Advertising and Marketing ResearchSemester-VI- TYBMM By: M H Lakdawala
[email protected] BY: M H Lakdawala RESEARCH FUNDAMENTALS MEANING OF RESEARCH Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of research as a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement from the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can be termed as research. OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into number of broad grouping: To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies); To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies). To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies). Research process: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Define Research Problem/objective Determine Expected value of perfect information Research technique and Determine Data Collection method Determine the measurement techniques Research Design/ Sampling Data Processing and Analysis Determine Time And cost Define the ethics of research Prepare the research report Step1: Define Research Problem/objective BY: M H Lakdawala State the research questions and research objectives a. PROBLEM DISCOVERY First thing a researcher should do is identifying the symptoms or signs which will point out the problem. A symptom is a condition that indicates the existence of a problem, and we, must be careful not to confuse this with a problem. Symptoms occupy an essential place in the problem-solving process, for the underlying problem. A problem exists whenever one faces a question whose answer – or a need whose fulfilment – involves doubt and uncertainty. Business problems are not found by surprise or accidental circumstances. Always there are signs, and evidence that reveals the existence of the problem. Our abilities can go beyond intuition or a sixth sense. b. PROBLEM DEFINITION The next step in any marketing research project is to define the problem. Problem definition involves discussion with the decision-makers, interviews with industry experts, analysis of secondary data, and, perhaps, some qualitative research, such as focus groups. Once the problem has been precisely defined, the research can be designed and conducted properly. c. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The research objective is a statement, in as precise terminology as possible, of what information is needed what will be the practical utility of the research. The research objective should be framed so that obtaining the information will ensure that the research purpose is satisfied. D. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observable phenomenon. A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event. A useful hypothesis is a testable statement which may include a prediction. A hypothesis should not be confused with a theory. Theories are general explanations based on a large amount of data. Hypothesis Definition: Tentative theory or supposition provisionally adopted to explain certain facts and guide the investigation of others. Hypothesis is tentative and declarative statement formulated to be tested describing relationship between concepts. A good hypothesis is set during exploratory research and tested during conclusive research. How Are Hypotheses Written? Chocolate may cause pimples. Salt in soil may affect plant growth. Plant growth may be affected by the color of the light. Bacterial growth may be affected by temperature. Ultra violet light may cause skin cancer. Temperature may cause leaves to change color. All of these are examples of hypotheses because they use the tentative word "may.". However, their form is not particularly useful. Using the word may does not suggest how you would go about proving it. If these statements had not been written carefully, they may not have even been hypotheses at all. For example, if we say "Trees will change color when it gets cold." we are making a prediction. Or if we BY: M H Lakdawala . then people with a high exposure to uv light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer. a tentative relationship is stated. Formalized Hypotheses example: If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light. The mean lifetime of cars’ batteries is 36 months. if the frequency of winning is related to frequency of buying lottery tickets. If leaf color change is related to temperature. One way to prevent making such easy mistakes is to formalize the form of the hypothesis.Test the company’s claim. It states that there is no difference between a parameter and a hypothesized value Ho: = o or Ho: p = po Alternative Hypothesis Ha: a theory that contradicts the null hypothesis.write.. Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. if and then. the conservative theory from previous experience that we accept until proven false.. The ultimate value of a formalized hypothesis is it forces us to think about what results we should look for in an experiment. For example." This is a simple prediction." could be a conclusion. then exposing plants to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color. One is "independent" and the other is "dependent. "If I play the lottery.. In the statements above the dependent variable is blue and the independent variable is red. Ho: o or Ho: < o or Ho: > o Example: A chemical company claims its products will increase the life of car batteries. the "scientist" control and the dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results.. It contains the claim. Notice that these statements contain the words. (Trial defendant assumed not guilty unless otherwise proved) Ho always contains the = sign. If you always ask yourself that if one thing is related to another. For example. We have two types of hypothesis: Null Hypothesis Ho: represents the status quo. We always assume that Ho is true." The independent variable is the one you. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. In a formalized hypothesis. then I will get rich. by specifying a DIFFERENCE between the parameter and the hypothesized value.. They are necessary in a formalized hypothesis. then you should be able to test it. "Then" is followed by a prediction of what will happen if you increase or decrease the frequency of buying lottery tickets. "Ultraviolet light causes skin cancer.. Step2: Determine Expected value of perfect information BY: M H Lakdawala . or what the researcher wants to prove. It uses an inductive method.Greater the information available the better the management is poised to take a decision. The cost of the information in terms of time and money. diaries and notes made while observing. documents. Qualitative Research. Qualitative data comes into a variety of forms like interview transcripts. that is. The level of risk aversion. Characteristics of Valuable Information Relevance Quality Timeliness Completeness Basic Questions How much will the study cost? Is the time frame acceptable? Is outside help needed? Will this research design attain the stated research objectives? When should the research be scheduled to begin? Step3: Research Technique and Determine Data Collection method Basic Types of Research Approaches or Research Technique There are two broad categories of research: qualitative research and quantitative research. but what determines its real value to the organization? In general. However care should be taken to note that the sourcing of the information should not cost the Management greater than the value of the information generated. The amount of variation in the possible results. The Value of Information Information can be useful. The level of indecisiveness that would exist without the information. The accuracy of the information. It is used in exploratory research design and descriptive research also.Qualitative Research is generally undertaken to develop an initial understanding of the problem. This method makes use ofa. it makes use of disguised method. Purpose of data collection is not known. The explanations are emerged from the data itself. 1. data relevant to some topics are collected and grouped into appropriate meaningful categories. It is non statistical in nature. Focus Groups BY: M H Lakdawala . the value of information is determined by: The ability and willingness to act on the information. There are two main methods for collecting Qualitative data a. The reaction of competitors to any decision improved by the information. Direct Collection Method-When the data is collected directly. uses numbers in a form of mathematical analysis to explain research findings. Qualitative Research . in a quantitative study. you are gathering information from a small number of people (typically under 100). data can be colleted by two methods a. B. Some examples of when qualitative research is helpful include: Testing response to advertising messages and concepts Analyzing response to products and features Exploring what issues should be tested during quantitative research Quantitative research is the method to use when: Measuring market size Analyzing demand of a new product Determining how many people exhibit a particular attitude or behavior Measuring the size of particular market segments Quantitative research is the method to use when: Measuring market size Analyzing demand of a new product Determining how many people exhibit a particular attitude or behavior Measuring the size of particular market segments Qualitative methods have at least four distinguishing characteristics: 1. Observation Method Difference between Qualitative &Quantitative research The number of people you speak to determines whether the research is considered qualitative or quantitative. rather than numbers.b. you are gaining input from a large number of people (normally at least 200). On the other hand. In a qualitative research study. Case Study b. such as a focus group. Survey Method b. Indirect Collection-Method a. Small numbers of respondents. BY: M H Lakdawala . The idea is to devote a considerable amount of time on each interview to get to the heart of a matter. In Quantitative Research. Quantitative Research.uses words. such as vote. such as respond favorably to an advertisement. to explain research findings. A. such as a telephone survey.Quantitative Research quantifies the data and generalizes the results from the sample to the population. Quantitative research is used when you are seeking to learn how many people in a population are likely to respond a certain way. Qualitative research is used when it is important to understand why someone does something. Depth Interview c. Quantitative Research . Projective Techniques 2. Hesitant answers. 4. It is original and collected to solve the problem in hand. quote and interrelate the data obtained by survey method Disadvantages of Survey Method 1. A. sweating. are all observable and all tell us something about the individuals’ state of mind. The interviewer not only records answers but observes how questions affect interviewees. Data collection technique or research Technique: Data play an important role in research. agitation. Unstructured question formats. Secondary research.Primary and Secondary There are two main sources of data . Inability of the respondents to provide information. The variability of results is reduced. information or premises systematically collected and formally presented for the purpose of drawing inferences may be called data. Questions are simple to administer. As compared to other methods (direct observation. Advantages of Survey Method 1. attitudes. Survey Method The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought to have desired information. 2. already exists since it has been collected for other purposes. Sources of Data . the questions are not completely predetermined and the interviewer is free to probe for all details and underlying feelings. Method of collecting primary data 1. experimentation) survey yield a broader range of information. also known as desk research. calmness. 4. The interviewer may assure that the information will be kept secret or apply the technique of offering some presents. opinions. It is relatively simple to analyze. Facts. Direct observation. boredom etc. Lack of knowledge b. 2. Indirect measurement of respondents' feelings and beliefs. Data is reliable 5.primary and secondary. Generally a non disguised approach is used. That is. 6. channels of distribution and other marketing variables. 3. 3. Unwillingness of respondents to provide information. The respondents are asked questions on their demographic interest opinion.This requires salesmanship on the part of the interviewer. for eg: “Ego” BY: M H Lakdawala . sales promotion.This may be due to a. smiling. Primary research is conducted from scratch. Inability to identify their motives and provide “reasons why?” for their actions 3. A formal list of questionnaire is prepared. These are not easily projected to the population. Lapse of memory c. Surveys are effective to produce information on socio-economic characteristics. Questioning is usually faster and cheaper that Observation. motives etc and to gather information for planning product features. Respondents provide descriptive information about their thought and feelings. Human Biases of the respondents are there. advertising media.2. Responses are collected from the respondents by the researcher on telephone. They are more flexible. Symantec difficulties are there – it is difficult. They are used when props are required along with the verbal response non-verbal responses can also be observed. Similarly two different wordings of the same question will frequently produce quite different results. c. Order of questions can be changed c. They cant handle interview which need props g. d. Response rate of telephone interviewing seems to be a little better than mail questionnaires d. Advantages of Telephonic Interview a. b. Telephonic Interview Telephone Interviewing stands out as the best method for gathering quickly needed information.4. Verification of data from other sources is possible. Types of Surveys: There are mainly 4 methods by which we can collect data through the Survey Method 1. to state a given question in such a way that it will mean exactly same thing to each respondent. The person interviewed can ask more questions and can supplement the interview with personal observation. In-depth research is possible. The quality of information is better e. It is very fast method of data collection. Personal Interviewing It is the most versatile of the all methods. Personal Interview 3. Mail Interview 4. Knowledge of past and future is possible. Computer or Internet or Electronic Interview 1. People who don’t have telephone facility cannot be approached 2. if not impossible. Telephonic Interview 2. Respondents cannot be observed j. BY: M H Lakdawala . It is less costly method and there are less administration problems Disadvantages of Telephonic Interview f. It cant handle unstructured interview h. b. Advantages of Personal Interview a. It has the advantage over “Mail Questionnaire” of permitting the interviewer to talk to one or more persons and to clarifying his questions if they are not understood. e. People are reluctant to disclose personal information on telephone k. It cant be used for those questions which requires long descriptive answers i. It is a costly method. The accuracy of data is influenced by the interviewer k. objects. Computer or Internet or Electronic Interview Electronic interviewing is a process of recognizing and noting people. Response rate can be improved by offering certain incentives. There is observer bias. g.f. e. they fill it up and send it back. Disadvantages of Personal Interview g. d. It is time consuming. There is no relying on willingness or ability of respondent. There is problem in case of complex questions. Disadvantages of Mail Survey c. The data is more accurate and objective. you notice which product people like to use. d. Attitudes can not be observed. If the respondents know that they are being observed. It is not purely objective. Those events which are of long duration can not be observed. It requires established mailing list. f. e. It is more expensive i. OBSERVATION I. It requires much more technical and administrative planning and supervision h. Advantages of Electronic Interview a. Mail Survey Questionnaires are send to the respondents. It can reach all types of people. It is costly. b. g. Advantages of Mail Survey a. occurances rather than asking for information. Some people are not approachable 3. f. A number of call banks may be required l. The information obtained is very reliable and dependable and helps in establishing cause and effect relationship very early. It is time consuming j. The Nature of Observation Research BY: M H Lakdawala . b. their response can be biased. 2. For example-When you go to store. It can not be used for unstructured study. Disadvantages of Electronic Interview c. 4. The Universal Product Code (UPC) is also a method of observing what people are buying. Conditions for Using "Observations" in Research: (all three must be present) 1. • A wide ranging set of research techniques aimed at observing consumers interacting naturally with their surroundings including products and services in use. Data collected by observation are. Advantages of Observation Method 1.Observing consumers without communicating with them. • Observational methods are tools to gather information on current behaviour. it is not necessary to rely on the willingness and ability of respondents to report accurately. It is the systematic process of recording the behavioural patterns (or events) of people. The biasing effect of interviewers is either eliminated or reduced. or predictable. A key advantage of observation research is that often the respondent or consumer is unaware that they are being observed. If the researcher observes and record events. allowing their behavior to be observed naturally. and 3. The behavior of interest must be frequent. The desired information must be inferable from observation of subjects' behavior. 2. and occurrences without questioning or communicating with them. The behavior of interest must be of relatively short duration. A wide ranging set of research techniques aimed at observing consumers interacting naturally with their surroundings including products and services in use. thus. more objective and generally more accurate.A. Observation Research . BY: M H Lakdawala . repetitive. objects. 2. One-Way Mirror Observations . Types include: A. such as watching television late at night. F.people that are employed by a firm to pose as consumers and shop at competitors' stores to compare prices. They observe and record the brands present.refers to drawings that record the footsteps of a shopper through a store. service performances. 4. The unproductive time is an increased cost. Under most circumstances. their buying motives and their images. motivations. 2. are more easily discussed with questionnaires than they are observed.The practice of watching unseen from behind a one-way mirror. and wholesale audits determine the amount of product movement from warehouses to retailers. The most limiting factor in the use of observation method is the inability to observe such things such as attitudes. B. Human Observations .A method of inquiry in which the researcher is immersed in [becomes a part of] the system or group under study. Mystery Shoppers .Disadvantages of Observation Method 1. displays. cleanliness. observational data are more expensive to obtain than other survey data. 3. customers/consumers state of mind. we know that slow music makes them stay longer and buy more. Cost is the final disadvantage of observation method. using carefully applied rules. by breaking it into meaningful units. C. It also takes time for the investigator to wait for a particular action to take place. Humanistic Inquiry .are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products. shelf facings and other relevant data for selected product categories. BY: M H Lakdawala . The observer has to wait doing nothing.] D. between events to be observed. Often used for product testing and with focus groups. Shopper Patterns .A technique used to study written material. There are two general categories: Retail audits measure sales to final consumers. price. and the like. Personal and intimate activities. [Also used to study the effect of music on shopper behavior. Field agents enter stores unannounced and without permission. Retail distribution audits are similar to store audits however these audits do not measure inventory sales: instead they are observational studies at the retail level. Content Analysis .refers to people (rather than machines) watching other people. usually advertising copy. For instance. They show the flow of a representative sample of shoppers through a store. rather than using the scientific method of standing apart from the system being studied. E. Types of observation research I. Content Analysis attempts to determine what is being communicated to a target audience by objectively and systematically describing the communication's content. Audits . but to retailers. warehouse stocks might be accumulating because of limited retail sales. market share. the manufacturer does not have information on sales at the retail level. audits give information on how competing products are faring in the marketplace.refers a person's feeling of arousal. Audits involve the physical inspection of inventories. shelf facings. Advertising Experiment: Will replacing commercial A with commercial B lead to a marked increase in consumer preference for a company’s brand? BY: M H Lakdawala . Examples i. EXPERIMENTATION • Experiment -. Moreover. The effect of price changes on sales volume of a particular product can be examined by actually varying the price of the product ii. 3. and measuring the change created in the dependent variable. People Watching an Activity Audits: . distribution. controlled change in another variable(s) which is called the independent variable(s). or other relevant information. and other aspects of the marketing mix to determine sales.Audits provide relatively precise information on the movement of many different types of goods. inner tension. sales receipts. Thus. wholesalers and distributors. the researcher is an active participant in the research process instead of a passive collector of data as with the survey or observation methods of research.Machines used to measure vehicular flow over a particular stretch of roadway. relative price. constructed such that the researcher (experimenter) changes one element (an explanatory or independent variable) to observe the effect of that change on another element (the dependent variable). Since most products are not sold directly to the end user.refers to a research project Experiments are defined as studies in which conditions are controlled so that one or more independent variable(s) can be manipulated to test a hypothesis about a dependent variable(s). or alertness. Activation .are examinations and verifications of the sales of subject products. Machine Observation Types: A. Activation is stimulated via a subcortical unit. II. An experiment measures the change in the dependent variable created by a specific. prices. III. Physiological Measurement . B. This is done by controlling or holding constant the other independent variables while manipulating the independent variable(s) of interest. which is located in the human brainstem. Traffic Counters . Even though information on factory shipments are available.refers to measuring the level of involuntary change in a person's activation based upon the stimuli of interest. called the reticular activation system (RAS). field experiments often lack internal validity. Sales Productivity Experiment: Will an increase in the average number of sales calls per customer from six to eight per year significantly improve sales? Experimental Settings . Pricing Experiment: Can a company improve the profitability of its fashion clothing line by increasing its price by 10 percent? iv. Field Experiments . but they are more likely generalizable to other similar market situations. Thus. A test market is a good example. 2.Tests done in a sterile environment in which the researcher can control almost all possible causal factors. BY: M H Lakdawala .iii. • The validity of experimental results is usually evaluated on two dimensions: external validity and internal validity. influential but irrelevant independent variables is kept to a minimum. This suggests that the results have a better chance of being statistically wrong. This suggests that lab results are more likely to be statistically correct than results from field experiments. For instance. lab results are said to have good internal validity. if they are statistically correct. This solves the problem of realism of the test environment. or nearly all. societal trends.are three types: 1. A field experiment is a research study conducted in a natural setting in which the experimenter manipulates one or more independent variables under conditions controlled as carefully as the situation will permit. the researcher cannot control nor even precisely measure the effects of competitive actions. the political climate. the lab may not accurately represent the real marketplace. but less likely to be generalizable to the population of interest which is always located outside of the laboratory. • • • A major difference between the two approaches is the degree of control available during the manipulation and measurement process. but often lack external validity. the economy. However. A laboratory experiment is a research study conducted in a contrived setting in which the effect of all.Tests conducted outside the laboratory in an actual market environment. while having better external validity. while the laboratory allows the researcher to control the variables involved. the weather. nor other elements of the uncontrollable environment. Thus. A laboratory experiment clearly offers better control than a field experiment with respect to extraneous factors capable of influencing consumer preferences. Thus. the research results my not hold up when transferred to (generalized to) the actual marketplace. but factors other than the independent variable(s) of interest may influence the observed changes in the dependent variable of interest because the researcher cannot control all other independent variables that may affect the dependent variable. Laboratory Experiments . • Internal validity is the extent to which observed results are solely due to the experimental manipulation. a picture of market trends can be built up. Consumer panels Consumer panels are formed by recruiting large numbers of households who provide information on their buying over time. continuously interviewing 125.• External validity is the extent to which observed results are likely to hold beyond the experimental setting. although there is usually a trade-off between these two forms of validity. • An ideal experiment is one whose results will have high internal as well as external validity. This type of longitudinal research is often funded on a syndicated basis. Field experiments generally have an advantage over laboratory experiments in terms of external validity but not internal validity.000 households in 18 countries. • Laboratory experiments generally have an advantage over field experiments in terms of internal validity but not external validity. • 3. In this way. The main competitor for AC Nielsen is TNS which runs panels in 20 countries. Continuous research: A survey conducted on a regular and frequent basis among parallel samples within the same population or a survey in which the interviews are spread over a long period of time. Syndicated research usually involves an independent research company collecting data and supplying it simultaneously to a number of clients. i. Advantages of consumer Panels Can Provide Information On: BY: M H Lakdawala . Research agency AC Nielsen has one of the largest consumer panels in the world. The respondents are selected according to the relevant sampling plan and meet at a central location that generally has facility for taping and/ or filming the interviews. 5. 4. Retail Audits By gaining the cooperation of retail outlets. Focus group discussions (F. Product positioning studies.need studies for product idea creation. iii. The general either the moderator or a second person prepares a summary of each session after analyzing the session’s transcript. 7. This process provides more detailed and accurate information than could be derived from each separately. and when?). Basic. market share and effectiveness of different retail formats. In Europe. In the UK. the main source of such data is produced by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board ("BARB"). This data is critical information for broadcasters to determine their programme strategy (what kinds of programmes to produce and when to broadcast them) as well as for advertisers (who is watching. 4. Aggregate Sales Activity Brand Shares Shifts in Buyer Characteristics Shifts in Retail Outlets Limitations of Consumer Panels Possibility of Selection Bias Mortality Effect ii. 2. and (3) summarize the group’s responses to determine the extent of agreement. New product idea or concept exploration.G. 3. 2. The discussion itself is “led” by a moderator. Background studies on consumer’s frames or reference. and set objectives. focus tend to consist of 6 to 8 respondents.Ds): The standard focus group interview involves 8 and 12 individuals and lasts about 2 hours. BY: M H Lakdawala . A group interview situation is generally more exciting and offers more stimulation to the participants than the standard depth interviews. (2) provoke intense discussion in the relevant areas. Advertising and communications research. sales of brands can be measured (using bar coded sales data) to track changes in brand loyalty. Advantages 1. structure the rules of group interaction. vary in length from 1. Determination of attitudes and behavior. Focus Group Interviews can be applied to: 1. Television Viewer ship / Radio Listening Panels These panels aim to measure Viewer ship or listening minute by minute. Each individual is able to expand and refine their opinions in the interaction with the other members. Establishment of consumer vocabulary as a preliminary step in questionnaire development and. Otherwise the interviewers are similar.5 to 4 hours and are often conducted in the home of the recruiter. Normally each group is designed to reflect the characteristics of a particular market segment. 6. listening. The moderator attempts to progress through three stages during the interviewer: (1) establish rapport with the group. There are chances that participants may go along with the popular opinion instead of expressing their own which may be contrary to the popular opinions. Focus groups can be used successfully with children over five. Since focus group interviews last 1. The moderator can introduce serious biases in the interview by shifting topics too rapidly verbally or nonverbally encouraging certain answers. Those who attend group interviews and actively participate in them are likely to be different in many respects from those who do not. coffee. and other. As the questions raised by the moderator are addressed to the entire group rather than an individual the answer contains a degree of spontaneity that is not produced by other techniques. The presence of a one-way mirror and /or an observer(s) has been found to distort participant’s responses. However the interviewer must follow one rule. The security of being in a crowd encourages some members to speak out when they otherwise would not. They must be thorough in probing the respondents. Thus. 4. 5. 6. The interviewee is asked about the subject of his choice. subtler. psychologists and people with Doctorates in Marketing (which is a combination of applied psychology and applied economics) are often called upon to conduct Depth Interviews. The respondent must feel free to reply to the various questions. more costly. Subject of interest is discussed in detail. 2. Generally conducted by highly trained interviewers. 5. to probe those responses that appear relevant. Depth Interviews . one must not consciously try to affect the content of the answers given by the respondents. for example. The interviewer does not have a specific set of pre-specified questions that must be asked according to the order imposed by a questionnaire. A final major advantage of focus groups is that executives often observe the interview (from behind mirrors) or watch films of the interview. 5. as well as Nominal Grouping Sessions. Instead. and generally to try to develop the best set of data in any way practical. The respondent. securing cooperation from a random sample is difficult.(unstructured one-on-one interviews intended to discover deep seated motivations) -One-on-one interviews that probe and elicit detailed answers to questions. 3. Depth interviews – Depth interviews are frequently used by marketing researchers when direct questioning is impractical. Focus groups are expensive on a per respondent basis. failing to cover specific areas. There is no fixed pattern for eliciting information from the respondents. 4. and an attempt is made to explore the respondents’ attitudes in depth by probing extensively into any other areas which may come up. or less accurate. there is freedom to create questions. These techniques generally referred to as Qualitative research. probes.3. Individual depth interviews typically require 30-45minutes. BY: M H Lakdawala . They are also very useful with adults in developing countries where literacy rates are low and survey research is difficult. Disadvantages 1. and so forth.5 to 3 hours and take place at a central location. often using clinical nondirective techniques to uncover hidden motivations. ways of encouraging responses in the manner deemed most appropriate. 88 6. baby feeding) and the need to conform in a group discussion may influence responses. “I like this car. because it provides a simple and systematic way of establishing an individual’s core set of constructs on how they view the world Laderring Technique is use to describe the linkages between customers’ values and their overall purchasing behavior: the Means End Chain theory. the convertible makes its driver feel young and free. They are particularly appropriate when: 1. personal investment) 3. The interviewer must not influence the answers of the respondent. 2. planning the family holiday) are required. The subject matter under discussion is likely to be of a highly confidential nature (e. Laddering: “The laddering method of interviewing is technique to understanding people’s core values and beliefs. Each attribute may have one or more consequences for any given individual. socially acceptable norms exist (e. brand. Core values—finally. According to the Means End Chain theory. For example. Analysis on focus on common underlying themes across respondents. For example. Interviewers have a general series of topics that they will introduce – perhaps such topics as coffee. the sense of youth makes that driver feel attractive. and will introduce them from time to time if the respondent does not bring them up. attributes are most recognizable by individuals.” Consequences—In turn. or concept. 3. 2. Individual depth interviews uses three questioning techniques namely: 1. Certain strong. Individuals recognize the attributes of a product or system easily. or BY: M H Lakdawala .making pattern (e. Tone of the interview is permissive and the respondent is allowed to talk as much as he likes. attitude or needs is required. Symbolic questioning requires respondents to describe the opposites of the product/ activity of interest or a specific attribute of the product/ activity. the attributes have consequences for the individual. The subject matter is of an emotionally charged or embarrassing nature.g. Individual depth interviews have been found to generate more and higher quality ideas on a per respondent basis than either focus or minigroups.g. For example. This theory provides both a framework for capturing qualitative laddering research data in the consumer space and a model for assessing consumer values and behaviors. 4. The technique is powerful. or sleep. Where highly detailed understanding of complicated behavior or decision. The interpretation of the answers is very subjective and knowledge of human behavior is required to analyze the information received. as follows: Attributes—At the top level of this hierarchy. 5. Purpose is to uncover the “network of meanings” associated with the product. g. Detailed probing of an individual’s behavior. there is a hierarchy of consumer perceptions and product knowledge that ranges from attributes (A) to consumption consequences (C) to personal values (V). These themes can then be used to guide advertising development. each consequence are linked to a core value of the person’s life. because it is a convertible. Hidden-issue questioning focuses on individual respondents feelings about sensitive issues. Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other than those of our particular research study. say. then a food manufacturer might use this data in the organisation's evaluations of the total potential market for a new product. finance directors) B.g. There are several grounds for making such a bold statement. For the same level of research budget a thorough examination of secondary sources can yield a great deal more information than can be had through a primary data collection exercise. No marketing research study should be undertaken without a prior search of secondary sources (also termed desk research). family food expenditures. Where as primary data are collected expressly to help solve. the problem at hand. BY: M H Lakdawala . Secondary data may be available which is entirely appropriate and wholly adequate to draw conclusions and answer the question or solve the problem. It is far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain primary data. Method of collecting secondary data Secondary data were collected for some purpose other than helping to solve the current problem. if a government department has conducted a survey of.The interviews are with professional people or with people on the subject of their jobs 9 e. Sometimes primary data collection simply is not necessary. For example. Secondary sources help define the population. Orders are received and delivered. It should not be forgotten that secondary data can play a substantial role in the exploratory phase of the research when the task at hand is to define the research problem and to generate hypotheses. costs are recorded. This is not always true but where a government or international agency has undertaken a large scale survey. It can also serve to track trends within the enterprise's existing customer group. BY: M H Lakdawala . orders.The time involved in searching secondary sources is much less than that needed to complete primary data collection. For instance. returns from customers and sales force customer calling sheets. Much of this information is of potential use in marketing research but a surprising amount of it is actually used. government statistics on a country's agriculture will help decide how to stratify a sample and. The assembly and analysis of secondary data almost invariably improves the researcher's understanding of the marketing problem. consider how much information can be obtained from sales orders and invoices: Sales by territory Sales by customer type Prices and discounts Average size of order by customer. sales personnel submit visit reports. Such data has many uses in marketing research including allowing measurement of the efficiency of marketing operations. For example. transporting and marketing each of its products and product lines. these can be used to project those estimates to the population. or even a census. Secondary data can be extremely useful both in defining the population and in structuring the sample to be taken. Organizations frequently overlook this valuable resource by not beginning their search of secondary sources with an internal audit of sales invoices. customer type. storage and transportation) at which an organization’s unit costs begin to fall. inquiries about products not stocked. invoices are sent out. and returned goods are recorded and so on. It can also be used to estimate the costs attached to new products under consideration. Internal sources of secondary information Sales data: All organizations collect information in the course of their everyday operations. etc. This type of data is useful for identifying an organization’s most profitable product and customers. the various lines of inquiry that could or should be followed and the alternative courses of action which might be pursued. once sample estimates have been calculated. this is likely to yield far more accurate results than custom designed and executed surveys when these are based on relatively small sample sizes. storing. of particular utilisation (in production. Sources of information Secondary sources of information may be divided into two categories: internal sources and external sources. geographical area Average sales by sales person and Sales by pack size and pack type. Secondary sources of information can yield more accurate data than that obtained through primary research. Financial data: An organization has a great deal of data within its files on the cost of producing. or the point at which a balance of the two gives the best financial outcome. Large numbers of organizations provide marketing information. trade associations. The main sources of external secondary sources are (1) government (federal. IFAD. and hopes to make its money from selling this data to interested parties. state and local) (2) trade associations (3) commercial services (4) national and international institutions. which is wide ranging in its content. the researcher has secretly (sometimes subconsciously) concluded from the outset that his/her topic of study is so unique or specialised that a research of secondary sources is futile. Consequently. and loads. Government statistics These may include all or some of the following: · Population censuses · Social surveys. Commercial services Published market research reports and other publications are available from a wide range of organisations which charge for their information. Storage data: The rate of stockturn. handbooks and guides. a yearbook. marketing people are interested in media statistics and consumer information which has been obtained from large scale consumer or farmer panels. family expenditure surveys · Import/export statistics · Production statistics · Agricultural statistics. Too often.Transport data: Companies that keep good records relating to their transport operations are well placed to establish which are the most profitable routes. the direct product profitability can be calculated. quasi-government agencies. UNDP. and rate of sale. ITC. These systems can be further refined so that the profitability per unit. it is worth checking with them to determine what they do publish. Good data on transport operations enables the enterprise to perform trade-off analysis and thereby establish whether it makes economic sense to own or hire vehicles. At the very least one would normally expect that they would produce a trade directory and. universities. as well as the most cost effective routing patterns. Dillon et al further advice that searches of printed sources of secondary data begin with referral texts such as directories. research institutes. university research reports. International agencies such as World Bank. Trade associations Trade associations differ widely in the extent of their data collection and information dissemination activities. Cursory researches become a self-fulfilling prophecy. More sophisticated accounting systems assign costs to the cubic space occupied by individual products and the time period over which the product occupies the space. including national and local government agencies. assessing the efficiency of certain marketing operations and the efficiency of the marketing system as a whole. FAO and ILO produce a plethora of BY: M H Lakdawala . journals and articles institutions are all useful sources to contact. In this way. perhaps. Typically. are added. specialist suppliers of secondary marketing data and professional marketing research enterprises. External sources of secondary information The marketing researcher who seriously seeks after useful secondary data is more often surprised by its abundance than by its scarcity. financial institutions. stock handling costs. The commercial organization funds the collection of the data. IMF. These sorts of publications rarely provide the data in which the researcher is interested but serve in helping him/her locate potentially useful data sources. National and international Bank economic reviews. only a specified search is made with no real expectation of sources. indexes. However. C) Projective techniques A) Questionnaires Questionnaire construction Questionnaires are frequently used in quantitative marketing research. incorrect scaling. Good questionnaire construction is critical to the success of a survey. BY: M H Lakdawala . incorrect ordering of questions. Step four: Select the Measurement Technique: There are four basic measurement techniques used in marketing research: A) Questionnaires Design B) Attitude scales. Inappropriate questions.secondary data which can prove extremely useful to the marketing researcher. . or bad questionnaire format can make the survey valueless. A useful method for checking a questionnaire for problems is to pretest it. then interviewing the respondents to get their impressions and to confirm that the questions accurately captured their opinions. STRUCTURED Vs UNSTRUCTURED DATA COLLECTION The data collection through questionnaires can be done through four ways as follows. They are a valuable method of collecting a wide range of information from a large number of respondents. This usually involves giving it to a small sample of respondents. CONCLUSION: The researcher should use the already viable data only when he finds them reliable. 4. this method can be used when the information is based on the expenditures of the consumer on different types of clothing like.in this case the everything is pre. because he feels that by revealing that the very purpose of the interview will get defeated. disguised and non.disguised Non structured .arranged or not listed in a proper structured format. suitable and adequate. so that he can realize the relevance and give desired information.arranged order.disguised. Cotton woolen or synthetic. Such a method is devoid of rigidity and the researcher has sufficient amount of freedom to collect the data in the order he wants. Structured disguised Structured . However when it comes to personal questions. BY: M H Lakdawala . Structured disguised: . the respondent is taken into confidence by revealing the purpose of the survey. (1) Non structured disguised: .g. Therefore the entire responsibility is left on the researcher to ask the respondent. Again here there are two main types of non-structured methods of data collection. Structured data collection A structured data collection is a formal list of questions framed so as to get the facts.like in case of structured non. But he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time and energy in field surveys for collecting information.again here the objective of interview is not described to the respondent (2) Non structured . This is because it is generally felt that the respondent should be taken into confidence. Non-structured data collection It is a kind of data collection method where the data to be collected is not pre. For e.nondisguised: .arranged and the researcher reveals the objective of the survey to the respondent. Structured . etc.1.nondisguised Note : non disguised data collection is also called as direct method & disguised is also called as indirect method . this method seems to be less effective.non-disguised: . the information can be collected in a systematic and orderly manner. in the way he feels fit. 2. The researcher only has certain main points on which he develops the questions to be asked. At times there may be wealth of usable information in the already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with due precaution.disguised.in this case the researcher does not disclose the object of the interview. The interviewer asks the questions strictly in accordance with pre. This is the most widely followed approach in market research. Normally this kind of method is used in exploratory research This kind of data collection is most suitable when it comes to personal or motivational factors. This structured questionnaire can be of two types.nondisguised Non-structured . 3. based on whether the object or the purpose of the survey is revealed to the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that. 16. but not so graphic as to distract from the of the questions. Most people will not answer them. Ask one question at a time. 3. or other graphics? It should be colourful enough to gain and maintain respondent interest. If more than one question is hidden in a survey question. A biased question or questionnaire encourages respondents to answer one way rather than another. 17. Avoid double-barreled questions. 10. 15. Avoid “loaded” questions. State explicit alternatives. the researcher will not know which one the respondent is answering. 7. Are possible responses mutually exclusive? The respondent should not find themselves in more than one category. or typology should be used? How should the questions be presented on the page (or computer screen)? How much white space? How many colours? Do you use pictures. or will it be self-administered by the respondents. charts. BY: M H Lakdawala . 4. Is the questionnaire going to be administered by research staff. for example in both the “married” category and the “not living with spouse” category. 9. Categories should not overlap. yet concise and accurate. 6. The meaning should be clear. Avoid ambiguous words and equivocal sentence structures. Consider the respondent’s frame of reference. Writing style should be conversational. 2. Be clear and precise. Use natural and familiar language. Do not use words or phrases that show bias. 14. Should questions be open-ended or should respondents’ answers be limited to a fixed set of responses? What order should the questions be in? Is there a “natural” grouping to the questions? Will previous questions bias later questions? Should the questions be numbered? Generally this is a good idea. Avoid biasing the responses. Use short sentences. detailed instructions. feelings. 12. Unneeded questions are an expense to the researcher and an unwelcome imposition on the respondents. 2. What is their background. The wording must be kept simple : no technical or specialized words. 5. you must consider the objective(s) of the research.Guidelines for Devising a Good Questionnaire 1. Avoid complex questions. Avoid double negatives. and how will this effect their interpretation of the questions? Do respondents have enough information or expertise to answer the question? Ask yourself if each question is really necessary. 13. Self administered questionnaires must give clear. Ask yourself what type of data analysis techniques are available for various kinds of questions. Is the list of possible question responses inclusive? The respondent should not find themselves with no category that fits their situation. 5. 3. beliefs. Even single negatives should be reworded as positives. descriptions of past behavior. Will the question provide you with the statistical analysis that you want? What type of content will responses to the question yield? Will the question responses provide facts. To answer this question. Questions should meet criteria of validity and reliability. index. 6. or standards of action? What type of scale. 8. Response choices should not overlap. 7. 11. Principles of Developing Questions 1. Avoid personal or intimate questions. 4. Examples of types of scales include the Likert scale. The respondent supplies their own answer without being constrained by a fixed set of possible responses. forming a matrix with response categories along the top and a list of questions down the side.Identical response categories are assigned to multiple questions. asking men if they have ever been pregnant).The respondent has several option from which to choose. * Multiple choice . 2. Closed ended questions . Contingency questions . semantic differential scale. Scaled questions . 4.For example.Types of Questions 1. Questions should flow logically from one to the next. 2. Matrix questions .Respondents’ answers are limited to a fixed set of responses. and rank-order scale 4. Questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive. Questions should flow from the more general to the more specific.A question that is answered only if the respondent gives a particular response to a previous question. This avoids asking questions of people that do not apply to them (for example. Open ended questions . The researcher must ensure that the answer to a question is not influenced by previous questions. Other types of closed ended questions include: * Dichotomous questions . Questions should flow from factual and behavioural questions to attitudinal and opinion questions. 5. 5. Examples of types of open ended questions include: 6. “What is your opinion of questionnaires?” Question Sequence 1. 3. 3.Responses are graded on a continuum (example : rate the appearance of the product on a scale from 1 to 10.The respondent answers with a “yes” or a “no”. This is an efficient use of page space and respondents’ time. 6.No options or predefined categories are suggested. Completely unstructured . The questions are placed one under the other. Questions should flow from unaided to aided questions BY: M H Lakdawala . Most scales are closed ended. with 10 being the most preferred appearance). According to the three stage theory (also called the sandwich theory). These three elements combine together to form an image of the product or service in the mind of the consumer. neutral. Then in the second stage you ask all the product specific questions. Ordinal Scales They are the simplest attitude measuring scales use din marketing research. However. You can count but not order or measure nominal data. B Measurement Scales Definition of attitude: Attitude has been defined by Gene F. and ratio scales: Nominal Data A set of data is said to be nominal if the values / observations belonging to it can be assigned a code in the form of a number where the numbers are simply labels. You can count and order. All the scale tells is that the individual or item has more. In the last stage you ask demographic questions. to buy it. Measurement Scales Scaling is the measurement of a variable in such a way that it can be expressed on a continuum. or to rank items such as brands in order of consumer preference. A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging to it can be ranked (put in order) or have a rating scale attached. so such data are ordinal. For BY: M H Lakdawala .e. interval. N if single.7. If it is favorable. They are the most widely used type of scales in marketing research. but not measure. Attitudes about products or services are composed of three elements: Beliefs such as the product’s strength or the economy of the product or service Emotional feelings such as likes or dislikes Readiness to respond to the product or service. for example. dislike. Summers as a predisposition to respond to an idea or an object. A rating of 5 indicates more enjoyment than a rating of 4. Rating your preference for a product from 1 to 10 is an example of a scale. ordinal. In marketing. Attitude measurement is commonly referred to as scaling. representing strongly dislike. When the car manufacturer. For example. the distinction between neighboring points on the scale is not necessarily always the same. the movie producer or the insurance company refers to the company’s image. They do not measure the degree of favorability of the different rankings. strongly like. They serve to rank respondents according to some characteristics such as favorabiliy to a certain brand. they are referring to some general averages of many individuals’ attitudes towards the company. marital status of an individual could be coded as Y if married. in a data set males could be coded as 0. initial questions should be screening and rapport questions. i. or the same amount of the characteristic being measured as some other time. for example. this refers to the consumer’s predisposition about the product or service. less. Attributes can be measured on nominal. females as 1. like. suppose a group of people were asked to taste varieties of biscuit and classify each biscuit on a rating scale of 1 to 5. The categories for an ordinal set of data have a natural order. ordinal data. then the consumer is likely to purchase the product or service. BY: M H Lakdawala .Rank order preference 2. A scale that permits such measurements is called ratio scale. the measurement of attitudes is still so crude that they are of little significance in marketing research. and the measurement of longitude. An interval scale is a scale of measurement where the distance between any two adjacent units of measurement (or 'intervals') is the same but the zero point is arbitrary. Interval Scales They separate individuals or items by rank order but measure the distance between rank positions in equal units. namely 365 days. year 1 AD. the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 2 rather than 1 might be much less than the difference in enjoyment expressed by giving a rating of 4 rather than 3. Such a scale however does not permit conclusions that position 6 is twice as strong as position 3 because no zero position has been established. Rating . Ratio Scales If one measures the distance between two points as four feet and between two other points as two feet. the time interval between the starts of years 1981 and 1982 is the same as that between 1983 and 1984. is arbitrary. The zero point. Scores on an interval scale can be added and subtracted but cannot be meaningfully multiplied or divided. it is possible say that one distance is twice that of the other because each distance is measured from an absolute zero.instance. Other examples of interval scales include the heights of tides. time did not begin then. Types of scale used for Measuring Attitudes: 1. or quality. Ranking .Estimates magnitude of a characteristic Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic. that an object possesses. For example. Such a scale permits the researcher to say that the position 4 is above position 3 on the scale. and also the distance from position 5 to 4 is same as from 4 to 3. The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object. While ratio scales are common in physical science. 2. Attitudes can be measured using the following Techniques: 1.Arrange or classify concepts Sorting might present the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts. Sorting . Simple Attitude Scaling In its most basic form. Attitudes do not change much over time. Customer attitude is an important factor for the following reasons: 1. Attitudes can be related to preferences. Attitudes produce consistency in behavior. Simplified Scaling Example THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE BY: M H Lakdawala .it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other. Choice . 3. This type of self-rating scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories. 4. Attitude helps to explain how ready one is to do something. Attitude Measurement Many of the questions in a marketing research survey are designed to measure attitudes.Selection of preferred alternative Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement .3. Attitudes are a person's general evaluation of something. 4. attitude scaling requires that an individual agree with a statement or respond to a single question. or they can be summed to form a single score for each individual. Category Scales A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories .2. competitive 20/20 cricket match than to watch a test match. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Method of Summated Ratings: The Likert Scale An extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. or a –2 through +2 system could be used. “disagree”. It is relatively easy to construct and administer. 3. Example: Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis It is more fun to watch a tough. Questions working are an extremely important factor in the usefulness of these scales.it provides more information. and “strongly disagree”. “agree”. each response category is assigned a numerical value. These examples could be assigned values such as Strongly Agree=1. They can be analyzed on an item-by-item basis. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree To analyze a Likert Scale. Response alternatives: “strongly agree”. “uncertain”. through Strongly Disagree=5 or the scoring could be reversed. Advantages 1.. BY: M H Lakdawala . Each scales consist of two opposing adjectives such as good/bad. The advantage of using semantic differential is its simplicity. Respondents are asked to check the segment that represents the degree of the characteristics involved that most closely coincided with their opinion of the product or item being rated. which is increasingly being used. which are separated by a continuum divided into seven segments.2. etc. It establishes a connection between the brand and company image studies and also permits the development of descriptive profiles that facilitates comparison of competitive items. most popular/ least popular. For e. Care needs to be taken when using Likert Scales in cross cultural research. 2. in marketing research. company or concept of interest. while producing results comparable with those of the more complex scaling methods The method is easy and fast to administer. Respondents are given a group of these scales and asked to check on each one point that indicates their opinion of the subject in question. reliable and generally valid. but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude. hence it can be used for mail surveys and interviews with children. etc. highly versatile. Perception of national brands and private brands: High quality 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low quality Lower price 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 High price Higher value 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Low value Attractive Packaging 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 Unattractive Packaging BY: M H Lakdawala . The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar scales to rate any product.: 1. Instructions that accompany the scale are easily understood. Disadvantages 1. It takes a longer time to complete as compared to Semantic Differential Scales.g. It is best when used for image descriptive purposes and is not recommended for overall attitude measurement. as there may be cultural variations in willingness to express disagreement. clean/dirty. 4. Semantic Differential It is a special type of graphic scale. are very similar to those for a semantic differential. you can select any number from +3 for words that you think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words that you think are very inaccurate. to identify categories (response positions). the large the minus number you should choose. therefore. Numerical Scales Numerical scales have numbers as response options. BY: M H Lakdawala . However. 6. The advantage and disadvantages of a Stapel scale. the Stapel scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer. Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the store accurately. as well as the results.5. rather than “semantic space’ or verbal descriptions. The more accurately you think the work describes the store. Stapel Scales Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. the larger the plus number you should choose. A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image Department Store Name +3 +2 +1 Wide Selection -1 -2 -3 Select a plus number for words that you think describe the store accurately. The less accurately you think the word describes the store. They have been widely used in the past. The procedure is as follows 1. among two or more objects or attributes on order to reflect the respondent’s relative preference for each object. Price BY: M H Lakdawala ____ . 4. even though people could not assign quantitative measures to their own attitudes. 3. generally 10 or 100. Thurstone Scale It is one of the Multi Item Scales developed by L. More than two objects at a time (quadric comparison) A constant sum measure of the importance of the same attributes could be obtained from the following procedure: Divide 100 points among the characteristics listed so that the division will reflect how important each characteristic is to your selection of a new automobile. it is easier to identify a neutral position. The Constant Sum Scale The constant sum scale requires the respondent to divide a constant sum. Advantages It is important to note that there are 11 attitude positions because in a scale with odd number of parameters. many individuals feel they it may be more reliable that the Thurstone Scale. The ratings may be influenced by the Judges’ personal attitude 3. The constant sum scale can be used in two cases: 1. Determine the scale value of each of the remaining statements – that is.7. Different individuals can obtain exactly the same score from agreeing with quite different items. Collect a large number of statements (perhaps as may as several hundred) related to the attitude in question 2. Select one of the two statements from each of the 11 piles for the final scale. For two objects at a time (paired comparison) or 2. Study the frequency distribution of ratings for each statement and eliminate those statements that the different judges have given widely scattered ratings – that are in a number of different piles 4. Disadvantages 1. 8. Due to the ordinal nature of the Likert scales. they could tell the difference between the attitude represented by two different statements and could identify items that were approximately halfway between the two. Thurstone scales are not widely used for Marketing Research because the are time consuming during preparation 2. Have a number of judges (perhaps 20 or more) sort the statements independently into 11 piles that vary from the most favorable statement to neutral statements to most unfavorable statements. or the degree to which an object contains each attribute.L. Those statements with the narrowest range of rating are preferred as the most reliable. the number of the pile in pile in which the median of the distribution falls 5. Thurstone’s method of Equal Appearing Intervals on the concept that. It does not obtain information about the intensity of agreement with the ratings Comparison of Thurstone and Likert Scale It is obvious that these two scales have a lot in common. the importance of the attribute. strong concern for overall cost (GROUP A). part of a general.Economy ____ Dependability ____ Safety ____ Comfort ____ Style ____ Total 100 All three of the following groups’ average responses to the constant sum scale would be consistent with the rank order results just described: Price Economy Dependability Safety Comfort Style Group A 35 30 20 10 3 2 100 Group B 20 18 17 16 15 14 100 Group C 65 9 8 7 6 5 100 With rank order scale the researcher has no way of knowing if price is of importance (GROUP C). BY: M H Lakdawala . Constant Sum Scale provides such evidence. or not much important than the other attributes (GROUP B). A Comparative Rating Scale A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by comparing it with a benchmark Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.9. Graphic Rating Scales A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum. please tell us how satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup. Completely Satisfied Very Satisfied Fairly Well Satisfied Somewhat Dissatisfied Very Dissatisfied 12. Monadic Rating Scale A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept Now that you’ve had your automobile for about 1 year. An Unbalanced Scale An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the scale How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union? Satisfied Neither Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied BY: M H Lakdawala Quite Satisfied Very Dissatisfied . 10. TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE 13. although this is less commonly used.14. Guttman scale Description A Guttman scale presents a number of items to which the person is requested to agree or not agree. It is also possible to use a Likert scale. the escalation can be concealed by using intermediate questions. The scale may be used to determine how extreme a view is. This is typically done in a 'Yes/No' dichotomous format. with successive statements showing increasingly extremist positions. Example Place a check-mark against all statements` with which you agree I like eating out [ ] I like going to restaurants [ ] I like going to themed restaurants [ ] I like going to Chinese restaurants [ ] I like going to Beijing-style Chinese restaurants [ ] BY: M H Lakdawala . Questions in a Guttman scale gradually increase in specificity. The intent of the scale is that the person will agree with all statements up to a point and then will stop agreeing. If needed. This is also known as internal validity. Would the same result be achieved if the research was conducted again with the same problem? One way to achieve objectivity and reliability is by using structured questionnaires with given and pre determined answer alternatives. The researcher has an objective to achieve a high level of validity to assure that the information gathered and measured actually is what was intended to be measured. This is achieved when the same answers and results are obtained from several independent sources. they are asked to give the first word that comes to mind. Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to differ. in fact. construction and expression. Construct validity includes convergent. Furthermore. and values. one at a time. Types of Validity: • • • • Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is. discriminant. and nomological validity. how the research is conducted and the level of accuracy and precision while treating the information influences the level of reliability. 1. Association Techniques Association techniques require the subject to respond to the presentation of a stimulus with the first things that come to mind. Projective Techniques Projective Techniques are based on the theory that the description of vague objects requires interpretation and this interpretation can only be based on the individual’s own background. attitudes.Validity and Reliability A research has validity when the same result can be achieved independent of what research method is used. Word association: The word association technique requires the respondent to give the first word or thought that comes to mind after researcher presents a word or phrase. Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates positively with other measures of the same construct. After each word. measuring. The more vague or ambiguous the object to be described the move one must reveal of oneself in order to complete the description. one cannot know that one measures what one intended to measure. In free association only the first word or thought is required. a. C. One of the oldest and simplest projection techniques. Reliability is a requirement for validity. The following general categories of projective techniques are described: association. Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates in theoretically predicted ways with measures of different but related constructs. The ability to generalize the results and to be able to apply the results on a whole population is called external validity. High levels of reliability provide a fair and trustworthy portrait of reality. BY: M H Lakdawala . completion. If the reliability is low. Respondents are presented with a number of different words. The most common approach to analyzing the resulting data is to analyze the frequency with a particular word or category or word is given in response to the word of interest to the researcher. “a man who reads Sportstar is ------------------------------------------. No evidence suggests that one of these approaches could be better than the other. who is usually able to diagnose the investigator’s purpose of study. as the name implies. The time limit is usually 5 seconds.sentence completion and story completion. Then the words of interest to the researcher are presented. brands. The rule here too. 2. Word association techniques are used in testing potential brand names and occasionally for measuring attitudes about particular products. The respondent is generally read a number of relatively neutral terms to establish the technique. b. While analyzing the results of word-association tests. Two types of completion are of interest to marketing researchers. Successive word association: In successive word association. Sentence completion. BY: M H Lakdawala . An example of such a test is: who would eat a lot of oatmeal? The first response is “athletes”. As the name suggests part of a story is told and the respondent is asked to complete it. is that respondent must fill in the first thought that comes to mind. The usual way of constructing such a test is to choose many stimulating and “neutral” words. a. However. involves requiring the respondent to complete a sentence. The respondent is given a number of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. responses are arranged along such lines as “favorable . Here the interviewer gets more information than the word association technique. For example. b. The assumption here is that through free words. The order of presentation of the key words is randomized to prevent any position or order bias from affecting the results. Generally they are told to use the first thought that comes to their mind or “anything that makes sense”. it is difficult to disguise the motive of the study from the respondent. This means that the respondent feels that the product is more suited for sportspersons. In most sentence completion tests the respondents are asked to complete the sentence with a phrase. Story completion is an expanded version of sentence completion. The words are read out to the respondent one at a time. the respondents will indicate their inner feelings about the subject. More words on the same topic will reveal more about the respondent’s attitude about the product. the respondent is asked to give a series of words or thoughts that occur after hearing a given word. packages or advertisements. Responses are timed so that those responses that respondents “reason out” are identified and taken into account in the analysis. product attributes. Because the individual is not required directly to associate himself or herself with the answer conscious or subconscious defences are more likely to be relaxed and allow a more revealing answer. Respondents should not be asked to write their responses because then the interviewer will not know if the responses were spontaneous or whether the respondent took time to think out the responses. Responses are timed. Completion Techniques This technique requires the respondent to complete an incomplete stimulus.unfavorable” and “pleasant – unpleasant”. and the interviewer essentially records the “first word” association by the respondent. each separated by several neutral terms.” The sentences can be worded in either first or third person. Cartoon method i. Picture response. BY: M H Lakdawala . The respondent has to then fill these balloons and then analyzed. 3. it can be drawn to indicate the unspoken thoughts of one or more of the characters. the extent to which the respondent is able to guess the conclusions and the vagueness of the support questions asked by the interviewer. so that responses can be varied. another useful construction technique. The two main methods used here are i. or description. Respondents are given a half-completed story. ii. Cartoon Tests They are a version or modification of the TAT. This technique is very versatile and has numerous applications to marketing problems. but the ending is left vague. Each subject in the pictures is a medium through which the respondent projects his feelings. so that the respondent must use his or her imagination to describe what is occurring. They are similar to completion techniques except that less initial structure is provided. Cartoon Characters are shown in a specific situation pertinent to a problem. except that here pictures are used as the stimuli. These are similar to story completion method. a. Here the respondent is shown many ambiguous pictures and he is asked to spin stories about them. The interviewer may ask questions to help the respondent to think. Responses differ widely and analysis depends upon the ambiguity of the picture. The findings about products/ services give companies inputs to determine advertising and promotional themes and product characteristics. So some amount of focus is needed to channel the respondent’s thinking. This is enough to draw their attention to a particular issue. For example “what is happening here?” makes the answer focused towards an action. These pictures are usually relatively vague. ideas. dialogue. emotions and attitudes. The reason that respondents must be asked such prompting questions is that the pictures are very abstract and general and as such are open to very broad and irreverent interpretations. One or more “balloons” indicating the conversation of the characters is left open. Or “which one is the aggressor?” makes the respondent think about the picture as one of aggression. TAT Clinical psychologists have long used this method. involves using pictures to elicit stories. Instead of having the bubble show replies or comments. This device allows the respondent to avoid any restraints that might be felt against having even a carton character speak as opposed to think certain thoughts. but they are simpler to administer and analyze. Thematic Apperception Tests (TAT) ii. Construction Techniques This technique requires the respondent to produce or construct something generally a story. The respondent attributes these feelings to the characters because he sees in the picture something related to himself. 6. Helpful when underlying motivations. Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal. Disadvantages of Projective Techniques 5. 4. thought. 11. Personification asks the respondent to create a personally for the products or brands. Require highly trained interviewers. Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods. BY: M H Lakdawala . 9. 2. 7. Expressive Techniques a. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques. They may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. Fantasy scenario requires the respondent to make up a fantasy about the product or brand. or subject to strong social norms. This third person may be a friend. character etc (like brand values) Or respondents can project themselves into the roles of user and non-users Making up eulogies or obituaries can help 4. but to a greater extent. The means by which the role player attempts to overcome these objections can reveal a great deal about his or her attitudes. In role playing the consumer is asked to assume the role or behavior of an object or another person. Role-playing is the only expressive technique utilized to any extent by marketing researchers. c. The product or brand becomes a person (or vice versa) Helps bring brands to life Feeling. 10. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. This allows the researcher to discover the more emotional responses to brands and imagery. Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques 12. and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level. 8. beliefs. such as a sales representative for a particular department store. The role-playing customer can then be asked to try to sell a given product to a number of different “consumers” who raise varying objections. b. Another version of the technique involves studying the role-player’s attitudes on what type of people ”should” shop at the store in question. May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior. the subjects are given a number of words and pictures and are asked to choose those they associate with a brand or product and to explain their choice. Third-person technique: The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. sensitive. colleague. neighbor.b. They tend to be expensive. 3. or a “typical” person Advantages of Projective Techniques 1. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. With the pictures and words technique. It is a major step in the research process /procedure. 3. 14. Step: Five: Research Design/ Sampling Meaning of Research Design: After deciding the basic aspects of research project (i. According to David J Luck and Ronald S Rubin. Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques. “A research design is the determination and statement of the general research approach or strategy adopted for the particular project. organising and executing a research project within specified time limit and resource allocation. research design is a systematic planning. It is the basic plan that guides researcher in the execution of the research project undertaken. 4. 2. etc) and before the commencement of work of research project. projective techniques should not be used naively. BY: M H Lakdawala . data requirement. projective techniques should not be used naively. etc) as per the research design prepared. Research design tells the type of data to be collected. sample design. Given their complexity. 6. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding. data collection. Given their complexity. but to a greater extent. They tend to be expensive. Disadvantages of Projective Techniques 1. If the design adheres to the research objective. the sources of data and the procedures to be followed in data collection. Definitions of Research Design: 1. Research design provides suitable framework that guides the collection and analysis of data. It is like preparing a master plan/blue print for the conduct of formal investigation. The research work will be conducted (i. objectives of research. 3. There is a serious risk of interpretation bias. formulating research problem. 2. Require highly trained interviewers. It is like road map which enables the researcher to conduct various activities for the completion of research project. Projective techniques should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding. Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques 1.e. In short. Projective techniques should be used because the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods. it will ensure that the client’s needs will be served. the researcher has to prepare research design. It is the heart of planning.e.13. 5. Research design means to prepare detailed plan and procedures for the conduct of the research project. May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior. Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. According to Green and Tull. Determining work involved in the project. Estimating costs involved 3. “Research in the plan. 2. 3. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which source by what procedures. Research design acts as a blue print for the conduct of the whole.2. research designs can be classified into the following three categories: a) Exploratory research b) Descriptive research c) Causal research BY: M H Lakdawala . Step in planning the Research design 1. Preparing time schedule 4. Verifying results Importance/utility of research design Research design is important as it prepares proper framework within which the research work/activity will be actually carried out. “ A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. According to Kerlinger. Types of Research design: On the basis of information to be collected. structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. Exploratory research is conducted when decision makers sense a need for marketing research but are unsure of the specific direction the research should take. iii. Exploratory research aims to develop initial hunches or insights and provide direction for any further research needed. Exploratory Research i. ii.1. BY: M H Lakdawala . iv. The primary purpose of exploratory research is to shed light on the nature of a situation and identify any specific objectives or data needs to be addressed through additional research. Exploratory research is most useful when a decision maker wishes to better understand a situation and/or identify decision alternatives. The technique is necessarily a very subjective and flexible procedure with no standard approach. b. Careful attention must be given to the selection of knowledgeable people. an objective discussion leader introduces a topic to a group of respondents and directs their discussion of that topic in a non-structured and natural fashion. A well-trained researcher. This observation is not limited to business-to-business market settings. This is sometimes simply called a focus group. In today’s fast-changing technological world. very few individuals possess all of the relevant information about the market. The moderator’s primary tasks are to ensure that key aspects of the topic are discussed and to observe or record the participants’ reactions. Key-Informant Technique Conducting exploratory research by interviewing knowledgeable individuals is sometimes called the key-informant technique. called a moderator. When properly used. Focus groups are used in a variety of situations. Respondents (typically about 8 to 12) discuss a given topic in a fairly informal fashion. it is relevant in almost every context requiring exploratory research. the key-informant technique can be very productive in situations where a decision maker senses the need for research but lacks well-defined research objectives. It is also known as an expert-opinion survey or a lead-user survey. BY: M H Lakdawala . An effective way to do exploratory research is to seek out and talk to individuals with expertise in areas related to the situation being investigated. leads the discussion. Focus Group Interviews In a focus group interview.Conducting Exploratory Research a. is essentially to describe something. teens shopping with and without supervision. In this method of data collection. as the name implies. Observational Method The observational method involves human or mechanical observation of what people actually do or what events take place during a buying or consumption situation. salespeople. and time spent on specific websites. By virtue of its insight-generating potential. It involves collecting in-depth data on a variety of important dimensions or factors for the unit of interest. Data collected can provide valuable information about the study units along relevant characteristics and about associations among those characteristics. It is particularly useful in researching young children. store. will provide a proper focus for conclusive research. Such insights. researchers or mechanical/electronic devices witness and record information as events occur or compile evidence from past events. It is useful to assess behavior such as use of products. frequency of store visits. use of media. firm. market area. It is intended to generate data describing the composition and characteristics of relevant groups of units such as customers. in turn. and so on. The unit can be a customer. Variations or combinations of these methods can also be employed in an exploratory research project. although they are the most frequently used methods. d. Sometimes the insights revealed by secondary-data analysis may even eliminate the need for conclusive research. Descriptive Research The goal of descriptive research. Insights gained through exploratory research pave the way for conclusive research. This method is suitable in a research setting in which the company has a general research objective but is unsure of exactly what it is looking for. Analysis of Secondary Data Examining appropriate secondary data is a fast and inexpensive way of conducting exploratory research that can generate valuable insights. a group that is typically not amenable to many research techniques. and market areas. Exploratory research is not limited to the five methods just described. It requires an alert investigator capable of recognizing even subtle differences across cases as well as possible relationships among factors within a case. website. BY: M H Lakdawala . the case study method is a useful form of exploratory research. Many research projects involve an exploratory phase followed by a conclusive phase.c. organizations. Only the investigator’s time and imagination limit the number and types of factors to be examined. Case Study Method The case study method is an in-depth examination of a unit of interest. 2. The analysis of case data is nonquantitative and primarily involves numerous comparisons and contrasts of the data. salesperson. e. They provide a “snapshot” of a situation being researched.. Such samples are composed of panel members who are returned to the panel after participating in a cross-sectional study. ii. . stores. True Panel Studies A longitudinal study using the same sample of respondents will provide richer information than one using a series of different samples. Cross-Sectional Studies Cross-sectional studies are one-time studies involving data collection at a single period in time. the nature of the findings and the implications can differ.A drawback of descriptive research is that it generally cannot provide the type of evidence necessary to make causal inferences about relationships among variables. iii. In general. Conducting Descriptive Research Descriptive research is by far the more frequently used form of conclusive research. At the conclusion of each measurement phase. longitudinal studies are more informative than cross-sectional studies. The dynamics of changes between measurements can be captured only by using the same panel of respondents. organizations) selected specifically and solely for the one-time data collection. Cross-sectional studies account for the majority of formal research projects involving primary-data collection. or a group of units recruited to provide measurements over a period of time. A longitudinal study typically employs a panel. A cross-sectional study makes use of a cross-sectional sample or a group of units (e. A longitudinal study produces a “motion picture” (or a series of snapshots) of a situation over time. . Cross-sectional studies can also be used to obtain data pertaining to different periods in time. a panel is maintained intact for future use. Descriptive research studies are classified into two basic types: cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies. Several firms maintain omnibus panels as a source of samples for cross-sectional studies. consumers. Within the domain of descriptive research the cross-sectional study is the most popular method. The sample is disbanded after the data are collected. The primary purpose of longitudinal studies is to monitor changes over time. Although both sample options will yield longitudinal data. BY: M H Lakdawala . i. Longitudinal Studies Longitudinal studies are repeated-measurement studies that collect data over several periods in time. Successive measurements in longitudinal studies can be obtained from a physically different but representative sample of units or from the same sample of units each time. Longitudinal studies are also more expensive than cross-sectional studies. just as motion pictures are more revealing than still pictures.g. over a period of time.. Researchers may be wise to restrict their use to situations where periodic monitoring of the same respondents is essential. or neutralizing the effect of.Such a panel has been labeled a true panel to distinguish it from omnibus panels used to generate different cross-sectional samples at various periods in time A true-panel study. This is labeled panel conditioning. induce them to alter their natural or usual behavior. Therefore. compared with a longitudinal study using different samples for the various measurements.g. Differences Between descriptive and causal research design BY: M H Lakdawala . To be able to say that X has a causal influence on Y. Certain types of consumer groups are especially hard to recruit for panels. more data of primary research interest can be collected. holding constant. Background data such as demographic and lifestyle data need not be collected from panel respondents during each measurement. for the following reasons: A true panel is a captive sample of willing respondents who are likely to tolerate extended interviews or fill out lengthy questionnaires. Another potential problem with consumer panels is that the multiple-survey participation by panel members may. Manipulation of the presumed causal variable and control of other relevant variables are distinct features of experimental research. we must gather data under controlled conditions—that is. how variable X affects variable Y). is also capable of generating more data directly pertaining to the research purpose. all variables other than X capable of influencing Y and systematically manipulating the levels of X to study its impact on Y. Causal or Experimental Research Experimental research (also known as causal research) allows one to make causal inferences (e. • Types of Panels – OMNIBUS PANEL: different subjects are pulled from the panel for each time period • – Drawbacks: data is not as reliable TRUE PANEL: the same subjects are used for the panel every time data is collected • Drawbacks: members sometimes evolve out of the desired study group or are induced by the study to change their practices thus tainting the data Drawbacks of Consumer Panels A major difficulty in setting up a panel is identifying a representative sample of respondents who are willing to cooperate over a long period of time. 3. and illiterate persons. homemakers under 25. Examples of such groups include nonwhites. for a given interview or questionnaire length. Data collected through experimental research can provide much stronger evidence of cause and effect than can data collected through descriptive research. The descriptive-versus-experimental distinction exists more along a research continuum than as a clearcut dichotomy. then. Another condition is that the causal variable and effect variable must occur in the proper time sequence. In situations calling for conclusive research. exploratory research results may strongly suggest that further research of a conclusive nature may be unnecessary or unproductive. If not. some form of experimental research is appropriate. the choice of the type depends on whether testing causal relationships among variables is the primary research purpose. Determining Which Type of Research to Conduct Choosing the most appropriate type of research in a situation—exploratory or conclusive—is somewhat subjective. Conducting Causal or Experimental Research Causal or Experimental research is intended to generate the type of evidence necessary for confidently making causal inferences about relationships among variables. If so. especially when the effects of uncontrolled variables are filtered through certain analysis techniques available for that purpose. we must manipulate the causal variable and effectively control the other variables. Occasionally. Pure experimental research studies are rare. At times tentative causal statements can be made on the basis of data from a well-designed and conducted descriptive research study. Different types of panels Same people Different people Same questions BY: M H Lakdawala True panel Cohort panel . Viewing descriptive versus experimental research is not a clear-cut dichotomy. This does not necessarily mean that analysis of descriptive research data cannot suggest possible causal linkages among variables. To make causal inferences with confidence. Exploratory research is most appropriate in situations where the research objectives are general and data requirements are unclear. Conclusive projects vary from “purely descriptive with no control” at one extreme to “purely experimental with strict control and manipulation” at the other extreme. Insights gained through exploratory research typically form the foundation for more formal conclusive research. descriptive research will suffice. Specify sampling method 5. city block. extent and Time. The operational procedures for selection of the sampling units are selected. Eliminating any one of these specifications leaves an incomplete definition of the population that is to be sampled. company. or household – is selected. The number of elements of the population to be sampled is chosen. Determine sample size 6. The sampling unit may contain one or several population elements. b) units. A sampling frame is a means of representing the elements of the population. c) extent and d) time. or a list of possible phone numbers. an employee roster. The office and fieldwork necessary for the selection of the sample are carried out. BY: M H Lakdawala . A sampling frame may be a telephone book. city directory. a listing of all students attending a university. a sampling frame is required. Define the population 2. Specify sampling plan 7. The means of representing the elements of the population – for example telephone book. Select the sample Description The population is defined in terms of a) element. sampling units. The unit for sampling – for example. The method by which sampling units are to be selected is described.Different questions Omnibus panel Cross-sectional survey Sampling Designs And Sampling Procedures The Sampling Process Step 1. Step 2: Specify the Sampling frame If a probability sample is to be taken. Specify sampling frame 3. Step 1: Define the population It is the aggregate of all elements defined prior to selection of sample. map. Specify sampling unit 4. or city directory – are described. A population must be defined in terms of elements. Maps also serve frequently as sampling frames. if one wanted a sample of males over 13 years of age. tailored to the survey design. However. It may be the element itself or a unit in which the element is contained. A sample of areas within a city may be taken and another sample of household then be taken within each area. or non-probability samples. 1. Probability samples are also known as random samples and non-probability samples as non-random samples. measurability. the sampling unit would be identical with the element. Step 5: Determination of the Sample size Traditional sampling theory generally ignores the concept of the cost versus the value of the information to be provided by various sized samples. Goal orientation: This suggests that a sample design “should be oriented to the research objectives. it might be possible to sample them directly. For example. City blocks are sometimes sampled and all households on each sample block are included. the measurement as also the procedure of choosing a sample. which can be covered under two broad groups – random or probability samples and non-random. A sampling of street intersections may be taken and interviewers given instructions as to how to take “Random walks”. it might be easier to select households as the sampling unit and interview all males over 13 years of age in each household. A perfect sampling frame is one in which every element of the population is represented once but only once. One does not need a sampling frame to take a non-probability sample. There are various types of sample designs. Normally. However. 2. If this is done. It may have been decided that the household will be the element and the block the sampling unit. Step 6: Specify the Sampling Plan The sampling plan involves the specification of how each of the decisions made thus far is to be implemented. practicality and economy. This requires a substantial amount of office and fieldwork particularly if personal interview are involved. One of the most important decisions in this regard is to determine which of the two –probability and non-probability sample –is to be chosen. Step 3: Specify the sampling Unit The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be sampled. this variability is expressed in the form of standard errors in surveys. this BY: M H Lakdawala . In this case. and fitted to the survey conditions”. Measurability: A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its sampling variability. it should influence the choice of the population.. Here the sampling unit and the population element are not the same. From the intersection and select the households to be interviewed. Step 4: Specify the Sampling Methods It indicates how the sample units are selected. Characteristics of a good Sample Design A good sample design requires the judicious balancing of four broad criteria –goal orientation. How is a household defined operationally? How is the interviewer to be instructed to distinguish between families and households in instances where two families and some distant relatives of one of them are sharing the same apartment? How is the interviewer to be instructed to take a systematic sample of households on the block? What should the interviewer do when a housing unit selected is vacant? What is the callback procedure for households at which no one is at home? What age respondent speaking for the household is acceptable? Step 7: Select the Sample The final step in the sampling process is the actual selection of the sample elements. i. 2. Limitations of Sampling 1. economy implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved with minimum cost and effort. For a given degree of precision. 3. the inverse of the variance of survey estimates. Sampling gives rise to certain errors. correct. Alternatively. 3. both the execution of the fieldwork and the analysis of the results can be carried out speedily. When the information is needed on every unit in the population such as individuals. for instance. Economy: Finally. such a quota sample. for a given per unit cost. which would not be possible in a census survey on account of availability of a small number of specialists. It is obviously more economical. to cover a sample of households than all households in a territory although the cost per unit of study may be higher in a sample survey than in a census. It relies on the personal judgment of the researcher rather than t he chance to select sample elements. 5. a sample survey cannot be of much help for it fails to provide information on individual count. 2. Sampling is cheaper than a census survey. Survey objectives are generally spelt out in terms of precision. It may be pointed out that these four criteria come into conflict with each other in most of the cases. Sampling results in greater economy of effort as relatively small staffs is required to carry out the survey and to tabulate and process the survey data. it should be capable of being understood and followed in actual operation of the field work. it is not possible to know the degree of precision of the survey results. 4. 4. Practicality: This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey. A sample survey enables the researcher to collect more detailed information than would otherwise be possible in a census survey. Since the scale of operations involved in a sample survey is small. Since magnitude of operations involved in a sample survey is small. 3.e. Advantages of Sampling 1. BY: M H Lakdawala . The researcher can arbitrarily or consciously decide which element to include in the sample. the sample design should give the minimum cost. supervision and other related activities can be better than the quality in a census survey. as envisaged earlier. Non-probability sampling techniques: 1. information of a more specialised type can be collected. the quality of interviewing. and clear instructions should be given to the interviewer so that no mistakes are made in the selection of sampling units and the final selection in the field is not different from the original sample design. the results of the sample survey will be of extremely limited use. While in a census survey it may be easy to check the omissions of certain units in view of complete coverage.e. i. Practicality also refers to simplicity of the design. dwelling units or business establishments. the sample design should achieve maximum precision (minimum variance). practical. and the researcher should carefully balance the conflicting criteria so that he is able to select a really good sample design. Sampling Techniques Sampling techniques may be broadly classified as non-probability and probability sampling techniques. Also. In non-probability samples. this is not so in the case of sample survey. If these errors are too large. 2. It is necessary that complete.is possible only in the case of probability sampling. This requires not only a precise definition of the target population. Because sample elements are selected by chance. but also a general specification of the sampling frame. Every potential sample need not have the same probability of selection. 4. but it is possible to specify the probability of selecting any particular sample of a given size. This permits the researcher to make inferences of projections about the target population from which the sample was drawn. It is possible to pre-specify every potential sample of a given size that could be drawn from the population. Sampling units are selected by chance. 2. Probability sampling techniques: 1. Sampling techniques Non probability sampling techniques Convenience Judgmental Simple Systematic Sampling Random Non-probability techniques: Convenience Sampling Sampling Definition BY: M H Lakdawala Probability sampling techniques Quota Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling Multistage Sampling . It is possible to determine the precision of the sample estimated of the characteristics of interest. which contain the true population value with a given level of certainty. 5.3. as well as the probability of selecting each sample. 4. Non-probability may yield good estimates of the population characteristic. the estimates obtained are not statistically projectable to the population. can be calculated. Since there is no way of determining the probability of selecting any particular element for inclusion in the sample. However they do not allow for objective evaluation of the precision of the sample results. Confidence intervals. Probability sampling techniques are classified based on : Element versus cluster sampling Equal unit probability versus unequal probabilities Unstratified versus stratified selection Random versus systematic selection Single-stage versus multistage techniques Diagrammatic representation of the sampling techniques. 3. Example A sample of addresses taken by the municipal agency to which questionnaires on bicycle riding habits were sent. insight or hypothesis. considered the tax assessment on houses and apartment buildings (per unit). 3. A judgment sample was taken after researchers looked at traffic maps of the city. and members of social organizations. BY: M H Lakdawala . Explanation 1. such as pre-testing of a questionnaire. So they are not recommended for descriptive or casual research. This technique is used in exploratory research for generating ideas. Advantages Judgmental sampling is low cost. Judgment samples are common in industrial market research. It is useful if broad population inferences are not required. Disadvantages Convenience samples contain unknown amounts of both variables and systematic selection errors. Judgmental sampling Definition A form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are purposively selected based on the judgment of the researcher. 4. The sampling units are accessible. church groups. and kept location of schools and parks in mind. and People on the street interviews Advantages Convenience sampling is the least expensive and least time consuming of all sampling techniques. expertise and creativity. 2. Examples: Use of students. Such samples are often used in the pre-test phase of the study. It is a form of Non-Probability sampling. convenient and quick. This type of sampling is normally used to get basic information to take elementary decisions. Convenience samples are not representatives of any definable population. Commonly used Convenience samples are associates and “the man on the street”. The selection of sampling units is left primarily to the interviewer. It is mainly used for Dipstick studies. Judgmental sampling is subjective and its value depends entirely on the researchers judgment. Mall-intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents. Convenience samples are often used in exploratory situations when there is a need to get only an approximation of the actual value quickly and inexpensively. easy to measure and co-operative. Department stores using charge account lists Tear out questionnaire included in a magazines. These errors can be very large when compared to the variable error in a simple random sampling of the same size. Explanation A judgment sample is one in which there is an attempt to draw a representative sample of the population using judgmental selection procedures.A non-probability sampling technique that attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. In the second stag. Then if the panel differed significantly from the population with respect to any of these characteristics. sample elements are selected based on convenience or judgment. Explanation It is a form of Non-Probability sampling. education. occupation of the chief wage earner and home ownership. in a quota sample taken from a consumer panel for which income. If the comparison of this panel and the population might be made with respect to such characteristics as average number of children. BY: M H Lakdawala . Disadvantages Scope for high variances Scope for sizable selection errors. They should be closely related to the variable being measured in the study. it would be an indication of the potential bias in the selection procedures. Quota Sampling Definition A non probability sampling techniques that is a two stage restricted judgmental sampling. For e. The first stage consists of developing control categories or quotas of population elements. Then the sample taken would have the same proportion of people in each ethnic background. They should be easy for the interviewer to classify. the samples are selected in such a way that the interest parameters represented in the sample are in the same proportion as they are in the universe/ population. It should be noted that the similarity does not necessarily mean the absence of bias. The following aspects must be kept in mind while choosing the control variables: The variables must be available and should be recent. Quota Sampling is widely used in consumer panels. income bracket. and age group are used as control variables.Disadvantage It does not allow direct generalization to a specific population. In order to have a check mechanism about the quality of samples taken so as to reduce the selection errors. The process of validation involves a comparison of the sample and the population with respect to characteristics not used as control variables. The number of variable must be kept to a reasonable number so as to avoid confusion while analyzing the data The cost of sample per unit is directly proportional to the number of control variables. age group and geographical area as the population.g. Example If one wants to select a Quota sample of persons for a test of flavored tea and wants to control (control variables are the parameters based on which he would like to classify the universe) it by ethnic background. In Quota Sampling. usually because the population is not defined explicitly. income bracket. age group and geographical area. Quota Samples are “validated” after they are taken. This implies that every other element is selected independently of every other element. and from other sources. each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. Furthermore. thus increasing the time and cost of data collection. Explanation In random sampling. Such as Young mothers with small children. Users of a particular technology. Other types of non random samples: 4. Sampling efficiency is a concept that reflects a trade-offs between sampling cost and precision. biases in the relationship of the control variables to the variables being measured. Disadvantages It is often difficult to construct a sampling frame that will permit a simple random sample to be drawn. SRS can result in samples that are very large or spread over large geographic areas. Probability Techniques: Probability sampling techniques vary in terms of sampling efficiency. Purposive sample Subjects selected on the basis of specific characteristics or qualities. The greater the precision. and the names of the winners are then drawn out in an unbiased manner. BY: M H Lakdawala . The sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame. members of a fan club. the container is shaken. Simple Random Sampling Definition A probability sampling technique in which each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection is known as simple random sampling (SRS). This method is equivalent to a lottery system in which names are placed in a container. the researcher first compiles a sampling frame in which each element is assigned a unique identification number. Incorrect information of the proportions of the population in each of the control variables. Advantages It is easy to understand The sample result may be projected to the target population. SRS often results in lower precision with larger standard errors than other probability sampling techniques. each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability of being the sample actually selected. The random numbers may be generated with a computer routine or a table. the greater the cost and most studies require tradeoff. Initial respondents are selected by probability methods. Selection errors arise from the way interviewers select the persons/ variables to fill the quota. Precision refers to the level of uncertainty about the characteristic being measured. To draw a simple random sample. Every element is selected independently of every other element and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame. doctors. 5. target market members. Snowball Sampling A variety of procedures. Additional respondents are obtained from information provided by the initial respondents. Then random numbers are generated to determine which element to include in the sample. i. 523. the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. In some cases the ordering (alphabetic listing in a telephone book) is unrelated to the characteristic of interest. On the other hand. 323. This in turn again reduces the cost. it is different from SRS in that only the permissible samples of size n that can be drawn have a known and equal probability of selection. when the ordering of the element is related to the characteristic of interest. The sampling interval. To select random starting point through simple random process • 3. If say number 23 is selected. considerable time can be saved. and so on. If the population elements are arranged in a manner unrelated to the characteristic of interest. In other instances. However. To select the sample Suppose there are 100. Advantages Systematic sampling is less costly and easier that SRS. systematic sampling will yield result quite similar to SRS. is 100. Since some lists contains millions of elements. systematic sampling can be used to obtain a more representative and reliable sample than SRS. BY: M H Lakdawala . the sample will then consists of elements 23. A random number between 1 to 100 is selected. This more likely if the size of the sample is small.000 elements in the population and a sample of 1000 desired. Explanation In systematic sampling. Systematic sampling can even be used without knowledge of the composition (elements) of the sampling frame. 223. The remaining samples of size n have a zero probability of being selected. Although samples drawn will represent the population well on average. (Credit card customers may be listed in order of outstanding balances. systematic sampling increases the representatives of the sample. 123. because random selection is done only once. If the information related to the characteristic of interest is available for the population. Systematic sampling is similar to SRS in that each population element has a known and equal probability of selection. The random numbers do not have to be matched with individual element as in SRS. Systematic sampling Definition A probability sampling technique in which the sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. i. a given simple random sample may grossly misrepresent the target population. In this case the sampling interval. the researcher assumes that the population elements are ordered in some respect. 423. is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer. Find out Sampling Interval Sampling interval = Population/sample size • 2. Example It’s a three step process: • 1. For systematic sampling. SRS may or may not result in a representative sample. the ordering is directly related to the characteristic under investigation. g. E. i. For each selected clusters. 50+) are of interest in a study on household spending habits on household furnishings. then each of these groups would be taken separately for sampling purposes. smaller is the sample size required to provide information about that stratum.Stratified Random Sampling Definition A probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process to partition the population into subpopulations. Elements are selected from each stratum or group based on the proportionate representation by a random procedure. The reasons for conducting Stratified Random Sampling are: To reduce sampling error by ensuring representation from the population. Example If the head of the household age strata (18-34. either all the elements are included in the sample or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically. in Stratified Random Sampling representativeness to a certain degree is forced. Then a random sample of clusters is selected based on probability sampling techniques such as simple random sampling. Explanation If all the elements in each selected cluster are included in the sample. As compared to other methods of sampling. or strata is known as stratified random sampling. or strata based on well defined criteria. Divide the populations into subpopulations.m. 35-49. etc Stratified Sampling involves treating each stratum as a separate subpopulation for sampling purposes. That is. Elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure. Cluster Sampling Definition The target population is divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulation called clusters. people in the age strata of 35-40. the procedure is called one stage cluster sampling. 20000 p. Thus the more homogeneous each stratum is with respect to the variable of interest the smaller is the sample required. and from each stratum sampling units would be drawn randomly. Stratified Random Sampling emerges from the word Stratum. the total population could be divided into age groups and a separate sample is drawn from each group. The required sample size for the same level of sampling error will usually be smaller. A Stratum in a population is a segment of that population having one or more characteristics. BY: M H Lakdawala . people in the income strata to Rs. Explanation • A probability sampling technique that uses a two-step process to partition the population: It’s a two step process: i. The greater degree to which there is similarity within stratum. For eg: The lower cost per unit and higher sampling error potential of a cluster sample is illustrated by considering a sample of 100 households to be selected for personal interviews from a particular city. The key distinction between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling only a sample of subpopulations (clusters) is chosen. DATA ANALYSIS After the data have been collected. the application of these categories to raw data through coding. Step: Six: Data Processing and Analysis DATA PROCESSING Data processing’s total task in carrying out the analytical program is to convert crude fragments of observation and responses into orderly statistics for interpretation. classifying and coding. Thus. Advantages Low population heterogeneity / high population homogeneity Low expected cost of errors. the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. Thus the cost of personal interview per unit will be low because of the close proximity of the units in the cluster. The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into as few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. There are three preparation stages necessary in either manual or computer processing: editing. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. Computers tabulate a BY: M H Lakdawala . The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories. In this method the city would be divided in blocks and 10 households from 10 selected blocks would be selected and interviewed. tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. This sample may not be the exact representation of the entire city. An additional stage with computers is card punching. Thus there is a possibility of sampling error. Example If the study requires studying the households in the city then in cluster sampling the whole city is divided into Blocks and to take each household on each block selected. researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. The objective of the cluster sampling is to increase the sampling efficiency by decreasing costs. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. the procedure is called twostage cluster sampling. If a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically from each selected cluster. whereas in stratified sampling all the subpopulations are selected. The main advantage of cluster sampling is the low cost per sampling unit as compared to other sampling methods. Thus to get a representative whole of the universe. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Disadvantage High potential of sampling error as compared to other methods. giving two different values. Most common problem: lengthy interviews 2. coefficients etc. Similarly. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. especially in large inquiries. Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages. each sample being drawn from factories in different parts of the same city. For instance. In brief. In the process of analysis. Selling unnecessary research 4. How much will the study cost? 2. the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the same universe. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously. 3. by applying various well-defined statistical formulae.. Refusal rate now averages 60 percent. Violating client confidentiality Client Ethics 1. Step: Seven: Determine Time and cost Overall Evaluation 1. If the difference happens to be real. the researcher can analyze the collected data with the help of various statistical measures. then our problem may be whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter of chance. Guidelines researchers follow to protect the rights of humans who participate in studies. Is outside help needed? 4.great deal of data. must be explained fully Abuse of respondents 1. the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the difference is due to chance. the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly different results or not. When should the research be scheduled to begin? Step: Eight: Define the ethics of research Ethics: Moral principles or values generally governing the conduct of an individual or group. Requesting when a supplier has been predetermined BY: M H Lakdawala . if there are two samples of weekly wages. Is the time frame acceptable? 3. if used. Some common guidelines include: • Protection from harm • Informed consent • Confidentiality • Knowledge of results • Deception. relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said indicate any conclusions. Not a one-way relationship. Will this research design attain the stated research objectives? 5. Statement of the Problem: This is a general introduction to the topic. Major Finding viii. Introduction: Sections may be combined in short reports. figures.2. when. Tell what. iv. ii. Index iii. Data Collection technique vi. where. etc. Research design/ Sampling Method vii. forms. or other materials that are not totally central to the analysis but that need to be included are placed in the Appendix. Chapter 2 1. Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference for each of the works cited in the End Notes. Conclusion x. Obtaining free advice and methodology via bid requests 3. Making false promises 4. Unauthorized request for proposals Step: Nine: Prepare the research report RESEARCH REPORT FORMAT i. Recommendation ix. give a clear idea of what the paper investigated. In one main title and a subtitle. Title: Be specific. PRODUCT RESEARCH The purpose of product research is to develop a product line which meets the needs of consumers in general. xi. v. BY: M H Lakdawala . Appendix: Any tables. brand name given. existing products of the company are made superior (in quality) and agreeable to consumers.) which can be marketed effectively. Package and 4. package used. Product research has two important aspects. The term product research covers all aspects relating to manufacturing and marketing of a product. This is because marketing will be easy and quick when the produce manufactured is as per the needs and expectations of consumers. sale depends on the product as well as on its packaging and branding. etc. 3. Technical research of a product is conducted in the laboratory in order to develop a product with latest design and features at the lowest possible cost. and b. are the different areas aspects) of product research Packaging and branding are treated as two components of product research. Moreover. Technical aspect of a product. Product range 2. Marketing aspect of a product. useful and agreeable to consumers. These are: a. packaging. Meaning of Product Research: Product research is one major area of MR. Product research is necessary at the product planning stage. In addition. It is concerned with different aspects of a product which include name. Product research is directly related to product-mix which is one component of basic marketing mix. consumer support and so on. product innovation and modification. This creates proper background for success in marketing efforts NEED OF PRODUCT RESEARCH: Product research acts as an insurance against risk of obsolescence of existing products of the company. The researcher should suggest the details of product (nature. For this. packaging. In addition. price. Products marketing research relates to the attitudes of consumers and their preferences towards the specific product. product pricing. This suggests that marketing research should start at the product promotion stage. etc.Product research facilitates the process of making products more attractive. product research is needed in order to develop new products which will have good demand over a long period. There are four components of product mix. features. labelling. In short. Marketing efforts will not be rewarded if the product to be sold is not as per the needs and expectations of consumers. new products with promising market demand are developed. This is because they are closely connected with the product itself. Brand. BY: M H Lakdawala . product life cycle studies branding. features. Service after sale. These are: 1. uses. the following points suggest/justify the need of product research: (1) To assist in the setting up of objectives towards which the research and development department will have to work in order to develop and bring out a new product in the market. product opportunities must be studied and product must be adjusted accordingly. This is called new product research. In product research. Product planning and development. WHEN PRODUCT RESEARCH IS NECESSARY? (1) Introduction of new product/modifications in the existing product: Product research is necessary when company develops a new-product or desires to introduce an existing product with suitable modifications as per the requirements of consumers. 6. (8) To reduce the chances of product failure after its modification or after its entry in the new market and also to increase the possibilities of product success. It helps to simplify the product line. The samples know that they are testing and are therefore aware about a probable difference. 8. (6) To test prototypes of the product. (3) To estimate the sales potential of the new product (4) To verify the benefits of the new product to the consumers. 2. Product testing is a valuable tool in marketing research. It enables a manufacturer to introduce attractive package and brand name to the product for sales promotion. It enables a manufacturer to develop new products with good market demand in the existing product line. (5) To find out the possible impact of the new competitive products on the sales potential of the existing product of the company. (7) To predict the possible success or failure of the product once it is introduced in the market. IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF PRODUCT RESEARCH: Product research is important as it offers the following advantages: 1. FMCG’s would often do this since there are so many products. the objective is to raise the popularity of existing products and to reduce the new product failure rate through extensive research and testing of a new product before its introduction in the market. Such product testing includes technical testing and consumer testing. (7) Product research brings to the limelight the different uses of the product for effective publicity for sales promotion. (9) To introduce consumer friendly products as consumer preferences are dynamic. It facilitates modification and renovation of existing products so as to make them highly competitive and agreeable to consumers. This BY: M H Lakdawala . It facilitates appropriate price fixation of the product. PR is needed on continuous basis for adjusting the products as per the needs/expectations of consumers. Product research helps to explain the features of the product. Product research brings best sales returns. METHODS OF CONDUCTING PRODUCT RESEARCH: There are three methods used for the conduct of product research as explained below: Product Testing 1) Paired Comparison Testing – Consumers are not told about the brand being tested and are given a new and an old product and are asked to choose. It widens market for the product and also creates goodwill for the product and its manufacturer. Such testing is before launching a new product in the market. 5. Here. (2) Introduction of new product by competitor: Product research is necessary when a competitor introduces a new product or improved version of the existing one in the market. to introduce attractive package and brand name to the product for sales promotion. 7.(2) To pinpoint the needs and wants of consumers which the proposed product is expected to satisfy. 4. This is like the Classic Coke Test Case. 3. and competitive strengths provides a framework from which to evaluate potential opportunities. They just think that they are getting 2 free samples. One half of the respondents receive Brand A and the other half receives Brand B. In this case. Yet for its importance. They think it’s the same product. New Product research: Product definition is a critical starting point in the development of any new product. Provide a high-level schedule of various development projects. competitors.. Position planned products relative to competitive products and identify what will differentiate or distinguish these products from the competition. they are not aware of the test being taken and believe the products to be free samples This is the opposite of the 2 above. and a competition strategy (e. there are a number of common shortcomings to the process of product definition in many companies: A company doesn't blindly respond to customer needs and opportunities. Placebo Testing also has an effect here because the palette assumes that there are differences – and thus the palette expects change and there is a false perception of things being different. competing head-on or finding a market niche). The respondents are then given the same products in reverse and are asked to note any difference in the brands. New Product Planning The new product plan helps resolve issues related the markets. the respondents are studied in order to recognize if they have noticed any difference at all. 2) Staggered Comparison Test – Respondents Test 2 Brands with a time lag with the identities masked. 3) Disguised Comparison Test: This duplicates the actual market where for different brands. They don’t know that they are getting test.g. A business strategy which defines customers and markets to be served. They are just given free samples. competitive strengths. Sometimes they don’t realize that its different. and BY: M H Lakdawala . the types of products and the opportunities that the company will invest in and the resources required to support product development. The result of this evaluation of opportunities is expressed in a product plan. the new product plan is used to: Define an overall strategy for products to guide selection of development projects. The sample does not know they are part of the test. Further. Rationalize these competing development projects and establish priorities for development projects. More specifically.kind of testing tells us about branding – the strength of branding – are consumers aware of product variations? Do people really understand the style that a fashion house stands for. customers. Define target markets. Response rates for distinctions would be high because people know that there is a test happening. the same packaging is used and the respondents are told that they will be asked about their reactions later. This kind of comparison tests the ideas of respondents with respect to their influence by peer pressure and their association with a product with respect to how their choices are dictated. participating in focus groups or rotating development personnel through marketing. During customer discussions. This applies to industrial and government markets as well. Traditionally. what mechanisms to use to collect their needs. Breakdown general requirements into more specific requirements by probing what is needed. As opportunities are identified. There are even multiple customer voices within a single organization: the voice of the procuring organization. overcomes technical arrogance. Once a new product plan is established which defines the target market and customers. Few companies have a formal new product planning process. sales. and a schedule and estimate of resources to capture the voice of the customer (project plan for product definition phase). new product opportunities will be identified. let alone a rigorous process. which customers to contact in order to capture there needs. customer's real needs can become somewhat abstract to other development personnel. As a result. appropriate techniques are used to capture the voice of the customer. This has tended to isolate Engineering and other development personnel from the customer and from gaining a first hand understanding of customer needs. Development and marketing personnel should ask WHY until they truly understand what the root need is. the customer environment. Current customers as well as potential customers should be considered and included. This includes determining how to identify target customers. observing customers using or maintaining products. if not monthly. and new product technology will emerge all causing a potential impact to the product plan. children versus parents).. Even within one buying unit. These diverse voices must be considered. Challenge. Market conditions will change. This may involve visiting or meeting with customers. and the voice of the supporting or maintenance organization. reconciled and balanced to develop a truly successful product. it should be reviewed and updated at least quarterly. Estimate development resources and balance project resource requirements with a budget in the overall business plan. answering questions and providing input during development. develops greater empathy on the part of product development personnel. In consumer markets. mechanisms such as focus groups should be used where there are a larger number of customers to insure on-going feedback over the development cycle. there are a variety of different needs.g. question and clarify requirements until they make sense. This customer involvement is useful for initially defining requirements. there are multiple customer voices (e. Frequently. and critiquing a design or prototype. This direct involvement provides a better understanding of customer needs. Marketing has had responsibility for defining customer needs and product requirements. These practices have resulted in fundamental insights such as engineers of highly technical products recognizing the importance to customers of ease of use and durability rather than the latest technology. customers will try to express their needs in terms of HOW the need can be satisfied and not in terms of WHAT the need is. the voice of the user. it is essential to identify the basic customer needs. There is no one monolithic voice of the customer. or customer support functions. BY: M H Lakdawala . Customer voices are diverse. While a new product plan is generally prepared on an annual basis. and provides a better perspective for development decisions. Where a company has a direct relationship with a very small number of customers. Product development personnel need to be directly involved in understanding customer needs. This limits consideration of development alternatives. Alternately. the next step is to plan how to capture these customer's needs for each development project. and product use. it is desirable to have a customer representative(s) on the product development team. minimizes hidden knowledge. The techniques used will depend on the nature of the customer relationship as illustrated below. Document situations and circumstances to illustrate a customer need. Address priorities related to each need. Not all customer needs are equally important. Use ranking and paired comparisons to aid to prioritizing customer needs. Fundamentally, the objective is to understand how satisfying a particular need influences the purchase decision. In addition to obtaining an understanding of customer needs, it is also important to obtain the customer's perspective on the competition relative to the proposed product. This may require follow-up contact once the concept for the product is determined or even a prototype is developed. The question to resolve is: How do competitive products rank against our current or proposed product or prototype? Types of New product Research 1. New Markets/ Existing Products research: Every company has a product that can travel. It can travel to new geographical markets or to new industry segments that have not been tapped before. New markets wherever they are - new countries or new segments carry risk. New Markets/ Existing Products research help collect information on potential customers and markets wherever they are in the world. With this knowledge a company can build growth and value more quickly and more securely than by working from guesswork. 2. Existing Markets/Existing Products research: For many companies, the first place to look for more sales is amongst existing customers. Current customers have already made the ultimate gesture of approval and paid money to buy your products. A bit more persuasion and they may buy more. However, how many companies know their customer so well that they know if they have every available piece of business? Ask yourself the following questions: a. How much is each customer buying of the products (or services) I sell to them? b. What share do my competitors and I have of each customer's account? c. What does the customer think of me against the other suppliers it could or does use? d. What would make each customer buy more Existing Markets/Existing Products research answer these questions. This can be achieved by relatively straightforward research. All that require is a customer list and a good briefing. An appropriate questionnaire is designed; interviews are carrying out and report on how to win more business. 3. New Markets/New Products research: The most dangerous territory of all is that of new markets and new products. Here market research is a must. 4. Existing Markets/New Products research: The assets of every company are its customers. Existing customers know and trust the company sufficiently well to do business. So much so, they may give serious consideration to buying a new product or service from the company. In the research researcher find the opportunities for new products or services with existing customers as part of its new markets programme. In this method researcher take a brief during which he would discuss the products company want to sell and learn about their current customer. Researcher would then design a programme of interviews that could include face to face and telephone contacts to determine how much business company could win and at what price. BY: M H Lakdawala Product specification: Organizing Customer Needs Once customer needs are gathered, they then have to be organized. The mass of interview notes, requirements documents, market research, and customer data needs to be distilled into a handful of statements that express key customer needs. Affinity diagramming is a useful tool to assist with this effort. Brief statements which capture key customer needs are transcribed onto cards. A data dictionary which describes these statements of need are prepared to avoid any mis-interpretation. These cards are organized into logical groupings or related needs. This will make it easier to identify any redundancy and serves as a basis for organizing the customer needs. In addition to "stated" or "spoken" customer needs, "unstated" or "unspoken" needs or opportunities should be identified. Needs that are assumed by customers and, therefore not verbalized, can be identified through preparation of a function tree. Excitement opportunities (new capabilities or unspoken needs that will cause customer excitement) are identified through the voice of the engineer, marketing, or customer support representative. These can also be identified by observing customers use or maintain products and recognizing opportunities for improvement. Comprehensive Specification These customers needs then have to be translated into a set of product requirements (more technical expressions of customer needs) that can be acted upon by Engineering. Quality function deployment (QFD) is an excellent methodology to support this objective while considering the competitive situation. QFD is a structured planning and decision-making methodology for capturing customer needs and translating those requirements into product requirements, part characteristics, process plans and quality/production plans through a series of matrices. These product requirements are often expressed in the form of a product specification, functional specification, or marketing requirements specification. The degree of formality in expressing these requirements will vary depending on the complexity of the product, the size of the development project, and the organization structure and its communication requirements. With a less complex item, the QFD product planning matrix is usually sufficient. With a more complex item, a larger development project, and critical interfaces between multiple teams responsible for individual subsystems, the need for a formal specification increases. In addition to performance requirements and technical characteristics, a comprehensive specification would also address ease of use; ergonomics; styling and aesthetics; robustness, reliability and servicing; the product operating environment or conditions of use; life cycle costs; and packaging. Several issues can arise with a product specification that can delay time-to-market: an incomplete, ambiguous, or conflicting specification and/or development proceeding prior to completion of a specification. In these situations, development often proceeds with assumptions made about requirements that may or may not be valid. If the assumptions are not valid, the product may be off-target or there may be further product definition and redesign iterations. When specification ambiguity or conflicts are recognized before design proceeds, there are further product definition iterations that require additional time before development proceeds. This is the lesser of the two evils. It is more appropriate to take additional time than risk a product that misses the mark in meeting customer needs. However, to the degree that all team members are involved with capturing the voice of the customer and with translating those needs into technical characteristics or requirements with QFD, it is less likely that the BY: M H Lakdawala resulting specifications will be incomplete, ambiguous, or conflicting. Team members will more readily recognize these situations and recognize the additional information that must be obtained or the issues that must be resolved much earlier. Further, if there is a well-defined development process with this team-based environment, it is less likely that development will proceed until specifications are completed. Once requirements for a product are defined, they must be managed and kept stable. When requirements are a moving target, the redesign iterations severely impact time-to-market. To minimize the impact on time-tomarket and more rigorously manage requirements or specifications, establish realistic requirements at the start and make needed trade-off's. Avoid a tendency to proceed with the design before requirements are completely defined. Document requirements to communicate and develop a consistent understanding. Avoid creeping elegance and carefully consider the need to change requirements after development has started. Evolutionary Development The classic approach to product development involves significant effort defining requirements up front followed by customer evaluation and feedback of prototypes to refine the requirements and design. An alternative approach of "evolutionary product development" has emerged, largely based on the results of some Japanese companies. This approach involves regular, on-going assessment of customer needs and customer feedback, shorter development cycles with a more limited set of new requirements or capabilities, and planned evolutionary upgrades or improvements based on customer feedback. 2. Branding Research: Manufacturers, traders and consumers support branding practice as it is useful to them in different ways. Large number of products is sold in the market by brand name as consumers develop affinity to such brands and refer to them when they visit retail shops. In order to secure these advantages, brand selected should be promising. An ideal brand needs certain qualities. For example, it should be brief, simple and easy to remember and pronounce. Similarly, it should be suggestive, decent, attractive and as per the current tests and fashions accepted by consumers. Research department suggests appropriate brand names to the products of the company. For this, surveys are conducted and information is collected through interviews, etc. Such studies offer suitable guidance to management for the introduction of appropriate brand name for the product. The research team will provide necessary information on the basis of which the management will have to take final decision regarding brand name. This decision is critical as the results (good or bad) will be available only when the brand is actually introduced in the market. Branding Research can be done at every stage of Brand building process, the various researches related to Brands are: 1. Brand Character Research: The brand character research can be done using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. Qualitative research involves the understanding of: BY: M H Lakdawala 3. preference among logo options. distinctiveness. Brand Logo Research: When a new logo is to be chosen it is always advisable to evaluate it among two independent sets of people one to evaluate the logo in isolation and the other to evaluate the logo on the pack. comprehension of message conveyed. and grouping of these thoughts as positive and negative Likeability of each option Specific likes and dislikes of each option Uniqueness of each option Comparison of each option with the symbols of the competition Rating of each option’s fit with the pack Preference amongst symbol options Preference amongst name options 2. Evaluation of logo on the pack also looks at the same alternatives along with the speed with which the respondent would identify the test logo pack among a clutter of other similar packs. Brand Name Research: A Brand name research is important for any brand throughout its lifecycle. then the respondent are asked to recall the name after having read the same. It involves personal interviews in which some basic concept statements may be exposed to respondents along with the name. by logo options. Personality of each option Fit with the name of each option Fit with the brand association of each option Fit on the pack Fit with the proposed role in advertising of each option Comparison among the character options Fit with specific brand extension options Quantitative research focuses on ascertaining the following information: Thoughts evoked by each options. and preference of logo among key competition. Evaluation of logo in isolation looks at its likeability. This indicates the names notice ability and ease of recall. This helps to evaluate how the logo would stand out in the shelf. product name or service name? What barriers have to be overcome with negative latent associations? How does sound symbolism or phonosemantics (the meaning of sounds) affect the evaluation of a name's latent association? What does the name mean to you? How would you pronounce this name? What do you particularly like/dislike about this name? Which product the name suit? Or not suit? Which name you like the most and why? BY: M H Lakdawala . Then spontaneous responses are ascertained to name in terms of: Latent Association What thoughts come to mind upon hearing this name? What negative and positive associations exist with new corporate name. the evaluation should include the following questions: Ascertain the current state of affairs. the barriers to comprehension. Brand awareness research: Market awareness and perceptions of brand can rise and fall quickly in a changing market. where feasible. Brand Health research allows companies to set competitive brand strategies and provides brand with a Brand Equity Index. lapsed and potential customers 6. 4. brand affect. a preference ranking is done of the names and the best among them is chosen. and brand performance outcomes (market share and relative price) with an emphasis on understanding the linking role played by brand loyalty. comparative and evaluative measures. 7. 5. The BEI can be analysed in relation to the brand’s market share and will help determine whether the brand’s share gain is at the expense of long-term brand equity or whether the brand has the potential to expand its market share. Brand Loyalty Research: Brand Loyalty research explore the relationship among brand trust. Brand Association Research: For existing brands or existing competition of new brands. Brand Loyalty research generate both statistical and qualitative data — benchmarked. descriptiveness of the name etc. Brand Health research: The health of a brand is measured by its brand equity.After the ascertaining the responses to these. without exposing the respondents to the new concepts Expose new concepts Ascertain the response to new concepts Compare the responses generated before and after exposure of new concepts to understand their effects. The first step is to obtain a systematic understanding of the shape of market perception of brand through survey research. respondents mind would already have brand associations. provide the tools to effect improvements: Overall satisfaction Ratings of performance on specific aspects of the product/service Reasons for lack of satisfaction/poor ratings Salience and hierarchy of needs/preferences/expectations Gap Analysis/Strategic Priority Analysis Loyalty and propensity to recommend/re-purchase Drivers of satisfaction and loyalty Reputation/image of the brand Value for money Customer Segmentation and include. These. combined with specific diagnostic data. Typical Brand Awareness Research questions include: Which single company comes to mind first as a provider for IT solutions? Which other companies come to mind? What qualities does the market leader possess that the other companies do not? What factors drove your decision to select your primary vendor? BY: M H Lakdawala . This methood also helps in ascertaining the names ability to communicate to the respondent. In such cases. Brands with high equity can command and sustain price premiums and are more successful with line extensions and new category entries. 3. the differentiation level of product or service. Pricing research usually concentrates on customers' sensitivity to pricing. There are four main approaches: • Several different research methods are commonly used in pricing research—each with their own strengths and weaknesses. Pricing is one of the more technical areas of market research. This price sensitivity is driven by the nature of the market. Pricing studies. we employ both qualitative research and quantitative research tools. Sound pricing market research requires a broad strategic perspective together with a focus on pricing decision options. Pricing research usually concentrates on customers' sensitivity to pricing. Gabor-Granger or Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter (PSM) BY: M H Lakdawala . This price sensitivity is driven by the nature of the market. To what degree are you aware of the company’s capabilities in the area of IT solutions? What three words best describe the company’s position in the industry? What is your perception of the company’s products? Experience? Technology? Service? Sales processes? Based on understanding of the company’s direction how do it perceive its position over the next 12–24 months? In the fast moving technology industry in which companies are launched. and morphed into new business. Conjoint Analysis 4. Pricing Research Pricing research involves first a pricing strategy assessment supported by strong pricing research capabilities. the target within that market. Pricing research finds optimum price-product-feature configurations in the context of market positioning opportunities. Pricing research • Pricing research involves: • Pricing strategy assessment supported by strong pricing research capabilities. the target within that market. merged. the differentiation level of product or service. There are four techniques that are commonly used the four techniques are: 1. Pricing is one of the more technical areas of market research. Gabor-Granger or Van Westendorp Price Sensitivity Meter 2. acquired. Sound pricing market research requires a broad strategic perspective together with a focus on your pricing decision options. Brand Awareness research is critical to establishing and maintaining the desired market awareness and perceptions of your company. Discrete Choice Modeling 1. Concept Test 3. and the value of brand. and the value of brand. in conjoint analysis each respondent is exposed to many concepts. At what price would you consider the product to be priced so low that you would feel the quality couldn’t be very good? (Too cheap) 3. respondents are asked: 1. a sample of respondents evaluates this concept at Rs 9000.The Price Sensitivity Meter (PSM) is used fervently by some researchers. a different sample of respondents evaluates the same concept at Rs5000. instead of exposing each respondent to a single concept. However. At what price would you consider the product to be a bargain—a great buy for the money? (Cheap) In this method. Typically the researcher will expose independent samples of respondents to different prices. Many pricing researchers question that this is the definitive optimal price for a product Concept Test/Concept Evaluation The standard purchase intent question from a concept test is also commonly used for pricing research. For example. and another sample of respondents evaluates the concept at Rs 14000. A demand curve is constructed by evaluating purchase intent at each price 3. At what price would you consider the product starting to get expensive. Respondents are presented with a product concept and asked how likely they would be to purchase this product at a specific price. For each treatment. The premise of the PSM is to ask respondents four price-related questions and then evaluate the cumulative distributions for each question. but you would have to give some thought to buying it? (Expensive) 4. At what price would you consider the product to be so expensive that you would not consider buying it? (Too expensive) 2. Conjoint analysis: Like concept tests. Specifically. conjoint analysis presents concepts to respondents. respondents are asked to make hypothetical trade-offs between configured products. as follows: BY: M H Lakdawala . • • • • • • • • (After introducing the product concept) How likely. so that it is not out of the question. a respondent might be asked to express his preference between two VCR alternatives. the optimal price point for a product is the point at which the same number of respondents indicate that the price is too expensive as those who indicate that the price is too cheap. would you be to purchase this product in the next 12 months if it costs Rs 9000? Definitely would purchase Probably would purchase Might or might not purchase Probably would not purchase Definitely would not purchase • To evaluate price sensitivity using this example. The standard purchase intent question is shown below. a large number of product features can be evaluated. simulation capability).In conjoint analysis.. respondents are forced to make trade-offs between products and product features. competitive products. This individual-level estimation allows for the identification of individual differences that can lead to a market segmentation scheme and can be used to help predict acceptance of products by different individuals in a heterogeneous market. but it also includes a more realistic respondent task.g. as illustrated below BY: M H Lakdawala . These utilities also allow prediction of preference for any product that can be defined using the product characteristics in the study. much as buyers are forced to do when actually shopping. in each question the combination of features shown together changes. ability to include a large number of features. referred to by some as choice-based conjoint. In this way. Each respondent provides enough information through his or her trade-offs that the utility of each product characteristic (including price) can be estimated for each respondent. the respondent is presented with a set of products and the respondent is asked to pick one. Each respondent answers a series of trade-off questions. enjoys many of the benefits of conjoint analysis (e. These preferences can be modeled in a market simulator. A demand curve can be produced from these simulations. A market simulator allows “what-if” analysis for any configuration of products in any competitive environment. Discrete Choice Discrete choice modeling. In discrete choice. packaging research is useful. Discrete choice modeling has been used with great success in pricing research 4. shape. It should be used for established as well as for new products. Packaging Research MEANING OF PACKAGING RESEARCH: Packaging research is one aspect of product research. For large-scale marketing. Packaging research has special significance in export marketing as packaging of export items needs to be safe. Packaging needs to be as per the standard packaging norms used BY: M H Lakdawala . For this package research is useful. and also attractive to foreign buyers. For achieving these objectives. In addition. It makes the product attractive and agreeable to consumers. Manufacturers. both approaches are able to produce utilities at the individual level. Packaging research is useful for making product packages secured. As a result. Packaging needs constant changes as per the expectations of consumers and also as per the current trends in packaging designs. the advantages of packaging (as noted above) indicate the importance and need of packaging and packaging research.) used. and both discrete choice and conjoint allow what-if simulations. we observe new packages of varied sizes. Moreover. shapes and colour combinations in the market for all types of products particularly consumer items such as soaps. Packaging research plays a positive role in modem marketing. It deals with the needs and expectations of consumers about the package (size.colour combination. attractive and agreeable to consumers. in India. durability.The results from discrete choice modeling are very similar to those from conjoint. For instance. material used. secured. now take active interest in package research. It acts as a sales promotion technique. cosmetics and oils. attractive packaging is a must. renovations should be made in the packages after some interval. etc. (5) Whether the existing package gives clearly visible identity to the product and its brand. The package on a retail shelf is the last opportunity to influence consumers before they decide to buy.) (4) Whether the packaging material used is safe. high temperature and shock and whether any other material which is more economical and safe can be used/introduced. It’s the final sales pitch at the “moment of truth. Package graphics and copy are critical marketing variables in many product categories. are common at this beginning stage. wood.” when the brand-choice decision is made.g. Custom/Ad Hoc Packaging Research 1. (6) Whether the cost of packaging is high and how to bring down the packaging cost and thereby to make the product competitive as well as attractive in the market. Package Check 3. light. (8) Whether there is scope for improvement in the packaging so as to make it attractive. Ten to twenty package designs. or significant change in an existing package. Package Screen Early-Stage Package Designs the package design process typically begins with the creation of a large number of “rough” or early-stage designs. Package Test 4. durable and gives full protection to the product against moisture. Package Screen is an Internet-based system to accomplish this BY: M H Lakdawala . or more. packaging of export items needs to be as per the legal provisions made in different countries. particularly for non advertised or under advertised brands in self-serve shopping environments. (2) Whether certain modifications/alterations are necessary in the existing packages (used by the company) so as to make them attractive and as per the tastes and requirements of consumers. Any new package design. packaging rules and procedures are very strict in European countries. The research objective is to identify the package designs that resonate with consumers. Following are the packaging research methods: 1. etc. (e. so that creative efforts can be focused on further development of the better designs.. WHY PACKAGING RESEARCH UNDERTAKEN? Packaging research is undertaken in order to find out reasonably correct and reliable answers to the following packaging problems/issues: (1) Whether the existing package used for the specific product is attractive and agreeable to consumers and is also as per the current trends in the field of packaging. Moreover. should always be subjected to the scrutiny of objective consumer feedback.in different countries. the greater the likelihood that consumers will choose that brand. (7)Whether the existing package facilitates proper disposal or reuse of the packaging material after the use of the product. Package Screen 2. avoiding the use of thin plastic bag or replacement of plastic containers through the use of thick paper. eco-friendly and easily/quickly saleable. In addition. The better the package design and copy. (3) Whether the existing packages are eco-friendly (in regard to material used and colour-combination) and to introduce suitable modifications in them so as to make them eco-friendly. The report includes answers to standard questions. Package Test is comprehensive. At each exposure level. package recognition and communication are examined. The research design is monadic. on the package. and later view the other panels. These participants are invited to come to a location and view the early-stage package designs. based on a number of key variables. including a series of open-ended questions. Each respondent sees all of the package designs one at a time (front panel only) on his/her computer monitor. Package Test Finished Or Near-Finished Package Designs As packages near the end of the design process. testing system to evaluate finished (or near-finished) package designs. BY: M H Lakdawala . compared to the organizations action standards. Respondents first see the package’s front panel. a monadic test) and then answer a series of questions about their reactions. Package Check is.e. in randomized order. A mathematical model. A representative sample is recruited from one of our worldwide Internet the panels. Then. as well as the coded responses to all open-ended questions. Then the respondents are asked to examine and to read the package in detail. The report includes answers to standard questions. designed to provide this diagnostic feedback. 4.) using a tachistoscope. The highest-rated designs are recommended for further development.. A typical PackageCheck study is based on 75 completed interviews 3. each person views the package designs a second time and answers four questions about each design. How Does Package Check Work? A representative sample of target-audience consumers are recruited to as a panel and view each package design. The answers to these four questions are fed into a mathematical model to calculate an overall score for each design. 2. a more complete evaluation is required. How Does Package Screen Work? A representative sample of 200 to 300 target audience consumers are recruited from a panel. and qualified respondents are invited to evaluate the package design. as well as the copy. The verbatim detail is valuable to creative teams as they strive to improve the graphic design. Custom/Ad Hoc Packaging Research Package Communication What is the package communicating? What is the package failing to communicate? Depth interviews are typically used to explore package communication issues. as well as verbatim responses to open-ended questions. 1/200 of a second. the test package is shown at different time exposures (1/500 of a second. Usually. etc. with comprehensive measurements to assess all of the important elements of package design. along with our analysis and interpretation. with no time limits. Package Check Diagnostic Feedback The next step in the design process is to learn more about the better designs so that further improvements can be made. The respondents see only one package design (i.winnowing task. calculates an overall score for the package design and compares it to action standards. A typical Package Test project is based on 150 completes. Simulated Display The ultimate test of a package is whether it stimulates trial of a product. 1/100 of a second. and the reason for those decisions. The purpose of this research is to learn how to improve brand recognition and package communication. 5. This methodology helps determine the visibility (or attention value) of a test package. as the length-of-time exposure increases.The consumer’s reactions to every detail of package graphics and copy are explored in the interview. The respondents are questioned about what they see and what they understand. Their brand decisions. are explored in post-shopping interviews. relative to competitive packages. at various time exposures (1/200 of a second. we typically build representative displays of the test package in a competitive environment. Matched samples of consumers are instructed to “shop” the display. 6. The best photographs (with correct rotations) are shown to a representative sample of consumers. a representative display of a product category (with all major competitive brands) is assembled. These displays are photographed from angles representative of the consumer’s perspective. and so on) with a tachistoscope. The test package is rotated within the display. BY: M H Lakdawala . To measure a package’s trial potential. Shelf Impact Does the average consumer notice the package on the shelf? To evaluate shelf impact. Simulated display allows us to measure a package’s trial potential and helps us learn how to improve its trial potential. Idea Generation. Audience Profiling. advertising planning can proceed with a developing a message that will be meaningful to the consumers. The client wants to see how well a particular ad scores against the average commercial of its type.Chapter 3 There are four stages where copy testing can take place: 1. End of creation process 3. Evaluative Criteria in Copy Research • “Getting It. After the campaign has been launched Chapter 3 Copy Research It starts with the beginning of creation process. Concept Testing seeks feedback designed to screen the quality of new ideas or concepts. Beginning of creation process 2. An agency is often called on to invent new. 3. End of the production stage 4.” – Do consumers understand the ad? • Knowledge – Tests of recall and recognition • Attitude change – Determine where a brand stands • Feelings and emotions • Physiological changes – Changes in eye movements or respiration • Behavioral intent – Do people say they will buy the product • Actual Behavior – Did people buy the product? BY: M H Lakdawala . Creative need to know as much as they can about the people to whom their ads will speak. ways of presenting a brand to a target audience. Purposes of Copy Research 1. Copy research is a good idea most of the time--it can yield important data that management can use to determine the suitability of an ad concept and basic idea. 4. Account team wants assurance that the ad does what it is supposed to do. Once a target segment have been identified. meaningful. 2. Audience Definition. " Such methods are commonly referred to as concept testing and have been performed using field surveys. Think of a concept as a rough print ad. and (3) product/concept tests: where consumers first evaluate a concept. Types of Concept Testing: a. or on the basis of their own experience as to which concepts they believe represent product ideas that are worthwhile in the consumer market. The quantitative portions of concept testing procedures have generally been placed in three categories: (1) concept evaluations: where concepts representing product ideas are presented to consumers in verbal or visual form and then quantitatively evaluated by consumers by indicating degrees of purchase intent." or non-rational benefits. packaging concepts. then the corresponding product. rather than the actual thing itself. likelihood of trial. such as "a detergent that removes stains but is gentle on fabrics. and strategy concepts. such as "a shampoo that lets you be yourself. These methods involve the evaluation by consumers of product concepts having certain rational benefits. (2) Positioning: which is concept evaluation wherein concepts positioned in the same functional product class are evaluated together.Copy Research Methods 1. The concept is communicated with a rough illustration or photograph. along with a written description. Concept testing is widely used to evaluate new product ideas. The concept generation portions of concept testing have been predominantly qualitative. on the basis of consumer surveys and other market research. Advertising professionals have generally created concepts and communications of these concepts for evaluation by consumers. promotional concepts. personal interviews and focus groups. Card concept test– Creative strategies are presented to respondents in the form of headline. etc. Each concept is placed n the separate card. followed by body copy placed on a white card for review. although concepts can be presented in storyboard or video form. Concept Testing Concept testing Concept testing involves testing the “idea” of something. so that potentially successful new products can be identified early on. in combination with various quantitative methods. Concept testing is used to generate communication designed to alter consumer attitudes toward existing products. Concept testing can also be used to help evaluate advertising concepts. Then limited research and development resources (and limited marketing resources) can be focused on the new product concepts with the greatest probability of consumer acceptance in the marketplace. BY: M H Lakdawala . and the results are compared.. to generate and evaluate product concepts. To describe the use of a product. Rating scales are used to choose the most preferred slogan. of a product or service is tested by a manufacturer or researcher. Creating such a name is an art as well as a science with rules and guidelines rooted in sociology. a good brand name gives a good first impression and evokes positive associations with the brand. Slogan testing: A slogan. Simply put. A good name to identify a company or distinguish its products from others must be unique and original. Layout test: Layout test involves showing a rough copy of a print ad or artwork for a TV ad. Aid memory recall: It should be easy and pleasant to remember. Poster test: This is similar to card test but expands illustrations and copy and places them on a large poster instead of a white card. As the samples are informed about the product or service. semantics. 2. and the law. To suggest the product’s special advantage or unique benefit. Layout tests are more finished than a poster tests in that they use the total copy and illustration as they will appear in the finished ad. BY: M H Lakdawala . it enables them to form a connection between the proposed slogans and taglines and products or services. the purpose of the layout test may e to measure more subtle effects such as communication. a tagline etc. The purpose of the slogan testing is to find out whether the slogan achieves the following: 1. understanding and confusion. Name testing Starting with the right name (and logo) is the cornerstone of brand building. 2. 3. yet capable of carrying a favorable message to motivate the customer to have dealings with that company. 3. whereas a card or poster test measures the appeal of the basic concept. Slogans are also tested in a similar fashion where the respondents are given details about the product or service and chose the best fit. c.b. Additionally. psychology. feed copy development. or (3) After tracking research has indicated that the current campaign is no longer building awareness or image. By conducting copy testing. print (newspapers. or more recently. in-depths) has been used in the creative development process. radio). magazines). These alternatives attempt to embody an advertising strategy that has been identified through previous phases of research. (2) After qualitative research (focus groups. It is believed that by using copy testing an advertising agency will be able to lower the chances that their advertising campaign will be unsuccessful. copy tests can be conducted at any time there is new advertising that needs to be evaluated. advertising campaigns can be revised and sometimes corrected. the Internet.Chapter 4 Copy testing Copy testing start at the end of creation process and before the production start. When Used Copy tests are an integral part of the creative development process. Practically speaking. The premise is that exposure to an ad should affect the way a consumer perceives a product or service. Copy testing is a method used by advertisers to see whether or not an ad will work once it is produced. Copy tests are usually conducted (1) After a strategic/positioning study indicated an opportunity for the brand that. and (of necessity) always follow the development of one or more advertising alternatives. Copy testing questions What message are we really communicating? Is anyone offended by our advertising? Is our advertising clear and easy to understand? Does our advertising project the right image? Are we saying the right things? Techniques of Copy Testing: a) ANIMATICS BY: M H Lakdawala . Copy testing is a general class of tests that evaluate and diagnose the communication power of an advertisement – either broadcast (television. in turn. Copy Testing definition: Research that measures responses to marketing communication copy in a test environment to evaluate the copy's effectiveness in fulfilling the intended objectives. (e.. This can be used to convey the mood of the final commercial when the real model will be used. Copy Test Designs There are two basic copy testing approaches for TV – – off-air. with the test ad in the middle. (b) On-air tests: On-air tests are executed on an unused cable TV channel among people who have been recruited to view a fictitious ½-hour pilot TV show. (a) Off-air: Off-air tests focus on whether the copy effectively communicated its intended strategy. b) PHOTOMATICS These are photographs shot in sequence still images areworked into a sequence.g. This makes manipulation easier andinvolves lesser time and technology. often spanning years of tests in many categories. Similar off-air approaches are used for radio testing (no "on-air" versions exist). it shows staccato framesto show how the story goes. off-air stimuli are less costly. but see only one test ad. and whether the advertisement "broke through" (i.e. and provides more diagnostic information on specific copy elements than on-air tests. This method is useful because it canshowcase the entire range of emotions that the respondents displaywhen shown the product. c) LIVEMATICS This involves filming or taping live talent and is very close tothe finished commercial. in which respondents view a clutter reel of competitive ads. or a pre-post persuasion score Brand likes. dislikes Imagery/personality ratings Attribute/brand performance ratings Classification and demographics BY: M H Lakdawala . They are usually used forexperimentation on visual techniques. On-air tests excel at evaluating copy performance in a real-world setting. Measures typically include: Recall of ad ('day after recall' or DAR) Main point communication Proven recall (correct playback of copy elements) Total copy and situational/visual playback Purchase intent. Because a lower state-of-finish is acceptable. d) RIPOMATICS The conversion is made from footage of other commercialstaken from ad agency promotional reels. Like a storyboard. was recalled). Various elements can be changed inthis method and as you look at the image you can decide whatchanges need to be made. Print testing usually involves placement of the test ad in a mocked-up version of a national magazine. Prints taken from foreign miniature samples and customized). The advantage of using specialized companies is their normative databases. Systems for copy testing Many companies have specialized systems for copy testing. Off-air approaches are "forced exposure" tests (usually in a mall or theater environment). or can also involve eye-tracking to determine which elements were seen while reading the ad.This is art work in the form of either cartoons or realisticdrawings showing limited movement. and on-air. Respondents see ads for other categories. and these tests are more often used at an earlier stage of the copy development process. accurate information. Direct questioning Direct questioning . Various methods of Copy testing 1. Popular tests include comprehension and reaction tests and consumer juries. advertisers are increasingly spending more monies testing a rendering of the final as at early stages. and skill of the researcher.Because of the high cost associated with the production of an ad or commercial. Most of the tests conducted at the rough stage involve lab settings. Much of the power of the depth interview is dependent upon the insight. conducted directly by the copy researcher. sensitivity. brand name or brand symbol Then follow up with probes and amplifications. 3. Direct Mail Tests BY: M H Lakdawala . a lengthy (one to two hours). A typical procedure is as follows: participants are asked to respond to a copy with the words that the stimulus evokes in their mind.elicits a full range of responses from which researchers can infer how well advertising messages convey key copy points. Slides of the artwork posted on a screen or animatic and photomatic roughs may be used to test at this stage. It is especially effective for testing alternative ads in the early stages of development. one-on-one. The interviewing task cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewers—who have no training in motivational techniques.such as a product category. Free Association tests Free association utilizes the ‘projective hypothesis’ by encouraging the respondent to provide the first set of words or associations that comes to mind after their exposure to a stimulus . The heart and soul of copy research is the depth interview. Rough tests must indicate how the finished commercial would perform. although some on. Some studies have demonstrated that these testing methods are reliable and the results typically correlate well with the finished ad. Again. personal interview. Initial reactions tend to be pragmatic but later ones show paths to emotional ideas Ask respondents to say what comes into their head when exposed to the copy Then follow up with probes and amplifications Initial reactions tend to be pragmatic but later ones show paths to emotional ideas Verbal association tests help to obtain information about the attitude of a respondent to certain idea or concepts named by the words of the respondent's native language. the Internet allows field settings to be employed.air field tests are also available. 2. The test is of little value if it does not provide relevant. It reveals the respondents' levels of emotion with respect to copy. some young people need company to be emboldened to talk. 5. Qualitative interviews The heart and soul of copy research is the depth interview. One group is shown a TV ad and the other is not. and skill of the researcher. which are the main source of raw data. Interviewing more than one person at a time sometimes proves very useful. one-on-one. openended responses to questions provide the evaluator with quotations. conducted directly by the copy researcher. personal interview. non-threatening environment" • Use of focus groups BY: M H Lakdawala . Statement-comparison tests: In Statement comparison. which are usually reciprocal exchanges. Interviewer asks group members very specific questions about a topic after considerable research has already been completed. In qualitative interviews. Focus group can be define as a "carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions about the test copy in a permissive. The interviewing task cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewers—who have no training in motivational techniques Unlike conversations in daily life.Direct Mail: This is done with the use of coupons. and some topics are better discussed by a small group of people who know each other. sensitivity. a lengthy (one to two hours). The task for the qualitative evaluator is to provide a framework within which people can respond in a way that represents accurately and thoroughly their point of view about the copy." 6. qualitative interviews involve an interviewer who is in charge of structuring and directing the questioning. Then both groups are given coupons to buy the product that has been advertised. Qualitative interviews also promote understanding and change. The researcher then measures the influence of TV ads on both groups. Also gives an insight into consumer attention spans and levels to your mailer in some cases (booklets that come through mail are often less used than when the booklet is advertised on TV) 4. Much of the power of the depth interview is dependent upon the insight. respondents are given different sentences and asked to give their opinion. the emphasis is on intellectual understanding of the copy rather than on producing personal views. Focus Groups: Definition: limited to those situations where the assembled group is small enough to permit genuine discussion among all its members“. (this Is a lab test) – specific only to coupons sent via DM This shows the impact level of a mailer. Products and services that relate. services. or other objects of interest.Focus groups can be used at any point in a research program. interpreting previously obtained qualitative results The Moderator’s Role To develop a rapport with the group/ must inspire confidence To ensure people become relaxed and eager to talk To promote interaction To focus discussion on topic areas When a topic is no longer generating fresh ideas the flow of discussion should be changed 7. but a standard marketing research survey would never reveal these motives. programs. It is also a time of life when discretionary incomes are rising (the children are leaving the nest). Observation can be a fruitful method of deriving hypotheses about human motives. stimulating new ideas and creative concepts. learning how respondents talk about the phenomenon of interest which may facilitate quantitative research tools. Motivational research is most valuable when powerful underlying motives are suspected of exerting influence upon consumer behavior. 6. BY: M H Lakdawala . sociological forces). generating research hypotheses that can be submitted to further research and testing using more quantitative approaches. why do women tend to increase their expenditures on clothing and personal adornment products as they approach the age of 50 to 55?. Motivational research seeks to discover and comprehend what consumers do not fully understand about themselves. diagnosing the potential for problems with a new program. Implicitly. motivational research assumes the existence of underlying or unconscious motives that influence consumer behavior. 7. service or product. Anthropologists have pioneered the development of this technique. cultural factors. For example. This same systematic observation can produce equally insightful results about consumer behavior. b. All of us are familiar with anthropologists living with the “natives” to understand their behavior. The reasons relate to the loss of youth’s beauty and the loss of fertility. Other motives are at work as well (women are complicated creatures). Motivational research Motivational research is a type of marketing research that attempts to explain why consumers behave as they do. institutions. to power. to personal adornment. to fears. to attraction of the opposite sex. The three major motivational research techniques are observation. Motivational research attempts to identify forces and influences that consumers may not be aware of (e. a.g. 5. to death. obtaining general background information about a topic of interest. or might relate. because most women are not really aware of why their interest in expensive adornments increases at this particular point in their lives. 4.. generating impressions of products. to status or self-esteem. 3. or to social taboos are all likely candidates for motivational research. 2. focus groups. Stewart and Shamdasani have summarized the more common uses of focus groups to include: 1. and to related fears of losing their husbands' love. and depth interviews. group interviews. Usually.c.d) The frequency of response also validates the copy. Consumer juries may be asked to rate a selection of layouts or copy versions presented in paste-ups on separate sheets. the advertiser does not want an ad that evokes a negative reaction or offends someone. Obviously. Comprehension and reaction tests One key concern for the advertisers is whether the ad or commercial conveys the meaning intended. SENSITIVITY ANDRELIABILITY Copy testing involves accessing the validity and reliability of varioustypes of tests Measures that are taken to assessVALIDITY are:-a) Advertisements to be targeted with respect to thecommunications objective and a copy test that content must have ameasurable and useful variable that represents the objective. personal observation is simply too expensive. the company can seewhether the right connection is made or some other connection ismade in the minds of a consumer. Hence. Comprehension and reaction tests are designed to assess the responses. CREDIBILITY / PREDICTABILITY Copy test of an ad may be considered monotonous because of its predictability in the sense that a product by its very nature lendsitself to a copy that in unavoidable. Consumer Juries: This method uses consumer’s representatives of the target market to evaluate the probable success of an ad. The second concern is the reaction of the ad generates. they typically range from 50 to 200 respondents. Personal interviews.c) It is important to know the reaction of the respondents to the testenvironment and the measuring instruments.b) Given that the target population can be sensibly defined thesubjects in the test should be representative of the targetpopulation. VALIDITY. and focus groups have all been used for this purpose. and most consumers don’t want an anthropologist living in their household for a month or two. Therefore. the validity of a particular copy test will depend on theadvertising response that is desired. 9. and sample sizes vary according to the needs of the client. Observation can be accomplished in-person or sometimes through the convenience of video. the predictability factoris very high for BY: M H Lakdawala . CREDIBILITY. Here. Tests of comprehension and reaction employ no one standard procedure. You have to checkwhether the respondents are comfortable with the measuring scalesused as they would give contradictory responses if uncomfortable. A respondentis asked to see an advertisement multiple times to see if there isconsistency in reaction no matter what mood they are in. 8. It is important that the objectives of pre-testing research relate back to the agreed advertising strategy. FMCG’s such as soaps are so similarthat the ads seem similar as well as therefore an ad is rememberedbut not the brand as very few actually stand out. The purpose of pre-testing is as follows: • To spot errors in the copy • To make communication more effective • To design the ad better • To reduce wastage in advertising • To ensure that the money is spent prudently. Thus. these brands should try to create aseparate identity that is identifiable by the market. brands individuality mustseem meaningful. Pre-testing is the stage of advertising research in which a complete ad is tested. the respondent and therefore thecustomer reaction----therefore advertising efforts should be made tocreate a non-predictable copy. should try to be non-predictable. an identity thatis represented by intangible values.RELIABILITY Reliability of a product or service is also tested by the success of thead. as the ad must contain a USP of the brand of the product orservice. versa ad) SENSITIVITY: It involves a test that should help differentiate betweencommercials between brand groups as products have similarsounding USP’S. BY: M H Lakdawala .g.the ad to be credible efforts must be made to strikea balance between being faithful to the product and beingindividualistic while creating ad copy. Hence. theconcept. Pre-testing is a type of research that involves gathering reactions to messages and materials prior to widespread use. Respondents invariably findcopy lacking individuality hence. Reliability explores isthe ad in tandem with what the customer expects and what thecompany claims (e. The reliability and therefore the success of copy is testedwhen respondents accept/reject claims made by advertisements onbehalf of the manufacturer or service provider. Brands must therefore make special efforts tocreate distinction. Similarly. Chapter 5 Pre-testing: Pre-testing: This is the test of the copy before it is given to the media. benefits. attitude toward the brand. Pretests should be used as guides and not as absolute predictors of winners or losers. 9. including the ability of the ad to attract attention. Mock magazine test 7. comprehension by the reader/viewer. recall. 6. It is especially effective for testing alternative ads in the early stages of development. 3. Communication: The ability of the advertising to impart a message. Impact: The ability of the advertising to be noticed and remembered. Call to Action: The ability of the advertising to motivate consumers to try or re-buy the brand being advertised. Print Pre-testing: Print pre testing 1. In pre-testing it is always best to use multiple measures to evaluate.Pre-tests may occur at a number of points. Affinity Building: The ability of the advertising to generate consumer affinity (liking) for both the advertisement and the brand being advertised. credibility and irritation level. 8. Direct questioning: Direct questioning . from as early on as idea generation to rough execution to testing the final version before implementing it.elicits a full range of responses from which researchers can infer how well advertising messages convey key copy points. Focus group 3. Relevancy: The ability of the advertising to persuade consumers that their needs will be met by the product. More than one type of pre-test may be used. or keep him/her interested. Paired comparison test 5. feelings) as encompassed in the brand’s positioning objectives and strategy. Order-of-merit test 6. 7. Portfolio test 4. or keep him/her interested. 2. which is clearly and uniformly understood by the target market. the multiple measures recommended are: 1. 1. persuasion. Brand Building Ability: The ability of the advertising to create. Direct questioning 2. 5. change or reinforce certain key predetermined brand attributes ( features. Direct mail test. Involvement: The ability of the advertising to involve the consumers. In particular. 4. Brand fit: The ability of the advertising to demonstrate brand fit. A number of variables can be evaluated in pre-testing. Creative Diagnostics: The pre-test should elicit a host of creative diagnostics to help answer the “whys?” that always emerge from behind the above measures. BY: M H Lakdawala . The heart and soul of copy research is the depth interview, a lengthy (one to two hours), one-on-one, personal interview, conducted directly by the copy researcher. Much of the power of the depth interview is dependent upon the insight, sensitivity, and skill of the researcher. The interviewing task cannot be delegated to traditional marketing research interviewers—who have no training in motivational techniques. 2. Focus group: A number of respondents (participants) convened by an interviewer to discuss questions or issues relating to the research topic. The interviewer’s role is to facilitate & moderate the discussion and ensure it covers the key questions & issues. Participants may raise important new issues/questions. 3: Portfolio test: In a pre-test, a portfolio of advertisements is used. The respondent is asked to go through the portfolio, then it is taken away, and the respondent is asked; What advertisements do you remember seeing?' the recognition test may thus be combined with the recall or impact test which has been described below. 4. Paired comparison test: Paired-comparison designs (in which the consumer is asked to use two copies and determine which copy is better) appeal to our common sense. The Paired-Comparison is a wonderful design if presenting evidence to a jury, because of its "face value" or "face validity." It can be a very sensitive testing technique (i.e., it can measure very small differences) between two copy. Also, the paired-comparison test is often less expensive than other methods, because sample sizes can be smaller in some instances. Paired-comparison testing, however, is limited in value for a serious, ongoing copy testing program. The paired-comparison test does not tell us when both copies are bad and does not lend itself to the use of normative data. It is heavily influenced by the "interaction effect" (i.e., any variations in the control copy will create corresponding variance in the test copy 's scores). 5. Order-of-merit test: Here the ranking of the advertisements are done by a group of people called the jurors. The point system is given to an average of 4-5 copies that they are given to rank. The order of merit is the one, which determine which the best advertisement by the jurors is and which has been rated as the worst. The points given by the jurors are then added together to determine which is the ad, which has got the maximum points. This is the one that is the chosen one. 6.Mock (“dummy”) magazine test: Readers are told the magazines publisher is interested in evolutions of editorial content and asked to read the magazines as they normally a would. In an improvement on the portfolio test, ads are placed in “dummy” magazines developed by an agency or research firm. The magazines combine regular editorial features of interest to the reader, as well as the test ads, and are distributed to a random sample of homes in predetermined geographic arrears. Then they are interviewgenerating capabilities of the ads are assessed. The advantage of this method is that it provides a more natural setting than the portfolio tests. Readership occurs in the participant’s own home, the test more closely approximates a natural reading situation, and the reader any go back to the magazines, as people typically do. BY: M H Lakdawala Direct mail test: Direct mail is the most common form of direct marketing, advertising that conveys its messages straight to the consumer or another business rather than using an intervening medium such as television or print advertising. There's only one rule in direct mail: Test! Find out how to track the response to your mailing and determine if you have a winner or loser. Prospects from the mailing list randomly selected are sent different test ads and the orders against each lot are noted. Broadcast Pre-testing: Television and radio advertising: 1. Trailer tests: Large Screens in shopping malls show advertisements. A real life like shopping environment is created to measure consumer behavior. One group is given coupons to purchase selective brands, and the other group is not given the coupons. The redemption rate of the coupons may give an idea about the effectiveness of the test ads. Interviews conducted in a set location, (typically either a field research facility in an office or a shopping mall) for the purpose of interviewing people in that area. 2. Theatre test: During a regular show in a theatre, advertisements are shown in regular slots and are tested for recall. The audiences in the theatre are unaware of the tests and are asked to recall the ad. Consumers in the theatre are asked then to remember the ad (or maybe even all the ads) – to check if the ad is clutter breaking. 3. Live telecast tests: Ads are put on air either by narrow casting or live telecasting. These ads are test ads, and not the regular ads. Later, viewers are interviewed to know their reactions. Here the inaccuracies of artificial testing environment are not encountered. 4. Clutter test: It is the method of pre-testing in which commercials are grouped with noncompetitive control commercials and shown to prospective customers to measure their effectiveness in gaining attention, increasing brand awareness and comprehension, and causing attitude shifts. Commercials are shown with non competing control ads to determine attitude shifts and detect weaknesses. BY: M H Lakdawala Chapter: 6 Physiological testing: Physiological measures detect how consumers react to messages, based on physical Reponses. Eye-tracking systems have been developed to monitor eye movements across print ads. Another Physiological measures is a pyscho-galvanometer , which galvanic skin responses (GRS) .,GRS is a measure of minute changes in perspiration which suggests arousal related to some stimulus in this case , an advertisement . Voice response analysis is another high-research procedure. Inflections in the voice when discussing an ad indicated excitement and other physiological states . Other less frequently used physiological measures record brain wave activity , heart rate , blood pressure and muscle contraction . 1. Pupil metric testing BY: M H Lakdawala Eye-movement camera It is used in advertising research. The pauses are noted. this equipment tracks the movement of the eye over press advertisements.Perceptoscope or Pupilometric Devices Record changes in pupil’s dilatation. showing the path which the eye takes and indicating the sequence of interest that the features arouse. It measures the eye movement over the layout of test ads. Physiological Test Measures 2. BY: M H Lakdawala . Left eye is photographed o record dilatation. Dilatation indicates reading and attention. The areas of interest and attention can be judged. It evaluates interesting appealing visual stimuli. It is developed by Eekhard Hess and James Polk. Contraction shows his dislike to what is being read. The route taken by the eye is noted. g. measured by current flow as indicated on a galvanometer. This change may have a correlation with psychological stimuli (e. Galvanometric Response It means change in skin conductivity due to changes in moisture content (perspiration). fear or other emotion) and arguably may provide a measure of a respondent’s reaction to an advertisement BY: M H Lakdawala .3. It takes brain wave measurement continuously from the surface of the head and converts them into an Engagement Index (EI) five times per second through a proprietary algorithm NASA. Greater the deviation from the person’s normal (baseline) voice. the fact that respondents know they are participating in a test. 5. such as a question. Voice pitch analysis A type of analysis that examines changes in the relative frequency of the human voice that accompany emotional arousal.– Galvanic skin response (GSR). which ads do a better job of engaging the viewers. the validity of Voice Pitch studies is questionable. It helps in evaluating winners from also-rans. or interviewer instructions (among others) may account for more differences than the ads itself. Used in packaged research. Chapter 7 Challenges to pre testing Factors other than advertising creatively and/or presentation may affect recall during pre-testing. It is also now used to measure consumers’ emotional responses to advertising. [aka Electodermal response (EDR)] Sensitive to affective stimulation May present a picture of attention May measure long-term recall Useful in measuring effectiveness 4. to predict brand preference. Interest in the product or product category. BY: M H Lakdawala . Brain Wave Research: Brain pattern analysis or Brain wave analysis equipment are non-invasive and resembles a pair of headphones. Some researchers argue that for certain types of products (those of low involvement) ability to recognize the ads when shown may be better measures than recall. the greater the emotional intensity of the person’s reaction to a stimulus. How ever. Recall may not be the best. and to determine predisposition to buy a product. Halo effect: Halo effect is the greatest limitation of pretesting. an individual should be able to evaluate each feature of a given brand independently and should have no difficulty giving a high rating to one feature while giving another a low rating. particularly in the area of advertising or brand evaluation. When we consider a person good (or bad) in one category. Of course. The halo effect makes it difficult to evaluate brands in terms of their strengths and weaknesses. Subjective reaction on the part of consumers noticed by researchers when attempting to analyze consumer attitudes and their relationship to the market structure. This tendency. Of course. Another is that good-looking schoolchildren (or a good looking person versus a more plain looking person) are assumed to be more clever. Limited concepts: Even the quantity of concepts exposed to the respondents is limited. However. and a low rating to all the features if they do not like the brand. called the halo effect. in theory. For example. particularly when the company is introducing a new product into the line. This is known as a halo effect. if a brand name has a quality reputation in the marketplace. Thus the 'Halo effect' is when a person's perception of another is influenced by their appearance. researchers have noticed that respondents have a tendency to give a high rating to all the brand's features if they like the brand. the reverse may also occur-rating an ad bad overall due to only a few bad attributes. the halo effect does not actually confer accuracy. However. Sometimes participants rate an ad good on all characteristics because they like a few and overlook specific weaknesses. A person who is good at “X” is deemed to be good at “Y” even if the two items are not related. we are likely to make a similar evaluation in other categories. the halo effect may work to the brand's advantage. A common example of the halo effect is when a person is assumed to be smart because he or she is wearing spectacles. Most commonly attractive people are judged as having a more desirable personality than someone of average appearance. It has been used to describe how the iPod has had positive effects on perceptions of Apple Computer are other products. BY: M H Lakdawala . The halo effect may or may not have anything to do with the physical appearance of the person. a halo effect is one where the perceived positive features of a particular item extend to a broader brand.Limitation of the juror: Jury selected may not be competent enough to evaluate the ad copy. It is equally applicable to any attribute one holds as valuable. Here creativity is restricted. distorts the ratings and defeats the ability to control for specific components. it simply addresses that the reasoning is flawed. In marketing. in practice. 8• To assess the relative effectiveness of different copies and media plans. 2• To find out its credibility. BY: M H Lakdawala . 2. and what they remember about it. which is done after the ad copy has come out in the media and the audience has seen the advertisement. Recognition test: It determines the readership of advertisements in the publications and is conducted by personal interviews with readers and magazines or newspapers. It could be aided recall. The post-testing methods. This actually gives us an idea about the actual performance of the ad in terms of exposure. They then go through the publication. which of course is based on memory alone. where they are given few cues to help them recall and unaided recall. 3• To find out its comprehension 4• To measure its memorability. We can assess the credibility and comprehension of the ads. page by page. perception. Few of the methods of this type of tests are: 1. 5 Post-testing measures the following factors: Has the advertisement campaign result in sales? Has it created memorability for the brand name? Has it created positive image and a favorable attitude towards the company and the brand? How much advertising is necessary on a continued basis. 6• To assess its fit with the promotion and marketing mix 7• To assess whether it has achieved its objectives. with the respondent indicating those advertising elements which e or she recognizes as having read. 9• To improve future advertising efforts. 5• To assess its effect on buyers. Recall tests: In this type of tests the individuals are asked to answer about the ads entirely on the basis of their memory. 4Post-testing typically involves interviewing readers to determine how many remember seeing a particular ad. to sustain the same level of consumers’ interest in the brand? Are the consumers convinced that the brand is superior of competitors The purpose of post-testing is as below: 1• To find out the impact of an ad in terms of it being noticed. The interviewers locate the readers of the particular issue of the publication in questions. if they read it. communication and sales effect. seen and read.1Chapter 8 2Post-testing: 3Post-testing: This is the testing. Sales results tests: The additional sales generated by the ads are recorded. people and places. 3. BY: M H Lakdawala . They invite consumers to send back the coupon to seek a demo or more details. The change in attitude as a result of advertising is assessed. “read some” or “read most” of the individual advertisements. and the respondent is asked. And if the respondent is able to connect the product with the company then it is a triple association. In a pre-test. For example – “Thanda Matlab”. Inquires test: These are couponed ads of consumer durables. Sales effect tests: They measure the various stages of buyer awareness. then it is taken away.The scores developed by the recognition method indicate the proportion of qualified readers of a publication who claim to have “seen” (noted). Attitude test: Attitudes show our predisposition towards objects. 5. It is difficult however to correlate an increase in sales to advertising alone. The respondent is asked to go through the portfolio. ideas. The above describes the method used for post-test. a portfolio of advertisements is used. The number of enquires determine the effectiveness of the ads. The assumption is that a favorable attitude towards a product will lead to a purchase. Triple association test: Here the respondent is given certain cues wherein he can relate to a certain brand. if the answer is coca cola. 4. buying intention and actual purchase in relation to actual advertising effort. preference. 7. 6. Most ads are designed either to reinforce or change the existing attitudes. They indicate overall feelings. then it is correct. What advertisements do you remember seeing?' the recognition test may thus be combined with the recall or impact test which has been described below.