ABSTRACTThis project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. In this Project In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad & New Delhi. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. Up path and Down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over. This paper describes a prototype that has been developed to demonstrate the concept of integrated gaming and simulation for incident management. Architecture for the purpose was developed and presented at the last conference. A hypothetical emergency incident scenario has been developed for demonstrating the applicability of integrated simulation and gaming. A number of simulation and gaming modules have been utilized to model the major aspects of the hypothetical scenario. The modules demonstrate the value of utilizing simulation for incident management applications. They can be used to highlight the value of simulation and gaming for training applications in particular. Two of the simulation modules have been integrated using a modified implementation of the high level architecture to give an idea of the advantages. Technical issues in integration are identified. LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. 1.1 1.2 4.1 TOPIC List of Components Maximum Rating of ULN Cost Analysis PAGE NO. 4 14 45 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE NO. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 3.1 3.2 TOPIC Pin Diagram of MEGA8L Reset Diagram Block Diagram of 8L ULN 2003 Voltage Regulator 7805 12V 75~ Unipolar Stepper Motor Basic Stepper Motor Schematic Diagram of LCD LCD Display Power Supply Bridge Rectifier Basic Transformer Diode Symbol of Resistance Carbon Film Resistance Capacitor Symbol of Capacitor Capacitor & Battery Connection LED & LED Symbol Detailed Diagram of LED Buzzer Block Diagram Circuit Diagram PAGE NO. 5 7 10 13 15 16 18 19 20 20 21 22 22 23 24 26 26 27 27 28 28 43 44 CONTENTS CONTENTS Certificate Acknowledgement Abstract List of Tables List of Figures Chapter 1 • Introduction 1-29 30-37 Chapter 2 • Literature Review Chapter 3 • • • • PCB Designing Working Block Diagram 3 8-40 41-42 43 44 Circuit Diagram Chapter 4 • • Cost Analysis Problem Faced & Troubleshooting Chapter 5 • • 45 46 Conclusion Future Scope 47 47 REFERENCES APPENDIX • • 48-49 50-58 59-77 Program Coding Datasheets MAJOR PROJECT: METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION & COMPONENTS INTRODUCTION This project is designed so that students can understand the technology used in the now a day’s driver less metro train which is used in most of the developed countries like Germany, France, and Japan etc. These trains are equipped with the CPU, which control the train. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. This is very wonderful project to control the working of the train without driver. These train are equipped with the CPU which control the train. 1. ATMEGA 8L Microcontroller 2. ULN 2003 3. Stepper motor 4. LCD In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using ATMEL microcontroller ATMEGA 8L to control all the function as CPU. Microcontroller controls the rotation of motor. First the motor is controlled and name of each station is displayed over LCD and accordingly the different delay for each station is provided. So this project works for metro train without driver. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as New Delhi, Noida, and Greater Noida. The Stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 sec. There is a LCD display for showing various messages in the train for passengers. There are indicators, which are used to show the train direction i.e. UP path and down path. Before stopping at station the train blows the buzzer. It also includes an emergency brake system due to which the train stops as soon as the brakes are applied and resumes journey when the emergency situation is over. APPLICATION AND IMPLEMENTATION EXAMPLES AND CONCEPTS In this section are some examples of implementations discussed with some details. The basic system is invariant, the different application variants. COLLISION AND FLANK PROTECTION The basic concept is the collision detection of two trains: both trains determine their position and movement vector using GNSS. This information is transmitted together with some other information like type of mission and train number by mobile radio to the trains in the area around. Each receiver compares his own position and vector with all received vectors. As soon as a collision in the four-dimensional space (time and three space dimensions) has been identified a specific reaction is triggered. Depending of the parameters like remaining distance, time to collision and the speed the reaction is selected beginning from different types of warning up to an automatic braking. TRACK WORK PROTECTION Track work protection can be performed in several aspects by RCAS: the construction track itself can be transmitted as blocked track and – using the same telegram – the neighbouring track can be transmitted as area with reduced allowed speed. In the opposite direction the working gang can be warned against an approaching train. LEVEL CROSSINGS (LX) A significant number of collisions are happening with road vehicles on level crossings with half-barriers. One application of RCAS is the supervision of the danger zone of the level crossing with magnetic detection, RADAR, Video or similar technologies. Instead of the movement vector is he occupation status of the danger zone the criterion which is transmitted. • LX secured and danger zone free => proceed • LX secured and danger zone occupied by moving object => Warning • LX secured and standing object in the danger zone => Danger • LX not correctly secured The application of RCAS for level crossings uses the detected status of the road vehicle passing the rails and informs the driver of the train. The detected and transmitted obstacle information triggers a warning or removers the warning if the road vehicle leaves the danger zone. WHAT IS EMBEDDED TECHNOLOGY Embedded technology is software or hardware that is hidden embedded in a large device or system. It typically refers to a fixed function device, as compared with a PC, which runs general purpose application. Embedded technology is nothing new. It all around us and has been for years. An early example of embedded technology is the engine control unit in a car, which measures what setting to give the engine. Your coffee maker has embedded technology in the form of a microcontroller, which is what tells it to make the coffee at 6 a.m. the vending machine has it too. Overall, billions of devices woven into everyday life use embedded technology. In the past embedded technology existed in standalone device vending machines and copiers that did their jobs with little regard for what went on around them,. But as technology has learned to connect device to the internet and to each other, embedded technology potential has grown. Suddenly it is and what actions those connections let them perform. Cell phone companies figured that out a long time ago, which is why cell phones are cheap and the service, plans are expensive. It is not the phone itself that matters, but the connectivity to a vast network of other phones, other people and the internet. Until you download software that lets you find a local restaurant or mange your finances. Let say you make freezers the big, expensive kind that grocery stores buy. You sell ne and you are done with that customer. When it brakes the customer calls a service person, who probably comes from somewhere other than your company. But let us say that freezer knows that it is about to go on the fritz. Let say three refrigerator alerts the customer before it breaks. Better yet, let us say the freezer alerts the manufacturer and you are able to send a service person to do preventative work and save a lot of haagen- dazs from melting. Embedded technology allows all of that to happen. You, the freezer company have transformed yourself from a product company to product and services company. The possibilities go beyond that programming device to communicate with businesses can eliminate the need for costly call centers. Copy machines that can order their own replacement cartridges will save businesses time and money. Remember, the fact the technology is embedded is not what important, and neither is the device. Telecom Mobile phone systems (handsets and base stations), modems, routers Automotive application Braking system, Traction control, Airbag release system, Management units, and Steer-by-wire systems. Domestic application Dishwasher, television, washing machines, microwave ovens, Video recorders, Security system, Garage door controllers, Calculators, Digital watches, VCRs, Digital cameras, Remote Controls, Treadmills Robotic Fire fighting robot, Automatic floor cleaner, robotic arm Aerospace application Flight control system, Engine controllers, Autopilots, Passenger entertainment system Medical equipment Anesthesia monitoring system, ECG monitors, Pacemakers, Drug delivery systems, MRI scanners Defense system Radar systems, Fighter aircraft flight control system, Radio system, Missile guidance systems Office automation Laser printers, Fax machines, Pagers, Cash registers, Gas pumps, Credit /Debit card readers, Thermostats, Grain analyzers LIST OF COMPONENTS USED Table No. 1.1 List of components Sr. no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Equipment IC ATMEGA8L IC ULN 2003 Transformer Voltage Regulator 7805 2 line LCD display Stepper Motor Crystal Oscillator Switch LED Resistors(220~, 4. 7 k ~, 1 0 k ~) Capacitors(33pf,ceramic disk) Diode Buzzer Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 10 2 2 1 1) MICRO-CONTROLLER 8051 DESCRIPTION The IC ATMEGA 8L is a low-power; high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 8K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-5 1 instruction set and pin out. The onchip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel IC ATMEGA 8L is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The IC ATMEGA 8L provides the following standard features: 4K bytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture, full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition, the IC 8051 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. Figure No. 1.1: Pin Diagram of 8051 A processor is an electronic device capable of manipulating data in a way specified by a sequence of instructions. INSTRUCTIONS Instructions in a computer are binary numbers just like data. Different numbers, when read and executed by a processor, cause different things to happen. The instructions are also called opcodes or machine codes. Different bit patterns activate or deactivate different parts of the processing core. Every processor has its own instruction set varying in number, bit pattern and functionality. PROGRAM The sequence of instructions is what constitutes a program. The sequence of instructions may be altered to suit the application. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE Writing and understanding such programs in binary or hexadecimal form is very difficult ,so each instructions is given a symbolic notation in English language called as mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics Form is called an assembly language program. But it must be converted into machine language for execution by processor. ASSEMBLER An assembly language program should be converted to machine language for execution by processor. Special software called ASSEMBLER converts a program written in mnemonics to its equivalent machine opcodes. A high level language like C may be used to write programs for processors. Software called compiler converts this high level language program down to machine code. Ease of programming and portability. PIN DESCRIPTION VCC (Pin 40) Provides voltage to the chip . +5V GND (Pin 20) Ground XTAL1 (Pin 19) and XTAL2 (Pin 18) Crystal Oscillator connected to pins 18, 1 9.Two capacitors of 30pF value. Time for one machine cycle:11.0592/12=1.085 µ secs Fig No. 1.2: Reset RST (Pin 9) RESET pin 1. Active high. On applying a high pulse to this pin, microcontroller will reset and terminate all activities. 2. INPUT pin 3. Minimum 2 machine cycles required to make RESET 4. Value of registers after RESET 8 External Access: EA 31 • • Connected to VCC for on chip ROM Connected to Ground for external ROM containing the code Input Pin Program Store Enable: PSEN 29 • • Output Pin In case of external ROM with code it is connected to the OE pin of the ROM Address Latch Enable: ALE 30 • • Output Pin. Active high In case of external ROM ,ALE is used to de multiplex (PORT 0) the address and data bus by connecting to the G pin of 74LS373 chip I/O Port Pins and their Functions: • Four ports P0,P1,P2,P3 with 8 pins each, making a total of 32 input/output pins • On RESET all ports are configured as output. They need to be programmed to make them function as inputs PORT 0 • • • • Pins 32-39 Can be used as both Input or Output External pull up resistors of 10K need to be connected Dual role: 8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save pins .AD0-AD7 • ALE is used to de multiplex data and address bus 9 PORT 1 • • • • • Pins 1 through 8 Both input or output No dual function Internal pull up registers On RESET configured as output PORT 2 • • • • Pins 21 through 28 No external pull up resistor required Both input or output Dual Function: Along with Port 0 used to provide the 16-Bit address for external memory. It provides higher address A8-A16 PORT 3 • • Pins 10 through 17 No external pull up resistors required Figure No. 1.3: Block Diagram of Microcontroller 11 ALU The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs the internal arithmetic manipulation of data line processor. The instructions read and executed by the processor decide the operations performed by the ALU and also control the flow of data between registers and ALU. Operations performed by the ALU are Addition , Subtraction , Not , AND , NAND , OR , NOR , XOR , Shift Left/Right , Rotate Left/right , Compare etc. Some ALU supports Multiplication and Division. Operands are generally transferred from two registers or from one register and memory location to ALU data inputs. The result of the operation is the placed back into a given destination register or memory location from ALU output. REGISTERS Registers are the internal storage for the processor. The number of registers varies significantly between processor architectures. • WORKING REGISTERS Temporary storage during ALU Operations and data transfers. • INDEX REGISTERS Points to memory addresses. • STATUS REGISTERS Stores the current status of various flags denoting conditions resulting from various operations. • CONTROL REGISTERS Contains configuration bits that affect processor operation and the operating modes of various internal subsystems. Memory is used to hold data and program for the processor. • SRAM Volatile, fast, low capacity, expensive, requires lesser external support circuitry. • DRAM Volatile, relatively slow, highest capacity needs continuous refreshing. Hence require external circuitry. • O T P R O M One time programmable, used for shipping in final products. • E P R O M Erasable programmable, UV Erasing, Used for system development and debugging. • EEPROM Electrically erasable and programmable, can be erased programmed in- circuit, Used for storing system parameters. • F L A S H Electrically programmable & erasable, large capacity, organized as sectors. BUSES A bus is a physical group of signal lines that have a related function. Buses allow for the transfer of electrical signals between different parts of the processor. • • • Data bus Address bus Control bus CONTROLLER LOGIC Processor brain decodes instructions and generate control signal for various sub units. It has full control over the clock distribution unit of processor. I/O Peripherals The I/O devices are used by the processor to communicate with the external world • • • Parallel Ports. Serial Ports. ADC/DAC. 2) ULN 2003 Figure No. 1.4: ULN 2003 14 FEATURES - Output current 500mA per driver (600mA peak) Output voltage 50V - Integrated suppression diodes for inductive loads Outputs can be paralleled for higher current TTL/CMOS/PMOS/DTL Compatible inputs - Inputs pinned opposite outputs to simplify Layout DESCRIPTION The ULN2001, ULN2002, ULN2003 and ULN2004 are high voltage, high current Darlington Arrays each contain seven open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each Channel rated at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression diodes are Included for inductive load driving and the inputs are pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board MAXIMUM RATING Table No. 1.2: Maximum Rating of ULN WHY WE USE ULN 2003? Digital system and microcontroller pins lack sufficient current to drive the relay. While the stepper motor’s coil needs around 1 0ma to be energized, the microcontroller’s pin can provide a maximum of 1-2 mA current. For this reason, we place a driver. 3) VOLAGE REGULATOR Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive current (over load protection) and overheating (thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary. Figure No. 1.5: 7805 Voltage Regulator DESCRIPTION These voltage regulators are monolithic circuit integrated circuit designed as fixed voltage regulators for a wide variety of applications including local, on card regulation. These regulators employ internal current limiting, thermal shutdown, and 16 safe-area compensation. With adequate heat sinking they can deliver output current in excess of 1.0 A. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage regulator, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and current. FEATURES • • • • • • • • Output current in Excess of 1.0 A No external component required Internal thermal overload protection Internal short circuit current limiting Output transistor safe-area compensation Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages Previous commercial temperature range has been extended to a junction temperature range of -40 degree C to +125 degree C. 4) STEPPER MOTOR Figure No. 1.6: 12-Volt 75 Ohm Unipolar Stepper Motor A stepper motor system is an electro-mechanical rotary actuator that converts electrical pulses into unique shaft rotations. This rotation is directly related to the number of pulses. Motion Control, in electronic terms, means to accurately control the movement of an object based on speed, distance, load, inertia or a combination of all these factors. There are numerous types of motion control systems, including; Stepper Motor, Linear Step Motor, DC Brush, Brushless, Servo, Brushless Servo and more. Stepper motors are ideally suited for precision control. This motor can be operated in forward/reverse with controllable speed from a BASIC Stamp or any other microcontroller through a transistor driver circuit. Some of the applications for this motor include educational experimentation, robotics and precision mechanical control the #27964 is a Unipolar (4 phase) 12 VDC, 150 mA motor that takes 3.6 degrees per step. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS • • • • • • • • • • • • Phase resistance (Ohms): 75 Current (mA): 150 Phase Inductance (mH): 39 Detent torque (g-cm): 80 Holding Torque (g-cm): 600 Mounting hole space diagonal (in.): 1.73 Mounting hole (in.) 0.11 Shaft diameter (in.): Shaft length (in.): 0.43 Motor Motor 0.197 Diameter (in.): 1.66 height (in.): 1.35 0.55 lbs. Weight: 18 Figure No. 1.7: Basic Stepper Motor 5) LCD DISPLAY DESCRIPTION OF LCD DISPLAY This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something simple. This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work with most, if not all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input. These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic required to run them is on board. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM Figure No. 1.8: Schematic Diagram of LCD Display 19 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there is a few which don't. Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors. We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays into our program. The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use an onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly. The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of manufacturers and should all be compatible with the HD44780. The diagram to the right shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the left pin is pin 16 and the right pin is pin 1. Figure No. 1.9: LCD Display 20 6) POWER SUPPLY AC Suppl Figure No. 1.10: Power Supply BRIDGE RECTIFIER Bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes arranged in the form of a bridge as shown in figure. AC Supply Figure No. 1.11: Bridge Rectifier OPERATION During the positive half cycle of the input supply, the upper end A of the transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to its lower point B. This makes Point1 of bridge Positive with respect to point 2. The diode D1 & D2 become forward biased & D3 & D4 become reverse biased. As a result a current starts flowing from point1, through D1 the load & D2 to the negative end. During negative half cycle, the point2 becomes positive with respect to point 1. Diodes D1 & D2 now become reverse biased. Thus a current flow from point 2 to point1. 7) TRANSFORMER Transformer is a major class of coils having two or more windings usually wrapped around a common core made from laminated iron sheets. It has two cols named primary and secondary. If the current flowing through primary is fluctuating, then a current will be inducted into the secondary winding. A steady current will not be transferred from one coil to other coil. Figure No. 1.12: Basic Transformer Transformers are of two types: 1. Step up transformer 2. Step down transformer Key Benefits • Structured BASIC with labels. Structured programming with IF-THEN-ELSE-END IF, DO-LOOP, WHILEWEND, SELECT- CASE. • • • Fast machine code instead of interpreted code. Variables and labels can be as long as 32 characters. Compiled programs work with all AVR microprocessors that have internal Statements are highly compatible with Microsoft’s VB/QB. Special commands for LCD-displays , I2C, 1WIRE , PC keyboard, matrix keyboard, RC5 reception, RS232 communication. • • • Local variables, user functions, library support, mixed ASM and BASIC programming. Integrated terminal emulator with download option.. Integrated simulator for testing. Integrated ISP programmer (application note AVR910.ASM). Integrated Kanda STK200+ programmer and STK300 programmer. Editor with statement highlighting. Context sensitive help. DEMO version compiles 2KB of code. Well suited for a AT90S231 3. Bit, Byte, Integer, Word, Long, Single and String variables. memory. The following statements are supported (actually there are more look for them in the help file): Decision and structures IF, THEN, ELSE, ELSEIF, END IF, DO, LOOP, WHILE, WEND, UNTIL, EXIT DO, EXIT WHILE, FOR, NEXT, TO, DOWNTO, STEP, EXIT FOR, ON .. GOTO/GOSUB, SELECT, CASE. Input and output PRINT, INPUT, INKEY, WAITKEY, PRINT, INPUTHEX, LCD, UPPERLINE, LOWERLINE,DISPLAY ON/OFF, CURSOR ON/OFF/BLI NK/NOBLI NK, HOME, LOCATE, SHI FTLCD LEFT/RIGHT, SHIFTCURSOR LEFT/RIGHT, CLS, DEFLCDCHAR, WAITKEY, I NPUTBI N, PRI NTBI N, OPEN, CLOSE, DEBOUNCE, SHIFTIN, SHIFTOUT, GETATKBD, GETKBD, GETRC5 Numeric functions AND, OR, XOR, INC, DEC, MOD, NOT, ABS, BCD. I2C I2CSTART, I2CSTOP, I2CWBYTE, I2CRBYTE, I2CSEND and I2CRECEIVE. 1WIRE 1WWRITE, 1WREAD, 1WRESET, 1WIRECOUNT, 1WSEARCHFIRST, 1WSEARCHNEXT. SPI SPIINIT, SPIIN, SPIOUT. Interrupt programming ON INT0/INT1/TIMER0/TIMER1/SERIAL, RETURN, ENABLE, DISABLE, COUNTERx, CAPTUREx, INTERRUPTS, CONFIG, START, LOAD. Bit manipulation SET, RESET, ROTATE, SHIFT, BITWAIT, TOGGLE. Variables DIM, BIT , BYTE , INTEGER , WORD, LONG, SINGLE, STRING , DEFBIT, DEFBYTE, DEFINT, DEFWORD. Miscellaneous REM, ' , SWAP, END, STOP, CONST, DELAY, WAIT, WAITMS, GOTO, GOSUB, POWERDOWN, IDLE, DECLARE, CALL, SUB, END SUB, FUNCTION, END FUNCTION, MAKEDEC, MAKEBCD, INP,OUT, ALIAS, DIM , ERASE, DATA, READ, RESTORE, INCR, DECR, PEEK, POKE, CPEEK, FUNCTION, READMAGCARD. Compiler directives $INCLUDE, $BAUD and $CRYSTAL, $SERIALINPUT, $SERIALOUTPUT, $RAMSIZE, $RAMSTART, $DEFAULT XRAM, $ASM$END ASM, $LCD, $EXTERNAL, $LIB. String manipulation STRING, SPACE, LEFT, RIGHT, MID, VAL, HEXVAL, LEN, STR, HEX, LTRIM, RTRIM, TRIM, LCASE, UCASE. To make a program takes just a few steps : Write the program in BASIC Compile it to fast machine binary code Test the result with the integrated simulator(with additional hardware you can simulate the hardware too). Program the chip with one of the integrated programmers like the STK200+. The program can be written in a comfortable MDI color coded editor. Besides the normal editing features, the editor supports Undo, Redo, Bookmarks and block indention. The simulator let you test your program before writing it to the microprocessor. You can watch variables, step through the program one line at the time or run to a specific line, or you can alter variables. To watch a variables value you can also point the mouse cursor over it. uP TAB of simulator A powerful feature is the hardware emulator, to emulate the LCD display, and the ports. The LCD emulator also emulates custom build LCD characters! You can even simulate the hardware ports with the special bascom monitor program! When you are done with the simulator it is time to program the chip using one of the supported programmer like the STK200+ or STK300. SK U #Pr ic e BSCAVR BSCAVRB $69 $49 Description BASCOM-AVR BASCOM-AVR cross upgrade for BASCOM users. Serial number required. Availability BASCOM-AVR is available NOW. BASCOM-LT and BASCOM-8051 users can order the cross upgrade BSCABRB. Your serial number is required for this. What should be mentioned BASCOM-AVR is a conversion from BASCOM-8051. Although it works pretty good now there are a few things that needs work: Not all code is optimized yet. There is no ASM output yet. ASM outputs needs lots of documentation to be useful for the end user. A high priority is given to finish these features. In the power supply we use step down transformer. We apply 220V AC on the primary of step down transformer. This transformer step down this voltages to 6V AC. We Give 6V AC to rectifier circuit, which convert it to 5V DC. 8) DIODE The diode is a p-n junction device. Diode is the component used to control the flow of the current in any one direction. The diode widely works in forward bias. Figure No. 1.13: Diode When the current flows from the P to N direction. Then it is in forward bias. The Zener diode is used in reverse bias function i.e. N to P direction. Visually the identification of the diode`s terminal can be done by identifying he silver/black line. The silver/black line is the negative terminal (cathode) and the other terminal is the positive terminal (cathode). APPLICATION • • • Diodes: Rectification, free-wheeling, etc Zener diode: Voltage control, regulator etc. Tunnel diode: Control the current flow, snobbier circuit, etc The flow of charge through any material encounters an opposing force similar in many respects to mechanical friction .this opposing force is called resistance of the material .in some electric circuit resistance is deliberately introduced in form of resistor. Resistor used fall in three categories , only two of which are color coded which are metal film and carbon film resistor .the third category is the wire wound type ,where value are generally printed on the vitreous paint finish of the component. Resistors are in ohms and are represented in Greek letter omega, looks as an upturned horseshoe. Most electronic circuit require resistors to make them work properly and it is obliviously important to find out something about the different types of resistors available. Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega ohm. 1 ohm is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in kohm and Mohm. Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 ohm or as high as 10 Mohm. Figure No. 1.14: Symbol of Resistance FUNCTION Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a light-emitting diode(LED) to limit the current passing through the LED. TYPES OF RESISTORS FIXED VALUE RESISTORS It includes two types of resistors as carbon film and metal film .These two types are explained under During manufacture, at in film of carbon is deposited onto a small ceramic rod. The resistive coating is spiraled away in an automatic machine until the resistance between there two ends of the rods is as close as possible to the correct value. Metal leads and end caps are added, the resistors is covered with an insulating coating and finally painted with colored bands to indicate the resistor value Figure No. 1.15: Carbon Film Resistors Another Carbon 22000 Kilo-Ohms 22K at 5% Band 1 = Red, Band 2 = Red, Band 3 = Orange, 3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zero's Band 4 = Gold, Tolerance, 5% 3. METAL FILM RESISTORS Metal film and metal oxides resistors are made in a similar way, but can be made more accurately to within ±2% or ±1% of their nominal vale there are some difference in performance between these resistor types, but none which affects their use in simple circuit. example for a Ohms or 22 also known as tolerance: 1st digit 2nd digit A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high wattage resistors can be made by using a thick wire material. Wire wound resistors cannot be used for high frequency circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuit. Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened with special cement. They have very high power rating, from 1 or 2 watts to dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high power application, and this must be taken into account when designing the circuit. TESTING Resistors are checked with an ohm meter/millimeter. For a defective resistor the ohm-meter shows infinite high reading. 10) CAPACITORS In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons at the other terminal. Figure No. 1.16: Capacitor Like a battery, a capacitor has two terminals. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a dielectric. The dielectric can be air, paper, plastic or anything else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work. In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this: Figure No. 1.17: Symbol of Capacitor When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here’s what happens: • The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing. • The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery. Figure No. 1.18: Capacitor & Battery Connection To test the capacitors, either analog meters or special digital meters with the specified function are used. The non-electrolyte capacitor can be tested by using the digital meter. Multi – meter mode Positive probe Negative probe Display Result Continuity One end : Second end `0`(beep sound occur) `OL` Faulty OK 11) LED LED falls within the family of P-N junction devices. The light emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off visible light when it is energized. In any forward biased P-N junction there is, with in the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of hole and electrons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free electron be transferred to another state. The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source is called electroluminescence. Figure No. 1.19: LED & LED Symbol LED is a component used for indication. All the functions being carried out are displayed by led .The LED is diode which glows when the current is being flown through it in forward bias condition. The LEDs are available in the round shell and also in the flat shells. The positive leg is longer than negative leg. 28 Figure No. 1.20: Detailed Diagram of LED BUZZER Buzzer is a device used for beep signal. This will help us to make understand information or message. A buzzer is usually electronic device used in automobiles, household applications etc. Figure No. 1.21: Buzzer It mostly consists of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electrical bell without the metal gong. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to derive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. These buzzers do not make a sound or turn on a light, they stop a nearby digital clock, briefly fire two smoke cannons on each side of the stage exit and open the exit. However, at the end of the Heartbreaker in Viking, the buzzer is replaced with a sword that, when removed, causes two contacts to touch, closing the circuit and causing the latter two actions above to occu EMBEDDED IN EMBEDDED Intel and the licensees soon realized that 8051 is a nice core that can be embedded in various ASIC chips to perform setup and control tasks. Typically, the resources of the ASIC are mapped as external data memory, as if the ASIC would be connected to a conventional 8051 chip. This approach allows to use an unmodified core, which speeds up the chip development and decreases the chance for error; also the ASIC could be breadboard-prototyped in this form easily. As an example, Intel produced 80C5 1 SL, a descendant of 8042. Philips has a line of 8051-based teletext controllers. In a particular USB webcamera, the chip interfacing the CCD and USB was controlled by an embedded 8051. There are probably much more examples around, but most of them never get public. In spite of this, the 8051 in this form is produced probably in much higher volumes than as general-purpose microcontrollers. EXTRAS Besides application-specific, also general purpose derivatives have been introduced by Intel and the licensees, with enhanced features and increased code and data memories. In contrast with the ASICs mentioned above, these chips tend to implement the extra features in the core itself, accessed usually via extra SFRs. This allows faster code as SFRs are accessed by all the instructions using direct addressing (mov, logic), and some of them by the bit-manipulation instructions, too. One of the first such derivative by Intel was the 80C51FA, which introduced the programmable counter array (PCA) (and was a 8052 otherwise). It was intended for automotive applications (brake control). Soon, FB and FC continued, with more and more code memory. 80C51RA/RB/RC followed, with added "internal external" data memory. These were the basis for the today's 89C51RD2 "sub-family", produced by Philips, Atmel (as ex-Temic), SST and Winbond. FAT BOYS: 16-BIT EXTENSIONS When the 8051 was accepted widely enough, some of the applications started to grow and soon required more power than the 8051 even with enhancements could provide. There were 16-bit microcontrollers around (e.g. Intel had it's 80C 196 line), but it seemed a good idea to provide a more natural migration path by creating a 16-bit version of 8051. Intel addressed the problem by introducing 80C25 1. It went all the way to achieve compatibility - it was able to run 8051 binary code (being able to switch to native 16-bit 251-mode) and had a package pin-compatible with 8051. It was not a big success, most probably for bad market timing (although it is second sourced by Temic/Atmel). Philips on the other hand employed source-compatibility for its XA family, which seems to be adequate for most of the applications, where legacy code has to be maintained or parallel development with 8051 is needed; and poses little constraint on the chip design itself. All in all, the 16-bit versions of 8051 gained far less popularity than the 8051 and are less widespread. In the 90s, Atmel introduced a derivative of 8051 with Flash code memory, enabling fast erasure and reprogramming. It enabled to use the productiongrade chip in development, and enabled the chips used in the product to be reprogrammed when upgrade or a bugfix was needed, cutting down costs. It brought down the 8051 to the masses - the small "garage" companies and hobbyists. Besides that, Atmel introduced also 89C2051 with decreased pin count (and price).This was a smart move, the chip proved to be extremely popular in many small applications. Today, virtually all manufacturers produce 8051 derivatives with Flash, most of them able to be programmed via some few-pin serial interface (called insitu programming (ISP), SPI-style or UART-style) and the higher-end versions also able to reprogram themselves (in-application programming, IAP). MaskROM and EPROM - windowed or OTP - seems to become extinct, at least in the mainstream applications. NEED FOR SPEED The need for higher processing power, addressed unsuccessfully by the 16bit versions, has been solved by introducing the high speed derivatives of 8051. The original 12-clock instruction cycle scheme is obviously inefficient and also the technology progressed enough to achieve higher clock rates than the original 12MHz. The first derivative addressing this in a radical way is the now legendary Dallas DS80C320. It featured a 4-clocker core with incompatible timing, and could be clocked as high as 33MHz. Unfortunately, it was produced as ROMless only. The following step was taken by Cygnal, where a single-clock core has been developed. In the top-range models, the clocking is as high as 100MHz, being the fastest 805 1s around. Today, there are many 8051 derivatives with sped-up cores available. They can be divided into two groups: the 6-clockers (e.g. the 8xC51RD2) and 2clockers (Philips LPC9xx) have the same number of instruction cycle per instruction as the original; while the 4-clockers and singleclockers are incompatible in this way, requiring recalculation of timing loops if used. WHERE IS IT GOING? The 8051 is a sound mcu core with rich history. However, it seems that it is already over its peak, although it might take quite a lot of time until it will be completely replaced by most modern microcontrollers. So we now have superfast 8051 derivatives with loads of internal FLASH and RAM. ISP and IAP seems to be the standard these days. There are the 805 1s built around advanced analog circuits, mainly high resolution ADC. There are derivatives suitable for extreme applications – high temperature, radiation hardened. There are softcores around, tuned up, and even open source. There is a wealth of knowledge and experience, however, it is scattered around and the newbies tend to get the easier path - competing 8-bit microcontrollers usually do have a single-stop information resource site, so this knowledge and experience seems to die out as the "old boys" retire gradually. The price difference between the high-end 8-bitters and the much more powerful low-end 32-bit RISCs (such as the ARMs) seems to decrease rapidly and will change eventually, as the 32-bitters are becoming the standard in all but the least demanding applications. So there is perhaps still a need for the 805 1s, but this need is decreasing and 805 1s life cycle is slowly approaching its end P.C.B. DESIGNING & WORKING 1) P.C.B. DESIGNING P.C.B. LAYOUT The entire circuit can be easily assembled on a general purpose P.C.B. board respectively. Layout of desired diagram and preparation is first and most important operation in any printed circuit board manufacturing process. First of all layout of component side is to be made in accordance with available components dimensions. The following points are to be observed while forming the layout of P.C.B. 1. Between two components, sufficient space should be maintained. 2. High voltage/max dissipated components should be mounted at sufficient distance from semiconductor and electrolytic capacitors. 3. The most important points are that the components layout is making proper compromise with copper side circuit layout. Printed circuit board (P.C.B.s) is used to avoid most of all the disadvantages of conventional breadboard. These also avoid the use of thin wires for connecting the components; they are small in size and efficient in performance. PREPARING CIRCUIT LAYOUT First of all the actual size circuit layout is to be drawn on the copper side of the copper clad board. Then enamel paint is applied on the tracks of connection with the help of a shade brush. We have to apply the paints surrounding the point at which the connection is to be made. It avoids the disconnection between the leg of the component and circuit track. After completion of painting work, it is allowed to dry. After completion of painting work, holes 1/23inch(1mm) diameter are drilled at desired points where we have to fix the components. ETCHING The removal of excess of copper on the plate apart from the printed circuit is known as etching. From this process the copper clad board wit printed circuit is placed in the solution of FeCl with 3-4 drops of HCL in it and is kept so for about 10 to 15 minutes and is taken out when all the excess copper is removed from the P.C.B. After etching, the P.C.B. is kept in clean water for about half an hour in order to get P.C.B. away from acidic, field, which may cause poor performance of the circuit. After the P.C.B. has been thoroughly washed, paint is removed by soft piece of cloth dipped I thinner or turbine. Then P.C.B. is checked as per the layout, now the P.C.B. is ready for use. SOLDERING Soldering is the process of joining two metallic conductor the joint where two metal conductors are to be join or fused is heated with a device called soldering iron and then as allow of tin and lead called solder is applied which melts and converse the joint. The solder cools and solidifies quickly to ensure is good and durable connection between the jointed metal converting the joint solder also present oxidation. SOLDERING AND DESOLDERING TECHIQUES: These are basically two soldering techniques. • • Manual soldering with iron. Mass soldering. The surface to be soldered must be cleaned & fluxed. The soldering iron switched on and bellowed to attain soldering temperature. The solder in form of wire is allied hear the component to be soldered and heated with iron. The surface to be soldered is filled, iron is removed and joint is cold without disturbing. SOLDER JOINT ARE SUPPOSED TO 1. Provide permanent low resistance path. 2. Make a robust mechanical link between P.C.B. and leads of components. 3. Allow heat flow between component, joining elements and P.C.B. 4. Retain adequate strength with temperature variation. The following precaution should be taken while soldering: 1. Use always an iron plated copper core tip for soldering iron. 2. Slightly for the tip with a cut file when it is cold. 3. Use a wet sponge to wipe out dirt from the tip before soldering instead of asking the iron. 4. Tighten the tip screw if necessary before iron is connected to power supply. 5. Clean component lead and copper pad before soldering. 6. Apply solder between component leads, P.C.B. pattern and tip of soldering iron. 7. Iron should be kept in contact with the joint for 2-3 seconds only instead of keeping for very long or very small time. Use optimum quantity of solder WORKING METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE is a microcontroller based device. It is used in driverless metro train, which is used in most of developed countries. These trains are equipped with CPU, which control the chain. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train and distance between the two stations is predefined. Basically it has four parts 1. POWER SUPPLY 2. ATMEGA 8L IC 3. DISPLAY UNIT 4. STEPPER MOTOR The 230 AC supply is converted into 9 volts by the power supply section in which 4 . Elements are used. 1. TRANSFORMER 2. 7805 REGULATOR 3. DIODES 4007 (in bridge shape) 4. CAPACITOR OF 100 MICRO FARADS & 470 MICRO FARAD The 230 volts is attenuated by 9 volts by transformer. Then it is rectified by the bridge rectifier made up of diodes. Then the 9 v is regulated by 7805. 1000 micro farad capacitor is used to filter the DC voltage. The LED attaches to check the correctness of power supply. In this project we try to give the same prototype for this type of trains. We are using microcontroller ATMEGA 8L as CPU. The motion of the train is controlled by the Stepper Motor, for displaying message in the train we are using Intelligent LCD Display of two lines. The train is designed for three stations, named as Aligarh, Ghaziabad and New Delhi. The stoppage time is of 3 Sec and time between two consecutive stations is 6 Sec. There is a LCD display for showing PROBLEM FACED • First problem that was in making the circuit of METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE that, it is difficult to match time with rotation of stepper motor & LCD. • • • Second problem is faced due to redundancy in handling the rotation of STEPPER MOTOR We have to take extra care while soldering 2 line LCD During soldering, many of the connection become short cktd. So we desolder the connection and did soldering again. • • A leg of the crystal oscillator was broken during mounting. So it has to be replaced. LED`s get damaged when we switched ON the supply so we replace it by the new one. TROUBLESHOOT • • • • Care should be taken while soldering. There should be no shorting of joints. Proper power supply should maintain. Project should be handled with care since IC are delicate Component change and check again circuit CONCULSION AREA OF APPLICATIONS The theme of the project when merged with certain established technologies can be quite effective in number of countries like Germany, France & Japan etc. which control the train . The project when used with an improved sensitivity. The train is programmed for the specific path. Every station on the path is defined; stoppage timing of the train & distance between the two stations is predefined. The circuit diagram is shown in the figure. Here LCD display is connected with the P1 of the MC. Control lines are connected with port 3 of the microcontroller. The contrast of the LCD is controlled by 10K variable resistor. Unipolar Stepper motor is used for running of the train. This motor has 5 wires, which are named as A1, B1, B2, and COM. Common line is given at +5V. The other lines can be connected with port 2 of microcontroller. The stepper motor is derived by the ULN 2003 chip. This Chip includes Darlington pairs, so that motor can get enough current to for its running. This chip required pull ups at inputs. FUTURE SCOPE This Project is useful in dveloping conturies & this project has a bright future as it is being used in countries like Germany, France & Japan. This project helps us to control train without a driver and the stations are shown on the LCD so the passenger doesn’t has any difficulty. This project will lead to increase in technological trends & this will help the people in many ways.
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