&threaten&their&food&security&at&home.!On!the!one! hand."!Earth!and!Plantetary!Sciences:!Human!and!Social!Dimensions!of! Climate!Change.&as&labeled&by&many&Non`Governmental&Organizations&and&the& media. &especially&in&southern& hemisphere&continents.NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC& & March/April&2015& drivers&of&land&change&in&certain&parts&of&the&globe.! Champion)Briefs) 390& . &The&land&grab&trend&portends&dispossession&of&indigenous&populations.!"Regulating!Land!Grabs:!Third!Party!States.!02Y13Y2014.&extermination&of&endangered&species.ssrn.5!and!promises!to!be!of!increasing!concern!in!other!fields.cfm?abstract_id=2395461>.!To!these!people.NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC& & March/April&2015& Land&Grabbing&is&a&new&means&for&Western&nations&to& institute&neo`colonialism&in&the&Global&South.!2015.&ruthless&pursuit&of&profit.&It&is&an&issue& that&has&already&gained&a&certain&prominence&on&the&agenda&of&human&rights& activists.com/sol3/papers.!and! the!modernization!of!agriculture.& and&contamination&or&depletion&of&water&supplies.!February!07.!Lea.&and&Latin&America."!Springer.!Social!Activism!And! International!Law.&for&some.! While!the!term!has!been!used!broadly!throughout&history.&and&capitalism&run& amok.&entrenchment&of&chronic&hunger.& Brilmayer.7&But&others&see&only&the& “invisible&hand”&of&neocolonialism.&Asia.! <http://papers.&is&a&story&of&easier&access&to&markets.& appropriation&of&ancestral&lands.improved!crop!yields.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 391& .!we!refer!to!the&large` scale&acquisitions&and&leases&of&land&following&the&Global&Food&Crisis(2007– 2008)!that&have&concentrated&in&Africa.!the!commodification!of!land!will! help!the!global!market!allocate!resources!optimally!to!maximize!global!food!output! (thereby!indirectly!lowering!price!and!benefiting!the!poor).!Web.&potentially& permanent&environmental°radation.!as!well.6!“Land& grabs”. &Parkinson’s& disease.& Loo.! Gottlieb!and!Joshi!(2010)!point!to!events!such!as!farm&workers&being&housed&in& crowded&unsanitary&conditions.&forced&to&work&at&gunpoint."!Springer.! <http://link.&for&an&agricultural&worker&employed&by&a&contractor&the&average& annual&income&was&even&less:&$5.!those&who&performed& most&of&the&labor&necessary&to&grow&the&majority&of&the&food&for&the&American& food&system&are&unable&to&adequately&feed&themselves&or&their&families.!in&California&between&1991&and&2001.! ! Champion)Briefs) 392& .000.&While&farm& workers&are&often&routinely&exposed&to&hazardous&chemicals&and&perform& strenuous&physical&labor&exposing&them&to&risk&of&injury.&and&being&at&much&higher&risk&of&asthma.500.&the& average&annual&income&of&an&agricultural&worker&employed&directly&by&a&farmer& was&$8.springer.!Clement.! According!to!Brown!and!Getz!(2011).&and&cancer&due&to&various&chemical&exposures.!farm&workers& also&experienced&both&poor&conditions&and&unstable&work&schedules.!In!addition!to!such!lowYincome.!With!so!little!pay.!Indeed.!"Towards!A!More!Participative!Definition!Of!Food!Justice.!For!example.! almost!oneYinYtwo!farm!workers!have!been!found!to!be!food!insecure!at!some!point!in! any!given!year!(Brown!and!Getz!2011).com/article/10.! December!01.&made&sterile&from& exposure&to&pesticides.!Gottlieb!and!Joshi!2010).!February!08.!2014.1007%2Fs10806Y014Y9490Y2>.!Web.!2015.&they&often&have&no& access&to&health&care!(Brown!and!Getz!2011.NEG:&Individual&Rights&NC& & March/April&2015& Labor&workers&who&supply&food&are&often&underpaid&and& overworked. ! SNAP!is!the!federal!government’s!largest!food&assistance&program.!This!is!$36!billion!more!than!in!FY!2008.! Benefits!are!mostly!determined!by!the!financial!status!of!the!household.!2427.!shortYterm!assistance! program.!Web.!including!the! value!of!any!income!and!assets.!and!recipients!are!generally!limited!to!those!who!are! at!or!below!130!percent!of!the!poverty!line.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&programs&create&a&state&of&long`term& dependence&for&the&population.& Bradley.!Although&nearly&all&food&stamp& households&contain&working`age&adults.!December! 01."!Backgrounder.&few&of&these&individuals&are& employed.!half&of&food&stamp&aid&goes&to& individuals&who&have&received&aid&for&8.)!Over!the! life!of!the!program.!February!06.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:! Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps.!2014.!The!new!enrollment!numbers!for!February!2010! show!that!nearly!40!million!people!are!receiving!food!stamps.!It!is&a&quasi` entitlement!that!pays!states!for!nearly!every!person!who!enrolls!in!the!program.pdf>.!The&program&fosters&a&pattern&of&longterm&dependence.5&years&or&more.!Katherine.!and!spending!has! skyrocketed!over!the!past!two!years.! <http://countyofnebraska.org/research/entitlements.13!Spending!on!food! stamps!is!expected!to!rise!to!$75!billion!in!2011!according!to!the!President’s!budget! for!FY!2011.!Enrollment&has&grown&to&39& million&people&as&of&January&2010.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 393& .!No.12!(See!Chart!4.!2015.!the!number!of!recipients!has!grown!steadily.!While!the!food! stamp!program!is!commonly!misperceived!as!a!temporary.!in!reality!the&majority&of&food&stamp&recipients&at&any&given&time&are&or& will&become&long`term&dependents.!In!fact. !Benefits&from&multiple&programs&should&be& tied&together&as&a&package.!the&caseload& nationally&fell&by&more&than&60&percent&in&only&a&few&years.!2015.!to!have! at!least!40!percent!of!their!adult!population!engaged!in!some!kind!of!work!or!job! preparation!activity.8& million&families&left&welfare&for&jobs&and&a&better&life.! <http://countyofnebraska.!Both!food&stamps!and!the! three!major!federal!housing!programscould&easily&be&reformed&along&the&same& lines&by&adding&similar&work&requirements.!Often.&and&the&beneficiary&should&be&required&to&work&or& prepare&for&work&as&a&condition&of&receiving&the&entire&package&of&aid.! One&of&the&most&important&elements&of&TANF&reform&that&led&to&success&was&the& addition&of&meaningful&work&requirements.!2427.!2014.& Bradley.!No.&More&than&2.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&should¬&be&a&right&unless&recipients&work& for&it.!Katherine.!States!were!required!to!reduce!caseloads.!or!some!combination!of!the!two.!States!that!failed!to!reduce! dependence!or!require!a!sufficient!portion!of!their!TANF!rolls!to!engage!in!workY related!activities!faced!fiscal!penalties.org/research/entitlements.!December! 01.!Web.!This!was!at!the!core!of!helping!to!move! families!off!of!welfare!and!into!jobs.pdf>.!As!a!result!of!these!provisions.!February!06."!Backgrounder.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 394& .!families!will!receive!benefits! simultaneously!from!several!programs.!There!is!no! reason!why!TANF!should!have!a!work!requirement!while!the!other!welfare!programs! are!treated!like!oldYstyle!entitlements.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:! Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps. pdf>.!The!parent!could!be! expected!to&repay!some!portion!of!the!loan!(perhaps!oneYthird)!at&some&future&time.!and!medical!care! received!by!ableYbodied!parents!and!their!children!as&a&loan.!2427.!food.! <http://countyofnebraska.!2015.!To!accomplish! this.! Both!custodial!and!noncustodial!parents!would!bear!some!responsibility!for!the! welfare!costs!of!their!children.!Web.&it&encourages&and&perpetuates&these& behaviors.!Because&the& welfare&state&buffers&individuals&from&the&financial&consequences&of&poor& decisions&and&self`destructive&behaviors.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& AT&Poverty:&A&right&to&any&welfare&benefit&only&encourages& people&to¬&work.!government&could&treat!the!means!tested!cash.!No.!and!intermittent.!OutYofYwedlock!childbearing!and!single!parenthood!form!the!foundation! of!most!child!poverty!and!welfare!dependence!in!American!society.!February!06.!"Confronting!The!Unsustainable!Growth!Of!Welfare!Entitlements:! Principles!Of!Reform!And!The!Next!Steps.org/research/entitlements.!2014.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 395& .!housing.!having! children!outside!of!marriage.!Katherine.!Particularly! important!is!the!widespread!nonYmarital!childbearing!that!pervades!most!lowYincome! communities.! Poverty!and!welfare!dependence!among!able!bodied!adults!is!largely!the&result&of& counterproductive&and&self`limiting&behaviors:!dropping!out!of!school.!haphazard!employment.!December! 01."!Backgrounder.!One&way&to&alter&the!welfare!incentive&system&is&to&make&potential& welfare&recipients&more&aware&of&and&responsible&for&the&financial&costs& resulting&from&imprudent&decisions!and!behaviors.!Welfare!must!be!revolutionized!to!increase!the!incentives!for!constructive! behaviors!while!limiting!the!rewards!for!behaviors!that!generate!poverty!and! dependence.& Bradley. !Graham.org/1967_food_banks/2002%20Riches%20food% 20banks.!Human!Rights!And! Social!Policy.& Riches.!Some!294.!718.pdf>.!6.! <http://historyofsocialwork.!these!figures! may!well!include!double!counting.334&people&living&in&Canada!(2.!"Food!Banks!And!Food!Security:!Welfare!Reform.!The!CAFB!estimates!that!almost&60&per¢&of&households& accessing&food&banks&were&families&with&children.!Web.!36.& are&significant&users&of&food&banks&and&that&food&poverty&is&as&much&a&problem& for&families&as&it&is&for&unemployed&individuals.25!million!people!in!1989!and!more! than!twice!that!number!in!1997!(Theriault!and!Yadlowski).516!(41!per!cent)!of! these!food!bank!users!were!children!and!young!people!under!the!age!of!18!years! despite!the!fact!that!this!age!group!includes!25!per!cent!of!the!Canadian!population! (Wilson!and!Tsoa!2001).!As!the!report!itself!notes.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&banks&help&millions&every&year.!it!is! important!to!realize!that!in!1989!an!allYparty!resolution!in!the!House!of!Commons! committed!itself!to!the!eradication!of!child!poverty!in!Canada!by!the!year!2000.!Vol.!and!more!reliable!data!were!not!available!until!the! CAFB!commenced!its!annual!hunger!count!survey!in!March!1997.&and&particularly&single&mothers.!The!most!recent! survey!reports!that!in&2001.! Food!banks!in!Canada!provided!assistance!to!1.!Lessons!From!Canada?."!Social!Policy!and!Administration.!What! these!figures!suggest!is!that!women&as&mothers.!December!12.!However.!2015.4!per!cent!of!the! population)!used&a&food&bank&in&March&of&that&year.!2001.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 396& .! No.!February!07. pdf>.!December!12.&local& church`run&social&agencies&which&both&collect&donated&foods&and&hand&out& groceries!or!provide!meals!to!hungry!people.!Graham.!Some!food!banks!purchase!foods!when!running!low! while!others!rely!entirely!on!donated!products.!However.!Others&are&small.& storing&and&distributing&surplus&food!(donated/shared).!however!they!are! defined.!the!Greater!Vancouver!Food!Bank!or!the! system!of!Moissons!in!Quebec!are&large&coordinating&food&collection&and& distribution&clearing&houses&which&provide&food&to&emergency&feeding& programmes.!it!would!be!unwise!to!consider!this! description!as!definitive!in!that!organizations!in!Canada.!Even!the!large!food!banks!may!deal! directly!with!people!needing!food.& Riches.!However.!36.! <http://historyofsocialwork.!Human!Rights!And! Social!Policy.! No.!which!describe!themselves!as!food&banks&vary&in&their&aims&and& objectives.!Some!engage!in!advocacy!and!public! education!while!most!prefer!simply!to!provide!a!charitable!service!of!feeding!the! hungry.!2001.!Lessons!From!Canada?.”! Champion)Briefs) 397& .NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&banks&have&become&sophisticated&enough&to&handle& food&security&problems.! Food&banks&can!reasonably!be&defined&“as¢ralized!warehouses!or!clearing! houses!registered&as&non`profit&organizations&for&the&purpose&of&collecting.!Indeed.!it!has!recently!been!observed!that! while!they!were!first!established!to!provide!emergency!relief!for!those!in!need!of!food.!and!indeed!in!other! countries.! “years!later!they&have&become&an&integral&part&of&contemporary!Canadian!society.!6.!Vol.!are&now&big&business&in!Canada.!the!fact!of!the!matter!is!thatfood&banks.!"Food!Banks!And!Food!Security:!Welfare!Reform.!2015.!their!size!and!scope!and!in!their!roles!and!functions."!Social!Policy!and!Administration.!February!07.org/1967_food_banks/2002%20Riches%20food% 20banks.!free&of&charge!either! directly!to!hungry!people!or!to!front!line!social!agencies!which!provide!supplementary! food!and!meals”!(Riches!).Some!food!banks! such!as!Toronto’s!Daily!Bread!Food!Bank.&soup&kitchens&or&community&kitchens.!Web. pdf>.! If!opportunities.org/wpY content/uploads/2012/04/AfterYtheYWelfareYStateYPDF.&but&because&the&opportunities&to&produce&wealth&have&been& withheld&from&some.!For!example.!Web.! 2011.!Morality.&thus&making&the&society&as&a&whole&less&wealthy!than!it!would!have!been!in! the!absence!of!rentYseeking!behavior.!<https://studentsforliberty.¬&because&a&sum&of&“socially&created”&wealth&has&been& divided&unfairly.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& Any&state&mandated&welfare&program&leads&to&inherently& unfair&practices.!November!30.!are&unequally&distributed.!If!freedom!to!produce!is!unequal.!"Poverty.!February!07.!2015.!holdings!of!wealth!will!also!be! unequal.!recipients&of&state&grants&of&monopoly&can&charge&higher& prices&in&the&absence&of&competition&and&reap&monopoly&rents&as&a&consequence."!After!the!Welfare!State.!TomG.& Palmer.!Classical! liberals!have!emphasized!that!every&act&of&production&is&itself&an&act&of& distribution.! as!resources&are&diverted&to&rent`seeking&itself&and&away&from&production&of& value.!who!as!a!consequence!are!able!to!produce!less.!diminishes!the!aggregate!of!wealth!produced.!understood!as!freedoms&to&engage&in&voluntary&activities!to!create! wealth.&it&is&likely&that&that&will&entail&an&unequal& distribution&of&wealth.!And!Liberty.!in!the!process.! a!process!(now!known!as!rentYseeking)!that!both!transfers!wealth!from!one!party!to! another!and.1! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 398& . !February! 08.!2011.!Because&the& foodregime&argument&takes&a&worldwide&perspective&on&capital&accumulation&in& food&and&agriculture.&we& need&to&first&clearly&decipher&its¢ral&dynamic&factors&in&order&to&then& identify&its&chief&antagonisms&and&transformative&elements.NEG:&Libertarian&NC& & March/April&2015& If&emerging&markets&are&dependent&on&larger&countries.com/doi/10.!2015.wiley.!Gerardo.!<http://onlinelibrary.!Web.!November!30.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency.&then&a&much&more&dire&outcome&can&be&expected&for& smaller&developing&countries.&in&which&it&sees&systematic&divisions&and&dependency& between&North&and&South.! How!are!we!to!characterize!the!food!regime!emerging!from!the!new!regulatory! configuration!that!places!trade!at!center!stage!in!achieving!food!security?!Any! theoretical!characterization!of!the&emergent&food®ime&would!have!to!fulfill&at! least!two&analytical&requirements:&It&must&contribute&both&to&enhancing&our& knowledge&and&understanding&of&reality&and&pointing&toward&the&basis&on&which& it&can&be&transcended&in&a&progressive&direction&to&reduce&or&eliminate&food& vulnerability&and&ensure&true&food&security.!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 399& .12011/abstract>.!To&characterize&the&food®ime.1111/ruso.!The!point!is!to!make!it!as!hard!as!possible!to!falsify!the!dependency! assumptions!of!worldYsystems!theory:!If&even&these&emerging&markets&are&indeed& dependent&on&the&North.&we&explore&the&data&for&two&advanced&capitalist& countries&in&comparison&with&a&few&developing&but&“emerging”&countries&from& the&South.& Otero."!Rural!Sociology.&their& growth&is&stunted. !Supposing!a!liberty!of!changing!in!the!case!of!an! unfortunate!choice.!that!population.!In&the&United!States!of!America.& Malthus.!from!a!fear! of!not!providing!well!for!their!families.!Consequently!in!no!state!that!we!have!yet!known! has!the&power!of&population!been!left!to&exert&itself&with&perfect&freedom.!yet!as!the!result!of!actual! experience.pdf>.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& Population&growth&means&we&can’t&feed&everyone&and&trying& will&only&exacerbate&the&problem.!and!say.!among!the!lower!classes.!goes& on&doubling&itself&every&twenty`five&years&or&increases&in&a&geometrical&ratio.!the& population&has&been&found&to&double&itself&in&twenty`five&years.!I!think!it!will!be!allowed.org.!this!liberty!would!not!affect!population!till!it!arose!to!a!height! greatly!vicious.!In&a&state!thereforeof!great!equality!and!virtue.!Thomas.!the!manners!of!the!people!more!pure.!November!30.!where&the&means&of&subsistence& have&been&more&le.!<http://www.!"An!Essay!On!The!Principle!Of!Population.!2011.!or!among!the!higher!classes.!and!where&the&means&of&subsistence&were&so&abundant& that&no&part&of&the&society&could&have&any&fears!about!providing!amply!for!a!family.! Web.!We!will!begin!with!it!under!its! Champion)Briefs) 400& .uk/pdfs/8/896.!February!06.!and!we!are!now!supposing!the!existence!of!a!society!where!vice!is! scarcely!known.!that!no& check!whatever!has&existed!to&early!marriages.!when!unchecked.!where!pure!and! simple!manners!prevailed.!we!will!take!as!our!rule.!Whether! the!law!of!marriage!be!instituted!or!not.!though!short!of!the!utmost!power!of!population.!Let& us!now!take&any&spot&of&earth.!This&ratio&of& increase.!and!the!means!of!subsistence!so!abundant.!and!see!in!what!ratio!the! subsistence!it!affords!can!be!supposed!to!increase.!this!Island!for!instance.!from!a!fear!of! lowering!their!condition!in!life.searchengine.".! Let!us!examine!whether!this!position!be!just.!the!dictate!of!nature!and!virtue!seems!to!be! an!early!attachment!to!one!woman.!2015.!the&increase&of&the& human&species&would&evidently&be&much&greater&than&any&increase&that&has&been& hitherto&known.!that!no&state& has!hitherto!existed!(at!least!that!we!have!any!account!of)!where!the!manners!were! so!pure!and!simple.!than!in!any!of!the!modern!states!of!Europe.! the!power!of!population!being!left!to!exert!itself!unchecked.!and!consequently!the! checks!to!early!marriages!fewer. !Let!us! then!take!this!for!our!rule.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& present!state!of!cultivation.!and!allow!that.!by&breaking&up& more&land&and&by&great&encouragements&to&agriculture.!by!a!quantity!of!subsistence!equal!to!what!it!at!present!produces.&it&is&impossible& to&suppose&that&the&produce&could&be&quadrupled.&If!I!allow!that!by!the!best!possible!policy.!the!whole!produce!of!the!Island!might!be!increased!every!twentyYfive! years.!The!very!utmost!that!we!can!conceive.!by! great!exertion.!The!most! enthusiastic!speculator!cannot!suppose!a!greater!increase!than!this.!that! the!increase!in!the!second!twentyYfive!years!might!equal!the!present!produce.!Yet!this&ratio&of&increase& is&evidently&arithmetical.!is.!In!a!few!centuries! it!would!make!every!acre!of!land!in!the!Island!like!a!garden.!I!think!it!will!be!allowing!as! much!as!any!person!can!well!demand.!the!produce!of!this! Island!may&be&doubled&in&the&first&twenty`five&years.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 401& .&It&would&be&contrary&to&all&our& knowledge&of&the&qualities&of&land.!though!certainly!far!beyond!the!truth.!In&the&next&twenty`five&years. !February!06.!The&transfer&of&three&shillings&and& sixpence&a&day&to&every&labourer&would¬&increase&the&quantity&of&meat&in&the& country.& Malthus.!They!must!at!all!events!be&reduced& to&live&upon&the&hardest&fare&and&in&the&smallest&quantity.&What! would!then!be!the!consequence?!The&competition&among&the&buyers&in&the&market& of&meat&would&rapidly&raise&the&price!from!sixpence!or!sevenpence.!<http://www.!2011.!November!30.&There&is¬&at&present&enough&for&all&to&have&a&decent&share.uk/pdfs/8/896.!it!is!of!little!consequence!whether!the&lowest&members&of&the& society!possess!eighteen!pence!or!five!shillings.!it!might!be!imagined.pdf>.!and!when!subsistence!is!scarce!in!proportion!to!the! number!of!people.!to!two!or!three! shillings!in!the!pound.&which&would&be&a&very& disadvantagous&exchange.!becomes!the! possessor.!"An!Essay!On!The!Principle!Of!Population.! he!that!can!shew!the!most!valid!patent.!and&the&commodity&would¬&be÷d&among&many& more&than&it&is&at&present.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& The&poor&can't&eat&if&there's&no&food&available&to&them.!that!is.!that!they!would! then!be!able!to!live!comfortably!and!have!a!piece!of!meat!every!day!for!their!dinners.org.!and!cannot!be!distributed!to!all.".! Suppose&that&by&a&subscription&of&the&rich!the!eighteen&pence!a!day!which!men! earn!now&was!made!up!five&shillings.!for!it!is!well!known!that!the!country!could!not!then! support!the!same!population.searchengine.!2015.!If&we&can&suppose&the&competition&among&the&buyers&of&meat&to& continue&long&enough&for&a&greater&number&of&cattle&to&be&reared&annually.! But!this!would!be!a!very!false!conclusion.&this& could&only&be&done&at&the&expense&of&the&corn.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 402& .! Web.!he!that!offers!most!money.!perhaps.!Thomas.!When!an!article!is!scarce. ! <http://www.!18.!the&observed& historical&data!for!1970–2000!most&closely&match&the&simulated&results&of& the!LtG‘‘standard&run’’!scenario!for!almost!all!the!outputs!reported.!In&the&style&of&predictive&validation.!2015..!Given!the!complexity!of!numerous!feedbacks!between!sectors! incorporated!in!the!LtG!World3!model.!Web.!pollution.!these!data!have& been&compared&with&three&key&scenarios!from!the!original!LtG!publication! (Meadows!et!al.!GrahamM.!1972).!December!08.!it!is!instructive!that!the!historical!data! compare!so!favorably!with!the!model!output! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 403& ."! Elsevier.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& Data&shows&that&global&society&will&collapse&by&the&middle&of& the¢ury.& Turner.!food!production.!This!may!be!due!to!the!effectiveness! of!the!many!false!criticisms!attempting!to!discredit!the!LtG.!No.!The!comparison!is! well!within!uncertainty!bounds!of!nearly!all!the!data!in!terms!of!both!magnitude!and! the!trends!over!time.!February!06.!2007.! Appropriate!and!publicly!available!global&data&covering&1970–2000!have!been! collected!on!the!five!main!subYsystems!simulated!by!the!Limits!to!Growth!World3! model:!population.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>.!it!is!surprising!that! such!a!comparison!has!not!been!made!previously.sciencedirect.!3.!As!shown.!Given! the!high!profile!of!the!LtG!and!the!implications!of!their!findings.!and!consumption! of!nonYrenewable!resources.!industrial!production.!This!comparison!provides!a!relatively!rare!opportunity!to! evaluate!the!output!of&a&global&model!against!observed!and!independent!data.!Vol.!this&scenario& results&in&global&collapse&before&the&middle&of&this¢ury.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality. !February!06.!further&increasing&the&demand&for& resources&and&production&of&greenhouse&gases.!when!factors!such!as!fertilizer.! notably!‘‘peak!oil’’.! Furthermore.!2007)..!and!transport!requirements!are! included.!3.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>.! The!overall!systemYwide!effect!of!some!bioYfuels!in!reducing!greenhouse!gases!is!also! in!contention.!Vol.!BioYfuels!may!also!increase!pressures!on!water!resources."! Elsevier.! <http://www.!As&further& growth&occurs!in!the!‘‘standard!run’’!scenario!under&business`as`usual& settings.!extreme!weather!conditions!possibly!associated!with!early! climate!change!impacts.!December!08..!18.!and!increase!destruction!of!native!forests!(UNYEnergy.! Stressful!signs&of&this&may&be&apparent&now.!No.!2008.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality.!as!the!following!examples! illustrate.&the&general&trends&and&interactions&involved&in&the&‘‘standard&run’’& scenario&resonate&with&contemporary&environmental&and&economic&pressures.!new!infrastructure.&the&attempts!of!the!World3!model!to&alleviate&pressures&in&one§or&of& the&global&system&by&technological&means&generally&results&in&increasing& pressures&in&other§ors.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& Positive&feedback&means&governments&can&do¬hing&to&stop& future&famine.!and!growing!demand!for!meatYbased!diets!(KiYMoon.!2007.!Web.sciencedirect.& Turner.!deplete!soil! nutrients.!and!constrained!food!production.!Reduced&crop&production&has&been&blamed&on&newly&introduced&bio` fuels&displacing&crops.!climate!change.&often&resulting&in&a&vicious&cycle&or&positive&feedback.!Fargione!et!al.!2015.!2008).!GrahamM.!landYclearing! (Searchinger!et!al.!Efforts&to& provide&water&security!such!as!recycling!water!or!desalination!require&greater& energy&use!than!more!conventional!means.!2008).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 404& . sciencedirect.!Vol.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 405& .!December!08.!and! a!smooth!curve!of!the!developing!countries!grain!production!per!capita!has!increased! about!20%!(Lomborg..NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& &Food&data&supports&an&overpopulation&model.!2001).!The!‘‘stabilized! world’’!scenario!shows!a!higher!level!of!food!per!capita!than!the!observed!data.!2002)!using!FAO!data)!shows&signs&of&diminished&growth(Fig.!3.! The!observed&food&per&capita!(average!supply!per!person!of!total!energy!content!in! food!(WRI.! <http://www.!2007.!This! indicates!that!this!combination!of!technological!initiatives!is!not!being!implemented! or!realized!at!a!rate!that!is!greater!than!the!population!growth!rate.!The&food&per&capita&outputs&of&the!‘‘comprehensive! technology’’!and!‘‘stabilized&world’’&scenarios&are&substantially&higher&than&the& observed&data.!due!to! the!simulation!of!soil!enrichment!and!preservation!in!the!scenario.!7).!18.Comparisons!with!other! data!sets!provide!similar!indications:!global!meat!production!per!capita!has!increased! approximately!linearly!by!40%!(Brown!et!al.!world&grain&production&per& capita&peaked&in&the&1980s&and&has&increased&only&a&few&percent&since&1970.!No.com/science/article/pii/S0959378008000435>."! Elsevier.!"A!Comparison!Of!The!Limits!To!Growth!With!30!Years!Of!Reality.!2002).!Any!of!the!scenarios!that!include!pollution!control!and!increased! agricultural!productivity!(such!as!the!‘‘comprehensive!technology’’!scenario)!show! food!per!capita!increasing!at!a!rate!of!growth!to!levels!well!beyond!that!observed.& Turner.!2015.!February!06.!This!scenario!also! diverts!capital!to!food!production!even!if!this!is!‘‘uneconomic’’!so!that!sufficient!food! is!available!for!all!people!(where!the!population!has!been!stabilized!at!less!than!the! current!world!population).!GrahamM.!Web.! most!similar&to&that&in&the&‘‘standard&run’’&scenario—by&year&2000&there&is&only& about&5%&difference&between&observed&and&modeled&data. !it's!important!to!establish!criteria!and!characterize!consequences.! 2007.!a!problem.!a!spate!of!opY ed!essays!have!filled!the!pages!of!some!of!world's!top!newspapers!and!blogs!YY!from! theGuardian!to!the!New'York'Times!YY!challenged!this!view.&desertification.!Recently.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& Carrying&Capacity&is&still&a&constraint&on&food&security&and& the&quality&of&life.!Ellis!Erle!asserts!that!after!studying!the!ecology!of!agriculture!in!China! and!talking!to!archaeologists.!<http://www.!Previous!famines! were!worse.!A!key! corroboration!marshaled!for!this!view!refers!to!a!retrospective!assessment!of!Chinese! farming!by!archaeologists.!Web.! Uncontrolled!human!fertility!led!to!a!depletion!of!the!land's!fertility.com/alonY tal/overpopulationYisYstillYt_b_3990646.& Tal."!The!Huffington!Post.!hundreds!of!millions!died!a!horrible!death!of! Champion)Briefs) 406& .!"Overpopulation!Is!Still!A!Problem.html>.! for!instance.!led!to!the!starvation!of! over!twenty!million!people.!Over!the!years.!he!reached!the!conclusion!that!technologies!have!always! been!able!to!overcome!any!anticipated!exceedance!of!carrying!capacity.huffingtonpost.!Anyone&with&a&teaspoon&of&historic&sensibilities& about&the&country's&environmental&history&might&want&to&mention&its&long&litany& of&famines&which&occurred&precisely&because&carrying&capacities&were& consistently&outstripped&by&a&growing&population.!December!08.!between!1958!and!1961.!it!is!particularly!ironic!that! arguments!are!based!on!China.!February!06.!On!what! basis!are!these!newest!cornucopian!assurances!made?!In!the!New'York'Times!piece.!It!purportedly!claims!that!new!and!more!efficient! technologies!invariably!enabled!local!farmers!to!overcome!any!anticipated!exceedance! of!carrying!capacity.!If&food&security&is&the&criterion.!Conservative!estimates!report! that!China's!most!recent!food!crisis.!2015.!declaring!that! overpopulations!is!not.! Overpopulation&remains&the&leading&driver&of&hunger.!To!make!progress!in!the!most! recent!round!of!the!ageYold!debate!between!technological!optimists!and!Malthusian! realists.!nor!has!ever!been.!Alon.!in!part!due!to!the!erosion!of!China's!natural!capital.&species& depletion&and&a&range&of&social&maladies&across&the&planet. !If!family!planning!had!been!energetically!promoted!years! ago.!The!amphibian!population!is! Champion)Briefs) 407& .!Today! there!are!eight!million.!That!means!that!cities.!But!for!the! foreseeable!future!we!will!be!living!in!a!very!imperfect!world!where!communities! need!to!take!care!of!themselves!and!maintain!sustainable!populations.!China! today!still!needs!to!bolster!local!food!supply!by!attaining!lands!overseas.!and!implementation!was!clearly!flawed.!The!U.!Accordingly.!Mexico!and! Brazil!have!been!singled!out!as!extreme!cases!of!species!loss.!they!live!in!developing!regions.!Almost!without! exception.!birds!and! reptiles.!Israel!offers!a!microcosm!of!the!global! situation:!A!meeting!point!of!three!continents.!mostly!in! developing!countries.!reports!that!today!one!in! eight!people!in!the!world!suffers!chronic!undernourishment.!That's!because!in!1949!there!were!one!million!people!living!in!Israel.!will!expand!from!3!to!6!percent!of!allYice!free!land.!In!a! perfect!world!we!would!have!better!ways!of!distributing!surplus!food!to!famine! stricken!regions!or!promoting!land!reform!to!optimize!food!production.!about!a!third!of!the!country's!115!indigenous!mammal!species! today!are!either!endangered!or!critically!endangered.!Brazil's!population!grew! four!fold!during!the!past!sixty!years.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& hunger.! this!tiny!country!was!still!home!to!an!astonishing!assemblage!of!mammals.&Ecologists&explain&that&the& collapse&in&global&biodiversity&is&also&linked&to&overpopulation.!Even!so.!Their&misery&should&teach&a&sobering&lesson&about&insouciant&disregard& for&the&balance&between&human&numbers&and&natural&resources.!Relatively!few! occurred!in!countries!where!population!was!stable.!where!most!of!the!planet's!population! growth!continues!apace.!But!it! also!prevented!the!next!round!of!famines!that!would!have!taken!far!more!lives!had! China!continued!to!race!forward!and!became!a!nation!of!two!billion.!It!gives!little! satisfaction!for!sustainable!population!advocates!to!point!out!that!the!past!twenty! years!saw!an!estimated!200!million!hungerYrelated!deaths!worldwide.!Present!global!trends!will!lead!to!a! doubling!of!the!world's!urban!areas!by!2050.!enormous!suffering!could!have!been!avoided.! Mexico!and!China's!growth!is!comparable.!Overpopulation! is!not!just!about!food!shortages!and!human!suffering.!at!the!middle!of!the!twentieth!century.!little!wonder!the!Amazon!is!feeling!the!pressure.!Chinese!oneY child!policy!has!been!tough!medicine.!China.!The&equation&is&simple:&more&people&means&less& wildlife.!It!also!means! that!10!to!15!percent!of!lands!farmed!today!would!be!taken!out!of!production.N. !whose!ultraYhiYtech!agriculture!probably!yields!more!"crop!per!drop"!than!any! other!country!is!only!able!to!produce!45%!of!the!calories!required!for!its!growing! population.&they&also&lose&the&free&services&that&nature&provides:! filters!for!clean!water.!transportation!gridlock!unbearable!and!accessible!housing!inadequate.! Infrastructure!has!a!very!hard!keeping!up!with!relentless!growth.!These&go&far&beyond&any&individual&organism.! But!recognizing&that&overpopulation&is&a&perilous&problem&constitutes&a&critical& first&step.!Israel!has!a!remarkable!program!of!conservation!and!its! powerful!Nature!and!Parks!Authority!set!aside!25%!of!the!country!for!reserves.!Technological! Pollyannas!suggest!that!today's!technologies!mean!that!we!in!the!West!needn't!be! concerned.!But! growing!human!settlement!continues!to!fragment!habitats!and!undermine!the!benefits! that!nature!provides.!But!it!is!well!to!ask!if!this!really!is!the!kind!of!world!that!we!want?!There!is! much!we!can!do!to!reduce!the!suffering!caused!by!human!population!growth.9! percent.!But!of!course!we!should.!provide! better!social!security!and!most!of!all!YY!empower!women.! showing!that!trend!need!not!be!destiny.!protection!from!hurricanes.NEG:&Malthus&NC& & March/April&2015& almost!entirely!extirpated.!soil!integrity! and!recreational!resources.&When&humans& encroach&on&open&spaces.!the!legal!system! backed!up.! ! Champion)Briefs) 408& .!make!birth!control!available.7!percent!to!13.!The!rapid!rise!in!populations!also!tends!to!sabotage!basic! social!services:!schools!are!crowded.!There!are!global!limits!that!affect!us!all.!natural!pollinators.!Even! Israel.!medical!care!overwhelmed.!The!quality!of!education.!the!drop!in! undernourished!people!in!Asia!and!the!Pacific!went!down!from!23.!Many!countries.!hoping!that!new!levels!of!efficiency!will!allow!us! to!survive.!The!results!are!remarkable.!As!population!began!to!stabilize."&In&a&planet&with&limited&resources&``&sustainable&growth&is&an& oxymoron.!Of!course!humanity!could!all!shift!to!vegan!diets.!It& is&time&to&realize&that&there&is&a&tradeoff&between&"quality&of&life"&and&"quantity& of&life.!forgo!national!parks!and! crowd!in!a!few!more!billion!people.!from!Bangladesh!and!Iran!to!Singapore!and!Thailand! adopted!policies!that!incentify!small!families.!The!good!news!is!that!public!policy!matters!and!can!reduce! overpopulation.!housing!and!health!improved!as!a!matter!course. !—that!is!to!say.!that!pity!is!to!be!found!at!the! root!of!every!moral!impulse!that!has!ever!existed!hitherto.”&If&one&does&good&merely&out&of&pity.!despite!the!fact!that!no!sufferer!yet!exists!with!whom!I! sympathize!in!this!way.!with!the! thought!of!man’s!destiny!in!my!mind.!I!contemplate!with!horror!and!contempt!the! whole!system!of!modern!European!politics."!Digireads.&a&moral¶site&which! is&injurious&to&the&health.! Web.!"“The!Will!To!Power!(Volumes!I!And!II)”.!367.&The&suffering&we&see&infects&us.!368.com.!! 365.!The!behavior!of!a!higher!man!is!the!result!of!a!very!complex!set!of!motives:!any! word!such!as!“pity”!betrays!nothing!of!this!complexity.& but&upon&emotions.!To!think!that!the!history!of!all!moral!phenomena!may!be! simplified.!Friedrich.!“who!am!I?!who!is!the!other!relative!to!me?”—Thus!the!valuing!spirit!is! continually!active.!The!most!important!factor!is! the!feeling.!–is!to!be!guilty!of!a!degree! of!nonsense!and!ingenuousness!worthy!only!of!a!thinker!who!is!devoid!of!all!historical! instincts!and!who!has!miraculously!succeeded!in!evading!the!strong!schooling!in! history!which!the!Germans.&it&is&one’s&self&and!not!one’s! neighbor&that&one&is&succoring.!February!03.!when!I!contemplate! Luther:!what!power!and!what!tasteless!problems!fit!for!back!woodsmen!!(At!a!time! when!the!brave!and!lightYhearted!skepticism!of!a!Montaigne!was!already!possible!in! France!)!Or!when!I!see!someone!standing!below!where!he!might!have!stood.&Pity&does¬&depend&upon&maxims.!366.!Pity&is!a!waste!of!a!feeling.& Nietzsche.&the&“allowable.!1901.!Or!even!when.!from!Herder!to!Hegel.&“it!cannot!possibly!be!our!duty!to!increase!the!evil!in!the! world.!2015.!as!Schopenhauer!thought.!for!instance.NEG:&Nietzche&NC& & March/April&2015& Pity&is&an&instance&of&moral&failure.!thanks!to! the!development!of!a!set!of!perfectly!senseless!accidents.!ifYY!!This!is!my!“pity”.!to!what!could!not!“mankind”! attain.”&the&“morally&in&different”&egoism&of&which&some& Champion)Briefs) 409& .!Yes.”!–! This!is!a!feeling!for!which!I!can!find!no!adequate!term:!I!feel!it!when!I!am!in!the! presence!of!any!waste!of!precious!capabilities.!My!“pity.!as.&There&is&no& such&thing&as&egoism&which&keeps&within&its&bounds&and&does¬&exceed&them— consequently.!which!is!creating!the!circumstances!and! weaving!the!fabric!of!the!whole!future!of!mankind.&pity!is!an!infection.!have!undergone. !371.!has!not!taken!the!first!step!towards!truth! to!himself.!Since!all!instincts!are!unintelligent.”&one&is&continually&promoting&the&interests&of& one’s&ego&at&the&cost&of&other&people”.! Champion)Briefs) 410& .!they!do!not! consider!the!welfare!of!the!whole!ego!(because!they!simply!do!not!think!).!370.!372.NEG:&Nietzche&NC& & March/April&2015& people&speak.&against&the&ego:!and!often!for!the!ego—innocent!in!both! cases.!does!not!exist!at!all.! when!it!is!active.! therefore!there!can!be!no!“egoistic”!actions.&Thus:&that&which&is&“unegoistic.!Our!“ego”—which!is!not!one!with! the!unitary!controlling!force!of!our!beings!—is!really!only!an!imagined!synthesis.!they&act& counter&to&our&interests.&Every&instinct.&does¬&exist&at&all.!“Living!consists!in!living!at!the!cost!of! others”—he!who!has!not!grasped!this!fact.&otherwise&it&would&be&the&end&of&everything&owing&to&the& waste&it&would&bring&about.!sacrifices&strength&and&other&instincts&into&the&bargain:&in&the& end&it&is&stemmed.!The!“subject”!is!a!piece!of!fiction:!the!ego!of!which!every!one!speaks! when!he!blames!egoism.”&self`sacrificing.! utility!cannot!represent!a!standpoint!as!far!as!they!are!concerned.&and& imprudent&is¬hing&in&particular—it!is!common!to!all!the!instincts. & appropriated&or&maligned&by&dominant&groups&and&how&racialized&groups& discursively&resist&these&oppressions.!Themes&include&how&non`white&groups&are&exoticized&or& demonized.!Eating!and!cooking!as!acts!at!once!intimate!and! public.!2010.&food&serves&both&to&solidify&group&membership&and&to&set&groups& apart’!(Mintz!and!Du!Bois.&Authors!have!also!written!aboutthe! encounterthat!occurs!through!the!preparation!and!consumption!of!‘others’!foods’!and! question!the!idea!that!food!‘belongs’!to!particular!racialized!groups.!immigrants!and!the!displaced.!1988.sagepub.!Scholars&understand&food&preparation&and&consumption&as¢ral&to&the& development&and&preservation&of&racialized&identity&and&belonging!for!women.!empowering!and!complicit.&in&part.com.! diasporic!populations.ezproxy.&which&are& themselves&imagined&as&cuisines&belonging&to&racialized&groups!or!nations! (Appadurai.!enslaved! andimpoverished.! Web.!2002:!109).!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 411& .! http://phg.!Producing&and&maintaining&racial&identity&is& dependent.&on&holding&on&to&food&habits&and&tastes.snhu.!2015.&how&food&histories&of&marginalized&people&are&ignored.edu/content/35/3/303! A&material`semiotic&substance&used&in&the&‘creation&and&maintenance&of&social& relationships.!are!constitutive!of!racial!identity!and!its! politics.!Weismantel.& Slocum.!1989).!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food.!1995:!35).&who&we&are.!February!03."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.NEG:&Racism&NC& & March/April&2015& & Food&is&always&caught&up&in&a&racial&apparatus.!Rachel.!Food&products&‘create&the&images&by&which& we&understand&who&we&have&been.&and&who&we&might&or&should&be& in&the&future’!(Miller. !2010.!the!consciousness!of!the!American!public!about!African!Americans!and!food!had! been!altered.edu/content/35/3/303! In!the!early!1990s!Ha¨agen!Dazs!launched!an!advertising!campaign!offering!black! masculinity!as!‘phallic!embodiment’!and!the!pleasure!of!miscegenation!through!ice! cream!flavors.!Krishnendu!Ray!(2007:!135)!suggests! that!the!‘visceral!disgust!of!blackness!–!the!body.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food.!In!an!intriguing!comparison!between!the! politics!of!race!in!his!native!India!and!the!USA.!2002)!and!more! ridiculed!for!its!hypocrisy!(Foer.!Rachel.!2015.!and!the!comestibles! that!go!into!it!…!is!still!real!and!normal!in!India’!(referring!to!racism!against!Dalits)! whereas!in!the!USA!people!nolongertake!seriously!stereotypes!about!African! Americans!and!chicken!or!watermelon!consumption.com.!for! instance.! *Ellipsis!from!source! ! Champion)Briefs) 412& .!both!a!fetishization!of!black!sexuality!(see!also!Sheller.5!US&alternative&food&networks&make& a&point&of&defining&food&security&as&existing&when&people&can&access&‘culturally& appropriate’&food.!Rafia!Zafar!(1999)! wondered!whether."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.sagepub.!But!stereotypes!are!agile.NEG:&Racism&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&definitions&including&the¬ion&of&cultural& appropriateness&assume&stable&racial&groups.& Slocum.snhu.!1997).!2009).! 2010)!and!a!destabilization!of!whiteness’!omnipotence.&but&this&intention&may&map&static&‘races’&onto&inert&food& cultures.!A&blog& entry&described&NY&city&school&lunch&advocates&‘genuinely&trying’&to&show&their& cultural&sensitivity&through&the&argument&that&it&was&‘part&of&black&culture&to&eat& Wonder&Bread&and&Cheetos’&and&‘junk&food’.!February!03.! Web.its!appetites.! http://phg.!Writing!a!few!years!later.!with!the!updating!of!the!image!of!Aunt!Jemima!on!the!pancake! box.!is!more!muted!now!than!in!the!past!(Okamura.!says!more!about!whiteness! than!anything!else!(Nayak.ezproxy.!2010.!Wu.!Such!imagery.!Perhaps!Western!disgust!over!Asian!consumption!of!dog!meat. !"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food.sagepub.!As&one&colleague&remarked&on&the&question&of&race&and&hunger&in& Africa.com.&Few&study&the& subject&of&race&and&hunger.!It!is!in&these&global&places&that&the&question&of&race&might&usefully&be& raised.!2010.!Rachel.edu/content/35/3/303! Political&ecology&seeks&to&explain&human&environment&inequalities&through& empirical&studies&that&rely&on&close&analysis&of&the&articulation&of&local&situations& with&global&processes&(for!overviews."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.! http://phg.!race&tends&to&be&absent&from&much&of&this& research.&‘it’s&fairly&obvious&that&white&settlers&don’t&starve’.!But.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 413& .!landlessness!or!development!in&the& global&south.NEG:&Racism&NC& & March/April&2015& The&exclusion&of&race&in&the&discussion&of&food&security&is& harmful.!see!Robbins.& Slocum.! 2003).ezproxy.!2004.&food&insecurity.!with!some!exceptions.snhu.!Zimmerer!and!Bassett.!February!03.&particularly&that&work&done&in&‘third&world’&contexts&where&no&obvious& white/non`white&relationship&to&food&and&farming&is&evident.!2015.! Web. !2010.!2015.!personal!communication."!Progress!in!Human!Geography.&! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 414& .snhu.&South&African&food& insecurity&and&peak&oil.sagepub.!"Race!In!The!Study!Of!Food.edu/content/35/3/303! Urban&agriculture&is&increasingly&heralded&as&a&solution&to&food&insecurity&and& future&catastrophes.!Rachel.& Slocum.!Race&is&one&part&of&the&process&that&makes&gardening&a&‘solution’&to& Detroit’s&collapse.!Largely&white&and&middle&class.! http://phg.!older.!but!also!West!Indian.! Web.ezproxy.!In!South!Africa.com.&northern&England’s&deindustrialization.!and! white.! 2009).!the!cordial!relationship!between!the! environmental!movement!and!allotment!gardeners.!In!the!UK.!while!an!ageist!discourse!identifies!older!allotment! gardeners!as!‘in!the!way.&it&is&assumed&that&urban&food&insecurity&can& be&solved&by&making&more&food&available&through&urban&agriculture&when&it& would&be&more&useful&to&determine&whether&people&have&access&to& transportation&and&storage&as&well&as&the&location&of&shops&near&work&or& home&(Battersby.!in!part!because!they!are!not!maximizing!the!output!of!polar! bearYsaving!vegetables!using!oilYfree!methods’!(Wiltshire.&environmentalists&take&Cuba&as& their&icon!(for!surviving!through!gardening)!and!‘feed!off!a!moral!panic!about!global! warming!and!the!end!of!cheap!oil’.NEG:&Racism&NC& & March/April&2015& Urban&agriculture&is&a&solution&entrenched&in&whiteness.!Indian!and!Pakistani.!Among!the!gardeners.!broke!down!over!land!scarcity! (Wiltshire.!2009).!racist!sentiments!are! articulated!overtly!and!covertly.!who!are!working!class.!February!03.!2010). !which!often!shut!out!lowYincome!consumers! ! Champion)Briefs) 415& .NEG:&Racism&NC& & March/April&2015& The&food&security&movement&(specifically&alternative&food& efforts)&does¬&take&race&into&consideration.!White&middleclass&activists&dominate&this&movement&and&they& focus&on&reform&strategies.!the!AFM![it]&often&fails&to&incorporate&concerns&about&racial&and& economic&inequality&in&the&agrifood&system.! http://connection.!Web.!Joshua.&Charges&of&elitism&have&grown&in& light&of&influential&organizations!such!as!Slow!Food!USA!championing!local!organic! food!despite!its!high!costs.& Sbicca.!"Growing!Food!Justice!By!Planting!An!AntiYoppression!Foundation:! Opportunities!And!Obstacles!For!A!Budding!Social!Movement.!February!06.!DuPuis!and!Goodman! 2005).!However.!2015.ebscohost.!January!04."!Agric!Hum! Values!(2012)!29:455–466!15.!2012.&which&reflect&an&ecologically&focused&ideology& stemming&from&traditional&environmentalism&and&a&dedication&to&local& alternatives!to!globalized!agrifood!systems!(Alkon!2008.com/c/articles/83307048/growingYfoodYjusticeY byYplantingYantiYoppressionYfoundationYopportunitiesYobstaclesYbuddingY socialYmovement! The!alternative!food!movement!(AFM)!largely!mobilizes!activists!around!localism!and! sustainability. &we&indeed¬ice&that&a&number&of&wealthy&food`importing&countries& started&to&classify&food&as&a&matter&of&national&security&and&invoked&policies&of& self`sufficiency&to&avert&potential&future&food&shortages&for&their& populations.!Tim.!Web.!for!example.& SiegenbeekvanHeukelom.! January!04.!but!as!Tolentino!points!out!here.!"The!Emerging!Securitisation!Of!Food.! The!problems!relating!to!‘food!security’!are!multiYdisciplinary!and!know!many! dimensions.!Interestingly! though.!argued!in!1977!that!'under!conditions!of! increasing!scarcity.!economics!and!security!–!amongst!many!others.!On!the!one!hand!one!could!argue!that!elevating& food&into&the&national&security&realm!may!be!a!powerful!way!to!unlock!vast! amounts!of!funding!for!agricultural!research.&it&remains&the&question&whether&securitisation& of&food&is&a&favourable&outcome.! Champion)Briefs) 416& .!2015.thebrokeronline.!agricultural!research.!Christensen.&fresh& water."!The!Brocker.!February!03.!leasing!vast!amounts!of!foreign!agricultural!land!to! produce!and!secure!their!own!food!supply.!covering!wide!areas!like!development!studies.&fertilisers&and&fish&stocks&–&increasing&the&risk&for&conflict.! <http://www.! nutrition.!!The!argument!is!far!from!new.!continue&to&resist&accepting&that&food&has&a&national&–&and&international& security&dimension.!foodYimporting!countries!have!several!reasons!for!considering! their!international!food!position!as!a!matter!of!national!security.!many!International!Security!scholars.!public!health.!while&there&may&be&an&intuitive& link&between&hunger&and&conflict.'!Fast`forwarding&to& 2008.NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& & Setting&food&within&the&realm&of&security&allows&for&the& possibility&of&conflict.!it&becomes&increasingly&difficult&to&deny& that&food&is&entering&the&realm&of&national&security.!!Thus.!sustainable!solutions!and!increased!food! production.!Yet.eu/Blogs/AYnewYagricultureYforYfoodY security/TheYemergingYsecuritisationYofYfood>.!Especially!Gulf!and!Asian!states!became!soYcalled!‘new!imperialists’!in! Africa!and!SouthYEast!Asia.!at!the!same!time!it!allows&states&to&utilise&security&–&and&military& resources&to&compete&over&scarce&resources&such&as&agricultural&land.!Food!is!often!seen!as!an!environmental!–!and!human!security! issue.!mostly!drawing!from!the!Political! Realists!school!of!thought.!or!those!working!in!the!realms!of!Military!and!Strategic! security.!2012.! Back!in!the!Cold!War!days!some!scholars!already!explored!the!link!between!food!and! national!security. NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Inaccurate&media&sensationalizing&contributes&to&food& securitization.& Franks,!Suzanne.!"Public!Perception!And!Policy:!Famine!And!Food!Securitization!In! The!Horn!Of!Africa."!Chatham!House.!January!04,!2012.!Web.!February!03,! 2015.! <http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/home/chatham/pu blic_html/sites/default/files/20131118PublicPerceptionPolicyFamine.pdf>.! The!speaker!questioned!when!exactly!a!famine!should!be!reported.!There&exists&an& unpleasant&dynamic&where&elements&of&the&media&will&wait&for&shocking&images& to&come&through&before&widespread&coverage&is&granted.!NGOs&are&fully& aware!that!this!is!the!way!that!the!media!operates!and!in!a!way,!they! arecomplicit.!They&will&also&wait&for&horrific&images&of&hunger!to!become!available! before!widespread!coverage!is!given.!The!speaker!expressed!her!belief!thateven&using& the&word&‘famine’&is&fraught&with&problems.!Journalists&typically&want&to&use&the& word,&even&when&it&is¬&strictly&true.&For&example,&the&media&reported&that&a& famine&was&occurring&in&Niger&in&2005.&The&horrific&images&that&accompanied& this&news&made&headlines&but&it&later&became&clear&that&famine&had¬&actually& occurred.!As!such,!journalists!tend!to!be!happy!to!use!the!‘F’!word!even!when!it!is!not! actually!true.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 417& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&securitization&can&contribute&to&biotechnological& corporate&forces.& Dibden,!Jacqui.!"Framing!GM!Crops!As!A!Food!Security!Solution."!Journal!of!Rural! Studies.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016711001045>.! The&spectre&of&a&food&security&crisis&raises&important&questions&about&future& directions&for&agriculture!and&has&given&fresh&impetus&to!a!longYstanding!debate! about!the&potential&contribution&of&agricultural&biotechnology&to&food&security.& Proponents&of!genetically!modified!organisms!(GMOs)!–!particularly!GM!crops!– !argue&that&the&technology&can&make&a&vital&contribution&to&increasing& agricultural&production,&improving&livelihoods,&and&enhancing&food&quality&in& the&developing&world.&In!contrast,!critics!believe!agricultural!biotechnology! undermines!food!security.! ! ! & & & & & & & Champion)Briefs) 418& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&securitization&creates&a&moral&imperative&to&invest&in& biotech&that&outweighs&other&policy&making&concerns&in& public&debates.& Dibden,!Jacqui.!"Framing!GM!Crops!As!A!Food!Security!Solution."!Framing!GM!crops!as! a!food!security!solution.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!03,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016711001045>.! The!remainder!of!this!paper!is!structured!as!follows.!In!the!next!section,!we!consider! the!discursive!foundations!for!the!embrace!of!agricultural!biotechnology.Whereas& notions&of&progress&and&‘science`based’&risk&assessment&act&as&‘anti`political’& strategies&to&remove&GMOs&from&the&cut&and&thrust&of&politics,&the&concept&of& ‘food&security’&reconstitutes&agricultural&biotechnology&as&a&moral&imperative.! We!then!outline!the!arguments!and!counterYarguments!concerning!the!role!of! biotechnology!in!relation!to!global!food!production!and!security!in!developing! countries.!Feeding&into&this&conflict&are&disagreements&about&the&use&of&science& and&probabilistic&assessments&to&approve&risks&which&have&societal&and&moral& implications,&and&the&perceived&dominance&in&policy`making&of&business&and& technological&solutions&over&considerations&of&social&welfare.!In!Section!3,!we! argue!that!a!debate!ostensibly!focussed!on!developing'countries,!in!fact,!largely!arises! from!discordant!views!about!the!future!of!farming!and!rural!areas! indeveloped!countries.!These!divergent!views!are!represented!as!alternative! paradigms,!contrasting!highYinput,!high!technology!farming,!in!which!transgenic! technology!plays!a!vital!role,!with!an!agroYecological!approach!which!views!this! technology!as!both!unnecessary!and!risky.! ! ! & Champion)Briefs) 419& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&initiatives&foster&neo`colonialist&relations&of& dependence.& Blas,!Javier.!"UN!Warns!Of!Food!‘neoYcolonialism’."!Financial!Times.!January!01,!2013.! Web.!February!06,!2015.!<http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/3d3ede92Y6e02Y11ddY b5dfY0000779fd18c.html>.! The&race&by&food`importing&countries&to&secure&farmland&overseas&to&improve& their&food&security&risks&creating&a&“neo`colonial”&system,&the&United&Nations’& top&agriculture&official&has&cautioned.!The!warning!by!Jacques!Diouf,!directorY general!of!the!Food!and!Agriculture!Organisation,!comes!as!countries!from!Saudi! Arabia!to!China!plan!to!lease!vast!tracts!of!land!in!Africa!and!Asia!to!grow!crops!and! ship!them!back!to!their!markets.&&“The&risk&is&of&creating&a&neo`colonial&pact&for&the& provision&of&non`value`added&raw&materials&in&the&producing&countries&and& unacceptable&work&conditions&for&agricultural&workers,”!Mr!Diouf!said.!Financial! investors!and!food!companies!were!also!looking!to!invest!in!overseas!farmland,! raising!some!concerns,!officials!said.!The&pursuit&of&foreign&farm&investments&is&the& latest&sign&of&how&the&global&food&crisis,&which&has&seen&record&prices&for& commodities&such&as&wheat&and&rice,&is&reshaping&the&politics&of&agriculture.!This! year!big!providers!of!agriculture!commodities!–!including!India,!Russia,!Argentina!and! Vietnam!–!have!restricted!exports!to!keep!local!markets!supplied.!Joachim!von!Braun,! director!of!the!International!Food!Policy!Research!Institute,!said&importing&nations& realised&that&dependence&on&the&international&market&made&them&vulnerable!–! not!only!to!surging!prices!but,!crucially,!also!to!an!interruption!in!supplies.!“They! want!to!secure!the!supply!lines!of!food,”!he!said.!The!recent!drop!in!agricultural! commodity!prices!had!not!altered!this!view,!as!food!prices!remained!well!above! historical!levels,!analysts!said.!Middle!Eastern!and!North!African!countries,!which! import!most!of!their!food,!are!leading!the!race!to!invest!overseas.!Countries!such!as! Sudan,!Ethiopia!and!Ukraine!are!opening!their!doors.!Meles!Zenawi,!prime!minister!of! Ethiopia,!said!recently!its!government!was!“very!eager”!to!provide!hundreds!of! thousands!of!hectares!of!agricultural!land!for!investment.!Referring!to!recent! investment,!Mr!Diouf!said:&“Some&negotiations&have&led&to&unequal&international& relations&and&short`term&mercantilist&agriculture.”! Champion)Briefs) 420& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& & The&idea&of&vulnerability&to&any&outside&stressor&requires&a& complex&system&of&quantification.& Luers,!AmyL.!"A!Method!For!Quantifying!Vulnerability,!Applied!To!The!Agricultural! System!Of!The!Yaqui!Valley,!Mexico."!Global!Environmental!Change,!Vol.!13.! November!30,!2002.!Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.199.4110&rep=re p1&type=pdf>.! No&single&measure&will&be&able&to&capture&completely&the&multiple&dimensions&of& vulnerability.&Ultimately,!vulnerability!research&will&require&a&set&of&metrics&that& can&help&analyze&and&explain!vulnerability!characteristics&within&and&between& systems.!The&most&effective&metrics&will&be&those&that&are&generic!enough!that! they!can!be!applied!to!a!wide!range!of!settings.!There!are!several!reasons!why!we! believe!the!proposed!metric!is!an!example!of!the!type!of!measures!that!are!needed.! Firstly,!the!form!is!sufficiently!general!to!apply!to!simple!one!dimensional!systems!or! complex!multiYdimensional!systems!modeled!in!matrix!form.!Second,!because!the! measure!is!unitless!it!is!easily!comparable!between!and!within!systems.!Third,!the& metric&can&be&used&in&a&modeling&framework&where&the&vulnerability& implications&of&future&environmental&or&political&scenarios&can&be&evaluated&and& the&uncertainties&can&be&incorporated.!Fourth,!the!proposed!measure!allows! researchers!to!analyze!four!essential!aspects!of!vulnerability!independently—the! state!relative!to!a!threshold!of!damage,!sensitivity,!exposure!and!adaptive!capacity.! Finally,!the!proposed!metric!is!not!confined!to!a!particular!conceptual!framework!but! rather!could!be!applied!to!test!and!compare!the!appropriateness!of!multiple! frameworks!in!different!systems.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 421& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& The&AFF&necessarily&quantifies&people&in&order&to&assess&food& policy.& Luers,!AmyL.!"A!Method!For!Quantifying!Vulnerability,!Applied!To!The!Agricultural! System!Of!The!Yaqui!Valley,!Mexico."!Global!Environmental!Change,!Vol.!13.! November!30,!2002.!Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.199.4110&rep=re p1&type=pdf>.! To&apply&the&concept&of&vulnerability&in&policy`driven&assessments&researchers& need&to&be&able&to&measure&it.!It&is&difficult!if!not!impossible!to&systematically& identify&which&systems&are&most&vulnerable&and&why&without&some&criteria&by& which&one&system&is&said&to&be&more&or&less&vulnerable&than&another.!However,! defining!criteria!for!quantifying!vulnerability!has!proven!difficult,!in!part!because!of! the!fact!that!vulnerability!is!often!not!a!directly!observable!phenomenon!(Downing!et! al.,!2001).!In!certain!case!studies,!depending!on!the!type!of!stressor!and!outcome! variables!of!concern,!the&relative&impacts&of&stressors&in&a®ion&could&be&used&as& objective&ex`post&measures&of&vulnerability.!For!example,!an!ex!post!assessment!of! a!hurricane!might!use!the!number!of!stormYrelated!deaths!within!a!given!region!that! experienced!equalYforced!hurricane!winds!as!one!measure!of!which!areas!were!most! vulnerable!to!the!hurricane.!This&simple&approach,&although&useful,&is¬&easily& applied&to&a&greater&variety&of&stressors&and&outcome&variables.!For!example,!if! the!measure!of!wellYbeing!is!not!limited!to!just!life!and!death!(as!in!the!above! example)!but!also!considers!such!variables!as!ecosystem!function,!average!income,!or! human!health!then!defining!which!region!is!the!most!vulnerable!would!be!more! subjective.!Is!a!population!most!vulnerable!if!the!decrease!in!average!income!is!the! highest!immediately!after!the!hurricane?!However,!what!if!one!year!after!the! hurricane!the!community!with!the!least!overall!drop!in!income!has!still!not!recovered! but!the!community!whose!income!initially!dropped!the!most!had!recovered! completely—which!was!most!vulnerable!to!the!hurricane?!The&situation&is&even& more&complicated&when&assessments&are&extended&from&discrete&stressors!such! as!a!hurricane!to&gradual&and&continual&stresses!such!as!climate!change.! Champion)Briefs) 422& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& The&most&widely&accepted&definition&of&food&security&is& market&oriented.& Sachs,!Carolyn.!"Food!Sovereignty:!A!Critical!Dialogue,!Feminist!Food!Sovereignty:! Crafting!A!New!Vision."!Agrarian!Studies!Yale!University.!November!30,!2002.! Web.!February!07,!2015.! <http://www.yale.edu/agrarianstudies/foodsovereignty/pprs/58_Sachs_2013. pdf>.! In!1996,!the&Food&and&Agriculture&Organization&of&the&United&Nations&(FAO)& established&at&its&World&Food&Summit&the&most&widely&agreed&definition&of&food& security:&“Food&security,&at&the&individual,&household,&national,®ional&and& global&levels&[is&achieved]&when&all&people,&at&all×,&have&physical&and& economic&access&to&sufficient,&safe&and&nutritious&food&to&meet&their&dietary& needs&and&food&preferences&for&an&active&and&healthy&life.”&Food&security&goes& substantially&beyond&adequate&global&level&production&to&include&a&deeper& understanding&of&different&aspects&of&food&security.&However,&as&Fairbairn& (2012)&has&pointed&out,&this&concept&of&food&security&emphasizes&market& orientation&over&state&intervention&that&is&consistent&with&neoliberal&ideology.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 423& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Globalization&and&industrialization&increase&challenges&for& food&security.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! The&political&and&policy&importance&of&food&security&has&intensified&in&the&early& 21st¢ury&with&the&unfolding&of&inter`related&crises&including&natural& disasters,&pronounced&food&price&spikes!starting!in!2007e2008,!food&shortages& and&related&civil&unrest&in!various!parts!of!the!world!(Lawrence!et!al.,!2010).! McDonald!(2010)!details!now!familiar&drivers&of&climate&change,&population& increase,&new&technologies,&and&shifting&consumption&preferences&that& interconnect&globally&and&combine&to&produce&distinct&and&growing&food&security& challenges.!The¤t&structures,&flows&and&externalities&of&an&increasingly& globalized,&productivist&food&system!are&seen&to&result&in&new&nutritional& challenges!(not!only!malnutrition!or!hunger,!although!they!remain!critical),!to! contribute!to!threatening!patterns!of!global!environmental!change!and!to!increase!the! likelihood!and!magnitude!of!food!safety!crises.!From!this!perspective,!increased& industrialization!and!tightly!coupled!links!within!a!more!globalized!food!system! will!generate&other&social&and&environmental&problems&that&then&lify&and& extend&the&problem&of&food&insecurity.!The&character&and&scale&of&the&global&food& system&create&conditions&that&can&exacerbate&food&security&itself&and&contribute& to&a&wider&set&of&human,&national&and&international&security&challenges,!ranging! from!migration!and!refugee!crises!to!conflict!management!and!peaceYkeeping! operations!to!disaster!response!and!recovery!(McDonald,!2010).!Thus!construed,!the& present&and&growing&challenges&of&food&security&affect&increasing&numbers&of& people&worldwide,!either!directly!or!indirectly.!Food&security&has&become&a&more& resonant&and&urgent&public&issue,&arguably&more&entangled&with&social,&political& and&environmental&problems&at&multiple&scales&in&our&era&than&in&the& past!(Falcon!and!Naylor,!2005;!PinstrupYAndersen,!2009).! Champion)Briefs) 424& ! 2013.!C.!even!national! food!selfsufficiency!in!the!1970s!to!the!prevailing!neoliberal!focus!on!individual!and! household!choices!and!preferences!in!the!context!of!globalizing!markets!(Jarosz.&food& security&squares&with&neoliberal&agendas¢ered&on&market&solutions&and& constitutes&at&best&a&reformist&project!(HoltYGiménez!and!Shattuck.Clare.!food!security!for!both!the!FAO!and!the! World!Bank!evolved!from!an!emphasis!on!assuring!national!food!supply.! 2011).com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.!noting!that!renewed&UK&interest&in& national&food&security&reveals&the&influence&of&international&policies’&neoliberal& tendencies.!Thus&aligned&with&poverty&alleviation&and&effective&market&demand.sciencedirect.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives.! Food&security&thus&demonstrates&a&discursive&fungibility&that&corresponds&to& changes&in&the&global&political&economy.&but&also&possible&openings&for&addressing&sustainability&and&social& justice&concerns.!February!08.!2011).! expansiveness!and!importance!of!the!concept.!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World.! MacMillan!and!Dowler’s!(2012)!examination!of!the!shifting!historical!discourses!and! current!imperatives!surrounding!food!security!in!the!UK!underscores!the!fungibility.& Hinrichs.NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&furthers&a&neoliberal&agenda.!January!01.!2015.!For!example.! <http://www.&national&politics&and&social& movements!(Maxwell.!Web.!1996).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 425& ."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies. NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& The&need&for&food&security&is&driven&by&the&need&to&control& population&and&manage&citizens.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! Two&of&the&three&food&security&collective&action&frames&examined&by!Mooney!and! Hunt!(2009)!invoke,&respectively,&hunger&and&community.!These!two!map!to!wellY established!meanings!in!formal!definitions!and!informal!discourse!about!food! security,!especially!in!the!recent!U.S.!context!(Anderson!and!Cook,!1999;!Bellows!and! Hamm,!2002;!Allen,!2007).!Mooney!and!Hunt’s!(2009)!proposal!of!a!third!food! security!collective!action!frame!centered!on!risk!reinstates!concern!about!food!supply! and!the!assured!availability!of!safe,!adequate!and!nourishing!food.!As!presented!by! Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009),!a&food&security&risk&frame&acknowledges&the&problems& that&may&be&inherent&to&the&organization&and&operation&of&tightly&coupled,& industrialized&global&food&supply&chains.&Such&supply&chains&are&associated&with& the&very&“high&technology,&capital`intensive&food&system”&that&“flat&keyed”& hunger&framing&has&promoted&as&a&way&to&increase&food&production&and& availability&(Mooney!and!Hunt,!2009:!482).&Large`scale&food&safety&“accidents”&as& well&as&intentional&terrorist&attacks&on&agricultural&resources&or&food&supply&are& now&recognized&as&food&security&risks&of&highly¢ralized&food&supply&systems.! Both!have!the!potential!to!become!dramatic,!engulfing!socioYtechnical!(and!public! health)!crises!once!they!are!recognized,!and!could!make!safe!food!suddenly!scarce.! Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009)!say!that!the&prognostic&framing,!especially!by!governments! and!business,!for&such&food&safety&and&agrofood&terrorism&“risks”&tends&to&be& more&and&better&risk&management,&typically&through&more&technology,&new& standards&and®ulatory®imes,&and&even&tighter&systems&of¢ralized& control.! Champion)Briefs) 426& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is&linked&to&climate&change&and&terrorist& threats.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! ! Highlighting!risk!in!addition!to&hunger&and&community&clarifies&new&bases&for& collective&action®arding&food&security.!However,!a&risk&frame&involves&more& than&the&specter&of&E.&coli&or&anthrax!stressed!by!Mooney!and!Hunt!(2009).!In!the! 21st!century,!a&food&security&framing¢ered&on&risk&includes¬&only&sudden& threats&to&food&supply,&but&also&slower`onset,&more&diffuse&forms&of& perturbation,&as&now&evident&in&the&emerging&effects&of&global&environmental& change&on&all&facets&of&the&food&system!(Ericksen,!2009).!Changes&in&global& climate,!including!warming!temperatures,!and!more!severe!droughts!and!floods,!are& challenging&expectations&of&crop&and&livestock&productivity&under¤t& farming&practices&in&many&parts&of&the&world(IAASTD,!2008;!National!Research! Council,!2010),!and!politicizing!the!futures!of!rural!regions!in!new!ways!(Woods,! 2012).!Food&safety&crises,&terrorist&attacks&and&climate&change&processes&may& differ&in&their&proximate&causes&and&threat&of&harm&to&human&communities,&but& all&represent&the&de`bounding&of&uncontrollable&risks!that!Beck!(2002)!suggests! now!characterizes!a!world!risk!society.!Precisely&because&the&implications&of& increasing&climate&volatility&for&food&production&and&availability&are&complex& and&poorly&understood,&global&environmental&change&now&enlarges&and& intensifies&a&food&security&risk&frame.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 427& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Post&9/11,&food&became&increasingly&securitized&by&the&US.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! The&US&government&had&begun&to&study&and&address&threats&from&agricultural& and&bioterrorism!well!before!the&9/11&terrorist&attacks!(Spellman,!2008).!Given! their!magnitude!and!origin!from!offshore,&the&9/11&attacks&both&prompted&and& justified&sweeping&new&government&initiatives&in&the&name&of&“security,”&some&of& which&included&food&and&agriculture.!In&2002,&Congress&passed&the&Public&Health& Security&and&Bioterrorism&Preparedness&and&Response&Act,!which!required!the! Secretary!of!the!newly!created!Department!of!Homeland!Security!(DHS)!“to!develop!a! coordinated!strategy!with!the!states!to!address!the!public!health!implications!of! bioterrorism!and!other!public!health!emergencies”!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009:! 425).!Title&III&of&the&Act&addressed&specific&aspects&of&the&safety&and&security&of& the&national&food&supply,&including&threat&assessment,&securing&food&processing& facilities&and&distribution&networks,&detecting&contamination,&and&establishing& response&protocols&e&in&short,&risk&management&for&critical&food&system& infrastructure!that!Mooneyand!Hunt!(2009)!suggest&is&the&typical&prognostic& frame.!Among!the!21!Homeland!Security!Presidential!Directives!issued!by! the!Bush!Administration!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009),!Directive!9!in!2004&called&for&a& national&policy&to&be&developed&and&implemented&by&DHS&and&other&government& agencies&to&“defend”&U.S.&food&and&agriculture&systems&from&attacks,&disasters& and&other&emergencies!(GAO,!2011).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 428& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&has&lead&to&a&more&authoritarian&government.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! As!a!new!federal!agency!with!a!highly!charged!national!mission,!DHS&approached& agriculture&and&food&through&strong¢ral&authority,!much!as!it!did!other!areas! within!its!purview.!Yet!preparation!for!and!response!to!national!emergencies!and! crises!ultimately!must!occur!in!threatened!and!affected!localities,!leading!some!to! argue!more!generally!for!regionalist!approaches!to!homeland!security.!Caruson!et!al.! (2005),!for!example,!note!that!the&U.S.&Homeland&Security&mission&on&critical& emergencies&places&distinct&pressures!on!the!US!system!of!federalism,!and!suggest! that!models!of!regionalism!would&foster&greater&intergovernmental&collaboration& and,!in!the!end,!better&security&preparedness.!Such!tensions!between!the!U.S.! federalist!system!and!food!security!planning!and!preparedness!as!a!facet!of!“homeland! security”!are!evident!in!a!2007!Congressional!Hearing!of!the!Committee!on!Homeland! Security!regarding!“partnerships!to!protect!the!food!you!eat.”!Speakers!from!DHS!and! outside!food!and!agriculture!experts!debated!the!role!of!the!central!DHS!agency!vs.! state!and!localYlevel!monitoring!of!agricultural!or!bioterrorismin!response!and! recovery!(U.S.!House,!2007).!Although&raising&issues&of&scale&and&authority,&such& debates&still¢ered&on&how&best&to&secure&the&infrastructure,&operations&and& safety!(i.e.,!to!manage!risks)!of&the&existing&U.S.&food&system&and&to&stream& resources&and&coordinate¢ral&food&and&agriculture`related&Homeland& Security&missions.&A&full&decade&after&the&9/11&attacks,&a&Government&Accounting& Office&report&found&that&food&and&agriculture&“defense”&as&led&by&DHS&continued& to&lack&effective¢ral&coordination&and&that&USDA&had¬&fulfilled&its&charge& to&develop&and&implement&comprehensive&strategies&for&response&and&recovery! (GAO,!2011).! Champion)Briefs) 429& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& U.S.&securitization&and&food&security&are&intrinsically&linked.& Hinrichs,!C.Clare.!"Regionalizing!Food!Security?!Imperatives,!Intersections!And! Contestations!In!A!PostY9/11!World."!Journal!of!Rural!Studies.!January!01,! 2013.!Web.!February!08,!2015.! <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016712000782>.! Although!the!broad!Homeland!Security!mission!and!approach!remain!intact,! government&acknowledgment&of&shortfalls&in¢rally`led&food&and&agriculture& “defense”&may&be&telling.&Such&shortfalls&underscore¬&just&administrative& inadequacies,&but&real&challenges&of¢ralization&and&scale&as&responses&to& food&security&risks.!Beyond!its!patriotic!urgency!for!many!when!first!introduced!and! aside!from!the!growing!public!cynicism!it!has!since!engendered,!“homeland!security”! also!prompted!further!discussion!about!the!actual!relationship!between!the!social!and! ecological!organization!of!the!present!U.S.!food!system!and!genuine!food!security.!In& the&wake&of&the&9/11&attacks,&anti`hunger&activists&immediately&urged&that& “homeland&security&must&include&food&security”!(Mann,!2001).!Dahlberg!(2008)! identified!centralization,&simplification&and&resource&intensity&of&the&prevailing& U.S.&food&system&as&inimical&to&a&true&“homeland”&security&and&argued&that&the& vulnerabilities&to&terrorist&and&other&threats&can&only&be&addressed&by&more& regional&scale,&democratic&and&ecological&design.!Other!critics!have!advocated! placing!local!and!regional!food!networks!at!the!center!of!Homeland!Security!planning,! with!the!qualification!that!“a!balance!must!be!struck!between!keeping!regional!and! local![food]!networks!autonomous!and!flexible!and!the!needs!for!national! governmental!oversight!and!coordination!of!food!production!and!distribution!during! an!emergency”!(Endres!and!Endres,!2009:!409)!In&its&implementation&and&its& challenges,&the&distinctive&U.S.&construct&of&“homeland&security”&has&exposed&the& importance&of&scale&as&a&strategic&response&to&food&security&risk.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 430& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&harms&global&south&countries&more&than&global& north.& Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!08,! 2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.! Trade&liberalization&has&been&a&hallmark&of&the&neoliberal&reformation&of& capitalism!since!the!1980s.!If!agricultural!trade!was!liberal!during!the!first!food! regime!from!the!late!nineteenth!century!to!World!War!I,!it!focused!on!national! markets!in!the!second!food!regime!from!the!aftermath!of!World!War!II!to!the!late! 1970s.!By!the!1980s,!agriculture!had!become!the!most!inwardYlooking!sector!of! national!economies,!and!national!agricultural!sectors!were!highly!protected.!One&of& the&chief&discursive&tools&used&to&liberalize&agriculture!in!the! 1980s!was!“food!security,”!which&was&supposed&to&be&best&achieved&through& trade&rather&than&self`sufficiency.!The!purpose!of!this!article!is!to!offer!a!critique!of! the!notion!of!food!security!through!trade!as!promoted!centrally!by!suprastate! organizations!like!the!United!Nations!Food!and!Agriculture!Organization!(FAO),!the! World!Bank,!and!the!World!Trade!Organization!(WTO).!The!empirical!question!that! emerges,!which!we!address!below,!is!to!what&extent&does&food`import&dependency& help&enhance—or&worsen—food&security&in&developing&countries&compared&with& that&in&advanced&capitalist&countries?!Our!hypothesis!on!this!is!simple:!the&more& that&developing&countries&become&dependent&on&food&imports&and&exports,&the& more&they&will&be&importing&the&“world&food&price”&for&the&relevant&commodities.& Foodprice&inflation&will&more&adversely&affect&their&working&classes,&which& spend&larger&shares&of&their&household&budgets&on&food.!We!offer!tentative! corroboration!of!this!hypothesis!by!an!analysis!of!how!foodYprice!inflation!has! affected!the!seven!countries!we!studied.!Clearly,!the&impact&was&much&lower&in& Canada&and&the&United&States,&but&it&was&severe&in&all&developing&countries.! Champion)Briefs) 431& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is&neoliberal.& Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!08,! 2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.! Philip!McMichael!(2009a:287)!has!argued!that!what!he!calls!the&“corporate”&food& regime&has&led&to&“deepening&food&dependency&in&both&directions,”&that&is,&in&the& “North”&and&“South.”!Using!longitudinal!data!from!the!FAO’s!FAOSTAT!database,! however,!we&add&nuance&and&specificity&to&what&we&call&the&“neoliberal”&food& regime,&and&show&that&its&food&security&can&best&be&characterized&as&“uneven&and& combined&dependency.”!This!is!a!modification!of!Leon!Trotsky’s!(1934)!“unequal! and!combined!development,”!and!indicates!that!states’&insertion&and&adaptation& into&this®ime&are&based&on&their&different&stages&of&development!(quoted!in! Morton!2011:3).!That!is,!we!wish!to!show!that!emerging&food&dependencies&under& neoliberal&capitalism&are¬¶llel&between&advanced&capitalist&countries&and& emerging&economies.!Rather,!the&former&display&mild&levels&of&dependency&on& the&importation&of&what&we&call&“luxury”&foods!(which!invariably!make!small! contributions!to!total!caloric!intake),!while&the&latter&generate&varying°rees&of& dependency&on&the&importation&of&“basic”&foods—very!“uneven”!types!of! dependency.!Wealthier&countries&are&importing&high`value&and&high`quality& foods,&while&they&are&exporting&mass&and&industrially&produced&cereals,&often& the&product&of&biotechnology!(e.g.,!maize!and!vegetable!oils).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 432& NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&is&historically&linked&to&the&spread&of& neoliberalism.& Otero,!Gerardo.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency."!Rural!Sociology.!January!01,!2013.!Web.!February!09,! 2015.!<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ruso.12011/abstract>.! We&can&trace&the&idea&of&food&security&back&to&the&1948&United&Nations& Declaration&of&Human&Rights,&which&included&the&“right&to&food”!as!part!of!human! rights.!The&term&“food&security”!as!such,!however,!was¬&articulated&until&1974& and&it&did¬&come&to&dominate&official&discourse&in&suprastate&organizations& until&the&mid`1980s,!once&the&neoliberal&reformation&of&capitalism&was&in&full& swing!(Jarosz!2011).!From!this!time!on,!food&security&became&irrevocably&linked&to& “trade&and&aid”&as&key&ways&of&making&food&available.&The&official&view&justified& the&neoliberal&shift&from&a&supply`led&to&a&free`trade`oriented&food&security& paradigm&relying&on&the&ideas&of&“balancing&supply&and&demand,”& “differentiating&between&food&self`sufficiency&and&food&security,”&and& “comparative&advantages”!(FAO!2006:1,!2003:35).! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 433& !January!01.!18).”!The&World& Bank&(2001)!insisted&that&“the&overall&benefits&of&liberalization&will&always& outweigh&the&costs”&(2).!the! World!Bank!document!on!rural!wellYbeing!(Serageldin!and!Steeds!1997:16)!argued! that!“only!with!stable.&the&report&went&on&to&clearly&state&that&“there&is&no& necessary&link&between&selfsufficiency&and&food&security”!(Reutlinger!and!van! Holst!Pellekaan!1986:31).!Furthermore.1111/ruso.!<http://onlinelibrary.!integrated!longYterm!access!to!world!markets!can!countries! comfortably!refrain!from!costly!food!selfYsufficiency!policies.!Prior!to!the!1986!report.!2013."!Rural!Sociology.!Similarly.!the!World!Bank!had!already!drawn! attention!to!the!need!for!identifying!costYeffective!ways!to!improve!food!security! (Reutlinger!and!van!Holst!Pellekaan!1985:6–7).!labeling!food!selfYsufficiency!as!a! costly!and!inefficient!solution.!and!arguing!for!a!free!trade!model!(3.! Following!FAO’s!reconceptualization!of!food!security.!!! ! Champion)Briefs) 434& .wiley.!Web.!the&influential&World&Bank& report&on&poverty&and&hunger&(Reutlinger!and!van!Holst!Pellekaan!1986)drew&a& close&link&between&food&insecurity&and&high&levels&of&structural&poverty&and&low& levels&of&income.!"The!Political!Economy!Of!“Food!Security”!And!Trade:!Uneven!And! Combined!Dependency.NEG:&Securitization&NC& & March/April&2015& World&Bank&study&justifies&neoliberalism.&even&though&this&might&lead&to&negative&outcomes&in&the& short&run&in&certain&cases.&which&all&hinder&the&demand&side&of&food&security!(FAO! 2006:1).! 2015.com/doi/10.& Otero.!Gerardo.12011/abstract>.!February!09. !On!one!hand.! !! !!! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 435& .!the!duration!of!monthly! benefits!(33.41).34.!Web.!"The!Food!InsecurityYObesity!Paradox:!A!Review!Of!The!Literature! And!The!Role!Food!Stamps!May!Play.pdf?_tid=f0359692Yad09Y11e4Y8222Y 00000aab0f02&acdnat=1423122072_e400f4381bf6bd7f28279aedb8a47652>."!Journal!of!the!American!Dietetic! Association.!and! households!may!transition!between!these!levels!depending!on!the!time!of!month!of! the!food!stamp!cycle.! The!inability!of!the!Food!Stamp!Program!to!bring!all!households!to!a!level!of!food! security!(42)!may!be!a!result!of!insufficient!benefits!(33).!unable!to!meet!their!food!needs.!that&seek&assistance&through& the&Food&Stamp&Program!(27.& Dinour.42).!whereas!31%!were!food!insecure! without!hunger!and!another!19%!were!food!insecure!with!hunger!(4).!December!11.!February!05.!Conversely.41).! The!relationship!between!the!Food!Stamp!Program!and!food!security!can!be!looked!at! from!two!ways.!nor&do&levels&of&food& insecurity&differ&between&food&stamp&participants&and&nonparticipants!(40.!half!of!food! stamp!households!were!food!secure!in!2004.!LaurenM.!2015.NEG:&Worse&Food&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&stamps&can&lead&to&a&cycle&of&obesity.!it&is&those&food` insecure&households.!households&are&expected&to&become&more&food& secure&after&receiving&and&using&food&stamps.!The&food& stamp&cycle&seems&to&affect&people&at&all&three&levels&of&food&security.!and/or! inadequate!nutrition!education!(41).0YS0002822307016161Y main.com/S0002822307016161/1Ys2.!several&researchers&have&found&that&food&stamps&do¬& ensure&consumption&of&nutritionally&adequate&diets!(39).30)!as!a!potential!coping!strategy.!In!fact.!<http://ac.!Still.!inefficient!household!budget!management!(34.elsY cdn.!2006.41. !as!a!means!to! earn!the!income!to!assure!their!own!food!security.!an!IFAD!report!on!the!impact!of!the!food!crisis!on! the!rural!poor!notes!that!not!only!are!they!becoming!poorer.&their&gains&from&price& increases&are&marginal.49!Either!way!this&means&that& poor&and/&or&small&farmers’&choices&do¬&at&the&moment&include!(having!the! public!support!for)!producing&food&for&domestic&markets&under&the&auspices&of& national&food&security&programmes.! ! ! Champion)Briefs) 436& .! <http://www.!noted!that!poor!people!are!particularly! vulnerable!to!staple!food!price!rises.!lowYoutput!production!for!home!consumption.46! Rather.NEG:&Worse&Food&NC& & March/April&2015& Food&security&does¬&help&farmers.!by!shifting!into!higherYvalue!marketYoriented!production.!February!09.! they!are!responding!either!by!withdrawing!from!the!market!and!reverting!to!lowY input.&in&addition&to&previous& commitments&to&sell&harvests&at&fixed&rates.!2011.!but!also.! Paradoxically&rising&food&prices&do¬&provide&sufficient&commercial&stimuli&for& small&farmers.!Web.&because&farmers&in& poor®ions&self`consume&more&of&their&own&output.48!Further.!2015.nih.!given!the!greater!share!of!staple!foods!in!their! expenditure!patterns."! Third!World!Quarterly.!based!on!a!survey!of!1000! households!in!nine!lowYincome!countries.!January!01.ncbi.gov/pubmed/21591303>.47!Another!World!Bank!report.!Phil.!"Food!Security!Politics!And!The!Millennium!Development!Goals.nlm.&despite&FAO&suggestions&that&rural&households&producing&food& staples&traded&internationally&could&benefit&from&rising&food&prices.& McMichael.!the&World&Bank&reports&that.!as!producers.&and/or&that.!or.&because&farmers&tend¬&to&seek&such& market&rewards&because&of&fertiliser&and&fuel&inflation.!where!they!have!the! resources.