An Ottoman Calendar 2

Middle East Studies Online Journal- ISSN 2109-9618- Issue n°4.Volume 2 ( 2011) An Ottoman Calendar (takvim) for 1740/41AD An astronomical, historical and interreligious database Gerhard Behrens Abstract: The article analyses in detail a takvim codex (one-year calendar) for 1740/41 AD dedicated to the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud I. (1740-1754). The takvims were presented yearly to the sultans during a court ceremony celebrating Nauruz, on the date of the vernal equinox. The takvims with their wealth of astronomical, historical and religious information have not been the object of a detailed study before. By comparing the astronomical data with modern computerised databases of the NASA and other sources the criteria for Ottoman timekeeping will be explained. The Muslim and Christian religious feasts that occupy a large section of the takvim also merit a detailed study, as they reveal a tradition that seems at odds sometimes with accepted religious doctrine. It can be shown that these as well as the takvim‟s astrological data are rooted in the research of much earlier Muslim astronomers and chronologists like Biruni and others. The takvim proves, therefore, to be an important document of the knowledge Ottoman society had of astronomy and chronology, exceeding its primary use as a simple calendar.1 1 I am grateful to Professor J.M. Rogers for his critical reading and advice. 1 Middle East Studies Online Journal- ISSN 2109-9618- Issue n°4. Volume 2 ( 2011) Ottoman perpetual 1 Introduction calendars, called ruznames2, rely A whole literature is on the latter method, which is devoted to methods of based on a cyclical recurrence of calculating the Islamic lunar arithmetically calculated dates calendar. Apart from the in both the lunar Hijri and the orthodox method that requires solar Julian Christian year. The actual sighting of the new moon ruznames have always been of as the start of a month, there are interest not only to astronomic calculations, which chronologists but also to are based on various criteria collectors of Islamic art, due to regarding the visibility of the their artistic design and new crescent, and finally the illumination as codices or scrolls compilation of a calendar with on parchment or paper, fulfilling fixed cycles disregarding both decorative purposes alongside actual sighting and astronomic their function as a chronological computation.1 tool3, similar to the astrolabes that were scientific tools and cherished works of art at the same time. 1 vid. M. Ilyas, A Modern Guide to Astronomical Calculations of Islamic Calendar Times & Qibla, Kuala Lumpur 1984, pp. 82ss. for a detailed explanation of the Islamic lunar month and the problems to define the visibility of a new crescent. Also Biruni‟s treatise on the determination of the length of Ramadan (Albîrûnî, The Chronology of Ancient Nations, [(transl. & ed. C.E. Sachau], London 1879 [reprint Frankfurt 1984], pp. 76-81) is still worthwhile reading because as a true polymath he treats the matter under every possible aspect - scientific, religious and even linguistic. In a more general sense ruzname means also a journal for recording events. 3 e.g. three ruznames in: The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, vol. XII/1 (ed. J. Raby), Oxford 1997, cat. 170-172 2 2 An Ottoman Calendar They are a distinctive Ottoman contribution to Islamic science and exist basically in two versions, whose respective origins are attributed to hardly known authors. One of them is Shaykh Vefa, a mystic and a holy man who died in 14911; the other is Darendeli Mehmet Efendi, whose version, in use since the end of the 18th century2, superseded that of Shaykh Vefa. Some explanation is needed to read both versions, and only about once in a century a Western scholar took the pains to explain them in detail.3 1 2 3 Vindelicorum (=Augsburg/Germany) 1676; 2. J.B. Navoni, “Rouz-namé ou Calendrier perpétuel des Turcs”, in: Hammer-Purgstall, Fundgruben des Orients, vol. 1, Vienna 1814, pp. 3867/127-153/253-277 (& attached tables); 3.. F.K.Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie – das Zeitrechnungswesen der Völker,vol.1, Leipzig 1906, pp. 26671; 4. N. A. Bär & G. Rettelbach, „Aufbau und Inhalt der Osmanischen The cyclical or arithmetic dating method is dictated by the perennial purpose of the ruznames. Several tables, some arranged in linear, others in rhomboid form, are listed on their first page or on top of a scroll, with only the limited number of entries that are needed for one cycle. Otherwise they would become unwieldy and, therefore, useless. This method is only correct, however, regarding one of both calendars used in the ruznames, viz. the Julian-calendar with New Year on 1st of March. This calendar is truly cyclical as it alternates D.A. King, “Astronomical between one intercalary year of Timekeeping in Ottoman Turkey.” In 366 days and three normal years Islamic Mathematical Astronomy, of 365 days starting on one of XII. London: Variorum Reprints, pp. seven weekdays, which results in 245–255, p.248. G.B.Toderini, De la littérature des recurring cycles of 4x7 = 28 Turcs (transl. l'Abbé de Cournand), years that can easily be handled Paris 1789, vol. 1, p.146. even by the relatively short The only detailed explanations I ruznames. The task of could trace are by chronological determining in advance the first order: 1. Georgii Hieronymi Velschi (=Welsch), Commentarius in of the lunar months of the Ruzname Naurus sive Tabulae Islamic year, the lunation, is aequinoctiales novi Persarum & much more complicated, Turcarum anni, Augusta however. If the author of a Kalenderrolle im Hamburgischen Museum für Völkerkunde“, in: Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde Hamburg. n.F., Bd. 20; 1990. pp. 145-160. Nos.2 to 4 are all versions of the Darendeli ruzname, while no.1 is a Sheykh Vefa ruzname. - M. d‟Ohsson, Tableau Général de l‟Empire Othoman, vol. I, Paris 1787, after p. 192 includes a Darendeli ruzname for 1192-1277 AH. without any explanation, however. 3 Cairo 1913-9 (reprint 1963). the modern versions of a ruzname. Paris 1853. the jump necessary for the alignment can be equally justified by adding a full day to either the 15th or the 16th year of the 30-years cycle. to rely for the Islamic year as well on a cyclical calendar with short tables of recurring dates.1 Instead of computing the dates of the new crescent as the start of lunar month by one of several rather complicated astronomical calculations. his calendar would be too voluminous to be included on a few pages or fit onto a scroll of one to two meters. in which normal years (354 days) are followed at certain intervals2 by intercalary years (355 days). while the months change alternately between 30 days (Muharram) and 29 days (Dhu‟lHijja). vol. This is in principle the same method as applied in modern Western conversion tables such as that of Mahler-Wüstenfeld and in computer conversion programmes. Yet as mentioned before..622 add one day to the 16th year. In arithmetic calendars with 15. apply a cycle of only eight years. which sacrifices more precision for the sake of yet greater convenience. 255-6.VI. The ruznames had.622 as the epoch of the Islamic era the 15th year of a cycle is normally an intercalary year. while those based on 16. it applies an easier cyclical formula that approximates very closely the 1 astronomical calculation. Prolégomènes des tables astronomiques d‟Oloug-Beg traduction et commentaire.11.An Ottoman Calendar ruzname had the ambition to apply astronomically correct methods for fixing the lunation for a period of many years.7. Sédillot. with the last month (Dhu‟l-Hijja) having 30 days in intercalary years. Whereas eight correctly 2 Qalqashandī. this cyclical calendar can only approximate the astronomical determination of the lunar dates for future dates and in the case of Ramadan in particular could always be overruled by actual sightings of the new crescent.7. whereas other cyclical calendars based on the same cycle mark the 16th year instead. whose method is comparable to that of the truly cyclical Western calendar. pp. This well-known formula uses a recurring cycle of 30 years. was already known to mediaeval Muslim astronomers. This schematic calendar. 4 . p. In both Qalqashandī „s and Ulug Beg ‟s 30-years‟-cycle the 15th year is an intercalary year. it would rather require a codex of hundreds of pages. moreover. The Darendeli ruznames. As the difference to the astronomically correct calendar reaches precisely half a day after 15 days and calendars are divided into full days. therefore. Ṣubḥ al-aʿshā fī şināʿa al-ʾinshāʾ. the simplified eight-year cycle is composed of a full number of 2835 days.cit.3 3 charge of fixing the length of the months: J. Navoni. one of his sources.cit. although the difference from the true solar calendar results in an error of approx. op. who erroneously had described the ruzname as a very precise instrument for getting correct lunar dates and even times (Navoni. As the ruznames normally cover only a lesser number of years.99. In the modern Islamic world printed calendars are based on dates fixed mainly by government observatories. de 8 ans. this difference could be tolerated. p.1 This number can be divided without any remainder into 405 weeks.” He repeats this assessment when he contradicts Toderini. “Die Zeitrechnung im osmanischen Reiche”. pour trouver le jour de la semaine. which is not used in the Darendeli ruzames. ou plutôt sont censées devoir commencer leurs années et les lunaisons suivantes. can never be taken for granted unless confirmed by the day of the week. Islamic historians are often frustrated when they have to realise that the Hijra dates mentioned in historical sources or even modern Arab newspapers diverge from those given in the conversion tables. op. don‟t ils font usage dans leur Calendrier perpétuel. a German professor in Constantinople in 1917.An Ottoman Calendar calculated lunar years are equivalent to 2834d22h28m36s. 10 (1917) p. states this quite clearly (Navoni. Deutsche Optische Wochenschrift. whereas the 30-years‟-cycle. par lequel commencent. lies in their rigid alternating sequence of lunar months of 29 and 30 days. Würschmidt. e. shared by both the ruznames and the modern conversion tables/programmes. bien moins exact. the conversion of Hijra dates into the Western calendar in the ruznames and modern tables.40-1) 5 . when a month with 29 days is followed by another month with also only 29 days. the Sheykh ul-Islam was then in 1 Therefore. although being mostly correct. The final decision about this was formerly the task of religious authorities2.42): “car les astronomes turcs ne se règlent pour cela ni d‟après le cycle de trente ans. one day for every 126 years. pp. results in the almost correct figure of 2834 days + 22 hours for eight lunar years. A more important and rather annoying source of error. which fits ideally into a perpetual calendar. ni d‟après celui.g. who at the beginning of the 19th century had still the possibility to learn how ruznames were used in practice. 2 According to Würschmidt. a codex salname (a complete almanac including annals. It resembles the Ottoman takvims. which is different from all other calendars in practical use in the Ottoman Empire. London 1934. (transl. unlike Iran where it even forms the basis of the present calendar. 99-120. 6 . while they count their years from historical events (Coptic: accession year of Emperor Diocletian. Also the solar Coptic calendar and the lunar Islamic calendars connect day One of their first month to other stars (Coptic: Sirius. 80.3 The dates of the Julian. but not used in practical life in the Ottoman Empire. Ramsey Wright). 2 can easily compute all days of that year by the finely tuned and more precise methods of the astronomers. Kitāb altafhīm li awāʾil şināʿa al-tanjīm. 321. Hofelich in EI2 & its bibliography. which differs from the perpetual ruzname1. vol. list of foreign dynasties etc. article “Taḳwīm” by M. 3 The Malikshah calendar with its New Year on the vernal equinox was known. For the design of a standard Ottoman takvim see also M. The focus of the takvims for 1740/41 and 1831/32 on astronomy is further accentuated by their choice of the basic year. Mali-Financial and the Seleucid calendars (all solar) that were in actual use for mainly administrative purposes are not defined by the astronomical observation of the Sun. 1992. Akgür. viz. R. A description of a takvim or what he called „journal of the year‟ [daftar alsana] is given by Biruni. The calendar for one year. a solar year starting on Nauruz. Islamic: Moon). 2 dating method of the ruznames. „Müneccimbaşı Takvimlerinde Tarihleme Yöntemleri”. Islamic: Hijra of the Prophet). It has furthermore the possibility to register astronomical phenomena that occur on a particular day of this year with a precision that cannot be reached by the uniform 1 Other calendars in my own collection – a takvim scroll for 1831/32.An Ottoman Calendar The following discussion deals with a calendar manuscript valid for one year only (1740/41 AD). inherited from an Ancient Egyptian calendar.N.A. generally known in Turkish as takvim (Arabic: taqwīm). although with a slightly different choice of data. which in spite of its title does not provide much information concerning the methods (yöntemleri) applied by the Chief Astronomers.) for 1895/96 and a takvim booklet for 1938 – will be consulted for comparison and explanation of data. Türk Dünyasi Araştırmaları. pp. vid. no. the vernal (spring) equinox. after a report presented to Sultan Mahmud II (1808-39) by its translator. vol. Paris 1847. chapter II. Aldershot(UK)/Burlington(US) 2004. published here. known as zīj-i sulṭānī after his title or zīj-i gurgānī after his nisba. cxix.An Ottoman Calendar More modern Turkish calendars like a salname for 1895/96. 3 D.A. 7 . is based on Ulugh Beg and the takvim for 1831 on Lalande. which were considered more correct. pp.1807). supplanting the zīj-i īlkhānī of the equally famous astronomer Nāşir al-Dīn Ṭūsī2. however. therefore.King/J. had revealed that Cassini‟s tables also included mistakes.31-2.3 We may assume. For many centuries they would apply the zīj of Ulugh Beg. Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) cancelled its use in favour of the tables of the French astronomer Jacques Cassini (d. E.Samsó. “Zīdj”. p. in: E. who was more successful as an astronomer than as a short-term Timurid sultan (1447-9). 1790). that the takvim for 1740/41 AD. At the end of the 18th century. Ihsanoğlu. the müneccimbaşı Hüseyin Hüsni Efendi. They 1 2 in turn were substituted in 1829 by the tables of another French astronomer. the traditional database of Islamic 1 astronomers. Prolégomènes des tables astronomiques d‟Oloug-Beg. became the standard tool. His zīj. 1756). still kept their focus on astronomy by dating planetary aspects such as conjunctions. Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire. while substituting the solar Nauruz year with the MaliFinancial year (beginning on 1st of March) that became widespread for administrative purposes since the 17th century. Joseph-Jérôme Lefrançais Lalande (d. EI2 Sédillot. Science. 1. A takvim‟s lunar and other astronomical data can be correct only if the calendar authors use a correct zīj. translated by Halifezadeh Ismail Efendi (d. Ihsanoğlu. “The Introduction of Western Science to the Ottoman World: A Case Study of Modern Astronomy (1600-1860)”. “Nevruz”. the Grand-Vizier and other dignitaries.com/makale /22/nevruz-gelenegi S.356. whose task was to prepare the takvim for the next year starting on Nauruz.2 A similar ceremony is recorded already in pre-Ottoman times. Aldershot 2004. Ceremonial. p. Abdallāh (d. Muḥammad b. however. London 1991). While some orthodox Muslim authors criticized the celebration of Nauruz for its continuation of heathen traditions. 3 On the importance of Nauruz in the Ottoman Empire vid.edebyahu. G. Aydüz. At the court of the Buyid ruler Aḍud al-Dawla (983-990 according to Saliba.455. “The role of the Astrologer in Medieval Islamic Society”. not the day of 2 http://www. Cairo 1970. Ḥabashi). During an important ceremony at the Ottoman court on that day. Inbāʾ alhaṣr bi-abnāʾ al-ʿaṣr (ed. the müneccimbaşı. Nevruz Geleneği in: 4 8 . pp. presented it to the Sultan. Islam Ansiklopedisi and Yahya Kemal Beyatlı. does not mention the celebration in her book Architecture.. Ḥ. and Power – The Topkapı in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (Cambridge/US. originating just like its name itself in Iranian culture. 341-370. Gündüz. Neither orthodox criticism nor Shiʿī heterodoxy prevented the Ottomans from celebrating Nauruz. when Ali was born. the Shiʿa even incorporated it into their own hagiography by commemorating it as the day. gave every year calendars to high-ranking people upon their special request4. however1. in: Magic and Divination in early Islam (ed. A. and when the Prophet proclaimed him as his successor. Bayak. “Müneccimbaşı”. G. p. the day of the vernal (spring) equinox. 1472). their feast marked the beginning of the Coptic year (end of August). which leaves the possibility open that the Nevruz ceremonial did not take place at all times. a highly respected mīqātī (a person in charge of defining prayer times) and astrologer. when he married the Prophet‟s daughter Fatima. al-Jawharī al-Ṣayrafī. The feast. the Chief Astronomer.3 1 Mamluk Cairo also seems to have attached a special importance to the presentation of the calendar. Emilie Savage-Smith). and Ş. “Nevrûziyye”. as the beginning of the year. While the Fatimids of Egypt (969-1171) also celebrated a Nauruz. C. Islam Ansiklopedisi. was an occasion for giving presents and for the recital of poems known as Nevruziyye. Islam Ansiklopedisi.Necipoğlu.An Ottoman Calendar The traditional takvims marked Nauruz. Moreover. in: Magic and Divination in 9 . astrology and chronology by e. La révolution industrielle du Moyen Age.4 Bīrūnī. 5 After writing his often quoted important work on the chronology of Middle Eastern nations. “Ibn Taimiyya. 277-340. at least at the turn of the 18th to the 19th centuries. resulting in his equally important book on India: Kitāb fī Maqrīzī. pp. 4 An outstanding polymath.216 lists names of skeptic Islamic scholars who criticized the astrologers. Aldershot 2004.g. p. Apart from the general belief in astrology.600. Paris 1975. India and Jurjan. 5 Bīrūnī remains early Islam (ed. Bīrūnī (9731048AD). Iranian and Indian astronomy. p. The Nevruz ceremony moreover confirms the importance of calendars in Ottoman culture and of the conspicuous role played by the sultans in this matter. painstakingly recorded local traditions of chronology and religious feasts. Bīrūnī in his later life studied in detail astronomy and timekeeping as practised in India. the Ottoman sultan ultimately decided which zīj would form the basis for astronomical date keeping. near the Caspian sea).An Ottoman Calendar the vernal equinox. Taqī al-Dīn A. Ottoman astronomers and chronologists were acquainted with other traditions through the enduring importance encyclopaedic works on Greek.1 As already mentioned. Christian.Gimpel. vol.from Khorezm. the rules of which were a state secret. the impact of the rich traditions of astronomical studies and chronology of India and preIslamic Iran contributed to this interest. Kitāb al- mawāʿ iẓ wa „l-iʿ tibār bi-dhikr alkhiţaţ wa „l-āthār (ed. Emilie Savage-Smith). 2 (London 2002). with the exception of a few orthodox and some rationalist thinkers3 . which finally led to the Gregorian calendar reform. even millennia.142-3. p.Sayyid). The Christian world had been preoccupied as well with the liturgical calendar. Yet in the Islamic world the significance of time-keeping reached far beyond the sphere of religion and the determination of prayer and fasting times.Y. A.2. a matter of theological dispute for centuries. Roman. the role of the Chinese emperor was even more important since only he could promulgate the calendar. when it came to defining the date for Easter. 3 Michot. who kept their own calendars. 2 According to J. Y. who was widely travelled like many Islamic scholars (apart from Khorezm he lived in Ghazna – in modern Afghanistan -. the study 1 of the rules of time-keeping was stimulated to a large extent by the presence of important nonMuslim minorities. now a part of modern Uzbekistan that in Bīrūnī‟s time was still part of the Iranian world (later increasingly subject to Turkic influence). an Astrologer – annotated translation of three fatwas”. including Bīrūnī – Kâtib Çelebi.54) included in several Ottoman takvims.An Ottoman Calendar the most important source for Middle Eastern chronology. Sachau). depending on the context.S. which the lunar Islamic calendar does not meet. To alleviate this problem Muslim rulers have made several attempts – some more successful than others – to introduce solar tax calendars beside the Islamic calendar that still remained the official source idem. C. The other end of the geographical spectrum was covered by – among many others. London 1888. On a more mundane level.(ed. as far as I can ascertain. 2 1 10 . O. aspect of Turkish (as compared to Western) almanacs is already evident in the title of folio one of the takvim under study here: “table for date conversion between well-known calendars” [cedvel-i maʿrife-i tahvil-i sal ve tevarih-i meşhure] 2. solar. One striking example of his impact is a rather obscure Khorezmian feast. i. but nowhere else. basis.e. in his guidebook to European traditions with the significant title “The bewildered persons‟ initiation to the history of Greece. the need to manage tax matters on a seasonal. 2nd edition. “Kâtib Čelebi”. All through Islamic history peasants had been complaining when overzealous tax collectors forced them to pay taxes before they could even harvest their crops.25) is evidence of their link with even more remote regions in Asia. either the modern Turkish transliteration of the Ottoman original or for pure Arabic quotations the transliteration rules for Arabic. which is recorded in his Chronology of Nations.E. Encyclopaedia of Islam. In this and the following I use. Gökyay. because payment dates based on the short 354 day lunar calendar advanced by approximately 11 days every year compared to the seasons that are dictated by the Sun and not by the Moon. His influence even on the relatively modern Ottoman takvims is obvious as the following analysis of the takvim of 1740/41 will show.. Rome and the Christians” [Irshād al-ḥayārā ilā tārikh al-Yunān wa‟l-Rūm wa‟lNaṣārā]1 The multi-cultural taḥqīq mā li-„l-Hind. Islam Ansiklopedisi. “Kâtib Çelebi”.. the “Nauruz Khorezmshah” (see details below in the chapter on holidays p. required the study of alternative solutions that were on offer by both Iranian and Christian calendars. The inclusion of the Central Asian animal calendar for the determination of the current year in late Ottoman takvims (see below p. the prominent Ottoman encyclopaedist of the 17th century. cit. or in 1733 the translation of Atlas Coelestis by the German cartographer Andreas Cellarius.1692)2. Ihsanoğlu. Ihsanoğlu. only seven/eight years prior to our takvim. however. Ihsanoğlu. op.cit. It would be interesting to know whether this 18th century almanac and later Ottoman almanacs with their focus on planetary phenomena were still committed to the Ptolemaic idea of the planets (including the Sun and the Moon) moving around the earth or had already adopted the heliocentric world model of Copernicus. because heliocentric views were much less heretical for the Muslim religious establishment than for the Christian church. p.10-15.6 It is very probable. d. pp. It took them longer.. whose disquieting reaction Müteferrika knew well from his past as a student of theology at a Hungarian college of the Christian Unitarian denomination. therefore. op. Ihsanoğlu. About the same time when the Catholic Church removed heliocentric works from the Index of forbidden books! 5 E. 35. later merged into Istanbul Technical University). pp. in the preface to his edition of a work of a 15th century geographer opted for the geocentric world of Ptolemy. op. Bahrām b. the work of the already mentioned Ottoman author Kâtib Çelebi. to gain general acceptance. 11 ..cit. His caution was obviously motivated by his fear of the Ulema. 34 6 E. Director of the Mühendishâne-i Berrî-i Hümayûn (Imperial Land Forces College of Engineering. The Copernican ideas were transmitted to the Ottoman Empire in the second half of the 17th century by the works of European astronomers Noel Durret (translated by Köse Ibrahim Efendi in 1660-4)1 and Janszoon Blaeu (translated by Abū Bakr b.An Ottoman Calendar for date reckoning. E. p. in 1732 published and commented Cihannüma.3 Even as late as in the early 19th century4 Seyyid Ali Bey. although he did mention Copernicus‟ and Tycho Brahe‟s theories..3-10.15-20. When Ibrahim Müteferrika. Abd Allāh al-Ḥanafī al-Dimashqī. pp.cit. op..cit.5 It was only after Seyyid Ali Bey‟s dismissal in 1830 that the Copernican world model gained general acceptance under his successor Ishak Efendi. 3 4 E. that the author of the takvim for E.. he was cautious enough not to attack openly the Ptolemaic geocentric theory in favour of the Copernican system or Tycho Brahe‟s curious 1 2 combination of geocentric and heliocentric ideas. op. Ihsanoğlu. The fears might have been unfounded. the father of the Ottoman printing press. the Great Khan. 217. refuge of kings and sultans. good fortune and rule.1 “By God‟s will. the Sultan Mahmud I (1740-1754). De Vaux. oh Lord of the vol. the bearer of the quoted for its exalted rhymed banner of the Holy Law. the destroyer (underlined passages marked of the unbelievers and red in the original. the pious and the believers. I am grateful to Sam Fogg (of Sam Fogg Gallery. vol 2 (Paris ).An Ottoman Calendar 1740/41 still believed – or professed to believe . p. the as its dedication attests. times. image of Alexander. Its text protector of the poor and the (folio 2 recto) deserves to be destitute. may the trees of 1 In the 10th century already. who finds help in marked gold): the support of the Lord of the Worlds.277). this year is a sign of happiness for the virtuous. the caliph of the messenger of the Lord of The takvim under study the Worlds – whose supreme here2 was produced to honour power reigns in Paradise . the sultan. especially [by] the sultan of the sultans of the time and the world.” 2 Penseurs de l'Islam. this question must remain open. and may they be granted blessings. son of sultan.and a geocentric forever until the end of all system (Kitāb fī taḥqīq mā li-„l-Hind. bold passage polytheists. son of sultan. Les Worlds. See also C. 12 .1. As astronomical phenomena can be explained more or less convincingly in all world models and the terms used are compatible to all of them. son of Sultan Mustafa Khan.that the Sun and the planets moved around the Earth. London) for his permission to publish the manuscript of the almanac of his collection and to David Brunetti for the high-resolution images of the original. the victorious by the grace of the Lord of victories. the Sultan Ghazi Mahmud Khan. Biruni stated that all astronomical his state be green and the phenomena can be equally well flowers of his reign be red explained in a helio.. luck. vested with authority. Amen. p. the saviour of Islam characteristic for the period and the Muslims. the eulogy (with a few Arabic follower of the rightly guided mistakes included) that is caliphs. son of Sultan Mehmet Khan. mukhaḍḍara and muḥammara – are grammatically wrong: They should be mukhḍarra 1 Meant is ʿiyādh = succour in Arabic. sālik near the Holy and Great mosque masālik al-khulafāʾ al-rāshidīn. ʿiyāth [sic] 1 al-Islām wa almuslimīn. qātil al-kafara wa almushrikīn.An Ottoman Calendar [In shāʾa „llāh bu sāl saʿādat nishān akhyār jihān wa mukhaḍḍara [sic] 2. 13 . khalīfa the Naẓārat-i Ḥaramayn alrasūl rabb al-ʿālamīn. According to a note on the upper part of 1st folio recto. ilā ākhir al-zamān. al-manṣūr binuṣra khayr al-nāṣirīn. al-muʾayyad bi-taʾyīd rabb al-ʿālamīn. wa azhār ʿāmma-i abrār wa ahl imān üzerine mubārak wa maymūn wa khujaste wa humāyūn ola. al-wāṣil Sharifayn (the department in ʿuluw qadrihi ilā al-ʿilliyyīn. kahf charge of the Holy Sites of Mecca and Medina) in a location al-mulūk wa al-salāṭīn. should be: zālat] ashjār dawlatihi 2 salṭanatihi muḥammara [sic]. The takvim codex was khuṣūṣan sulṭān salāṭīn zamān designated by later inscriptions wa zamīn wa khāqān Iskandar as “waqf” of Sultan Mahmud to nishān ṣāhib al-tamkīn. of Aya Sofia in Istanbul”3. Amīn. 3 ʿiyāth would be a derivative of ʿātha = to destroy! and muḥmarra. instead. al-sulṭān ibn al-sulṭān ibn al-sulṭān alSulṭān al-Ghāzī Maḥmūd Khān ibn al-Sulṭān Mustafā Khān ibn al-Sulṭān Muḥammad Khān lā zāla [sic. wa ghāyat alawān. malādh described as “inside the Bab „Azab [Azap Kapısı] in the al-fuqarāʾ wa al-masākīn. rāfiʿ annexes (mulḥaqāt) of the waqfs aʿlām al-sharʿ al-mubīn. yā rabb al-ʿālamīn] Both terms . ” and at the end of the 18th century even between a quarter and a half million copies 14 . therefore. In the 17th century comparable almanacs were sold in Britain by the thousands. mainly but not exclusively in combination with astrology. religious and meteorological data that reveal in a concise form Ottoman knowledge and interest in these subjects.). takvims1 in codex form were produced for dignitaries. chapter on holidays for details. this interest could not have been confined to the social elite only. their so-called aspects.2 If his observation is correct. A detailed analysis of the takvims shows that its users in particular and probably the Ottomans in general were particularly interested in astronomy. before even the Christian world had invented a mathematical algorithm for this (vid. although it came later to be part of the sultan‟s waqfs.. astrological. while the sultan himsel f was presented with a scroll on parchment. The significance of this kind of calendar manuscript lies. the present takvim must have originally belonged to a dignitary. vol. no literate person of any social class being without at least one almanac.cit.1. 54s.An Ottoman Calendar The royal provenance explains the luxurious design as a codex in leather binding with gold embossed medallions. chronological. According to Toderini. p. This is quite remarkable as the calendar makers were recruited from the Muslim religious establishment. in the wealth of astronomical. as well. op.B. 1 astronomy. the Moon and the planets.Toderini. as explained in detail in the following pages and their sometimes seemingly irregular movements could only have been of interest to a community that had more than a passing knowledge of Called “ruz-nameh de l‟année” by Toderini. not to the sultan himself. exceeding “even the Bible in their popularity and authority. The takvim authors went even so far as to devise a short formula for calculating Easter. 149. Another aspect of the takvims that contrasts with the contemporary almanacs of the Western world is their recording of the feasts not only of Islam. the main religion. 2 G. but equally of Christianity and to a lesser degree of the Jewish minorities. and must have had a considerable knowledge of the movements of the Sun. who worked as instructor at the embassy of Venice in Istanbul in the 1780s. p. As other takvims of less elaborate design but with similar data exist. The records of the relative positions of these heavenly bodies. The takvim‟s astronomical and religious data will be analyzed in detail on the following pages. The last folios with a drawing of a lion attacking an animal. pp. with sometimes quite remarkable results. a Persian poem together with a chronogram for 1706 AD and two ghurretnames2 for the much earlier years of 1110 AH and 1118 AH. 2 a ghurretname is a table to compute the weekday of the first day of each month for several years (from Arabic: ghurra [first day of a month] and Persian name [book.An Ottoman Calendar of one individual almanac were sold. the almanacs/takvims with their attractive mixture of factual knowledge. that before mankind had reluctantly advanced into the Age of Enlightenment. There is no doubt. which was designed for 1152-4 AH/1740-1 AD. as takvims were not printed until much later. 188. they will not be discussed here. P. superstition.176.1 Similar distribution figures could not be reached in the Ottoman Empire. Whitfield. pseudo-science. list]). however. London 2001. Astrology – a history. 1 folio 1 verso 15 . show no obvious connection with the takvim. religious data and practical advices were immensely popular in the Ottoman and Western societies alike. of course. Therefore. 16 . which is defined as: (a) the 19th year of (better: after) the smaller conjunction of the two superior planets in Sagittarius of the fiery triplicate [müsellese-i nariyeden burc kavsda vaki kıran-ı asgari ulviyaneyn on dokuzuncu senesi]. verso. General Sections (folio 1. see p. the vernal equinox 6) a partial lunar eclipse ad 1) The year according to planetary conjunctions Two astronomical phenomena are given as a reference for the year of the almanac.An Ottoman Calendar 2. The takvim refers to the year for which it is made in several ways: 1) past occurrence of two planetary conjunctions 2) New Year date by equivalent dates of five different calendars 3) a horoscope for the Turkish animal calendar 4) a horoscope for the ascendant of the year 5) the exact time of Nauruz. (b) the 2nd year of (better: after) the conjunction of the two malefic planets in Cancer [kıran-ı nahseyn saratanin ikinci senesi]. 14) These pages merit a detailed study of the astronomical phenomena and chronological data that were used to determine the starting date of the takvim and record a partial lunar eclipse. They are frequently mentioned in the takvim with the Arabic terms used by Islamic astronomers/astrologers. The abbreviation of the introduction to astrology together with the medieval Latin translation 1 The planets in conjunction (a). their relative position to each other. strictly speaking also a planet in the geocentric world model with its own sphere closest to the Earth.cit. The aspects of the planets.”3 Biruni.e. 4 of Adelard of Bath (ed. Leiden/New York/Köln 1994. for the explanation of the planets in Islamic astronomy and astrology see: Kunitzsch. but known as the two “luminaries” [Arabic: nayyirān]. meaning that both direction planets need only to be within the same zodiac sign. & transl. pp. The five real planets 4 were defined by their spheres relative to the Sun.1 Astrologers generally defined a conjunction rather loosely. while the takvims mark them for one day only. then the effect [of the conjunction] is more certain.: C. Burnett/K. i. alias marriage) occurs when two real planets are at close distance to each other. 401. EI2 and Hartner[Kunitzsch]. Such a “conjunction” could last several days. as there are only two planets moving in orbits closer to the Earth than the Sun‟s orbit. Whitfield. Burūdj“ . p. Kitāb al-tafhīm. and the Sun are not normally included among the planets [Arabic: al-kawākib almutaḥayyira or al-sayyāra]. as seen from the Earth. op. Yano). in other words “below” the Sun. because planets radiate a “sphere of virtue” extending several degrees in each 2. 3 Abū Maʿšar. EI2 „Minṭaḳat al- 17 . no 250. A conjunction (Arabic: qīrān.An Ottoman Calendar The common denominator of both events is the conjunction [kıran] of two planets. 44. Yamamoto/M. 2 P.37. The reason why the takvims prefer a closer conjunction is probably the idea that “if the space [between the planets] is equivalent to half the body of each one or less. These are Mercury and Venus. The Moon. „al-Nudjūm II“. The other relative positions (aspects) of the planets are mentioned below on p. and their movements are decisive in astrology. The Arabic (genitive) dual used in the takvims is sufficient to identify the “two inferior planets” [Arabic: sufliyyayn]. Virgo.: K. as in conjunction (b). is also valid for Jupiter with Saturn only. Saturn – the designation “two superior [planets]” [Arabic: ʿulwiyyayn] in the takvim would normally not be precise enough. Jupiter and Saturn. of the ʿulwiyyayn on for 7. Libra. Istanbul 1287AH/1870/1AD. Kitāb al-tafhīm./19. 1. where the conjunction occurs4. Sagittarius = fiery triplicate. Aries. i. viz. as cited by Abū Maʿšar. inauspicious planets [naḥsayn] from Saturn. the smaller of the two luminaries [nayyirayn]. There was a well-established convention. Pisces = watery triplicate. Kitāb al-tafhīm. Turkish: müsellese]5. however. “lesser” [Arabic: aşghar].1 The conjunction of these two planets is. Māšāʿallāh. 18 . The opposition [muqābala]. needs further explanation. The three signs that constitute one triplicate lie exactly 120 degrees from each other on the zodiac. vol. Conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn. therefore. & transl. never a Jewish astrologer in Basra in the 2nd half of the 9th century. Aquarius = airy triplicate.e. and only while they are in the zodiac sign of Cancer2. appears in conjunction lists only as a partner of Saturn.3. . Mars.An Ottoman Calendar With three known planets on spheres beyond the Sun – Mars. Bīrūnī as well as 3 Māšāʿallāh distinguish between lesser [aşghar]. Taurus. the bigger one. which qualifies the Jupiter with Saturn conjunction. which happen approximately once every 20 years. the conjunction par excellence [muṭlaq]. recorded in the takvim for 1831. both known as the two malefic planets [naḥsayn]. Leo.1. “the bigger” one [nahs-i ekber]. would. The astrologers divided the zodiac into four sets (each named after one of four elements) of three signs. Abū Maʿšar on Historical Astrology (The Book of Religions and Dynasties). Gemini. no 250. Burnett). Leiden/Boston/Köln 2000. no 250. (ed.) The term aşghar is also used to distinguish Mars as “the lesser” [nahs-i asgar] of the two 3 1 Anonymous. middle [awsaṭ] and greater [aʿẓam] conjunctions depending on the zodiac constellation. to reserve this term for the top two planets. Yamamoto/ C. and the Moon.3. 2 Biruni. pp. Jupiter. p. Capricorn = earthy triplicate. taqwīm al-adwār. Scorpio. vol. Cancer. thus forming an equilateral triangle. the aspect when two planets are 180° 5 apart. viz. from the Sun.1832. One more term in the takvim. the so-called triplicates [Arabic: muthallatha.584-5. the third superior planet. as Bīrūnī writes. 4 Biruni. 3 (Aries 0-2 hours.known as right ascension of the takvim. Capricorn 18-20 hours. Libra 12-14 hours. 3 I have relied mainly on Newcomb. because Jupiter with Saturn conjunctions always occur at only slightly more than 240° difference to the preceding conjunction1. the whole cycle of the four triplicates starts anew after 4 x 240 years = 960 years with the shift to a greater [aʿẓam] conjunction. According to modern databases3 Jupiter and Saturn were in conjunction on 1 5. Cancer 6-8 hours. 2 19 . year conform to the traditional i. Pisces 22-24 hours). Finally. Leo 8-10 hours./16.the projection of 2 the Earth‟s equator on the celestial Sagittarius . This marks the year globe . i. Their latitude relative to the celestial equator – the declination – is measured in degrees from 0°0‟0‟‟ (a position on the celestial equator) to +90°0‟0‟‟ (the celestial North Pole) or -90°0‟0‟‟ (the celestial South Pole. Scorpio 14-16 hours.1740.) The dates of Jupiter with Saturn conjunctions in modern astrological databases show that Biruni‟s figures should only be taken as a – very close .1723 at 23°19‟ within The longitudinal position on the the 30° large zodiac section of celestial equator . any new conjunction is called a lesser [aşghar] one. the point of the vernal equinox method of counting.5 degrees multiplied by 12 amounts to 30° or one twelfth of the zodiac. starting at 0h0m0s with the zodiac sign of Aries. a programme developed by David Eagle and published by Willmann-Bell. as long as they occur in one of its three zodiac signs.e. Gemini 4-6 hours. which begins on (RA). in other words approximately two thirds of a full circle apart from the previous zodiac sign.approximate calculation.exe (for MS-DOS).1. Virgo 10-12 hours. mainly as a result of irregular behavior of the planets due to the eccentricity of their orbits. in other words: in signs 0°. This means that according to Bīrūnī ‟s reckoning2 the conjunctions must occur at 242. when there must be a shift to the adjoining zodiac sign and therefore into another triplicate. Aquarius 2022 hours. This happens quite often. the division of the 360°-circle of a if we include both first and last clock into 24 hours. Taurus 2-4 hours. in fact as the hours/minutes/seconds similar to 19th year after this conjunction. Yet according to Biruni after twelve of the lesser conjunctions a middle [awsaṭ] conjunction 1 makes the shift [intiqāl almamarr] into a new triplicate.. every 20 x 12 years = 240 years. Inc. 120° or 240° apart from the previous one.5° intervals.3. Sagittarius 16-18 hours.An Ottoman Calendar leave the same triplicate.e. because the odd number of 2. As long as the triplicate does not change. is measured in 9/20. Historical Astrology. respectively.) 2 Otherwise.astropro.1723).the takvim also includes entries for the dates of conjunction of the two auspicious planets [saʿdayn]. 1 Western dates will be given according to the Julian calendar (OE = Old Era). for data of the planets and the Sun. however. Pentecost = the 50th day after Easter Sunday when both dates are included. vol./16.36. but as the 8th year after a conjunction on 9. as a conjunction of Mars with Jupiter4.1734.1734. because it eliminates any doubt that the takvim understands the term aşghar al-ʿulwiyyayn as a conjunction according to Māšāʿallāh‟s first definition.com/features/tab les/geo/ju-sa/ju000sa. On 6. This is quite fortunate.2. however. p. Richmond/Virginia. it should have defined 1740/41 not as the 19th year after a conjunction on 5.1723.An Ottoman Calendar In another manuscript Māšāʿallāh interprets the term aşghar al-ʿulwiyyayn differently.4. where he defines awsaṭ and aʿẓam as the conjunctions of Mars with Saturn and Jupiter with Saturn. eleven years later on 9. Both reference dates are chosen correctly because no other conjunctions of the two planets occurred within the two zodiac signs Sagittarius and Cancer.2.astropro. which is used in the takvim. The planets in conjunction (b). not according to his second definition as a conjunction of Mars with Jupiter per se. 1.html (c) Richard Nolle 3 e. USA 1986. whereas we would now understand Whitsunday/Pentecost to be the 49th day after Easter (the start date Easter Sunday not included). Thus 1740 was in fact the nd year after this conjunction 2 according to the traditional counting method with both start and end date included.1739 Mars and Saturn were in conjunction at degree 4° within the 30° sign of Cancer5. Here we are dealing with the two inauspicious planets [naḥsayn]. before 1740 (1782 and 1769 were the next years of occurrence).1. 4 Abū Maʿšar.html 20 . and for years after 1582 also by the corresponding date in the Gregorian calendar (NE = New Era. A further one occurred.g. http://www. 5 http://www.com/features/tab les/geo/ma-sa/ma-000sa/ma000sa4. Elsewhere . respectively. Venus and Jupiter.585 n. Mars and Saturn.in the detailed calendar pages . There was indeed such a conjunction in Sagittarius also nineteen years before 1740/41 (on 10. if not impossible for a modern reader to understand why mediaeval astrologers favoured one stellar event over all others. why this particular conjunction was so important. a Persian scholar. Historical Astrology. It would be anachronistic to suspect such a modern concept in the thoughts of a mediaeval astrologer.1. known in the West as Albumasar. with Sagittarius as the strongest and Aries as the weakest sign. His choice could have been motivated by selecting the conjunction that was most auspicious in the power struggle of the Islamic East against a loosely defined West. while Leo takes the middle rank. Bīrūnī does not furnish any explanation. while the original idea behind it had been forgotten. though.e. may be that a conjunction within the fiery triplicate indicates power for the people of the Mashriq.31. In particular the term which Abū Maʿ šar used in this connection. who lived one century earlier1. best known for his works on astrology that are considered among the most important in that field.singles out the two conjunctions of Jupiter with Saturn and Mars with Saturn among all other conjunctions in the relevant passage of his book on astrology. Besides Abū Maʿ šar did not simply oppose the Mashriq to the Maghrib alone. 30. but in a true scholastic manner assigned each of the four triplicates to the 1 2 Abū Maʿ šar al-Balkhī (787-886). the choice could have been simply due to a long established tradition in Islamic astrology. But this interpretation is almost certainly wrong. Many other planetary conjunctions occurred before and during 1740/41. vol. i. Albusar or Albuxar. Abū Maʿ šar. A more specific explanation offered by Abū Maʿ šar. As Bīrūnī – like modern astrologers .2 It is tempting to give a political meaning to this choice.An Ottoman Calendar One more question remains. 21 . Why did the author choose these conjunctions in particular? It is difficult. is usually associated with political or military power. quwwa = power. pp. e. the North and the South. vol. He mentions that a ruler who came to power during (or possibly in the year of) the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn in Sagittarius could expect an exceptional long life. conjunction (a) is considered to have the strongest positive influence. The takvim for 1831/32 has the same choice of conjunctions: a) the 11th year of the conjunction of the two upper planets in Aries and b) the 5th year of the conjunction of the two malefic planets in Cancer. Jupiter and Saturn were not in conjunction! 1 3 Also checked as correct. ad 2) The New Year date.1. Just for the record: When Süleyman I.An Ottoman Calendar people of the East. took the throne in 1520. Historical Astrology. 22 . though – quite fortunate for the astrological profession. i. 2 As no Ottoman sultan acceded to power in 1723.1 Given the importance of horoscopes for rulers in particular. Abū Maʿ šar also offers a more convincing clue why conjunction (a) could have been so important in astrology.. the prediction as to their life expectancy could not be put to a test.3 The authors of both takvims were probably aware that these conjunctions were taken as a reference in order to represent the best and the worst of planetary aspects before the current year.2 Whatever the reasons for it. The conjunction (b) of the two malefic planets in Cancer is. although it cannot be ruled out that were just blindly following a tradition. the date of the spring equinox according to following Middle Eastern calendars: Abū Maʿ šar. 32. the West. on the other hand.33. this could be the true reason for singling out the years of that conjunction from among others. “when in all countries and latitudes day and night are equal” [cemi-i buldan ve urud‟da istiva-i leyl ve nehar mütehakkik olur]. the worst possible aspect according to common astrological belief. pp. the longest reigning Ottoman sultan. The adjective “old”. when the emperor acceded to the throne (20. sometimes even used alone without further reference to the calendar in question. the New Year of the Coptic calendar (1 Tut = 29 August) does not commemorate the day. whom I wish to thank for his valuable advice on chronological matters.de/irankal. notwithstanding his relentless persecutions of Christians. 29 Shahrivar 1110 Old Persian calendar. although correctly labelled “Era of the Martyrs”. Its epoch (chronological beginning) is the first day (or Hormuzruz) of its first month Ferverdin that corresponds to 16 June 612 AD. Iranische Zeitrechnungen. the date of Yazdegerd‟s accession.11.the solar Yazdegerd calendar.An Ottoman Calendar a.nabkal. marks the Yazdegerd calendar as opposed to the “new” Persian calendar of Malikshah (see d.1 As Yazdegerd III was the last Sasanian king to accede to the throne. The Coptic era. who was honoured by the Copts with the start of their calendar. gives a very good and detailed explanation of Iranian calendars. But unlike the Yazdegerd calendar.html For an explanation of this term see below p. 1 Nikolaus A.e.284). but is based on a much older Egyptian calendar starting its year with the heliacal rising2 of Sirius. 40. beginning with the accession of the Sasanian king Yazdegerd III. 13 Barmahat 1456 Coptic calendar. b. in this case Diocletian. Bär. below).in 612 AD. the epoch of this calendar has not subsequently changed. is in fact a fossilised pagan Roman calendar that counts the years from the accession year of the emperor. i. on his website http://www. 2 23 . According to the calendar reform by the Seljuk sultan Malikshah (1072-92) the era of his solar calendar begins during the Islamic year of 471 AH with the vernal equinox. in 312 BC. It is also known as „Era of Alexander‟. The addition of “according to the sighting (of the Moon)” [biḥasab al-ruʾyā] after the date reflects the traditional difficulty of Islamic chronologists in reconciling their calculated prognosis with the religious dogma that only the actual sighting of the new crescent moon can define the start of a month. 1Elias J. 24 . the spring equinox in 1740 occurred six days earlier on 9 March of the Julian calendar.lb/projects/arch aeology/berytusback/berytus08/73. It designates the Seleucid calendar that starts with the accession year of Seleucos I Nicator1. with the twelve months having Syrian names and the year beginning on 1 Tishrinievvel = 1 October Julian Era. which also starts on “Nauruz Sultani”. a general of Alexander the Great. i. three days in 400 years – a discrepancy repaired by the Gregorian calendar reform in 1582 that dropped the intercalation every 100 years. 9 Azer 2051 Rumi calendar. 21 Dhuʼl-Hijja 1152 after the Hijra (AH). being mistakenly associated with Alexander the Great.aub. e. Nauruz of Sultan Malikshah. Notes on Seleucid and Parthian Chronology.e. One year in the Malikshah calendar year is identical with the takvim‟s basic year. This solar calendar was popular in the Middle East for many centuries as a seasonal adjusted alternative to the lunar Islamic calendar. which was equivalent then to 15 March 1079.An Ottoman Calendar c.e. http://ddc. Since the Roman occupation of the Near East the Seleucid calendar follows the Roman (Julian) rules for calculating the length of a year. Because the Julian year exceeds the true solar year by approx.. viz. the Julian Christian calendar counting the years Anno Domini and the Ottoman Mali (Financial) calendar counting the years Anno Hegirae. Bickerman.edu. This is obviously not one of the two other date styles normally called “rumi” (= Byzantine or Greek). also known as Jalali-calendar. i. except in multiples of 400 years . New Year 662 Malikshah calendar.html d. The takvim applies the most common of several versions of this calendar. regularly provided a database for the conversion of the Islamic Hijra into the civil Mali-calendar. They are the Julian and the Ottoman Financial (Mali) calendars. The author was well aware then. clearly defined as Nauruz of this year and constitutes the starting date of the takvim.An Ottoman Calendar The Western date corresponding to the dates given by four of these calendars. is uniformly Sunday. The error was thus only due to an oversight when the first page of the takvim was written. Rumi.9. Malikshah and Lunar-Hijra. a day approx. both mentioned already. coincides with 9/20 March 1741 . the Coptic. 9/20 March 1740 AD. On the other hand. however. ad 3) A horoscope for the Turkish animal calendar 25 . The Yazdegerd date 29 Shahrivar 1110./23. corresponded to 29 Shahrivar 1709 (not 1710) of the Yezdegerd Era. six months before that date. that Nauruz 1740/41 AD. The omission of these two calendars shows that the takvim was primarily an astrological tool with a focus on astronomy and less a civil calendar like the Julian and Mali calendars. It is remarkable that the two most important solar calendars of the late Ottoman Empire are not included. The Darendeli ruznames on the other hand with their period spanning many years. therefore.one year too late. within the calendar we find the beginning of 1110 Yazdegerd Era on Friday 12. 9/20 March 1740 AD is.1740. which were not of much use to astrologers. 1973. while staying with Mahmud of Ghazna at that time. op.47-8. p. Istanbul 2009 (reprint). still popular in China for special feasts2. op. for details vid. because it resembles sıçırgan. that counted the years in cyclical periods of 12 years. a vulgar insult (something like “shitter”).Turan. has the Arabic fars for “Horse”. O. Sédillot. pp. L. p.. Oniki hayvanlı Türk takvimi.1 This calendar applies the same rules established in the better known Chinese animal calendar. pp.Turan.cit. p. op.3 Only one name is quite unusual. Les calendries Turcs et médiévaux. O. the Arabic ghanam for “Sheep” or “Ram”. writes that prudish calendar makers like our author avoided sıçgan or modern sıçan. The information was given to Biruni. 113.1. Other takvims might use different names. 2 There is a debate whether the Chinese or the Turks are to be credited with the invention of this calendar. küskü [‫ ] كسكو‬for “Rat”. and preferred to use instead the antiquated “küskü”.. “küskü” is the Uighur calendar name for a rat.cit. viz. As each year in a 12-year. metal.cit.Turan. earth. for instance. “Crocodile” or “Shark” [nahang] instead of “Dragon”.An Ottoman Calendar On the bottom right of folio one verso is a list in a rhomboid grid entitled “horoscope of the year of the Turks” [zayiçe-i sal-ı Turkan] with the year names of the Central-Asian animal calendar.4 Years in this cycle were counted starting from the year of the Rat (year One) until the year of the Boar (year Twelve) in the grid roughly arranged counter clockwise.cit. i.. duodecimal.529. cycle belonged alternating to five different “elements” (wood.. fire. Ulugh Beg (vid. Bazin.g. Turkic and Arabic terms. each one carrying the name of an animal. a term adopted by Nāşir alDīn Ţūsī. 71ss. water). although the exact translation of the almost exclusively Persian year names in the takvim might be slightly different. the Turkish term for rat common in calendars since the 13th century. mostly a mixture of Persian.5 Their method shall be used to check if the takvim‟s animal calendar is correct: 4 For a detailed explanation of the structure of this calendar vid. tapped this unique source to complete his 26 .e. I use the commonly accepted English equivalents of the Chinese year names. who. O. the Persian mūsh for “Rat” and the Turkic daqūq (modern tavuk] for “Cock”. 1 5 According to O.Turan. op. 3 e. “Panther” [pārs] instead of “Tiger”. A takvim for 1831. A delegation of pagan Turks visiting the court of Mahmud of Ghazna (998-1030) explained how to convert Rumi (Seleucid) calendar years into the animal calendar. which is of Eastern Turkic origin. vol.9) and Biruni. they formed one complete greater sexagesimal cycle of 60 years. It contrasts with other personal horoscopes and astrological statements (see below chapter “Choices” p. The result is 9. 69) in that each year has well defined features not following the more or less arbitrary rules of individual astrologers. Tuḥfat al Munajjimīn. According to O. By adding the remainder to 1 ( = the first year of the animal calendar).cit..An Ottoman Calendar After adding nine years to the Rumi (Seleucid) year. including the birth of children2.cit. 32. Usually lacking entries for months and days. Maḥmūd al-Kaşgarî. The mathematical formula in our case is (2051+9) mod 12+1. as demonstrated by the term „horoscope‟ [zayiçe] that introduces it. can be explained by its astrological importance.. The standard inclusion even in late Ottoman takvims of the rather exotic Turkish animal calendar. 2 O. in fact the number of the Monkey year. 27 .104: Abū al-Faḍl. it was in fact used mainly for indicating the year of birth like someone saying “I was born in the year of the Tiger”. Ibrahim Hakki. which was not generally used in the Ottoman Empire (unlike Iran). we arrive at the current year within the 12-year cycle. if the person was present. It served also as a horoscope for events during that year. The takvim emphasizes both the name and the number of the animal year in golden letters. Dîvân Lûgat it Türk. and fruit and grapes become scarce. this was normally quite sufficient for be certain of the exact age.Turan. as a year when large animals like camels and horses get sick. in a more specific and also more banal sense.. and. op. With twelve years difference between the previous and the next year of the Tiger. op.Turan. The year of the Monkey is characterised by three different authors1 as a year of social unrest and lawlessness. the result is divided by 12. p. 1 admittedly limited knowledge of Turkish chronology. p. Maʿrifetname. It is defined as the point where the ecliptic intersects the Eastern A rhomboid grid1 on the bottom left of folio one verso is entitled “horoscope for the ascendant of the year on the horizon of Istanbul” [zayiçe--i tali-i sal bi-ufuk-ı Dar asSaltana al-seniyye].. 128. op. sometimes even used as its synonym. 28 . 161. Whitfield. 132. a key term the year for any horoscope. vid.cit. P. 1 The distinctive rhomboid layout is also common in mediaeval European horoscopes. pp.An Ottoman Calendar ad 4) A horoscope for The Arabic term ṭāliʿ the time of the ascendant of marks the ascendant.162. respectively. Wiesbaden 1959. These are the nodes or points2. making a tour through the zodiac in approx. equal to 12. in other words as the rising zodiac sign. 18.e. where the Moon‟s slightly inclined (by five degrees) orbital plane intersects the ecliptic. 197 (no. Arabische Sternnamen in Europa.e.are lying opposite each other on an axis 180 degrees apart. According to Newcomb.4 days.6 years or 6793. the plane described by the Sun‟s apparent yearly orbit around the Earth. The Moon does not travel around the earth in a plane that cuts the ecliptic always at the same points.the “Head”node.38 am local time.astro. known as a draconic year. Therefore. where the ascending Moon passes from the south (lower) to the north (upper) side of the ecliptic. Both nodes . . like a wobbling spinning top. the ascendant for Istanbul was Gemini1. cf.com/cgi/ Not to be confused with real stars known by this name. when Gemini as the ascendant of the new year began to rise at 8. p. the constellation preceding Aries.74 seconds in terms of right ascension. which is supposed to exert a profound influence on a person born at that time.Kunitzsch. the “Tail” [dhanab]. P.05299°. in Western astrology also known as the male node. the five real planets known in antiquity. the author rightly placed it into the zodiac constellation of Pisces. to complete a circle of 360°. still a few seconds before 0h0m0s.exe the Sun‟s right ascension at that time was 23h59m54s. 102) vs. The horoscope has been calculated for the time. p. 163) 29 . This means that during one day of 24 hours a node travels 0. however.45 am and 10. but like the precession of the Earth‟s axis its orbital plane reverts slowly backwards. the start of Aries. On 9/20 March 1740 between 8. the positions of the other heavenly “bodies” distributed among the zodiac constellations need to be checked. 2 http://www. They are: the Moon. the “Lot of Fortune” [sahm al-saʿāda] and the “Lot of Absence” [sahm alghayb]. the “Head” [ra‟s].45 local time (not for the time of the equinox that occurred some time later!). the time span during which the new year started at the vernal equinox (see below ad5). i. They do not remain at their position. i.An Ottoman Calendar horizon. After the ascendant and the Sun. 1 “Head” and “Tail” stand for the dragon‟s head and tail [Arabic: ra‟s al-tinnīn and dhanab al-tinnīn]. and the “Tail”-node for the descending Moon . 165 (no. as marked in the grid. the Lot or Part of Fortune [sahm al-saʿāda] and the Lot of Absence3 [sahm alghayb]. p.2 This explains why the takvims mention the nodes in the horoscope not only for New Year. While the Moon‟s nodes have still a sound astronomical base as the points of intersection between the orbit of the Moon and the ecliptic.K.org/ar ticles/nodes/nodes. Kitāb altafhīm. op. in: Kunst des Orients IX1/2. “The Vaso Vescovali in the British Museum”. Relevant sections of the webpage http://www.astrologyclub.cit.. 6 A detailed description including the method for calculating the position of these parts is in Biruni.1 In their untiring search for signs from the heavens.1.skyscript.co. Their position is defined by a calculation based on the positions of the Ascendant. An example in Indian art is a zodiac design with seven planets and two dragon nodes on a Hindu temple: F.to use the standard term – when it is in conjunction with it. while its partner. html are largely based on this book.uk/alparts. no 475. See also: F.An Ottoman Calendar The invisible nodes are thus behaving somehow like planets. as has been demonstrated by Willy Hartner. 5 Islamic astrology has different calculations for their position during the day and during the night. Kennedy. the Moon and the Sun. when a planet in its apparent orbit around the Earth “meets” such a node or . The “Part of Fortune” lies at a distance from the Ascendant equalling the distance of the Moon from the Sun5. but also on several other occasions during the year.Pingree/E.e. the astrologers interpreted these nodes as quasi-planets with their own share of planetary influence.1. the “Part of Absence. pp. the other two “bodies”.Haddad/D. which also move through the zodiac. 100-130.” lies opposite to it. 180 degrees apart.87 n.S. i.Ginzel. 1972. like Part of Spirit or Part of Daemon. vol. The term could probably best be translated as Part of Occult. “Al-Bīrūnī‟s treatise on 3 1 2 For a good visual demonstration of the movements of the nodes see http://www.6 Anyone Other translations are known as well. 30 .htm The nodes as additional planets have even found their way into objects of Islamic art. are only the result of astrological cabbala (quite obvious with names like these4).I. 4The Arabic term sahm in the sense of “lot” or “share” instead of the literal meaning “arrow” could well have its origin in the pre-Islamic game of maysir that used real arrows to draw the lot for the distribution of the parts of a slaughtered animal. not Aries – a fact the author must have C C known. 1 astrological lots”. however. not the result of wrong calculations made by the author. and the sources cited in the notes. Islamic astrology) can be found in P. C38).. Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften. e. vol.e xe Tak vi m N S A Sa Ar T T git ies a a ta u ur riu r us s u s t S A Sc Ar A T or ies ri a pi e ur o s us T C a n ce r A C a n ce r T A qu ar iu s T A qu ar iu s Bold marked entries show where the takvim differs from the modern astronomical database.1740 OE on the first calendar page (see below p. pp. which should have been in Taurus instead of Aries./20. Abū Maʿ šar. That the author was aware of the correct domicile is attested by the entry “transit of Venus into Gemini” on 1. For a check I used Kemal Milar‟s astrological program http://www. which is Taurus.4.1.Whitfield.An Ottoman Calendar interested to know more about this cryptic “science” is referred to the abundant literature on astrology1.cit.g. 1984.593-6.com/ 31 . The difference is. op. This is quite obvious in the case of Venus. Before that date Venus C must have been in the sign immediately preceding Gemini. pp.3. A good introduction (incl. vol.1.astrozoom. Historical Astrology. The following domiciles are recorded by Newcomb. only due to sloppy design. H T where the takvim locates it.exe for the real and virtual planets during the ascendancy of Gemini on 9.1740: Pla net P M M M V oo er e n cu n ry u s M J u pi te r V S at u r n J M ar s S H e a d N o d e C C a n c e r C C a n c e r M T ai l N o de A Ca pr ic or n A Ca pr ic or n Ne wc om b. 954. suggests that the takvim was not designed by the astronomer himself. also in the production of manuscripts. to b) the longitude of the Ascendant at 60 degrees1. It rather seems that the copyist made the mistakes while entering the correctly calculated chronological and astronomical data into the takvim. but never while it is still in Scorpio. because all databases agree that by then it had already far advanced into the next zodiac sign of Sagittarius – by more than 20° of a total of 30°. though. whose calculations were most likely correct. 240 degrees. The fact that three mistakes occur in the design but not in the calculation – viz. the Part of Fortune would be at a longitude calculated by adding a) the distance between the Sun (in Pisces) to the Moon ( in Scorpio) = max. the zodiac sign preceding Gemini! 1 Yet the same calculation made with the Moon correctly positioned in Sagittarius defines Gemini as the domicile for the Lot of Fortune. which results in a maximum longitude of 300 degrees. The author must have known that it belonged to Sagittarius. as in case of the ascendant reaching more than 60 degrees during Nauruz the Sun would have already advanced into Aries. that also this mistake was not caused by a wrong calculation of the Moon‟s longitude. where the author has also placed it. 32 . If the Moon had been in Scorpio. the wrong Yazdegerd year on the first page and the wrong positions of the Moon and Venus in the horoscope of the ascendant . where it can only be while the Moon is in Sagittarius. This would be consistent with the well known division of labour in Middle Eastern craftsmanship. The occurrence of these mistakes in a luxurious codex made to honour a sultan remains surprising. however. This is the maximum. This is the starting point of Aquarius. but equally by a simple error in design. The evidence for this is that he placed the Lot of Fortune in Gemini.An Ottoman Calendar The position of the Moon in Scorpio is also wrong. It is nearly certain. although he joined it with Scorpio by mistake. An Ottoman Calendar ad 5) The exact time of New Year The time, when during 9/20 March 1740 the Sun reaches exactly the point of vernal equinox defined as longitude 0°0m0s of Aries, is described in rather florid terms on folio 2 recto as follows: “in the 1152nd year of the message given by the Hijra of the shining sun in heaven [the Prophet1], on Sunday, the 21st day of Dhu ‟l-Hijja according to the sighting [of the moon], four hours and twenty-two minutes after sunrise the great luminary, i.e. the luminous Sun, transits and passes into the first second of Aries, when there is equality of day and night and Nauruz Sultani as a joy [to mankind].” [tarih-i hicret-i hurşid taban-i asman risaletin bin yüz elli iki senesi Zilhicce‟sinin bihasab al-ruya yirmi birinci ahad günü tulu-ı aftab‟dan dört saat yirmi iki dakika mururında neyyir-i ekber yani shams-i ziyagüster burc-ı Hamlın evvel saniyesi tahvil ve intikal edüp tesavi-i leyl ve nehar Nauruz Sultani meserret asar olur]. All three key terms – sunrise, hours, Nauruz – used in this definition, although seemingly easy to understand, need some explanation. Sunrise/Sunset The definition of sunrise as the beginning of the day is by no means unequivocal – it could be any time between the first signs of dawn until the full appearance of the sun disk above the horizon. This question is not purely academic, as sunrise/sunset times define times for prayer and they serve also as the basis for calculating the time of key events like - in the present case - Nauruz or eclipses. 1 That the Prophet is compared in these exalted terms to the shining sun in heaven is quite surprising as the pure human nature of the Prophet is always stressed in Islam. It is, however, consistent with similarly phrased metaphors used for dating Nauruz (in B.5 above) and a lunar eclipse (see below p.15) where the traditional addition of “Pray for Him” undoubtedly denotes the Prophet. 33 An Ottoman Calendar According to Bīrūnī daytime in the opinion of the “experts” [ahl al-ṣināʿa] starts at the moment, when the centre of the Sun (markaz al-shams) appears at the horizon.1 Ulugh Beg some 400 years later also defines daytime for “the astronomers, the Persians and the Greeks” as the time between the rise of the centre of the Sun until its setting [ghurūb], while for Muslim jurists/theologians (ahl al-sharʿ) it lasts from the definition of daytime according to the theologians by using religious arguments himself3. The correct time of daybreak, when the centre of the Sun rises, needs moreover to be defined more precisely: Is it the appearance to the eye or the true astronomical position of the Sun at the horizon? Both occur at different times due to the refraction of light. The method used in the taqvim to calculate daytime can be detected by comparing a start of real dawn (ṭulūʿ ṣubḥ sample of six dates of its daylight data found in the 1st ṣādiq) - as opposed to a previous column (from right) of the calendar table (see below B.) period of “false dawn” [ṣubḥ with a database of the US Navy kādhib] during which the night that lists the times for sunrise rules for fasting and prayer and sunset in Istanbul, defined continue to be applied - until there as the time when the the complete disappearance of upper edge of the Sun disk the sun disk (ghurūb tāmm jarm appears on the horizon4. shams)2. Bīrūnī refutes the 1 Biruni, Al-Qānūnu‟l-Masʿūdī (Canon Masudicus), vol.1 (Hyderabad/India 1954), p.66. He cites as a “mistake” [zalla] the dissenting opinion of one Abū alFaḍl al-Harawī, who defined daytime from the appearance of the whole disk of the Sun until its disappearence below the horizon. Sédillot, op.cit., vol.2, pp. 8-9. vid. also Biruni, Kitāb al-tafhīm, nos.1324 with less clear definitions for daytime, sunrise and sunset. See also P.G.Schmidl, Volkstümliche Astronomie im islamischen Mittelalter, Leiden/Boston 2007,vol.2, 499-501. 3 2 i.a. a) God would not have gone to such lengths in Sura II:183 to command the start of Ramadan fasting “when you distinguish a white thread from a black thread”, if he could have simply ordered it for the beginning of the day; b) according to the same Sura the time for breaking the fast at sunset – not at the end of the evening twilight – is simply called the beginning of the “night”; c) the noon prayer was known as the first day prayer, which classifies the morning prayer at the start of dawn as a night prayer (Albîrûnî, Chronology, pp.7ss.) http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/as 4 34 An Ottoman Calendar The takvim‟s daytimes are even shorter, however, viz. by eight to twelve minutes. The D Sunrise ay time to Sunset question arises, therefore, if the 9./20. 1 1 Muslim astronomers did in fact calculate daytime not from and 03.1740 2h00m 2h08m 20./31 1 1 to the appearance of the centre .03.1740 2h30m 2h39m to the eye, but according to the 1./11.0 1 1 true astronomical position of the 4.1740 3h00m 3h08m 10./21. 1 1 centre of the Sun at the horizon. Due to the refraction of light the 05.1740 4h30m 4h40m 10./21. 1 1 centre of the Sun is already 06.1740 5h00m 5h08m visible, when its true position is 11./22. 1 1 still 34 arc minutes below the 07.1740 4h30m 4h39m horizon at sunrise (mutatis 10/21. 9 9 mutandis at sunset). Daytime 12.1740 h00m h14m calculated as the time between If the Muslim the true astronomical position of astronomers‟ definition of the centre of the Sun at the sunrise/sunset according to horizon in the morning and the Ulug Beg were to be understood evening is, therefore, shorter (by as the appearances of the centre approximately another 6 ½ of the Sun disk on the eastern minutes). Altogether this would and western horizon, they would in fact roughly account for have recorded daytime to be daytime in the takvim to be approx. two minutes shorter eight to twelve minutes shorter than the times in the US Navy than in the US Navy table, which table, as these count the time is based on the appearance of 1 between the appearances of the the Sun‟s upper edge . It seems, therefore, that the centre and the upper edge. takvims‟ sunrise and sunset times are defined by the true astronomical position of the Sun‟s centre. Takvim 1740/41 US Navy 1 tronomical-applications/dataservices/rs-one-year-us According to Ch.Pellat, “Layl and Nahār”, EI2, nahār begins with the appearance of the upper edge of the Sun on the horizon, just as in the US Navy definition. The synopsis makes it clear, however, that Ottoman calendar makers must have followed the rule given by Ulugh Beg. 35 An Ottoman Calendar Hours/Minutes The Ottoman Empire knew mainly three methods of calculating hours and minutes. The most recent one is the modern system with 24 equal hours, so-called “vasati saatler” constituting a full day, which starts at midnight a convention principally due to the introduction of railways with the accompanying need for unequivocal timetables. A more traditional method - used often concurrently with the first well into the 20th century -, while also based on 24 equal hours, starts the day at sunset counting the hours from sunset or evening [akşam] prayer, which are therefore called ezanî saatler, i.e. hours of the Adhan, or (in Arabic) “awqāt sharʿia”, religious times. This means that clocks had to be readjusted practically every day according to the changing times of sunset. The third and oldest method divided the night (from sunset to sunrise) and the day (from sunrise to sunset) into 12 night time and 12 daytime hours each1, which were of different length, changing like daytime and night-time with the seasons – more so in summer and winter 1 and less in spring and autumn2. Probably due to the increasing use of clocks, in later times certainly in the 18th century – the second method with 24 equal hours starting at sunset was generally adopted, although they were still counted from 1-12 only.3 This method is comparable to the modern convention of dividing a full day into two parts of twelve hours a.m. and p.m. Ezanî hours are different, however, in two respects: The zero point, the sunset, moves with the seasons, and the jump from 12h59m to 1h00m is done without a mnemonic help like a.m. or p.m. These peculiarities have to be borne in mind when reading traditional prayer tables. In dealing with this takvim of 1740/41, however, it is only important to remember that at this time all hour/minute data As in mediaeval Europe: J.Gimpel, La révolution industrielle du Moyen Age, Paris 1975, pp.158 ss. 3 Biruni, Kitāb al-tafhīm, no.135, 2 mentions both equal (saʿāt mustawiya) and unequal hours (saʽāt muʿwajja or zamāniyya), without indicating where and when they were used. Wright in his translation of Biruni, Kitāb al-tafhīm, no. 390 includes a passage about the use of unequal hours by “Arabs” and equal hours by “us” (probably Iranians), that cannot be found in the Arabic original, however, and is probably taken from elsewhere. D.A.King, “The seasonal hours and the time of the Ẓuhr and ʿAṣr Prayers”, in: D.A.King, In Synchrony with the Heavens, vol.1, Leiden/Boston 2004, pp. 553-8. 36 An Ottoman Calendar were already based on equal hours in accordance with modern timekeeping. This rule was also valid in the Ottoman Empire. A salname (yearbook) for 1895 records the vernal equinox on Nauruz 8./20.3. at 4h26m36s ezanî Although for saatler (after sunset), i.e. at conveniences sake Nauruz is approx. 22h26m local time. The often defined as the day of the salname accordingly postpones vernal equinox, this definition is Nauruz to the following day, inexact. Only if the Sun enters 9./21.3. the zodiac sign of Aries before As the vernal noon, that day is Nauruz. If the equinox in 1740 occurred on vernal equinox happens after 9./20.3. before noon as noon, then Nauruz falls on the explained in the following next day. This would be passage, Nauruz was not consistent with a method to postponed in that year. count days from noon1, not from --midnight according to today‟s The takvim timed h22m after sunrise standard or from sunset as in equinox at 4 the Islamic tradition. on 9./20.3.1740. A US Navy table records sunrise in Istanbul on that day at 4h08m a.m. Universal time (UT) 2, which translates into 6h04m a.m. local time by adding 1h56m , the time difference 1 According to Albîrûnî, Chronology, pp. 6s., “most... astronomers” between Istanbul (longitude E preferred to count the days from 28h58m) and Greenwich. noon, a reference time that is easier to find than sunrise/set or midnight. Nauruz as celebrated today is, therefore, rooted in this tradition. The a.m. Jalali-calendar of the Seljuk sultan Malikshah still counted the days from noon, whereas the current Iranian Hijri-solar that is largely based on the Jalali-calendar counts the hours from midnight, with the exception of Islamic holidays that start at sunset (vid. http://www.nabkal.de/irankal.html under heading “Der Tagesanfang im Kalender Dschelal ed-Dins” and “Der Jahresbeginn im heutigen iranischen Kalendar”, with further references). 2 http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/as tronomical-applications/dataservices/rs-one-year-world 37 m local time (6h00m a. Stephenson. Two modern computer programmes1 list the time of vernal equinox on 9.An Ottoman Calendar Taking into account that sunrise on the day of the spring equinox according to the takvim was at exactly 6h00m (see daylight table above) according to the definition of sunrise by the Muslim astronomers as discussed before.imcce. more than one hour earlier. 128 table 5. the difference in longitude of the Sun between both dates amounts to no more than 0°1m49s./20.fr/en/grandpublic /temps/saisons. p.1740 as 7h23m GMT = 9h19m local Istanbul time. A modern comparative study of equinox times that were recorded by mediaeval Islamic astronomers with modern calculations reveals an average error of 1h12m . although this is quite a substantial difference in terms of time. “Precision of Medieval Islamic Measurements of Solar Altitudes and Equinox Times”. 38 .Said & F.2. 121-132.ca/equinox/vern 1452-1811. 26 (1995). i.R.html 2 S. Such differences in celestial coordinates occur regularly elsewhere in most modern databases and could be the result of either different observation or calculation methods or simple mistakes. 17° east of Istanbul (near Tabriz!). Journal of the History of Astronomy. We must bear in mind on the other hand that. Nova Scotia: http://www.3.S. which the authors of the study still consider “a remarkably good result”.ns1763.e.m plus 4h22m). equinox recorded in the takvim would have occurred at 10h22m a. but never more than a few minutes. 1 Institut de Mécanique Céleste et des Éphémérides: http://www. It is true that even modern databases and programmes may also differ in the exact definition of the equinoctial time. pp. The later time recorded in the takvim would have been correct only for a location approx.php. vol. however. e. when it occurred during the day. But the takvim for 1831/32 found the correct time of the equinox. The US Navy tables give following start times for twilight on Nauruz 1740 in Istanbul: Civil twilight (centre of sun 6 degrees below horizon) at 1 5h36m. Also other takvims – the salname for 1895 and the takvim for 1938 – obtained the correct time3 of the vernal equinoxes by counting the hours from sunset according to the Muslim astronomers‟ convention (centre of sundisk at western horizon). “Astronomical Timekeeping”.m. western. near Tabriz. therefore.m.57 a.57 a.An Ottoman Calendar It is difficult to explain the discrepancy other than as the result of an error in computing the equinox. understood in this particular case as the time when the centre of the sun disk had advanced to approximately 13 degrees below the horizon. the takvim would have given the correct time of the equinox (4. an error in the opposite. If sunrise is. takvim: 4h07m after sunrise 6h08m local time = 10h15m 3 Ascertained by checking with the US Navy tables. would be absurd. i. To assume that the author got his bearings so wrong as to locate Istanbul east of its true location. pp. King. computer equinox: 10h22m local time.instead of correct E 28°58‟ for Istanbul -. + 4h22m = 9. One possible explanation could be that the takvim defined sunrise in its calculation of Nauruz not . As Ottoman astronomers seem to have based their calculations on longitude E 23°30‟1 . 2 39 . direction would have been more plausible.m. that of the ahl al-sharʿ. as a basis for his calculation. nautical twilight (centre of sun 12 degrees below horizon) at 5h04m and astronomical twilight (centre of sun 18 degrees below horizon) at 4h31m. viz. during the twilight of dawn. local Istanbul time.).as elsewhere . D. There is no apparent reason.e. i.250-1. by counting from sunrise according to the astronomers‟ definition2. which would have been correct for a location west of Istanbul. the Nauruz calculation of the takvim would have been correct.19 a.A. plate 5). but instead that of the ahl al-sharʿ mentioned by Ulugh Beg and Bīrūnī . why the author of the takvim for 1740/41 should have deliberately chosen a different time for sunrise. viz. Perhaps this explains also the wrong qibla direction in a Darendeli ruzname (idem. Only if sunrise was timed at 4.by following the opinion of the astronomers. East during the night from to attaining full light when 10 21. Africa and the Middle that its shine starts to increase.eclipse. therefore.1741 22. minutes after sunset. the Most Exalted. hours and 13 minutes have passed. the Omniscient. with its implication of unpleasant things [ghayr maḥmūda].uk/eclipse/112 1741/L1741Jan01. in the saat ve on üç dakika mururında evening. Kitāb al-tafhīm. recorded a partial lunar eclipse 7/12th partial eclipse). 321.pdf 40 . taslimāt akmaluhā hazretlerinin yüz elli üç senesi A partial lunar eclipse şevvalinin on dördüncü The takvim predicts on düşembeh gecesi gurub‟dan yedi the last page (before the saat ve on üç dakika mururında appendix) in its typical exalted mah munir ukde-i ras‟ta burc language a partial lunar eclipse: seratan‟da inhisaf âghaz ve sekiz “In the 1153rd year of the saat kırk üç dakika‟da on iki Hijra of His Presence.the most kamar‟dan yedi asbu mıkdarı complete prayers and most münhasif olup vasat-ı husuf ola perfect benedictions for Him -.1740/1.e. the Lord asbu takdiran olunan carm-ı of the World .12. due to an error made ṣalawāt atammuhā ve min alby its astronomer. no.org.1.1. At eight The takvim‟s data shall be hours and 43 minutes is the compared to the data of a middle of the eclipse reaching 2 seven digits of the moon‟s modern database that also diameter of twelve digits (i.1741.1 After in Europe. where Biruni also writes that an eclipse. 2 http://www.” 1 This reading is consistent with the description of an eclipse in Biruni. As ordained by God.ʿalayhi min alvernal equinox must be.. 14 Shawwal. seven hours and 13 bi„l-kulliye münceli olur.An Ottoman Calendar The time recorded in the [birle tarih hicret-i takvim for 1740/41 for the Sultan-ı Cihan . begins an Dhālika taqdīr al-ʿAzīz al-ʿAlīm] eclipse of the shining moon at its head node in Cancer. should not be mentioned at the beginning of a takvim.1740/2.12. ve der akab incilaye başlayıp on on Monday. At the time of the eclipse the Sun was at RA 18h51m7s. i. For the conversion of UT (Greenwich) into/from Istanbul local time approx. as mentioned before. two 1 minutes before the modern recording. The statement that the eclipse occurred.e. at 180° or in terms of right ascension at 12h distance from the Sun.56 21 2 . 1h56m have to be added/substracted by taking into account the longitude of Istanbul east of Greenwich (28°58‟ E) 41 . at 16h43m plus 7h13m = 23h56m local time = 22h00m UT b) maximum at 16h43m (start time) plus 8h43m = 01h26m. much closer to the true data. 21.58 33c) 0 1h09 m 4s UT 0 1h00 m UTd) 0 87 min utes 0 80 min utes Shawwal 1153 began at sunset on Sunday. is also correct. On that date sunset in Istanbul (according to the modern definition = upper edge of the Sun at the western horizon) was at 14h47m UT = 16h43m p.com/solar_ calculator/solar_position. therefore. Other than the calculation of the vernal equinox. local time = 23h30m UT c) 7/12 of the Moon‟s diameter d) end at 16h43m (start time) plus 10h13m = 02h56m local time = 01h00m UT 1 According to the takvim the eclipse started approx.12. the zodiac sign 180° opposite Capricorn.1740/1.1. which at this time is on the axis Sun-Earth-Moon.php.m. while the Moon was at its head node in Cancer. The eclipse started. placing it into Capricorn2. The difference in time increased to 16 minutes for the time of greatest extent and decreased again to nine minutes at the end of the eclipse. Therefore. local time1.1741.An Ottoman Calendar start s time of maxim um t maxim um extent m end e durati on m mod ern data base takvi m 2h0 2m4s UT t 2h0 0m UTa) a)14 2 3h4 6m 9s UT 2 3h3 0m UTb) 2 . which might be due to the different definition of 1 sunset in both sources. the takvim‟s prediction of the start of lunar eclipse is. d http://www. A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth obstructs the light of the Sun by casting a shadow on the Moon. the Moon was in fact domiciled in Cancer.spectralcalc. therefore. Middle East Studies Online Journal.Issue n°4.ISSN 2109-9618. Volume 2 ( 2011) folio 2 verso 42 . Night: 11. South.37) might serve as an example to facilitate the explanation: Choices (Ikhtiyārāt) Zodiac Rumi Arabic Weekday işlāḥ tīr wa kamān . Volume 2 ( 2011) 3.5 hours.Middle East Studies Online Journal. see p. clear visibility Naurūz Sulţanī. plus a title row. The first page (folio 2 verso.5 hours Rise Muqaddam of tijārat wa shirkat .shirā-i ḥayawān ʿimārat arāḍī taʿlīm musiqī forbidden (maḥdhūr) waḍʿ bunyān ḥājat az quḍā wa pīrān ḥājat az ʿulamā . first day of Spring Monday Mihrimāh (old) Transit of Mars into Pisces.ISSN 2109-9618.Issue n°4. chronological and meteorological data as well as advice for every day. The Calendar Each page of the main part of the takvim has 6 columns and 30 rows with astronomical. Move of Blood Capricorn 11 12 Aquarius Tuesday Wednesday 13 14 Pisces 25 26 27 28 29 1 2 3 4 5 Thursday Friday Move of Insects First Drink Laxatives Square Mercury Saturn of 15 16 Aries Saturday intermediate (mumtazij) Sunday Monday Tuesday of with 17 tartīb li-shukr işlāḥ ālāt safar tazwīj abkār ghars ashjār Taurus 18 19 20 21 Gemini Muḥarram alHaram 1153 Wednesday Day: 12.şuḥbat fuqahā safar wa ḥarakat shirkat wa tijārat shurb dawā kharq majrā-i mā Sagittarius 9 10 21 22 23 24 Sunday Muḥarram alHaram 1153 For the observer: Tuesday night.ibtidāʿ-i kār muʿālaja wa shikār . elevated.hājat az kibār taḥrīr nāmeh tajdīd jāmeh - Thursday Friday 22 Saturday Transition of Mercury into Taurus 43 . Sharaf of Sun. Coptic Barmūda.asās wa binā şanʿat zargar shirā-i jawhar tajdīd thiyāb mushārakat shirā-i aḥbāb dawāb taʿmīr kharāb tartīb adwiye libs jāmeh 26 27 28 Virgo 29 30 Day ofʿ ʿĀshūrā. Rise of Waters Conjunction of Benefic Planets.Trine of Malefic Planets 6 Capricorn 20 Sunday farāgh wa ʿuzlat . Naurūz Horezmshah Square of Sun with Saturn Day: 13 hours. Night: 11 hours April (Nisān).ţalab maghfarat 7 21 Monday 44 . Transit of Venus into Gemini Libra malefic (naḥs) 31 1 2 Wednesday Thursday Rise of Muʾakhkhar shurb dawā .An Ottoman Calendar shikār daryā riyāḍat çāriyā Cancer 23 24 25 Leo 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Call of Nightingale Sextile Venus Saturn the of with intermediate (mumtazij) shirā-i jawāhir hājat az akābir ʿaqd liwā .ʿ ilāj marḍā shirkat wa tijārat ḥajāmat wa zaynat dīdār Pādishāh ţalab ʿizz wa jāh ijrā-i anhār şayd wa shikār Scorpio 3 4 Sagittarius Friday 5 Saturday ”Red Egg” (Beiza-i Sürh). Planets are 90 degrees apart. Planets are 120 degrees apart. Apart from the conjunction [qīrān] already explained in the introduction the following relative positions of planets.ISSN 2109-9618. have always to be understood as lunar nodes: Biruni. these occurrences could also be called conjunctions of a real planet with a virtual one.2 As they were considered virtual planets.  tarbīʿ = square. maʿa al-dhanab = planet together with the Tail. HdO I. I. Planets are 180 degrees apart. Die Natur. a) Relative positions of the planets. According to the astrologers such a conjunction enhances the planet‟s influence. Kitāb al-tafhīm. no. Leiden 1972. where their orbit crosses the ecliptic. raʾs and dhanab are not the planets‟ own Head or Tail nodes. Volume 2 ( 2011) Astronomical data (1st column from right)1. 345-347 2 Nodes. Uhlmann.  maʿa al-raʾs = planet together with the Head.  iḥtirāq = “burning” . 45 . unless specified differently. when it is “burned“ by the Sun. but the Moon nodes that have been explained above. Planets are 60 degrees apart.Issue n°4. A conjunction of a real planet with the Sun.und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam.Middle East Studies Online Journal. are recorded in the takvim‟s detailed data pages:  muqābala = opposition. 177. Ergänzungsband 6. 1 M.  tasdīs = sextile.  tathlīth = trine. their aspects. astro.1740 Venus + Head.1. 26.7.1741 Venus + Tail. the point of greatest distance of a planet from the Earth during its elliptical orbit around the Earth (Ptolemy) or the Sun (Copernicus). At any rate on each of the seven dates the planets were at their closest longitudinal distance to the nodes in 1740/41.htm. 0./23./26. These dates are regularly mentioned in the takvim. because a perfect planet with node conjunction could only occur when the planet crosses exactly the point of intersection between the Moon‟s orbit and the ecliptic.1.5. viz.1. According to meteorological folklore. the second zodiac sign of the year after the vernal equinox. Specially named taḥ wīl dates are 9/20.  ‘awaj [also: dharwa] = apogee. 12.1740 Sun + Tail.  ‘a’ī’ = perigee. Bearing this in mind. 1 46 . 7.12. the takvim‟s dates can be accepted as correct. Accordingly the term “with” should be understood as “at the closest distance possible. 2 According to the tables in http://www. 16. the point of closest distance of a planet to the earth during its elliptical orbit around the Earth (Ptolemy) or the Sun (Copernicus).6. 28.1741 Mercury + Tail. b) Movements/Absol ute positions of planets  Ta’wīl = The transition of a planet into the next zodiac sign. but still slightly apart from each other.12.20 degrees2./18.4. 15./6. it is a season of bad weather. Both dates define a period of six days after the Sun enters Taurus. In these cases planets and node nodes were of course in the same zodiac sign.1740 [Evvel Sene-i Sevr] “New Year of Taurus” and 14.1740 [Aher Sitte-i Sevr] “Last six of Taurus”.com/swisseph/swep ha_e.4./25.1740/8.1740 Sun + Head.1741 Jupiter + Head. not exceeding a few minutes”. That is hardly surprising.1 to 1.An Ottoman Calendar At seven different dates the takvim refers to planets being “with” [maʿ such a a] 1./27. the correct dates as computed by newcomb.html. Both terms. are explained in Biruni. This phenomenon can be easily visualized in any planetary model of the heliocentric system. Bīrūnī . who does not elaborate either.the degrees of sharaf and hubūţ (180° from sharaf) according to Bīrūnī and Abū Ma’shar . no. the Moon nodes as virtual planets).151.An Ottoman Calendar  Raj’a = return. Kitāb al-tafhīm..1  istiqāma = standstill. respectively.443. as their terms might suggest.geol. 47 . when planets on their orbits around the Sun start their backward (western) movement in relation to the Earth. rajʿa and istiqāma.niu. The moment. In Islamic astrology these terms denote the place of exaltation for a planet.exe. The rows of the following table contain: . and the opposite place of dejection. The astronomers of the Ptolemaic tradition had to posit additional circular movements of the planets around a centre that moved along with the planets on their orbit around the Earth – the so-called epicycle [falak altadwīr] – to explain why the planets did stop and reverse course while circulating around the Earth. 2 3 Biruni. These places are not defined by their highest or lowest position in one of the known astronomical coordinates. Kitāb al-tafhīm. like its throne.580.the Julian calendar dates of sharaf and hubūţ according to the takvim for 1740/41 . p. list the places of exaltation [sharaf] of the planets (incl.cit.and Abū Maʿ shar3.edu/faculty/stod dard/JAVA/ptolemy. who does not explain the criteria for the choice of these degrees – he only mentions that they were “defined by the Persians and Greeks”2 . when the planets “stand still” before resuming their forward (eastern) movement in relation to the Earth 1 A good visual demonstration with a comparison between the geocentric and the heliocentric model is given in http://jove. which a planet has reached during its move around the zodiac. op. but by a certain intermediate degree. no.  sharaf and hubūţ = exaltation and dejection. The opposite moment. Abū Ma‟shar. 10.7.174 0 h 1° Aries 2 5° apricor n 1 8° C ancer 3.10.10.174 0 9.1740 2 .17 40 24.1 740 24.10.10.Issue n°4.7.17 40 29.2.174 0 2 9° C ibra 2 0.2.174 0 aturn M un S Venus ercury M oon M ragon‟s ead D ragon‟ Hs ail 3 ° Sagitt arius D T 3 hara f akvi m orrec t: ubūţ s 1° Libra t c 2 5° Cancer 1 8° Capricor n 2 9° Aries 1 Pisces 2 3 27° 5° Virgo 1 ° Taurus 3 2 3 ° Gemini 7.174 1 9.17 40 hubūţ 21° Aries 15° Caprico rn 28° Cancer 19° Libra takvim 23.17 40 2.3.3.ISSN 2109-9618.174 0 0.10 24.174 0 0.Middle East Studies Online Journal.174 0 30.17 41 19.17 41 correct: S upiter J ars 20.174 0 0.174 0 2 . Volume 2 ( 2011) Satur n Jupiter Mars Sun Venus Mercu ry Moon Dragon’s Head Dragon’ s Tail sharaf 21° Libra 15° Cancer 28° Capricorn 19° Aries 27° Pisces 15° Virgo 3° Taurus 3° Gemini 3° Sagittariu s takvim 27.174 1 48 .17 40 30.10.2.7.17 40 27° Virgo 15° Pisces 3° Scorpi o 3° Sagittarius 3° Gemini correct: 30.9.9.2.174 0 1 L 27° Virgo 5° isces 1 ° P corpio 1 1 3 ° S agittarius 3 ° S emini 3 G akvi m orrec t: t c 3 .10.1 740 16.3.3.10 6.7.10.1740 24. p. after meaning “sighing under a heaven having been invisible below the burden”. like the 27 stations of the Indians and 30 stations of the ancient Egyptians. P. however (Albîrûnî. Kunitzsch. could not recognize (or astrological belief in stellar better: compute) the lunar stations as such. نوأ‬ Biruni relates both theories.Issue n°4. 3 stellar origin of the anwāʾ. who seem to have (bad) weather.). p. but that focused on the Moon as the originally meant the rising of leading luminary5. pp. while each of the 12 zodiac signs covered 2 1/3 stations. here the burden of raising horizon and before they the lunar station! More about the disappear again when the sun relation of the lunar stations with weather according to Arab tradition in: E. Chronology. respectively. observing the fixed stars in them. mansions appear.231-2). The Arabs divided the celestial globe into 28 lunar stations4.226. Chronology. True to form he tends to 49 . Biruni traces the called heliacal rising above the word to the Arabic verb nāʾa. whom he openly despises (vid. except by influence on weather3. without making a clear choice. 4 Other divisions were known as well. an different peoples as the leading Arabic word that today would be luminaries of the skies. It explanation. associated fixed stars first 2 Using imaginative etymology.226s. 12 360° ecliptic.54-7.Middle East Studies Online Journal. Therefore the lunar 1 For moon stations vid.W. Volume 2 ( 2011) The takvim‟s data are only correct for the hubūţ of Venus. Arab English Lexicon (London 1863) under entry ‫. his sarcastic comments in Albîrûnî. for the other planets. when the Sternnamen. eastern horizon at dawn. Naw’). the disbelieve the Arab theory. p. that he attributes to the Arabs. with each part 5/6 of the occupying approx.ISSN 2109-9618. 5 Also the Khorezmians according to Albîrûnî. Chronology. but are one to two days too early or too late.2 The present “illiterate people” (according to meaning of this term reflects the Bīrūnī). and origin from natural causes. very much en vogue with traditional become visible during their soMuslim authors. but who were lunar stations.1 A key concept in seems that both Sun or Moon Islamic astronomy/astrology are have been chosen separately by the anwā’ (sing. The translated roughly as storms or Arabs. There is a striking c) Rise of lunar parallel between these Moonmansions and associated fixed related stations and the stars [ţulū’] traditional concept of the zodiac The lunar mansions and as the background for the their rising also need some annual movements of the Sun.Lane. Untersuchungen zur Sternennomenklatur der Araber.1740 20.4.989 9.6.6. 352.1740 25.e.1740 3. Wiesbaden 1961. The following table records the days.K.7.7. vol.989 4.4.1740 29.989 14. 2 According to Kunitzsch.989 31.An Ottoman Calendar rises.1740 Position in Zodiac Sign2 Aquarius Pegasus Pegasus+Andromeda Andromeda Aries Aries Taurus Taurus Orion Gemini Gemini Cancer Cancer + Leo 1 His table is made for the year 1300 of the Era Alexander.989 22.7.989 13.1740 16.4.cit.989 18. of the Seleucid calendar.3.3. Sternnamen.5.3.7.5.Ginzel.989 5.3.5. 3 Both names (Rishā in the takvims.4. because in 989 he was only 15 years old.4. Baţn al-Ḥūt in Biruni) denote the same lunar station: Kunitzsch.55-6 and F.1740 16. also moves in relation to the stars as it orbits the Sun. that corresponds to 989 AD: Albîrûnî.e. 50 . Sternnamen. For a detailed description of the Muslim lunar stations see also ibid. Lunar Stations Rise of star: (Saʿd al-) Akhbiya Muqaddam Muʾakhkhar Baţn al-Ḥūt/Rishā3 Sharaţayn Buţayn Thurayyā Dabarān Haqʿa Hanʿa Dhirāʿ Nathra Ţarafa Bīrūnī 989 AD1 1.1740 12. Chronology. because the Earth.1740 3.989 22.989 27.7. be first visible on the Eastern horizon.6. op.989 26.1740 11.. The stars involved in the heliacal rising are changing. p. i.8.1740 29.135.5.6.8. when the fixed stars associated with their lunar stations made their heliacal rise. p.. pp.1740 7.1.5... i. while rotating about its own axis.989 9.989 Takvim 1740/41 AD (not included) 21. He must have been either a very precocious youngster or have used data recorded by someone else. 1740 15.1.1740 24.8.11.990 21.1.10.2.11.12.1.9.9.2.1741 15.9.An Ottoman Calendar Jabha Zubra Şarfa ʿAwwā Simāk Ghafr Zubāna Iklīl Qalb Shaula Naʿāyim Balda (Saʿd al-) Dhābiḥ (Saʿd al-) Bulaʿ (Saʿd al-) Suʿūd 17.8.989 13.990 3.1.1.989 24.989 30.989 26.8.1741 Leo Leo Leo Virgo Virgo Virgo Libra Scorpio Scorpio Scorpio Sagittarius Sagittarius Capricorn Aquarius Aquarius + Capricorn 51 .11.990 16.11.989 8.1740 29.9.1740 2.989 26.12.1740 7.10.12.1740 20.989 9.12.10.989 22.1741 10.1740 2.1740 6.989 17.10.1741 28..989 31.2.11.1740 19.2.10.989 13.1741 23.989 4.1740 11. the already mentioned imprecision of the Julian calendar. six days have to be deducted again to find the corresponding date after 751 years. p.. After 751 years had elapsed between 989/90 (Bīrūnī ‟s table) and 1740/1 (our takvim) the heliacal rising of the fixed stars could be observed approx.K. 10d15h. the Moon and to a much lesser degree of the planets) 2. with its axis returning to the same position every 25800 years2.cit. 2 Biruni‟s figure for the precession circle is slightly less with 6° in 66 years. (Albîrûnî. 4 In the Julian calendar every fourth year is a leap year (with 29 days in February). As Julian calendar years. F.Issue n°4. Chronology. op. Thus to align Julian calendar dates with the (almost) true solar calendar.Middle East Studies Online Journal. vol. eleven days later in a true solar calendar due to the precession3. except for every 100th year that is not a multiple of 400.02911 years = approx.1.25-28. when some force is exerted from the side (in the case of the Earth the gravitational force of the Sun. on which both tables are based. 23760 years. i.Ginzel..354 ) 1 751 years/25800 years = 0. pp. 3 52 . In the (almost) true solar or Gregorian calendar the same rule applies. This delay is explained by the combination of two factors: 1.e. are too long compared to the true solar year by approx. which accounts for the seven days difference between Bīrūnī ‟s table and the takvim for 1740/41. three days for every four hundred years have to deducted from similar dates in order to arrive at the corrected Julian calendar date. to whom I must refer for details concerning the calculation of the precession. approx. Volume 2 ( 2011) This table shows that after a period of 751 years (989/990-1740/41) the same fixed stars rise seven days later in the Julian calendar. just like the wobbling motion of a spinning top. three days every 400 years4.ISSN 2109-9618. the precession of the Earth‟s axis1 that causes it to move in a complete circle around the celestial poles. the length of daytime and the ..m. which on the the takvim counts from and to other hand include prayer times the moments. daylight according to the modern definition is always longer.15 (starting at sunset) on 10. other calendars. as explained in detail by Ginzel. d) Length of therefore.cit. to 7. 2 J.cit .K.An Ottoman Calendar The visibility of fixed stars at dawn at a certain latitude before sunrise cannot be timed exactly.Ginzel./21. when it is still below the horizon 1 F. and sunset at 7.1 It is all the more remarkable that in view of the many factors defying a precise calculation the difference of the heliacal rising between the two tables remains constant.m.6 1740 corresponded.30 p. in hours à la Throughout the calendar franca.45 p. Therefore.m. As discussed above.25-28. op. op.1740 the time recorded in the takvim between sunrise and sunset was 15 hours (see table above). These data were used for a rough conversion between hours à la franca and hours à la turca that start at sunset2. due to the refraction of light coming from the Sun. vol.30 a. when the centre of that are omitted in the takvim the Sun is at the horizon in for 1740/41. + 2.6. astronomic terms. pp.30 p. corresponding length of the This list of the length of night are indicated in half hour days and nights is lacking in increments. À la turca time of 2.1. Example: On 10/21. Würschmidt.15 day/night hours = 9. not when it appears to the eye.m. with sunrise at 5. p.100 53 . ” This date coincides with Easter Sunday of the Orthodox Church in the takvim for 1740/41. Sunday [Beiza-i Sürh] 6. still authored by a self-styled müneccimbaşı (the office had been officially abolished already in 1924). Qadrī.4.ISSN 2109-9618. The Hamburg ruzname.K./14. while some also record Jewish holidays. 3 A clear explanation how to compute Easter is in http://www./17. Türk lughatı.) by both the Orthodox and the Western churches. includes the following formula for computing Beiza-i Sürh.Issue n°4. p. a) hristian (dated according to the Julian/Gregorian calendars). Some include Christian holidays in addition to Islamic feasts.php 1 54 . others completely ignore other religions. Istanbul 1927. made in honour of Sultan Mahmud I. 2 see above p.4. adds a few entries to commemorate Turkish republican national days and victories over the Greeks during the „War of Liberation‟ in 1921-2. the former being the term for Easter in the Orthodox church. all meaning „Red Egg‟ that symbolizes Easter1. This term for Easter must have been in general use. A republican takvim for 1938.ortelius. described by Bär & Rettelbach2.1.de/kalender/eas t_en. and is obviously a synonym for Orthodox Easter. Beiza-i Sürh is the Ottoman/Persian version of modern Turkish Kızıl Yumurta and of the original Greek κόκκινα αυγά. while the latter obviously means Easter in the Western churches. whose number even exceeds that of Islamic holidays (no Jewish dates are included in this takvim). which is quite different from any of the traditional methods used to find Easter Sunday3: C H.1740 “The Red Egg. when Easter was celebrated on the same day (2. Beiza-i Sürh and Paskalya.84. It was obviously left to the author‟s own choice which memorable days to include. 2 note 5. because none of the takvims offers any further explanation. The Ottoman salname for 1895/96.Middle East Studies Online Journal. vol. the takvim for 1831/32 and another takvim for 1938. Volume 2 ( 2011) Holidays (1st column from right) The choice of religious and other memorable dates differs widely in Ottoman calendars. It is still remarkable that the takvim published here. devotes so much space to Christian feasts. which are left out in other calendars. and later included in his wakfs for the Holy Places in the Hejaz. lists that date by two terms. is Beiza-i Sürh” [Mart içinde yeni olan arabi ayının on beşinden sonra gelen çarşamba akıbında gelen yekşenbi Beiza-i Sürh‟dür]. its application for fixing the Easter date in the takvims remains doubtful for reasons given below. this formula is mentioned only in the Hamburg manuscript. Also the word “Mart” for March is typically Turkish. 55 . In the latter case the müneccim must have consulted the Greek Orthodox Church or else have applied directly the methods used by the Church. To use the Islamic calendar in order to find a date in Christian liturgy seems surprising at first. to attribute the Beiza-i Sürh formula to any specific author. This could allow two opposite interpretations: Either the formula was too well known to be included in every takvim or takvim authors in general had no knowledge of it. This definition apparently tries to redraft in Ottoman terms1 the Christian Easter formula going back to the Council of Nicea in 325 AD.2 I was unable.An Ottoman Calendar “Sunday after the th of Wednesday following the 15 the Arabic month that starts in March.2. but is quite logical. which was well known in the Ottoman Empire but less so in other Muslim countries of the Mashriq.2. but not identical with astronomical Full Moon] on or following the 21st March.1741 below. Another example of the use of the Islamic calendar to find a movable date in the Christian ecclesiastical tradition is Bīrūnī‟s method to define the starting date of the pre-Easter fasting period. because both the Islamic calendar and the Christian Easter are defined by phases of the Moon. Among the admittedly limited number of ruznames and takvims that could be consulted. however./20.” 1 The reference to a month in the Julian calendar. But even if the formula was general knowledge. which is in principle: “The first Sunday after the Paschal Full Moon [related. 2 See entry for 9. points to an Ottoman origin of this formula. the following criteria have to be observed: 1) “Wednesday on or following the 15th of the Arabic month”.cit.7.622. including 1780 and 1800. with wrong Easter dates for 1717. therefore. The arithmetic conversion tables defined Easter Sunday correctly in 99 of the 101 years.cit.7. taken as the base for the arithmetic conversion. while its results for 1780 and 1800 gave a date one week too early. op.. therefore. Navoni. 56 . The case is of course different for astronomical calculations that make the one day difference for the epoch irrelevant for later periods. The astronomical programme got correct results for the whole century.7. p.151-2). which is more common in modern conversion tables/programmes. a natural rule for premodern societies that included both start and end date in the computation of time. 1736 and 1755. however. which is. Ottoman calendar makers favoured Thursday 15. op. Thursday 15. pp.An Ottoman Calendar To apply the formula correctly. 1 A span of 101 years (1700-1800) was chosen to check if Easter Sunday of the Greek Orthodox Church can be determined by applying the Beiza-i Sürh calculation.270 Würschmidt. to change “Wednesday” into “Thursday” in the Beiza-i Sürh formula.622 as the start of the Islamic Era2. The purely arithmetic calendar carries this difference of one day ad infinitum into later periods. 1 There is no need. The outcome of the 101years check was surprisingly good.622 or Friday 16. J. both of which are recorded in historical sources. p. Before using conversion tables a further decision has to be made as to which of two possible dates to apply as the epoch of the Islamic calendar. not Friday 16. 2 .622.99.. Conversion tables as well as an astronomical programme were used for the data input..7.cit. as Bär&Rettelbach propose ( op. 2) An Islamic day will always begin at sunset of the day preceding its equivalent in the Christian calendar. just like for other data entries. But as outlined above./17.8. however. not arithmetic./12.1 One of the twelve Great Feasts of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar. calculations were used to find “the Wednesday following the 15th of the Arabic month that starts in March. was called “Son” by God and spoke with Moses and Elijah.8. p. As the formula only needs two common calendars that were at everybody‟s reach./26. the Dormition Fast.1740 [Velâdet-i Meryem] “Birth of Mary” 1 Albîrûnî. 57 .”. One might still doubt the value of this formula in spite of its relatively good performance in statistical terms.1740) Wednesday 6./6.An Ottoman Calendar This common error rate of 2-3% makes it impossible to decide which is the correct method to be applied in the Beiza-i Sürh formula. we must assume that astronomical. before the Great Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (see: Friday 15. Even with a smaller error margin a conscientious calendar maker would still have needed to rely on the orthodox and rather complicated methods of fixing the Easter date. 297. it has still an undeniable value as a rule of thumb. for the non-specialists to determine Easter with high probability and without the need to apply the complicated calculation methods of both Eastern and Western churches that only as late as 1800 were cast into a mathematical equation created by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss. Friday 26 8. thus being elevated above both prominent prophets of Judaism. when Jesus was transfigured or became radiant on Mount Tabor. Friday 1.1740 [Îd-i Nasâra] Tecelli “Feast of Radiance of the Christians” (Transfiguratio Domini) The feast commemorates the day.9. but the correct one. if only to make sure that he got not only a highly probable date for Easter.8.1740 [Evvel Savm-ı Meryem] “Start of Mary‟s Fast” A two week fast. Chronology. 9. Friday 15. the date mentioned in the takvim. while the other Christians celebrate one day later on 14.9.1740 [Arabic: ‘Īd alŞalīb] “Feast of the Cross” Holy Cross Feast (Exaltatio Sancti Crucis). September.An Ottoman Calendar While the takvim for 1831/32 has the same date for this feast. Calendriés Albîrûnî. Saturday 13. 13./26.2 One of the twelve Great Feasts of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar. that was either mistaken or based like the Annunciation date (see next page) on a later forgotten tradition. nine years after St. Chronology./24.Helena. two of the five Egyptian calendars published by Charles Pellat1 mention the following Julian dates for feasts associated with the birth of Maryam: Ibn Mammātī 2. anonymous 8. The salname of 1895 also mentions 8/20. Cinq Egyptiens. Both the modern salname and the anonymous Egyptian calendar conform to the date accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church for the nativity of the Theotokos. when the cross is brought out of the church.9 [mīlād al-sayyida Maryam ʿ alayhā al-salām]. C. One of the twelve Great Feasts of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar. p.. but having made an identical error they copied probably from the same source.1740 [Vefat-i Meryem] “Death of Mary” This day is known in the Roman Catholic Church as the Assumption and in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the “Dormition of the Theotokos” (Falling Asleep of the Mother of God). the mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine I. Cairo 1986.9. on 8..335. Monday 1. The date marks the dedication of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 335.9./19.9. corresponds to the feast day in the Nestorian church. Our takvim for 1740/41 and the takvim for 1831/32 are both wrong (as well as Ibn Mammātī‟s calendar). the Ottoman Turkish term. [mīlād Maryam wālida ʿ Īsā ʿ alayhi al-salām].8.12./24. 307. rediscovered the true cross during a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. the Mother of God. 58 ./12.1895 as Mary‟s birthday.1740 [Îd-i Beşaret-i Meryem] “Annunciation to Mary” 2 1vid. Pellat. the orthodox Christian version of the “Death of Mariam”.9. One of the twelve Great Feasts of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar. for calendars of Meryem] for 25. EI2 ! 4 Kitāb al-mawāʿ iẓ wa „l-iʿ tibār bidhikr al-khiţaţ wa „l-āthār.3.4 2 3 Sédillot. but adds another feast with the similar. January OE. in one of the calendars presented by Charles Pellat. March/6. Khiţaţ.12.to include both dates for the 09) and “ʿīd al-bishāra” on 22 same Annunciation in his (Coptic) Kiyahk = 18. vol. The Ottoman takvim for 1831/32./vol2. together with Egyptian calendars published by Charles Pellat1 (probably among others as well) and also Ulugh Beg‟s introduction to his zīj2 define the Julian date 1 December as the day of the Annunciation [bishāra] 3. vs. XXIII:52. as if its author wanted to 5 (Coptic) Kiyahk = 1.Wensinck – [P.December OE was in fact understood in several takvims. Ibn Mammātī. on 5 (Coptic) ‘ūbeh = 1.p. The date of the “appearance” of the pregnancy makes it perfectly clear again that 1. but more explicit wording of “Annunciation of the Pregnancy of St. furthermore mentions that “the pregnancy of Mary became apparent” [‘ahara ‘aml Maryam]./13. „Maryam‟..1. 1 (Būlāq 1270/1853). op..264 “ʿīd al-bishāra” on 29 (Coptic) Baramhat = 25.J. the third date given for this event: A.. April following authors: Ibn Mammātī: “bishāra Maryam bi-ʿīsā” on 1831. trying to please both traditions. p. 59 . 28-9).12. Yet the takvim.6. which would have been the case. not only includes Îd-i Beşaret-i Meryem for 1. Mary” [îd-i haml beşaret-i 1vid. op. C.cit.12. show his doubts about the first Maqrīzī: “bishāra Maryam bi-ḥaml date. He explains both dates p. as the day of the Annunciation. when she did not have her period one month after the conception on 1. Johnstone]. Maqrīzī likewise manages ʿīsā ʿalayhimā al-salām” on 6 (Coptic) Kiyahk = 2. vol.An Ottoman Calendar The generally accepted date (at least in the Western and the Greek Orthodox Churches) is 25 March which tallies biologically with the universally accepted date for Christmas on 25 December (or equivalent date according to the calendar style used). The annunciation is also mentioned in the Koran (III:37-8.cit. Pellat. including the one under study here. December 1831. 21.108. (pp. (pp. . LXVI:12) and according to a Muslim tradition took place on the longest day of the year (approx. NE).December OE. 12 as the annunciation to Mary of her conception with Jesus! 1 C. p. The division of the ecclesiastical year in the Nestorian church into nine sections (shawu‟a).3. A History of Eastern Christianity. Arguing with reason as usual. op.270: “bishāra Maryam bi-ḥaml „Īsā „alayhimʿā al-salām” on 6 (Coptic) Kiyahk = 2.cit.”1 The December-date for the Annunciation may possibly have had its roots in a different and now forgotten tradition in the Eastern (not Greek) churches as opposed to that now generally accepted. Johnstone]. 290. Accordingly.307.beginning on 1st December . 60 . 2 A. if he had been born on Christmas day of the next year!) or that the annunciation may have occurred while Christ had already been conceived. p. 313 the Sunday of Annunciation could be between 27. stayed only 25 days in his mother‟s womb (it could have been 390 days as well.Wensinck – [P. That a mysterious pregnancy of 25 days could be rooted in Nestorian beliefs is surprising.is called the section of the Annunciation2. p. is that of the Melkites (followers of the Byzantine Church). Atiya. or the first Sunday in 4 December. of which the first one .. 4 5 details in Albîrûnî.28 n. Bīrūnī agrees with the Melkites. pp. whereas he reports without further comment the dissident view.An Ottoman Calendar That the Annunciation at the beginning of December would mean that Christ was born at the beginning of September. University of Notre Dame 1968 (reprint 1980). Bīrūnī writes that the annunciation date of 25. that the Messiah.J.and 3.Pellat. being different from mankind. 3 Albîrûnî. citing the human nature of Christ who was subject to the laws of childbearing5. Chronology. does not seem to have troubled the authors of our takvims and the Egyptian calendars nor even Charles Pellat. 3 while the Nestorians celebrated either on the last Sunday in November p.4. because Nestorianism is normally understood to stress the partly human nature of Christ against the teachings of the Byzantine and mainly the Monophysite churches. Chronology. 296.11. Also according to some Muslim traditions Jesus was born immediately or soon after the Annunciation: A.cit.. According to a table on p. who simply records the undeniable fact that the Annunciation now “est célébrée le 29 baramhāt = 25 mars. op. could point in that direction.S.12. i. Chronology. Baumstark.e. 11st 2 Sunday in December: C.An Ottoman Calendar Even the Jacobite Syrian Church according to a tradition which is also apparently forgotten now.9. 282-302 Maqrīzī. p. like the later Ottoman calendars.169. Although Muslim historians and chronologists like Bīrūnī 3.3. had some difficulty finding their way in the intricate maze of contradictory Christian traditions. The wrong Julian date for Mary‟s birthday in the two takvims for 1740/41 and 1831/322. Maqrīzī4 and Ulugh Beg were usually quite well informed about Christian feasts.not having met a Jacobite Christian .. 312) that . 61 . 264-9. p. when Mary herself was conceived.. Festjahr und Kirchenjahr der Syrischen Jakobiter. but he adds (p. Biruni (Chronology. 3 4 Albîrûnî.he was not acquainted with their system. that they. p.cit./6. Paderborn 1901. 26 8. although the terms clearly denote the conception of Jesus. would more or less confirm a conception date on 1.). Brussels 1974 (reprint 1988). Les Syriens orthodoxes et catholiques. it is not surprising. viz. that the mysterious Annunciation date beginning of December was originally understood as the date.1740 [Velâdet-i Meryem] above. 2nd Sunday before Christmas: A. dated the Annunciation on a Sunday in December. Sélis. 307) “was told” that the Jacobites celebrate the Annunciation on 10 Nisan of the Jewish calendar (in 1000AD on 18.1 It could also be possible. which are not easy to trace even today. The whole confusion about the Annunciation date would merit special attention by theologians with expert knowledge in Western and Eastern Christian liturgy.12. pp. pp. a date in March. 188. see 26 8. op. therefore. not as one without sexual intercourse like in the case of Jesus – as a dogma. Constantinople.1741 [Şeb Milad-i Isa] “Birthnight of Jesus”. The inclusion of that feast in the salname of 1895 and not in earlier takvims could have been the result of increased Western.12.April 1895 . after Pope Pius IX in his constitution Ineffabilis Deus had declared the immaculate conception of Mary – to be understood as the conception of a sinless being.the generally accepted date – besides haml-i Meryem on 8. December 1895 Julian calendar for the Greek Orthodox [rumi] and on 8. Christmas. But in spite of the ambiguous term haml-i Meryem. though. especially Catholic influence. sene-i kamriyye 1312/13. though.was conceived.1. Monday 9.2.2.1895 Gregorian calendar for the Western churches [efrenci]. and this conception date does not even constitute one of their Mehmet Selaheddin.An Ottoman Calendar A salname (year book) for 1895/61 records even three pregnancy dates that can be easily explained.1741 [Savm Kebir Nasâra] “Great Fast of Christians” 62 . Tuesday 6/17. 1741 [Arabic: al-Şalīb fī „l-Māʾ ] “The Cross in the Water”: The baptism of Jesus. Thursday 25.1740/5. however: beşaret-i haml-ı Meryem “Annunciation of the Pregnancy of Mary” on 25. This feast is much more important for the Catholics than for the Greek Orthodox./20. when Mary herself – not Jesus . 1 feasts. Hediye-i sal. the Decemberdates obviously point to a date recognised in all churches. when a priest during an open air ceremony tosses a cross into the water. 1. celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Churches together with Epiphany.March/6. One of the twelve Great Feasts of the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar.12. It is not one of the tenets of the Greek Orthodox church. We only have to translate haml-i Meryem” with “Pregnancy with Mary” instead of “Pregnancy of Mary”. sene-i şemsiyye 1273/4. vol.An Ottoman Calendar “Clean Monday” or “Ash Monday” is the day starting the seven week Great Lent fasting period for the Churches of the Eastern liturgy. Islam Ansiklopedisi./17. celebrated annually in Iran with processions and religious plays. no. i. Kitāb al-mawāʿ iẓ . 1153 [Leyle-i Mevlud alNabī] b) M “Birthnight of the uslim (dated according to the Prophet” Lunar Hijri calendar). Tuesday 12 Rabi I. characterised by prayers and the Traditionally the door of the lighting of candles. Ḥ usayn b. as on this day in 61AH/680AD their third imam. the Orthodox Easter.J. “Day of Ashura” where the holy night starting at A holy day for both sunset on Thursday before the Sunnites and the Shīʿ a.3 OE.Wensinck. Istanbul 2007. had been martyred in the battle of Karbalāʿ an event of mourning . Friday 1 Rajab 1153 [Leyle-i Regaib] Thursday 10 “Night of Wishes” Muharram 1153 [Yevm A feast particularly Aşura] popular in Sufi circles in Turkey. first Friday in Rajab. seven weeks later.295 and note. p. EI2 63 . (vid. entry for 6. 4 M.4 Kaʿ was opened for visitors. however. “ʿĀshūrā”. is celebrated connotations. 1 2 A.592. “Regâibiyye”.a very early (indirect) Islamic formula for Easter. It is ī remarkable that the date of this feast is recorded in a calendar of predominantly Sunni Ottoman Turkey. For the Sunnites it by the Regaibiyye ceremonial. is a day of commended fasting. which agrees with the takvim‟s date for “Ash Monday”.e.1740 above) in 1741 was Sunday 29. 10 Muharram is much more important for the Shīʿ a. Uzun. 3 Biruni. Bīrūnī presents a method based on the Hijri calendar to date this moving feast by calculating the days from the fixed date of Epiphany .2 ba Maqrīzī .4. When the staunchly Sunni Ayyubids ousted the Shīʿ a Fatimids from Egypt in 1171. a holy although with different month in general. Kitāb al-tafhīm. Beiza-i Sürh.2. ʿ Alī. two days before Ash Wednesday for the Western Church. which is comparable to the Beiza-i Sürh algorithm1. they declared Ashura a feast of rejoicing in order to spite the hated Shīʿ followers3. ‘Abdallāh and Amīna.Schrieke-(J. 4 Albîrûnî.com/REGAIBGECESI. “Regaib Gecesi”. 5 for more memorable events on this day. “Miʿrādj”. when the qibla. eight solar months after the wedding night. when Prophet Muhammad made a miraculous journey to the Masjid al-Aqşā.Horovitz). the Prophet must consequently have been born approx.e. in Jumada I: http://www. whereas it is now generally understood to be the mosque bearing this name on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem. according to him (without any further reference). It must be mentioned that many of the traditions are doubted by Islamic theologians. ”Berat Gecesi”. p. an unorthodox addition to Islam. Istanbul 1992. Chronology. Albîrûnî. 4 Saturday 9 Dhu l‟Hijja 1153 [Yevm-i Arafa] “Day of Arafa” The day. however. As the Prophet‟s birthday is celebrated on 12 Rabi I. p. B.bibilgi. H. the author explains the slightly embarrassing birth date by a mistake in dating the marriage that. 333.2 Saturday 15 Shaban 1153 [Leyle-i Berat]3 “Night of Salvation” A day when the believers hope for forgiveness and absolution from their sins (Arabic: barā’a = innocence).the story about the conception of the Prophet. 5.1 Wednesday 27 Rajab 1153 [Leyle-i Mirac al-Nabi] “Night of Heavenly Journey of the Prophet” The night. the prayer direction. i. who tend to regard this feast as a bidʿa.5 Saturday 27 Ramadan 1153 [Leyle-i Kadr] “Night of Destiny” 1 vid. Chronology. including without further comment (just like M. Turkish religious websites often relate the marriage of the Prophet‟s parents in Rajab without further questioning. which according to one older tradition is a place in Heaven. Istanbul 2007. vol. In one instance.An Ottoman Calendar Leyle-i Regaib is regarded in one popular tradition as the date of marriage of the Prophet‟s parents. was contracted one month earlier. was changed from Jerusalem to Mecca. Ünal. supra) . vid. a surprising parallel to the even more mysterious 25 days of pregnancy of Mary (see above). Islam Ansiklopedisi. when the pilgrims stay at Mount Arafat as prescribed in the Hajj ritual. Islam Ansiklopedisi. According to one tradition it also commemorates the day.Uzun.Tekeli. with a full account of the traditions concerning this day. 329. EI2 3 H. 2 64 . 330-1. which is based on a tradition [“ruwiya ʿan”] by Shaykh al-Ṭāʾī al-Andalusī.Özervarlı. Volume 2 ( 2011) The night. 24. Islam Ansiklopedisi . This ruzname includes the following grid: 1st Ramadan on: Leyle-i Kadr in Ramadan: Friday Saturday Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday 29 21 27 19 25 17 23 1 2 3 Albîrûnî. when Ramadan started3. S. Khalili collection MS 164. p. According to a codex ruzname of 1210AH/1795AD this Friday can be found as a function of the weekday. “Kadir Gecesi”. vol. according to his Maghrib nisba perhaps a Maliki scholar. when the Koran was revealed (Koran LXXXVII: 5).Middle East Studies Online Journal. 65 .ISSN 2109-9618. Chronology. Istanbul 2001. according to other traditions Leyle-i Kadr is a Friday within a date range from 17th to 27th Ramadan2.Issue n°4.1 Although 27 Ramadan is the commonly accepted date. where the month of Ramadan The Îd-i Fıtr or Lesser could not have been left out. sacrifice of sheep. 66 . where this rule is no more observed in practice). the Feast (Îd-i Sagir) that marks the associated feast could have been end of the Ramadan fasting is omitted for the sake of not mentioned in the takvims. celebrated by the whereas a calendar is by definition a collection of dates. The reason for this omission could be that the precise date for fast breaking is still primarily defined not by the cyclical calendar nor even by astronomic calculations.Issue n°4.ISSN 2109-9618. the feast that end of Ramadan that are both marks the end of the hājj defined in the takvims. in spite of being at least as popular as a general festival occasion than the Kurban Bayram.Middle East Studies Online Journal. But pilgrimage. but date Leyle-i Kadr invariably on 27 Ramadan. however. however. orthodoxy. Volume 2 ( 2011) None of the takvims consulted follows this rule. It is Also known as the Great true that the same rule applies Feast (Îd-i Kebir) and in Turkey to the beginning as well as to the as Kurban Bayram. but by the actual vision of the new Sunday 10 Dhu l‟Hijja crescent moon (unlike other [Îd-i Adha] “Feast of Adha” months. without regard to the day of the week. 4 Albîrûnî. Volume 2 ( 2011) c) ther feasts (dated according to the Julian/Gregorian calendars) Whereas O this new observation caused the Persians to advance their New Year date by five days.Ginzel. implying that he calendar. 27. the original start of their years. Abū ‘Abdallāh have postponed the New Year Muhammad b. calendar reform made by a That alone would not Khorezmshah. Chronology.4. months of 30 days each to a – nearly . ‘Irāq date in Khorezm. vol. pp. the Iranians in Transoxania did not follow and Thursday from then on. Albîrûnî.1 explain why “Nauruz The Persians added the Khorezmshah” is 13 – not only Epagonema (the five days five – days later than the Persian needed to complete the 12 Nauruz. But according who reigned from ca.Middle East Studies Online Journal. Ahmad b. whereas in Khorezm modified the existing calendar.cit. 1 called Nausarji. Khorezmian language) was originally the sixth day that All of this still does not followed the Persian Nauruz.full solar year) originally This particular feast is. of course. op.. 958 to ca. Chronology .3 they were added to the last Bīrūnī in fact mentions a month./7.307. to Bīrūnī the Persians had found 975. p.223 in connection with pp. had been calculated five days too late. Similar to the common “Nauruz sultani”. after the “Nauruz Khorezmshah” beginning of the year had shifted New Year in Khorezm from the summer-solstice to the (called Nausarji in the spring equinox.2 This difference remained the same.. identical with the “Great Nauruz” or “Second Nauruz” of the Persians on 6 Ferverdin: Albîrûnî.4 out in the time of Zoroaster that the summer-solstice. p.1740 [Nevruz celebrated New Year five days Horezmşah] later. a term probably associated with the Seljuk Sultan Malikshah.222.220. Chronology.Issue n°4.3. within the year after the end of however.ISSN 2109-9618. 229/30 2 3 67 . 82. p. 201. therefore..1. Also F. who also initiated a calendar reform. the 8th month of their a ruler.K. qualified by the title of Abanmah.. . Nauruz Khorezmshah would each year invariably be on 3 April/Nisan of the Julian calendar. two days after the date in 1740.3..3. 68 .and the years being counted from 312 BC with the year starting on 1 Teshrinevvel/October. The Khorezmshah. i. With the necessary solar corrections applied to the Julian/Seleucid calendars. If this had been carried out to the letter. one day later than in 1740. a month in the Seleucid calendar. including those for intercalation. a correct solar calendar was used just like for the standard Nauruz (Sultani). It seems. It dates “Nauruz Sultani”. except for its Syrian month names – in this case „Nisan‟ for „April‟ . on 11. the “first of Nausarji” should fall on the third of the “Syrian Nisan”. viz. its rules had become identical to that of the Julian calendar.An Ottoman Calendar According to his reform made in 959 after a period of confusion about the correct dating method. i. therefore.e. a feast originating on 3 April/Nisan 959 would in 1740AD have had to be celebrated on 27 March. obviously under the impression that the Julian/Seleucid calendar was seasonally correct and therefore capable of bringing some order into the previous confusion about feast dates in Khorezm. that for the calculation of the feast of Nauruz Khorezmshah in the following years. however.e. This is in fact the same date as the one marked “Nauruz Khorezmshah” in our takvim! That the dates for a feast in remembrance of the original “Nauruz Khorezmshah” were computed according to a true solar calendar is in principle also evident in a ruzname of Sheikh Vefa type . Both the Julian and as a consequence the romanised Seleucid calendars suffer from the same imprecision. As this calendar had already in Roman times been aligned with the Roman (Julian) calendar. having an excess of three days in 400 years. ordered to apply its rules. a correction preceding by many centuries the Gregorian reform of the Julian calendar that aimed at the correct solar dating of Easter. and “Nauruz Khorezmshah” on 28. although it is equally probable. which made Nauruz Khorezmshah irrelevant quite early. the calendar reform initiated by the Khorezmshah had been discarded already during Bīrūnī ‟s lifetime. but also Nauruz Khorezmshah was defined astronomically and therefore had to recede gradually in the Julian calendar. After Bīrūnī only ruznames and takvims continued to mention “Nauruz Khorezmshah” and this without any further explanation. It could not have been remembered as a date for taxation comparable to the “Nauruz Mu’tadid”.An Ottoman Calendar The comparison of these dates shows once more that not only the equinox feast of Nauruz Sultani. therefore. the new year of a new calendar introduced by the Abbasid caliph al. although he was born in Khorezm during or shortly after the reign of this Khorezmshah? Moreover. that its meaning was early forgotten. How could late Ottoman calendars remember such an obscure feast that dates back many centuries to an equally obscure Central Asian monarch. The above mentioned Sheykh Vefa ruzname brings us already several centuries closer to the origin of that feast. It is quite probable.Mu’tadid in order to adjust tax payments to the harvesting seasons. 69 . “Nauruz Khorezmshah” is only 18 days later than “Nauruz Sultani” and therefore not really an alternative for tax collection.Perhaps this mysterious date and the equally mysterious Annunciation dates in the Christian liturgy are both proof that Ottoman calendars faithfully kept trace of old traditions that had ceased to be understood for some time. about which even Bīrūnī seems not to have been too sure (vid note 1 p. that the knowledge about it had been transmitted through all the years – at least among calendar authors –.59). Even in modern Turkish calendars the year is divided into two half-years./4. Ruz-i Kasim lent its name to the neo-Turkish term „Kasım‟ for November. Hızır is a legendary character associated with so many names known in Islamic and folklore tradition that they cannot be enumerated here. Demetrius‟ day. and 26. 6/17. 26.11.12.5. 23./8.10. Saturday..9.4. corresponding to St./6. Wednesday.1740 [Ruz-i Hızır] “Hızır day” and Sunday. that is known in modern Turkish as Hıdrellez.1740 is equivalent to 1.1740 [Aher-i Şeb-i Yelda] “last night yelda” 70 . Endergah 1109 of the Yezdegerd Era.5. one of the many legendary figures connected with Hızır. respectively).12.An Ottoman Calendar 7/18. 7/18.1740 [Evvel-i Şeb-i Yelda] “first night yelda” and Sunday 14/25. and Ruz-i Hızır. which correspond in the 20th and 21st centuries to 23.George‟s day.9.4.1740 [Ruz-i Kasım] “Kasım day” The two key seasonal dates in Ottoman calendars are: Ruz-i Kasım. Ruz-i Hızır is the day of a popular spring festival (“khaḍir”.10. a combination of Hızır with Ilyas. Hızr and Kasım (counting the days from Ruz-i Hızır and Ruz-i Kasım. which replaced the old Teşrinievvel. corresponding to St./6. meaning “green” in Arabic).11.1740 [Hamsa-i Müsteraka-i Kadim] “Five „stolen‟ (days) in the old (Persian calendar)” The start date of the additional period of five days (normally known as Endergāhs) that is added to the last of the twelve 30-day months of the (in the takvim:“old”) Persian (Yezdegerd) calendar in order to align it with the solar year. )./21. the longest night of the year.1.An Ottoman Calendar Şeb-i Yelda is originally an Iranian feast day on the eve of the winter solstice.e.12. however.1741 [Aher-i Erbain] “end of arbaʿ īn(=40)”. Wednesday 10. The same entries in takvim of 1831/32 place the “yelda” period between 6. calculated as 40 days from the winter solstice on 10.12. Monday 19/30. i./18.12.1750 being in the middle of it.1.12./21. as implied by the original Syriac word “yelda” that is derived from the Semitic root “w-l-d” in the sense of birth. and 15.1740 [Evvel-i Erbain] “start of arbaʿ īn (=40)” and Sunday 18/29.-18/29. with a start on the same day but lasting one day longer.1. to celebrate the return of longer days or their rebirth. The takvim.12. with the winter solstice 10/21. End of the first winter period (11/22.12.1741[Evvel-i Hamsin] “start of khamsīn (=50)” 71 . mentions a whole festive week between a first and a last day of yelda./27. Volume 2 ( 2011) Start of a second (late) winter period.” 1. a northern wind starts to blow on a special calendar date. in consequence of their ignorance of physical sciences.Issue n°4. 335ss. thinking that all changes of the kind depend on the bodies of the stars and their rising. characteristically uses an alleged astronomical/meteorological connection for one of his sarcastic anti-Arab comments: “Since the Arabs attribute all meteorological changes to the influence of the rising and setting of the stars. Chronology. not upon certain parts of the celestial globe and the sun‟s marching therein. floods etc.1742.. for instance. in an almanac based on astronomical phenomena that are used for horoscopes and similar predictions is not immediately clear for a modern reader for whom astronomy does nothing to explain why. The zodiac signs of Capricorn. pp.ISSN 2109-9618. in his chapter on lunar stations. with an exactitude that even modern meteorologists can only dream of.etc. Bīrūnī Albîrûnî.8/19.3. lasting 50 days until the arrival of spring on the vernal equinox on 9/20. 1 72 . heat waves etc.3) together represent the 90-days winter season. divided into arba’īn with 40 days and khamsīn with 50 days. Meteorological data (1st column from right) (dated according to the Julian/Gregorian calendar) The reason for including meteorological data such as winds. While the latter view is undoubtedly correct. Aquarius and Pisces (10/21.. it did not prevent the general belief that calendar makers were able to predict storms. temperature.Middle East Studies Online Journal.12. It is not quite clear if the criteria for fixing meteorological data in the takvim were still based on an alleged stellar influence or according to Bīrūnī ‟s opinion on the influence of “certain parts of the celestial globe and the sun” . 5 Albîrûnî .1. 252. the Nile begins to rise. that we can clearly affirm a common meteorological tradition reaching back from the relatively modern Ottoman almanacs to the 10th century author Bīrūnī and beyond to the Greeks. 1 73 ./16. i.cit.K.6. thereby starting the flood.Lane. is a fixed day in the Coptic calendar. in addition to both Nile dates. 16.4. 251: Euphrates begins to rise on 24. p.)./3. pp. June. three to nine days after the summer solstice.1740 (see next page). Just to quote a few examples: Thursday 5..4.1740 [Ibtida-i Fezune-i Nil] “Start of Nile Flood” The first date.6./16.W.6. when a miraculous drop falls into the Nile.” 2 F. 154-6.7. also mentions “First flood of Euphrates” on 22.e./27.1740 [Suqūţ-ı Nuqţa bi-Nīl] “Drop in Nile” and Monday 16. p.6. although not very clearly.6. p. Chronology. Chronology. 11. op. Ba‟una.3 The takvim for 1831/32. 3 for the Nile feasts in Egypt see E. the Nile high waters are supposed to have reached the southern border of Egypt. causing it to rise.1 This is consistent with the summer solstice date on 10. equivalent to 5. 258: “People say that …on this date.. On the second date.2 In the 19th century the rise of the flood was daily proclaimed in the streets of Cairo on and following 27 Ba‟una (21.4 The high water in both rivers has of course completely different causes./21. which marks the day. 4 Albîrûnî. 483-4. vol. pp. London 1836 (reprinted 1978). 5 Albîrûnî. known in Egypt as the “Night of the Drop” [layla al-nuqţa].An Ottoman Calendar The choice of memorable weather dates and their terminology used in the takvim is so similar to Bīrūnī ‟s Chronology of Nations. Chronology. Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians.Ginzel. which Bīrūnī tries to explain. Hindus and also the “illiterate Arabs”. 2. 201-216. Chronology. to 24.1740 [Evvel-i Ayyam-i Bahur] “Start of Dog Days” and Saturday 26. The takvim mentions a much shorter period. tradition. therefore.1740 [Evvel-i Fasl-i Sayf] “Start of Summer” (summer solstice) Monday 7. because he traces the term to either Greek or Syriac or Arabic origin (with not too many other choices left. p. Emilie Savage- Smith).2. Saturday 14./30. Chronology. vid./21./18.206. in: Magic and Divination in early Islam (ed. one week only.4 Still the three coal days continued to be mentioned also in modern Ottoman ruznames and takvims./4.3.243.2. was known to the Romans as caniculares dies.6. water and earth. have changed according to the change in the heliacal rising of the star. Bīrūnī . the Arabs. and Saturday 21. He also makes an attempt to explain the etymology of bahur without committing himself too much. 1 2 Albîrûnî.1741 [Cemre-i salise be-Hâk] “Third coal to earth” These three days of the coal (better: “glowing ash”) occur in February with one week apart and were believed to be characterised by heat affecting consecutively air. lunar.. viz.7. the Dog Star. p. Chronology. “Weather Forecasting in the Arabic World”. Aldershot 2004. pp. weather was influenced by the heat that was caused by the friction of moving planets./25. for their “confusion” to remember the exact days for the reoccurrence of the coal dates.7. 259-62 according to other scholars.An Ottoman Calendar Saturday 19.2./6. 3 Albîrûnî. who dates this period in the week 18. these weatherrelated days had to be fixed according to the seasonally correct solar calendar.8. C. because it started originally with the heliacal rising of Sirius. Bīrūnī once more manages to castigate his usual suspects. 74 .3 Although according to Bīrūnī rooted in Arab.7..-24.1741 [Cemre-i saniye be-Âb] “Second coal to water”. pp. of course). explicitly refutes the idea that the heat during this period was caused by the great mass of the rising Sirius2 and that the dates should. Tuesday 10.1741 [Cemre-i ulâ be-Hava] “First coal to air”.7. Burnett.242-4. which is no more the case now due to the precession of the equinoxes.7. 4 Albîrûnî . like alKindī.1740 [Aher-i Ayyam-i Bahur] “End of Dog Days”1 A hot weather period from 24. pp.8. 2nd : An old woman. Koran. “Altweibersommer” = summer of old women (also with uncertain etymology). pp./15..245-6: 1st : Only one old woman was spared the fate of her people. bears no relation to the “cold of the old woman”. 3 Albîrûnî . 3rd: acuz is only the name for the last 1 2 Saturday. a cold and stormy period at the turn of February to March.1741 [Evvel-i Berd al-Acuz] “Start of cold of the old woman”.2.6.1740 [Arabic: ‘Awān Waşl Waraq] “Time of Grafting Leaf” and Sunday 22. who dated the Arab days correctly by fixing them into his own seasonally correct solar calendar These days also commemorate the seven consecutive nights and eight days when God destroyed the unbelieving people of ‘Ād and Thamūd.3. The first date marks the season [zaman] for grafting other unidentified leaves [Arabic: waraq./26.1741 [Arabic: Ayyām Waşl Qalam] “Days of the Grafting Pen” These days are related to two grafting [Arabic waşl = combination] seasons..244.1741 [Aher-i Berd al-Acuz] “End of cold of the old woman” Each of these seven days of the “old woman”.6. 4-8. and Wednesday 1153 4.2. 25. 75 .2 Bīrūnī gives several versions to explain the strange name of the “old woman”. threw off her garment and perished in the cold. the „Ād and Thamūd.3. The last term means the start date for pruning [budama] in vineyards [bağ] with an instrument [kalem] [Arabic: qalam] for grafting [âşı] plants4.1938 and bağ budama kalem âşısı zamanı for 23. carries its own Arab name. thinking it was warm. Chronology. A takvim for 1938 translates the rather cryptic Arabic entries of our takvim into slightly clearer Turkish as yaprak âşısı zamanı for 13.1 In this case it was according to Bīrūnī a mathematician in Bukhara.3 The term used in German for a late summer period equivalent to the Indian summer.3.2. not an Arab of course.. part of winter [Arabic ʿajuz = backside” vs. Chronology.An Ottoman Calendar Thursday 26.1938./9. Arabic: ʿajūz = old woman] 4 Apparently pruning and grafting at the same time./8. Turkish: yaprak].3. pp. Sura LXIX. Albîrûnî ./5. 1740 [Arabic: Bad’ Suqūţ alAwrāq] “Leaves start falling” Arab (Hijri) and Rumi calendar (2nd. obviously having no inkling about the meaning of these agricultural terms. which he must have copied from earlier sources. the takvims apply a different set of rules. called “Arab” in the takvim./26. the arithmetic calendar and an astronomical program for more so in Turkish than in the original Arabic. 1 76 . The following table shows the Hijra dates for the first of the Julian months in 1740/41 according to the takvim. a prediction that can only have resulted from astronomically computing the phases of the Moon.An Ottoman Calendar The author of the takvim for 1831/32. The Hijra year 1153 is correctly recognized as a full intercalary Islamic year of 355 days (as opposed to the normal year of 354 days) in both the takvim and the arithmetic (cyclical) calendar. As already mentioned in the introduction.6. which can only have been obtained by astronomical calculation. of the Julian calendar the start day of a season of blessings! Friday. This is reflected in the first row of the calendar pages that include a description of the appearance of the new moon for each start of a lunar month. but conforms to established practice in that the length of individual months in this and also in other takvims does not follow the strict alternating sequence of 30 and 29 days of the arithmetic calendar and conversion tables. 3rd and 4th columns from right) The Rumi and Hijra dates. interpreted waşl = “grafting” as synonymous with wuṣ ūl = “arrival” and moreover changed waraq into the somehow similar sounding1 barak = “blessings” and consequently made 14. According to the sample on page 38 the new moon will appear on 1st Muharram 1153 “clearly visible on Tuesday night at a southern and elevated position” [serşenbih gecesi cenubi mürtefi ve münceli görüne]. 15.9. for the Rumi year period from the end of 1739 until the beginning of 1741 are listed in these columns including the days of the week. 3.1740 Friday. 27.2./11. 1.2.3.1740 Saturday. 1153 20 Rajab 1153 22 Sha’ban 1153 22 Ramadan 1153 23 Shawwal 1153 25 Dhu l’-Qa’da 1153 23 Dhu l‘-Hijja 1153 2 Muharram 1154 Hijra dates Astronomical 21 Dhu ‘l-Hijja 1152 15 Muharram 1153 15 Safar 1153 17 Rabi I. Christian dates Takvim 1740/41 Sunday.1740 Wednesday./11.1740 Sunday.1741 Sunday. 1153 19 Jumada I.. 1153 17 Rabi’ II.7. 1. 1.An Ottoman Calendar finding the start of Hijri months.1740 Tuesday. 1.10../11./11. 1153 20 Jumada II. 1. 1153 20 Jumada II.1740 Monday./11.12./11.1./11.1740 Thursday.11. 1. 1153 17 Rabi II./11. The dates where the other calendars differ from the takvim are marked in bold.1153 19 Jumada I. 1. 1153 20 Jumada II. 1.1. 1153 19 Jumada I./20./11.1741 21 Dhu ‘l-Hijja 1152 15 Muharram 1153 15 Safar 1153 17 Rabi’ I..8. 1153 20 Rajab 1153 22 Sha’ban 1153 22 Ramadan 1153 23 Shawwal 1153 25 Dhu l’-Qa’da 1153 23 Dhu ‘l-Hijja 1153 2 Muharram 1154 Arithmetic 21 Dhu lHijja 1152 15 Muharram 15 Safar 1153 17 Rabi I 1153 17 Rabi II.1740 Tuesday./11. 1.1741 Sunday./9./11.. 1. 1153 21 Rajab 1153 22 Sha’ban 23 1153 Ramadan 24 1153 Shawwal 26 Dhu l’1153 Qa’da 24 Dhu ‘lHijja 1153 2 Muharram 1154 77 .4.1740 Monday. 1.6. 1740 Thursday.1741 Monday. 9../11. adapted for the location of Istanbul.9.5.3. when the weekday is known as well. EI2 78 .e. an 8th century Persian astronomer. but only that it agrees with the table used for the takvim. that the new crescent‟s visibility is not certain. This is quite remarkable in view of the divergent opinions regarding the visibility of the new crescent.Samsó. Other astronomers might have postponed the new month by one day in these cases. Volume 2 ( 2011) The differences show clearly once more that the arithmetic calendar is nothing more and nothing less than a useful and easily accessible tool for historians with approximate dates that have an error margin of one. as mentioned before.Middle East Studies Online Journal. i. that the author of the takvim has in fact consulted this zīj. of course.ISSN 2109-9618. In view of the diverging criteria for the visibility of the new crescent it is natural that both calendars can be in complete agreement only.King/J.1 This does not mean. Shawwal 1153 and Dhu „l-Hijja 1153. which can only be corrected. 1 D. It is noteworthy that there is no difference between the takvim and the astronomical programme.’āriq. From altogether thirteen optional lunar tables of the programme this happens to be the case with the zīj of Ya’qūb b. The takvim mentions for instance in its first row at the start of two months. “Zīdj”. “hidden visibility probable” [hafî görünmek muhtemildir].Issue n°4. when the astronomical programme uses the same data as the takvim. which was most probably the zīj of Ulugh Beg.A. sometimes even two days. Middle East Studies Online Journal. therefore. appears in (or better: in front of) the zodiac signs in a much quicker sequence. As each of the twelve zodiac signs is valid for two. which travels from one zodiac sign to the next one only once every month.Issue n°4. The Moon. Volume 2 ( 2011) Zodiac [burūj] (5th column from right) The fifth column from right is entitled zodiac [alburūj]. This fast moving “planet” is the Moon that circles around the Earth in less than 30 days while the Sun‟s orbit (in geocentric terms) takes more than 12 times longer.ISSN 2109-9618. sometimes three days only. they must obviously be read in connection with a planet that moves much faster than the Sun. The days of the new crescent in Taurus during 1153 AH as defined in the zodiac column of the almanac shall serve for a clearer and more detailed explanation: 1) 1 Muharram 1153 2) 29 Muharram 1153 3) 26 Safar 1153 4) 24 Rabi I 1153 5) 22 Rabi II 1153 6) 20 Jumada I 1153 7) 17 Jumada II 1153 8) 15 Rajab 1153 9) 13 Shaban 1153 10) 10 Ramadan 1153 11) 9 Shawwal 1153 12) 6 Dhu ‘l-Qa’da 1153 13) 1153 13) 4 Dhu l-HijjaDhu ‘l-Qada 1153 79 . because the Sun that influences its visibility has advanced on its orbit around the Earth. 10hours. written in verse. 2 exactly: 354 days.complete the common Islamic year of 354 days2. Volume 2 ( 2011) From the first appearance of the Moon in (in front of) the zodiac sign of Taurus on 1 Muharram 1153 until its 13th time on 4 Dhu l-Hijja 1153 it had travelled twelve times through the zodiac belt.ISSN 2109-9618. 4 hours. The difference is easily explained. and for the same Moon phase to be visible from the Earth. During this period not only has the Moon to complete one full orbit of 360° around the Earth as measured in relation to the fixed stars and the zodiac. This cyclical period amounts to 328 days. 19minutes.3 The difference between synodical and sidereal months is reflected in the zodiac column where the same zodiac sign reappears always two or three days earlier in the Islamic calendar months. in other words: the time between identical phases of the Moon. A lunar month according to the Islamic calendar is the time between one new crescent to the next one.Issue n°4. The same phenomenon seen in geocentric view could be explained as follows: the new crescent appears later.Middle East Studies Online Journal. the Moon has to travel a further distance to make up for the difference1. 1 80 . Choices [Ikhtiyārāt] (6th column) This column shows days suitable for a certain activity. Twelve of these Moon-phase-related longer months – known as synodical months . which is 16 days less than the 354 days of the standard Islamic lunar year. In the meantime the Earth moves as well. whereas twelve of the fixedstar/zodiac-related shorter Moon orbits – the so-called sidereal months – take only 328 days to complete. 24 minutes 3 exactly: 327days. with its position changing at similar intervals among the other eleven signs during the rest of the year. 1740). 1 This branch is mainly concerned with personal horoscopes and is now generally understood as astrology per se. EI2 Table G of Navoni.Hofelich. Dahncke. “Eine Osmanische Papierrolle”. Volume 2 ( 2011) The advice as such is astrological humbug and can. while medical and weather forecasts based on stellar observations formed other branches. The question is. M.1740). 1987. We must remember that religious commands like Ramadan fasting for the Muslims and pre-Easter fasting for Christians can only be dated precisely. Another completely different matter with some importance for cultural history is whether it follows an established set of rules and/or is consistent with entries in other calendars or data tables. This does not mean necessarily that Hoflich‟s opinion could not be true for other. 4 M. therefore. vol. “forbidden” (11. In the sample page the following advice is offered for days when the Moon is in Capricorn: “cultivation of land – teaching of music” (10.6 left)./21. although considerable doubts remain. more systematic takvims.Middle East Studies Online Journal.3 As the same table is included in the Hamburg ruzname4 and also other ruznames.Issue n°4. p. safely be ignored. This is definitely not the case in the takvim published here. therefore: Does a similar orthodox and generally accepted set of rules exist in Islamic astrology. “digging of rivers – fishing and hunting” (6.4. 17. “Taḳwīm”. which should then be reflected in the choices [Ikhtiyārāt] of the takvim? o According to 2 the ikhtiyārāt depend Hofelich on the position of the Moon in the zodiac.3.ISSN 2109-9618.3. op./17. or more precisely “judicial” astrology to use a term of the Middle Ages1. 65 (fig. because they emanate from an orthodox and generally acknowledged authority. however./18. It is impossible to find any common denominator in this advice. 2 3 81 . there is no doubt that the ruznames adopt a certain canon of unlucky days based on the lunar year. such as the Koran and the Sunna for Muslims or the Bible and Ecumenical Councils like the Council of Nicaea for Christians. “resting and retreat – bid for absolution” (7./22. Mitteilungen aus dem Museum für Völkerkunde Hamburg.cit.1740).1740). o Navoni has listed 24 days of the Islamic calendar (two for each month) as days of “mauvais augure” [eyyam-i nahisat] in his ruzname.4. which of the calendars – solar or lunar . The choice between lunar and solar years already shows an astrological dilemma. (The more recent salname for 1895/96 no longer includes „choices‟. viz.Issue n°4.Middle East Studies Online Journal.is the right one to define days of “mauvais augure”? The following table shows anyway that both the takvim for 1740/41 and takvim for 1831/32 completely ignore the ruznames‟ warnings.ISSN 2109-9618. Volume 2 ( 2011) o A Sheykh Vefa ruzname in the Khalili collection1 includes another list of days under the cryptic name “forbidden Mūsā” [maḥ dhūr-ı Mūsā] – two for each Julian month – that are also marked in the margin for each of these days. although the frequent records of planetary positions must still have some astrological meaning).. 1 An uncatalogued and undated manuscript in the Khalili collection with conversion tables starting in 1099AH/1687-8AD. 82 . company study poetics/sta rt organise things 2/15 Shaban buy animals. reading book. appeal to scholars lucky/mix ed build solid building/a udience of 83 .ibtida’ wa mubasharat (?)/buy riding animals. organising kingdom. asking absolution and forgiveness/prayer. profit choices in Takvim 1740/41 choices in Takvim 1831/32 & mixed lucky/purs uit of profit and wishes 2/20 Safar marriage making. building castles and countries mixed/mix ed appeal to judges/reci te Koran 4/15 Rabi’ I. policy making/forbidden lucky/arra nge order in house 1/5 Jumada I. Ruznames 3&7 Muharram trade. good favours mixed/list en to advice 9/11 Rajab mixed/travel. travel. travel/making weapons.ISSN 2109-9618. repose and retreat. company/meeting saints. trade. sea journey. asking favours/buying slaves. repair musical instruments build fountain/s ell jewels 1/14 Jumada II. ask favours from judges and saints hunt birds/appe al to eremites 1/15 Ramadan 4/20 Shawwal reciting Koran.Issue n°4. buying birds/riding. appeal to saints/new clothes. serving the sultan. commerce. Volume 2 ( 2011) unlucky days acc. Uqd imarat (?). help.Middle East Studies Online Journal. meeting friends 1/2 Rabi’ II. profit making buying jewellery. company. An Ottoman Calendar kings 3/6 Dhu ‘lQada trade. buy riding animals/make cap and belt. travel. appeal to nobles/appeal to scholars. arrange instruments. buying jewellery. beware of travel mixed/bod y cosmetics 2/25 Dhu ‘l-Hijja travel. company of jurists lucky/plea sure and joy 84 . marriage. whose astrological credo implies the existence of benefic or malefic days.ISSN 2109-9618. that Islamic (and other) astrology could not establish commonly accepted rules of the way how people should behave or would fare on certain days. however large the number of its believers was and is. being all in verse form and often quite difficult to translate. 14th and 15th of each month as “favorables et heureux”. I only included the column „Choices‟ in the sample page for completeness sake.1740 “to drink medicine and dig channels” very seriously. The above synopsis makes it quite clear on the contrary. It is still possible that the calendar makers based their lists of lucky or unlucky days on some tradition unknown to us and were not arbitrary choices./26. It is hard to believe that even an author. Astrology. with some of these days – in the Julian as in the Hijra calendar .g. could have taken the choice for e. this at least should have been reflected in the takvim because of his authority as the author of the official zij. mixed or even lucky. 15. But even that is not the case. no generally recognized canon or book of authority and remains very much the domain of individual astrologers whose advices and prognostics tend to be widely divergent.Middle East Studies Online Journal. Volume 2 ( 2011) The takvim for 1831/32 regards the days that are marked as unlucky in the ruznames to be neutral.being listed as either forbidden [maḥdhūr] or unlucky [naḥs]. unlike religions. 85 . like the Persian list in Bīrūnī and probably many others are not confirmed either in the „Choices‟ of the ruznames nor of the takvims. has. seem to be chosen more for the rhyme than for their practical use. If according to Toderini Ulug Beg considered the 13th. although the takvim presented here gives enough reason to doubt even that. The entries in the takvim for 1740/41. preferring the original Ottoman (Persian/Arabic) jargon to a translation and thereby preserving the questionable beauty of the verses at the cost of losing their precious content.Issue n°4.3. unlucky or mixed days. Other records of lucky. 86 . The takvim‟s data are mostly confirmed by modern astronomical databases although discrepancies that may be due to a variety of reasons cannot be ignored. Islamic science and influences by Muslim and non-Muslim religion and folklore alike. the Islamic and the modern world. To find similar concepts in all sources would be easy for anyone who has the stamina to deal at length with such an esoteric subject. This could be the result of either ignorance or – to the contrary – a faithful recording of now forgotten traditions (just as in the case of Nauruz Khorezmshah).Middle East Studies Online Journal. The partly unorthodox list of Christian feasts presents another problem. within an acceptable margin of error shared by both Ottoman and modern authors. mainly because Islamic authors are quoted. Some of the differences could be. religious and even aesthetic tradition still alive in the late Ottoman Empire with roots in Greek. Persian. chronological. Volume 2 ( 2011) A) Conclusion: The takvim documents a quite admirable astronomical plus astrological. Although the term “Islamic astrology” is often used here. theoretically precise data like the time of the equinoxes are not always consistently recorded. the latter being. Even in modern computer programmes. some other discrepancies are due to real mistakes either by the author or the copyist of the takvim. there is no substantial difference between the astrological traditions of the Greek. therefore. a more plausible explanation. It is remarkable that the dates for both the Feast of the Annunciation and the Feast of the Cross seem to correspond to an old Nestorian liturgical calendar. On the other hand.ISSN 2109-9618.Issue n°4. in my opinion. when the takvim was drafted and when the unorthodox tradition was probably already forgotten. Only professional astronomers and professional theologians. that the feast days recorded in this and other calendars go back to a much earlier .An Ottoman Calendar It is still doubtful whether contemporary beliefs of this minority.their choice of religious feasts reveals a respectful attitude towards the traditions of minorities and their religions. Last but not least . The Assyrian Church of our times rejects being identified with Nestorianism.Nestorian tradition that continued to influence even late Ottoman takvims. represented in the Ottoman Empire by the Assyrians of Iraq1. could have prevailed over the tenets of the Greek Orthodox Church at the time. however. however. Together with their noble cousins. time and time measuring had for the Islamic society. The Ottoman calendars – ruznames and takvims – are at any rate a valuable product of Islamic science as well as of popular culture. 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