Alina Mungiu Pippidi* SUBJECTIVE TRANSYLVANIA: A CASE STUDY OF POST COMMUNIST NATIONALISM** 'Having some time at my disposal when in London, I had visited the British Museum, and made search among the books and maps of the library regarding Transylvania !!!" one of the wildest and least known portions of #urope !!!" I read that every known superstition of the world is gathered into the horseshoe of the $arphatians, as if it were the centre of some sort of imaginative whirlpool'! Bram %toker& 'racula" * Alina Mungiu Pippidi is a p li!i"al ps#"$ l gis! and a % u&nalis!' T&ain(d ) !$ in R *ania and !$( Uni!(d S!a!(s +,a&-a&d Uni-(&si!#. s$( )!ain(d $(& P$D in S "ial ps#"$ l g# /& * !$( Uni-(&is!# / Iasi in 0112' S$( pu)lis$(d in -a&i us n(3spap(&s and % u&nals ) !$ in R *ania and a)& ad4 a* ng !$(&s in 5 -(&n*(n! and Opp si!i n4 T&ansi!i n4 Eas! Eu& p(an C ns!i!u!i nal R(-i(34 La N u-(ll( Al!(&na!i-(4 L( M nd(4 F &(ign P li"#' ,(& ) 6 7R *anians7 a/!(& 7817 3as !&ansla!(d in! 5(&*an )# F&i(d(&i"$ E)(&! S!i/!ung9In!(&g&ap$ V(&lag in 011: +Di( Ru*an(n na"$ 781.' S$( als au!$ &(d "$ap!(&s n R *ania n -a&i us ) 6s pu)lis$(d in B&i!ain4 ,unga&# and !$( US' 1 ** ;u(&i(s " n"(&ning !$is ) 6 s$ uld )( add&(ss(d ! : Alina Mungiu Pippidi4 02 A Bad Las"a& Ca!a&giu4 Bu"u&(s!i <0004 R *ania4 !(l=/a> ?@09:2@ ??<A4 (9*ail: pippidiB$ !*ail'" * 1. FOREWORD Background The career Transylvania made as a centre of 'some sort of imaginative whirlpool', while the 'wildest and least known portion of Europe' is well-known. The land 'beyond the woods' of despots and vampires, of werewolves and all sorts of monsters completely occupied the Western imagination to such an e tent that attempts to show mediaeval Transylvania as an enlightened place of religious tolerance, reform and learning was not even noticed, although it is precisely this image inhabitants have of themselves. !isputed in the modern times between "ungary and #omania without the conflict ever reaching the heights of conflicts in former $ugoslavia, Transylvania survived all through the %&th 'entury as an ethnic mi of #omanians, "ungarians and (ermans. (ypsies are also there, but )uite unnoticed* +ews used to be there, but they were either decimated during the "olocaust, or they left during 'ommunist times. Encyclopedias show along time the changing image of Transylvania in the West as rooted in fre)uent changes in its history, but also the endurance of the core facts. The Encyclopaedia ,ritannica of 1-11 carries echoes of .toker's description of Transylvanian inhabitants as 'pictures)ue' e cept a few looking like (erman or /rench 'normal' peasants, when )ualifying the (ermans as 'the most advanced section of the population'. 0nfortunately they made only %11,&1-, while 'The "ungarians and the .2eklers together number 314,--4', 'but by far the most numerous element, though long e cluded from power and political e)uality is formed by the #umanians, 1,1-5,%3% in number, who are spread all over the country. The gypsies of Transylvania 6...7 are estimated at 8& &&&76...7. +ews, 9rmenians, ,ulgarians, #uthenians and (reeks are also represented in the medley of peoples'. The authors note Transylvania's incorporation into "ungary since 13:3, adding' since that time the ;agyari2ation of the principality has steadily been carried through, in spite of the bitter protests and discontent of both .a ons and #omanians. 9 "ungarian university was founded at <olo2svar in 135%* and "ungarian is recogni2ed as the official language'. =e (rand =arrousse encyclopedi)ue of 1-:4 devotes more attention than the pragmatic ,rits to the 'dark millenium' noting that so little is known of Transylvania during that time that two versions of history, a #omanian and a "ungarian one, can still present fundamental different points of view over the matter. The /rench also record Transsilvania as a #omanian name for the region, not only =atin, as in Encyclopaedia ,ritannica. ,oth acknowledge the e istence of the "ungarian name, Erdely, also used in #omanian pronunciation as 9rdeal, and the (erman '.iebenburgen'. .ince 1-11, many things happened> Transylvania was reunited with #omania by the Trianon Treaty of 1-%&, then northern Transylvania was granted again to "ungary by the 9 is ?owers in 1-4&, to return again to #omania at the end of the war. =e (rand =arousse shows the usual optimism of Enlightenment when stating in 1-:4 > '9 more liberal status granted to "ungarians seems to have settled the matter forever 6definitivement7.' This approval towards the 'ommunist solution of the minorities problem is shared by the % Encyclopaedia 9mericana 61--37, which underlines the 'more enlightened nationality policies by the 'ommunist regime@. The %1,&&& s) m reported by ,ritannica, circumscribed by the borders of the "ungarian province of Transylvania since 135: had become 1- 15% s)uare miles in the 9merican Encyclopaedia, as other #omanian contingent regions 6;aramures, ,anat7 were added to the lands between the Transylvanian 9lps, Eastern 'arpathians and the 9puseni ;ountains. The fifteenth edition of Encyclopaedia ,ritannica 61--4 ;icropaedia7 sums in four lines this 'turbulent' history, saying> '9fter forming part of "ungary 611th-1:th century7 it was an autonomous principality within the Attoman Empire 61:-15 century7 and then once again became part of "ungary at the end of the 15th 'entury* later it was incorporated into #omania. This edition also displays a beautiful 15th century oriental rug under the title of 'Transylvanian rug'* together with many others this rug made either in Turkey and imported or in some part of European Turkey once decorated a 'hristian church in Transylvania. The 9merican Encyclopaedia brings to date the demographics of Transylvania, noting that from the about 5 million inhabitants of nowadays :8 B are #omanians, %8 B "ungarians and : B (erman and other nationalities. The last inter-ethnic clash did not make its way into Encyclopedias> it dates from 1--& and left eight dead and hundreds inCured in the beautiful old town of Tg. ;ures, capital of the .2eklers 6.2ekelys7 region. The .2ekelys are the people among whom +onathan "arker was traveling> ' who claim to be descended from 9ttila and the "uns', but nowadays see themselves as "ungarian. This minor clash doesn't indeed seem noteworthy compared to other ,alkan contemporary violent disputes* it is however notable beyond the Transylvanian conte t, as the first inter-ethnic violent conflict after the =iberation year, 1-3-. Approach D started to think about this research while on a /ulbright /ellowship at "arvard 0niversity in 1--8. Dn between satisfying my need of political assertiveness by showing up at small rallies where we protested against the 0E policy towards ,osnia and the lectures of .amuel "untington on the Freligious@ motives of the ,osnian conflict, D started to wonder on the reasons of the so different approaches and understandings of the nationalism topic between us, East Europeans with a communist e perience, and our Western colleagues and friends, a difference which is marvelously mirrored in the collection of essays by =arry !iamond and ;arc ?lattner 61--37. This is not to imply that we discovered something new in our e perience> it is Cust that our communist e perience prevented us from forgetting some old truths, mainly on the human nature. ;ost of us, East Europeans, were stricken with the truth of /ukuyama's famous essay on the end of history from the first words- only to be the first to realise afterwards the tremendous distance separating political theory from the real world. ?olitical theorists have this marvelous capacity of presenting ideas, at least in retrospect, as the sole responsible of events. When reading ?opper of <edourie one really feels it was the fault of "egel or it was the fault of <ant- making one truly nostalgic of classic historical approaches, and mostly of the work of economic historians. We have little means of ascertaining, while being once and for all made sensitive by ;ar ism to the powers of ideas, how powerful were those ideas in producing actual events. Dn fact D think ;ar im-=eninism is so far the only proven case of ideology shaping society. D suspect for the rest it is safer to assume 1 not freedom.is underestimated. and la2y when it comes to choose between comple alternatives.5 million "ungarian community inhabiting Transylvania. and it was a lucky historical development these two could go together in some places. that the importance of philosophy is e aggerated in our post-. While the need for identity prevails over the need for freedom.ar ist era.ideology derived from social representations held by society. .ince 1--:. and is responsible for shaping a whole range of domestic policies . an ethnic party.o while liberalism remains the only legitimate doctrine at least for political theorists. these not-at-all abstract.osnia or <ossovo.esides the violent outburst of 1--& in Tirgu . This is not to say philosophers are innocent of the responsability attributed to them> this is to say.some with little connection to the national one at first sight. To the nationalist #omanian parties. "e may seem so influential with the present age in one hundred years as "egel or <ant retrospectively seem to ?opper or <edourie. Dn theoretical battles.ut how can the Fnational@ problem in #omania be definedG Abviously. The issue Dn the rather Fcompetitive@ area of East European ethnic conflict 2ones Transylvania was until now luckier than . The same goes today. /or the #omanian anti-'ommunist intellectuals the Fnational problem@ seems to be the regaining of some meaning of the #omanian identity 4 . .occer World 'up in 1--3 no other cause was able to generate popular enthusiasm than national pride and solidarity. D think psychology prevails over political theory. the "ungarian 9lliance 6!9"#7. D have. we should have known better than e pect people in underdeveloped countries as my own to show Fenthusiasm@ over market economy and institutional reforms . became a member of the government coalition and enCoyed seats in the #omanian government. . 9dding to theis the terrible impersonali2ation of 'ommunist societies 6Dnglehart and 9bramson> 1--57 there is little wonder the most basic need of people in East Europe was identity. Ance the communist regime overthrown we were not to see Fenthusiasm@ e cept for national causes anywhere in Eastern Europe. down to ground feelings. so Fcognitive misers@ 6/iske and Taylor> 1-347. but partly also anti-'ommunist. the national theme dominated the #omanian political debate since 1--& to our days. it means different things to different political actors. This is not to say that /ukuyama is mistaken > he is not. the national problem is the lack of loyalty and therefore the danger of irredentism of the 1. Where they could not go together the need for identity was stronger. while the importance of psychologymy own field. "owever. however. Dn the real life. . however.ures the region was peaceful. people remain the same as they have ever been > keen for a collective identity.these abstractions whose application mostly generate poverty and disorder in the short term. Dt is therefore such an approach that D shall take on my topic.oviet #epublics in 1--1 to the e traordinary mobili2ation in the days of the . not an individual one. on all accounts. in an e periment uni)ue in Eastern Europe. mostly post-communist parties. such as are unfold in Cournals and academic amphiteatres he made a point so strong D think it cannot be essentially challenged. when the validity of /ukuyama's theory has no immediate practical importance. little or no )ualification for another. /rom the rallies in former . and their influence on those social representations was a remote and late one. despite strong evidence against this assertion 6both in the elections of 1--& and 1--% the public was divided on the communist-anticommunist cleavage line.to have presented such a clear identity. despite occasional increase in tension and constant hatespeech in a part of the #omanian press the situation improved steadily. /or the #omanian "ungarian elite the problem is to find a political formula which can accomodate their very distinct cultural identity. !uring the /ebruary 1--. with the "ungarians supporting for ?resident the #omanian anti-'ommunist candidate7. The latter seems to imply that the main cleavage of the #omanian society is the ethnic one. most notably #omania's "elsinki (roup7. . The legal amendments.udapest Arban insisted a separate all-"ungarian university 8 .wiss /oundation to start an orphanage on the grounds that this would change the ethnic composition of the region. also had serious difficulties in passing through the ?arliament. the Fnational problem@ of #omania is seen only as the containment of the ethnic competition between #omanians and "ungarians in the strict legal and administrative framework of #omania and Europe. Athers. -although little evidence supports this. !espite these favourable developments. meant to satisfy the long-enduring claims of the "ungarian alliance. a maCority of "ungarians keep perceiving a Fconflict@ between "ungarians and #omanians. The conclusion in 1--: of a bilateral treaty between #omania and "ungary led to the disappearance of the "ungarian theme in the electoral campaign of fall 1--: .ince the brutal confrontation of 1--&. and only the second after the introduction of the universal vote in 1-13.inister #adu Hasile to . for the international community. The electoral victory of Hiktor Arban@s /D!E. point to the national problem as to the main determinant of the political life and the main negative element preventing democrati2ation 6(allagher> 1--87. . Time seems so far to side with the optimists. where the local community instigated by the town council brutally evacuated four #omanian nuns and prevented a .the first democratic political alternance after the war. won elections . 9fter victory the "ungarian alliance Coined the government with the winning #omanian parties.I in the .in a world so different from the one before the %nd World War .ome believe there isn@t any national problem in #omania and would rather consider it from the human rights angle.alvanyos he proved repeateadly to be an outspoken promoter of self-government for the "ungarian communities abroad. This tradition draws on the 'eausescu years and has adCusted little to the new realities of post-'ommunist #omania.visit of #omanian ?rime . 9nalysts are also divided. allied with the "ungarian 9lliance.the last moment said. /inally. such as Tom (allagher. The immediate following of granting some self-government in the "ungarian dominated area 6the county of "arghita now has all only "ungarian leaders. a purely ideological cleavage. as members of the maCority rebelled against the political agreement between party leaders and sided with the nationalist opposition. either government appointed or directly elected7 lead to the intense and bitter conflict of Adorheiu . Arban had been attacking the #omanian-"ungarian treaty during his electoral campaign and at summer camps at . making it a problem of collective rights of a minority 6this is the aproach of human rights groups.ay 1--3 "ungarian elections further endangered the consociatonal e periment started in 1--: #omania.ecuiesc.and the democratic opposition. Dt is the belief of this author 6as D shall show in 'hapter 17 that it is FsubCectivity@ which e plains nationalism much better than anything else. Dt is subCectivity that feeds the substance ethnic conflicts are made of. This should have not come as a surprise. =ittle should it matter also for the 9merican Drish or the (erman <urds or <ossovars if their homelands are independant or not.outh Tyroleans have their parking tickets in Dtalian or in (erman. give shape to a psychological reality more obCective than anything real in the world. 'ircumstances only cannot be relied upon to solve a problem which is ill-defined and constantly marginalised. The conse)uence of the presence of a strong ethnic "ungarian party lead to a total disinterest of the #omanian parties for the topic of "ungarians. Eo global vision was ever e pressed by a #omanian politician.y this D mean the current synthesis of collective beliefs. this book will attempt to give a critical overview of the contemporary nationalism theory. "owever these abstract matters can lead people to behavior which is often contrary to their immediate interests. Outline of this work The purpose of this book is to provide this better definition of the problem and describe the alternatives for solving it. that is.should be created for #omanian "ungarians. attitudes and behaviors which. D am not interested here in the obCective truth about the Transylvanian history.ofos. and the Transylvanian past will be mentioned Cust to the e tent that it shades some light on the present. . Dt is a subCective matter of little practical conse)uence if the Kuebecois have a constitutional mention as a Fdistinct society@ in the 'onstitution. To conclude. perceptions. the Fpolitical imagination> which turns cultural entities into political ones. and no national debate has ever taken place on this issue. as a historian would perhaps do. if . supposing such an obCective truth might be ever reached. although subCective. history6chapter 17 and interethnic cohabitation6chapter 47 in Transylvania* to outline the different trends in opinion. but only in the present FsubCective@ Transylvania. either. The mystery of nationalism. with a special focus on theories on East European nationalism and socio-psychological theories 6chapter 17 * to describe and interpret the collected data on common social representations of identity 6chapter %7. since they no longer live there.1--: >1-7. The anti-'ommunist parties considered that since !9"# is their ally it is to their concern only to bother with "ungarians@ problems and simply tried to find the best strategic ways of solving their punctual demands. 9ll these developments show that there is more to it than the optimism of 1--: led us believe. if the #omanian "ungarians can study in "ungarian in a pure "ungarian 0niversity or a multilingual one. and its superiority towards all Fisms@ lies in this capacity to generate such disinterested behavior in the masses. The author is therefore not interested in seeking some definitive historical truth about Transilvania. Dn order to e ist. considering the "ungarians have already too many rights. rhetoric : . nations have to e press their political subCectivity 6+enkins J . The post-'ommunist parties were in principle opposed to the policy of revendications of !9"#. . a region with a #omanian maCority 6'luCL<ollosvar. where the conflict broke in 1--& as ethnic supremacy is constantly challenged by the two groups whose proportion is similar. . . two groups. The material recorded during focus groups was the main basis for the )uestionnaire used in the survey. two groups. where the "ungarians have the maCority* Workers. The seven "ungarian groups consisted of> 5 . the old capital of the whole region7. . in a two-steps strategy. opinion leaders of both communities. se . .istrita Easaud. one in 'luC* ?easants. Cournalists.ures. and ethnic structure of the region. . The sample covered all the Transylvanian counties > 9lba.ihor.2ekelys7. one in Hiisoara 6'luC county7. "unedoara.ucharest with psychology students7 and in-depth interviews with political leaders. 'luC.and attitude among elites6chapter 87* to establish if there is reason to talk of an ethnic conflict in #omanian Transylvania and if so. 'luC* 9ged (reek-'atholics. a small village in the . plus a control one in . Methodological issues !ata for this study was collected between 1--: and 1--3. 'luC.ures. one in Tg. Kualitative interviewing %.2ekely land 6"arghita county7.ibiu. one group.urvey 6+une 13-%4 1--37 Dnteviews conducted were both group interviews 614 focus groups in transylvania. The si focus groups involving the #omanian population included > Dntellectuals 6holders of some academic degree7. 1. .anat were not included.ures.are.7 This conventional division was not taken into account for the survey. . so to have a region with a "ungarian maCority 6the . 'ovasna.a region and a village where #omanians make the maCority. each with a different cohabitation e perience. Dn order to gather the ma imum amount of significant material locations for the focus groups were selected after the conventional division of the region in three areas. how serious this conflict is6chapter :7 * to discuss the possible solutions and ways to deal with such conflict6chapter 57.aramures. and the other in =ive2i.The sample was made of 8-5 persons older than 18 and is representative for the age. "arghita.rasov. however. .atu-. 'ounties of . . . and a a region with no distinct maCority 6Tg.alaC. . "ungarians. .outhern Transylvania under the 9ntonescu regime and to the "olocaust in Eorthern Transylvania under "orthy. . two groups. 'helcea > 1--47. where historically cohabitation was closer to the cosmopolitan type. That left Transylvania to #omanians and "ungarians.ures county 6.ures. one in 'ovasna 'ounty 6. then were allowed to immigrate to (ermany in e change for generous sums paid by the (erman state to the 'eausescu regime. emigrated to (ermany. Dnterviews with the #omanian groups were conducted in #omanian. 'omplementary use of focus groups and surveys were used before )uite successfully 6.organ > 1--1> ch. with a mi of ethnic groups 6#omanians. so can de considered as stereotypical statements.talinist years on grounds of having collaborated with the . and religious communities 6#oman 'atholic. 'hristian Arthodo 7. (heorghe. (reek 'atholic or 0niate.2ekelys. Tg. ?rotestant.f. This pattern was essentially changed during the 'ommunist regime > the (ermans were at first deported to the .abes. 6'ovasna county7* Workers. . the same he did with (ermans. 6"arghita county7.an2iene7.olyai students. so their number decreased until their almost total disappearance. The +ews have been also submitted to persecution in . Dnterviews with the #omanian "ungarian groups were conducted both in #omanian and "ungarian.'luC* =ower middle class. Ane additional focus group interview was performed with a group of 0niversity . ethnically mi ed area* Dntellectuals. +ews7. 8 #omanians and 8 "ungarians.. 'ovasna7* 9ged men.?easants. statements reproduced in the book met the approval of the whole groups.f (heorghe. even aged people. three groups 6'luC. one in . one group. . in Transylvania cohabitation was mostly of the inter-cultural type 69braham. united only superficially under the same political leadership. during the war.oviet 0nion in the .iercurea EiraCului7. (ypsies. Dn the seventies 'eausescu traded them with Dsrael. Dn 1--&. but preserving each a sort of autonomy.iercurea 'iuc. The region Transylvania used to be an ethnic pu22le. one group. one group. 9s is it usually the case with )ualitative research our groups are not representative. but illustrative for the population and the region under study. 6. pure "ungarian area. (ermans. and the intermediate stratum between these historical rivals was gone. This means that while in Timisoara. . 37 Each time we considered a statement might be representative we included it in the survey )uestionnaire.adescu. when it became obvious #omania was slow on the road to land restitution and creation of a new rule of law most of what was left of the (ermans. 0nless specified otherwise. This was the only ethnically mi ed group.anat. 0nlike . capital of 3 .urgess 1--:7. being separated in compact groups of different ethnic origins. Transylvania is undoubtely a European region > both by its rich European past and by its present culture.both groups behave peacefully. 1--%>817 and may differ substantially from the - . =ittle ground for comparison can be found with post-colonial countries. Hillages of #omania were deserted of the younger generations. not the rule. but not together. while cities and towns received a large number of peasants with a very different life style than the urban one.. . Ane maCor change was the modification of its ethnic composition > besides changes we mentioned above.anat.but even then it was not mandatory to accept these Cobs if one assumed the risk to seek a Cob by himself . but mostly the blind moderni2ation imposed by 'ommunism changed Transylvania enormously.ungiu> 1--87. 'omparing Transylvania with other areas of ethnic conflict also calls for some specifications.oldova and Wallachia7 to urban Transylvanian areas and to large numbers of Transylvanian peasants.ore than one reason can be summoned up to e plain this. There is also no party in #omania's today ?arliament not to have in its political program the goal of achieving the European integration of #omania. Even in 'eausescu's times the most aggressive state policy was to distribute Cobs to university graduates in areas far from their home . 9ttempts of assimilation of the other ethnic groups in Transylvania had merely an administrative character. 'ommunism. and the surrounding border areas people of various ethnic origins 6including also . /or these reasons D think it is only correct to compare Transylvania to similar regions of the developed world. "artop and . 9romanians. is also lacking . /irst. who too settled in urban areas. and they were not violent. ?ost-'ommunist #omania has a limited e tent of participant political culture > the interest in politics is the lowest of the 41 countries reported by Dnglehart in the World Halues . Dn these circumstances the political culture of the elites. although Transylvania belongs geographically to the second. Ane last e planation is perhaps necessary to Custify our decision to discuss elites apart from ordinary people. 'eausescu's industriali2ation of the seventies led to subse)uent arrival of #omanians from the old <ingdom of #omania 6. There are no records of ordinary violence or confrontational behavior in bars. although #omania's current (!? falls far beyond this category I tend to believe that for the study of ethnic identity and conflict a cultural model as embodied in the political and institutional culture is far more more important than economical statistics.erbs. 9nd in this respect. D saw fit for the present book to compare Transylvania only with other regions of the Ffirst@ world.reslin.the Tg.ures case is the e ception. night clubs or such .oviet 0nion 6including genocides and mass deportation7. keeping their cultural and national identity reduced mostly to the private sphere and often engaging in transactional behavior.pontaneous violence between the two groups. people in Transylvania lived alongside each other. either. e cepting the war times. regardless of their ethnic origins..etc7 have traditionally lived together. Transylvania had an organical development > nothing happened in #omania after 1-13.urvey 6Dnglehart >1--37. or in the rest of Eastern Europe to that effect that can be compared to the mass scale social and national engineering of the former . . This urbani2ation was however a very superficial one 6. of people closer to the centers of political decisions matters enormously 6"ague. onica . Acknowledgements The research for this book was generously supported by the European 'ommission 6the ?"9#E program7. D am indebted to . ?sychologically.lackwell !ictionary of ?olitical Thought one will find out that. and that what should be adressed by policy-makers is not the acute attack but the disease itself. there are good reasons for that. /inally my gratitute goes to my husband. to the e tent that such diseases can find a cure. (eorge . Nation and identity in Contemporary Europe 1.ocial representations of history 6what "allbwachs would have called 'collective memory'7 such as we describe in 'hapter 1 can be found at elites members as well. be they rational or not.oros /oundation 6#esearch . who may even have a distance from these views. it is beyond doubt the most successful one ever. and E9TA.orin Donita and . artefacts of a cultural and nationalist heritage and not inherent is unnacceptable.upport . Teddy . as D shall attempt to demonstrate. often closer to the former than to the latter. who was the first reader and critic of this work both in .chopflin > 1--3>117. 'an a work about a conflict fail to have a fate other than conflictual G We doubt so. Dn practice it matters little the reason for what people believe something. Theoretical conte t of this study Df one looks the item called 'nationalism' in the . representations and images by an elite member.ugar and #afael "eckman for support with the focus groups.cheme ?rogram7.6. but the intensity of their beliefs and the personal risks they would assume to protect them. What is internali2ed in an ordinary citi2en and member of an ethnic group is often a consciencious e ercise of the use of common beliefs.otnaru for the survey data.ucharest and at "arvard. =evente . historian 9ndrei ?ippidi. the . 1& .chopflin was right to warn Westerners that for many of East 'entral Europe inhabitants the hypothesis their ethnic identities are conte tual and not essential. although it is still debatable if nationalism is a political ideology. to 9lice !umitrache. . "owever we can easily differentiate in elite members between the shared common representations. their own personal cognitions organised by a logic closer to political opportunism and their political rhetoric. D chose a region in a moment of peace only to show that fundamentals of the conflict are always there.alat. we felt a local view was necessary in order to understand Transylvania better. "owever.political culture of ordinary citi2ens. This contradiction in terms may alone e plain why such a vast literature of many scholarly fields have tried to e plain nationalism and nationalism> and why there is so little agreement to nowadays on what this theory has produced that is valuable in creating a policy to manage national conflicts. 2. and to 9urora =iiceanu for making me read "enri TaCfel when a doctoral student. . in turn.mith's 'Eational Ddentity' they simply confuse 'nation' with 'national identity'. psychologists.ocial psychologists are less so. #eviewers of this huge body of literature agree there are two main trends within the sociological and anthropological theory of nationalism> the primordialist and the instrumentalist ones.reakwell> 1--%>1317 was however right to point that > 'While social psychologists may need to know more about research in ethnic identity within other disciplines. even when not attempting to e plain nationalism as an entity.<. with Edwards and =iebkind 6in . "istorians and political scientists.alkan or West European nationalism> and in doing so D shall draw more upon the work of social psychologists than to the other students of nationalism. no other discipline can do without the social psychology of ethnic identity'. but rather to coin its specific features in one society or another are in their turn either influenced by or influential in providing arguments for one of these two theories. philosophers and political scientists need to interact more in order not to seclude the theoretical and empirical data within the boundaries of each discipline. The only theoretician to acknowledge some social psychology influence is !onald "orowit2.reakwell> 1--%7 that nationalism cannot be approached from the perspective of only one academic field. ignoring the others* and that anthropologists. as in 9nthony . state and ethnie.ristol school. #emoving a national group from its 11 . . one that would also provide a framework for East European nationalism as D see it. common myths and historical memories. "owever one can find reliable knowledge on nationalistic behavior of groups in a large body of facts historians. D shall therefore challenge more than one of the current assumptions on either . "orowit2.mith> 1-31. Aomen revised this literature in 1--5 in a comprehensive study essentially focus on the difference between nation. provides important arguments for a social psychological approach to ethnic identity and nationalism. The almost infinite number of cases and faces under which nationalism displays itself prevents theories from providing a typology to encompass them all 6.now that the fren2y of ethnic-or rather national. Eation and nationalism are the key concepts of social theory. D agree. Dnstead it will focus on the theories that most influenced the present work and try to work out a typology of nationalism out of these theories.y point goes even further> D think it is social psychology that provides the in-between approach to primordialism and instrumentalism. 6. a mass.revivals seems to have moved from the Third World to the old Europe. The same goes for the synonymous use of 'ethnicity' and 'ethnic identity' in sociological literature. only the territory seems to differ in the case of 'nation' and 'ethnie'. however. =iebkind 6in .mith defines both 'national identity' and 'nation' as a named human population sharing an historical territory. T.mith> 1--1>> p 147. 9ccording to Aomen. public culture. who was influenced by the . Ethnic or national identity is the key concept of social psychology> when other theorists use it. The difference between 'ethnie' and 'nation' is at the core of many polemics. . and D shall try to prove my point here. a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members'. 9nthropologists are very influential and their mark on nationalism theory is a strong one. This chapter does not mean to review the vast body of literature on the topic of nationalism and ethnic conflict. anthropologists and psychologists managed to put together. a myth that includes the idea of a common origin in time and place and that gives an ethnie a sense of fictive kinship.%7. as with diaporas peoples* :. that is.loveniaG To be sure.. a myth of common ancestry. the difference is fragile enough. customs or language* 8. 0kraine. of having a state. what "orowit2 terms a 'super-family' 6"orowit2. 1-38. 'cleansing' it.lovene in independent . a sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnie's population 69.mith. then.osnia. according to Aomen. one or more elements of common culture. 9nd a subconscious belief in 1% . is to 'ethnificate' it. or better. .actually got a state of their own the potential of every ethnic group in becoming a nation seems very powerful. authorities have shied from describing the nation as a kinship group and have usually e plicitly denied any kinship basis to it These denials are customarily supported by data showing that most nations do in fact contain several genetic strains. only its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land. which need not be specified but normally include religion. events and their commemorations* 4. .!.lovenia. emphasi2es not so much the territory per se as the political conse)uences of legally controlling a territory.mith. Dn the . a common proper name. as it is fashionable to say today.territory. . Dt mainly consists in subCective elements. Eowadays. a myth rather than a fact. who blurs the distinction between national groups with some e perience with a state of their own and others who were never in possession of a state. %7* 1. under the influence of the influential criti)ue of authors like Walker 'onnor. shared memories of a common past or pasts. not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnie. like 9nthony (iddens. . to identify and e press 'the essence' of the community* %.*ch. 1-3:> ch. about nationG Ds the difference between the two as fragile as being an ethnic . shared historical memories. when so many groups with little or no previous e perience of a national state -.lovene in $ugoslavia and a national .ut this lines of reasoning ignores the dictum that it is not what but what people perceive as is which influences attitudes and behavior. What. as Walker 'onnor pointed out> With but very few e ceptions . a link with a homeland. The definition of 'nation' and 'ethnie' seems however to have become more 'subCective' lately.lovakia.mith and "utchinson anthology on ethnicity the subCective elements prevail. "owever the stress on territory of Aomen is an e aggeration. Ethnicity is therefore defined by> 1. including heroes. mith as well7. Walker 'onnor bridged the division between primordialism and instrumentalism when answering this> The first few manifestations of ethnonationalism within post-war Europe 6among the . not in the East. foe e ample7 could be e plained away as vestigial or uni)ue. at the least. Dt calls on its supporters to subordinate the common interests 6based on class. to e plain nationalism in both worlds. or implies that there are movements who seek to reali2e the confluence of political unit-national unit without e ercising this type of pressure. Ane is the definition employed by (ellner and <edourie 6shared by 9nthony .outh Tyroleans.elluci 61--7. . however.outh Tyrol cannot be accommodated in the framework described for the Third World by . /urthermore. 'orse. religion or party. #ather D would see nationalism as a single phenomenon in various shapes according to societyLstage of development upon which one can look as a 'negative' phenomenon 6as <edourie does7 or 'positive' one as . . Would nationalism be found entirely in the underdeveloped world the instrumentalist theories would e plain it all. for e ample7 that they share with their fellow citi2ens to those that they share with other members of the national group 61817 . laid out by .and others who do not. The other.6'onnor> 1--4> 1:37 11 . .ince 'nation' is so disputed a term 'nationalism' has also at least two maCor different contemporary interpretations. 6'onnor >1--4.ince. which has the advantage of e plaining historical and contemporary nationalism as well.ut as ethnonationalism has become unmistakably evident on the part of several peoples whose ethnic counciousness has hitherto been considered none istent.lakcwell's !ncyclopaedia of "olitical Thought takes a rather different approach> What is central to a nationalist movement is that it claims to represent members of the nationality in virtue of the material and the cultural interest that they share. we have to search for a single e planation.as)ue country and . This brings us back to the 'good' and 'bad' variants of nationalism. Wales.enedict 9nderson we have to look for another e planation. which rises the most serious )uestions. 1-57 Walker 'onnor is right to stress the failure of theory to e plain the ethnic revival in developed Europe. which D think is a theoretical failure.cotland. the . or.rian . . 9ccording to this view nationalism is the political principle which states that the national and political units must be congruent.the group's separate origin and evolution is an important ingredient of national psychology. even if comple and manifold. political inconse)uential. The main problem for the psychologist is not why nationalists calls their supporters to subordinate interests they share with other fellow citi2ens to the more basic national loyalty but why they succeed so often in this enterprise. Dt is the minority nationalism in the West.arry's definition either applies only to contemporary societies. scholars have proffered a variety of theories to e plain this unanticipated transsocietal phenomenon.arry in . and at times overpowering. Dt is rather on the ethnic or national identity as 'given' or 'invented'. and politics is not coups and constitutions. in my view. at almost all times. Ane is bound to one's kinsman. coerciveness in and of themselves. but the structure of meaning through which men give shape to their e perience.y a primordial attachment is meant one that stems from the 'givens'-or. as the only lens we can look 14 . (eert2 was right to assert that 'a country's politics reflect the design of its culture'> ''ulture. so without a sociogenesis . We see the world from the perspective of our culture and cannot see it differently. and the types of them that are important. ?rimordialism came under attack for its understanding of 'culture' as a 'given' thing. custom and so on. in every society. common interest. so their use or misuse will be more influential and stronger than any later affinities or affiliations 6as political parties evoked by .arry7. 1&3--11&7 ?rimordialism was strongly attacked for what was seen as a confusion made by primordialists between something e isting and something primordial. 1-:1. more precisely. We can safely assume these 'givens' will be the main identity-providers for most people.ut for virtually every person. or incurred obligation. /or my purpose D think it is useful to purify the 'givens' of this 'metaphysical' origins and see them simply as 'psychological givens'. Aur thought is shaped by culture. Df we see the 'given' in cultural terms. The focus of the debate. however. The general strength of such primordial bonds.Ane e planation which comes close to the psychological understanding of nationalism is one's bond with one's culture. but at least in great part by virtue of some unaccountable absolute import attributed to the very tie itself.affinity than from social interaction. some attachments seem to flow more from a sense of natural -some would say spiritual .' 6(eert2 1-51> 111-1%7 'ulture. 6Eller and 'oughlan >1--17 '. differ from person to person. are seen to have an ineffable. is.6(eert2. ac)uisitions of an early conte t that prove unshakable for most people during their lives. practical necessity. one's fellow believer . as culture is inevitably involved in such matters. and following particular social practices. and even a dialect of a language. from society to society. and from time to time. one's neighbor. here. as a 'primordial attachment'. speech. . but one of the principal arenas in which such structures publicly unfold. the assumed 'givens'-of social e istence> immediate contiguity and kin connection mainly. should not be not on the innate character of the 'givens'. but beyond them the givenness that stems from being born into a particular religious community. speaking a particular language.ipso facto* as the result not merely of personal affection.notably by language and everything entailed by it. is not cults and customs. These congruities of blood. achieved by sociali2ation. by the way. Dn a vaguer way members of international bodies may do the same. for instance. profit of in-group is ma imal 1. likewise schoolmates.. in-group and out-group profit combined is ma imal %. . ?erhaps the best that can be done is to say that members of an in-group all use the term 'we' with the same essential significance. members of a lodge. e.in contrast to some other class of stimuli@ 6Turner at all> 1-35> 447.ubCects tend to choose the third variant. Everything is learned. The self is there before we learn about it> and identity is part of the self.ome we-organi2ations are transitory 6e.upon the world through and 'create order out of chaos' as in cosmogenesis reported by historians of religion such as Eliade. 9ccording to Turner social identities are defined as 'cognitive groupings of oneself and some class of stimuli as the same. so they are more interested to have the superiority of their group ma imal than earn more in absolute terms. so it cannot be e plained by a 'scarcity of resources' hypothesis. notably "enri TaCfel and the . . city. The 'minimal group paradigm' added to this an important element of social comparison. seen as a particular form of social identity in general. !eveloping this theory further. the possible rewards are distributed between groups as follows> 1. nation.g. This behavior is also little influenced by the presence of an uni)ue reward.heriff and "ovland who organi2ed a competition between two groups for an uni)ue pri2e. club. Dn one of the e periments. we even need stereotypes to put some 18 . labor union.. difference between in-group profit and out-group profit is ma imal. Turner 61--47 increased the weight given to cognitive aspects of identification. then identity is more 'given' that 'invented'. a family or clan7. categori2ation is our main tool of 'make-meaning'. in different variants. "ere is where social psychology. 9llport had already stated that we need categories.' 69llport > 1-84> 117 The main thing is that members of the in-group tend to favor the in-group and stereotype and discriminate against members of the out-group. an evening party7 some are permanent 6e.embers of a family do so.g. Dt is certainly 'learned' but learned does not mean invented. . 9llport's concept of 'in-group' is perhaps the most useful here> 'Dt is difficult to define an in-group precisely.ristol school make their important contribution to the theory of ethnic and national identity. . state. 9fter a long meditation Ivan asks #od to remove one of his eyes.7 it significantly influences behavior.ince this attempt to a definition by 9llport many evidence was gathered to e plain this behavior. social identity being originally defined by TaCfel as a person's knowledge of group membership. is e tremely common in the . and is simultaneously personal and collective. including knowledge about the self. 'ategori2ation is fundamental in our understanding of identification.g. as TaCfel asserted that groups define themselves by comparison with other groups. Even when assigned randomly in a group TaCfel's subCects displayed immediately strong in-group favoritism and out-group preCudice. Dn order to illustrate this theorem TaCfel uses a #ussian proverb 6which. 'ompared to earlier e periments of .alkans as well7 with a benevolent (od offering to grant a wish to Dvan 'but only you have to remember your neighbor will get twice what you get'. TaCfel's e periments showed that even when social membership is established arbitrarily 6by a coin toss. 9ccepting it does not mean. se . select one's ethnic group when more than one choice is possibleG . 6/iske and Taylor> 1-347 The fact that groups seek ma imal differentiation lead TaCfel and his followers to the elaboration of what is known as the social identity theory. Ethnic identity may vary in definition and identity from group to group. . when he wrote the famous formula> '. (roups need to be high on selfesteem. 6TaCfel> 1-547.rown and Turner 61-31. .at 'hava and . and a number of ethnic groups. Walker 'onnor hit even more than he intended. We can further speculate that ethnic attachment will be strong since ethnic groups are both accessible and have distinct cultural markers to differentiate them from other groups. . )uoted by =iebkind7 there are important differences between the actions of individuals as individuals and their actions as group members. "owever. however. granting legitimacy to discriminative behavior. )uoted by <ay !eau 7 also found moderately strong correlation's between ethnic identification and self-esteem that are consistent across age. culminating with deserting the group when everything else fails 6TaCfel and Turner> 1-5-7. /urthermore. "owever. however. as social identity becomes personal seen across biography. selfdefinition. ?sychologists do not e)uate 'natural' with 'legitimate'. )uoted by =iebkind7.' Dn this perspective nationalism is 'natural'. =anguage is the main connection vehicle between personal and collective identity. D guess. "ow does one. 9 'cognitive miser' is therefore prone to be a happy 'ethnic' or 'national' group member. and members develop various strategies to cope with its scarcity.. and he spoke of 'great heights of intensity that social identification may involve 61-3%7.reakwell7 there are five conditions promoting this 1: . occasionally some specific social identify may function nearly to the e clusion of all other identity dimensions 6Turner.order in the world that would otherwise appear to us as an anarchical pu22le of informations. so prone to give in to the easiest. The transition from personal to social identity is the psychological process underlying the shift from interpersonal to inter group behavior. which implies interaction in terms of group identifications. /or TaCfel affect operated primarily through self-esteem.tudies tend to look upon language as the main cultural marker. people are lately seen by psychologists as 'cognitive misers'.ocial identification is thus desirable because it is seen as a source of self-esteem .reakwell considers the whole dichotomy of social and personal identity to be a temporal artifact. Kuite on the contrary sometimes. 9ccording to .an is a rational national animal. !enying this truth will only lead to confusion and errors of Cudgment. (roup strife for positive social identity. a sense of belonging and pride in one's ethnic group seem to be the norm. Ethnic identity is )uite an accessible form of social identity so we may reasonably e pect people to develop some form of it. 9ccording to =ange and Westin 61-38.teen 61--8. )outed in . 1-3%. and this is obtained via differentiation and competition among groups. TaCfel also considered that social categories carried important affective meaning. effortless alternative when making a cognitive choice. 15 . 9s (iles 61-557 puts it > '/or instance. there is evidence that it is the e posure to another language which strengthens the feelings of identity and the loyalty towards one's ethnic group or language. /urthermore. language is the recorder of paternity. language is the medium of the ethnic group's 6more or less7 mythological conception of its common origin. and we tend to look upon this as rational behavior. however unsupported at the time by scientific knowledge. and it is there that the purity of the strandardi2ed language most easily becomes the symbol of group integrity. ethnic group members identify more closely with someone who shares their cultural background. that states forced their linguistic policies upon linguistic minorities in order to obtain good subCects or good citi2ens. =anguage loyalty breeds in contact Cust as nationalism breeds on ethnic borders. 6)uoted by =iebkind. Ane's language is the main provider of identity. 1-557 observed> Dt is in the situation of language contact that people most easily become aware of the peculiarities of their language as against others. 18&7. Dt seems that one's behaviour. /urthermore. )uoted by (iles. in . as part of the freight. '61%:7 Eow this sounds as old a truth as humanity. indeed. Welsh bilinguals would consider themselves more similar to an Englishman who spoke Welsh than to a Welshman who spoke English. 9gain. The theories of TaCfel and (iles go well together. e istentially language is very significant to the individual as an instrument for naming the self and the world %. .reakwell. social representations as the cognitive connection tissue of a culture are e pressed in language 4. is a truer reflection of one's ethnic allegiance. and 8. is convenience enough to claim legitimacyG 'ertainly not. /ishman also comments on why the language is such as salient dimenssion of a group's identity> Dt becomes clear why language is more likely than most symbols of ethnicity to become the symbol of ethnicity.ut one should not disregard the force of a drive based merely on convenience-seeking and be assured it will always prevail in front of more comple and more soliciting types of motivation. 6in (iles. as studies by (iles and his colleagues prove. "umans seek convenience. of all ethnic markers language is one of the most salient.connection> 1. Dt is based on the observation of this fact.o when <edourie puts the essential )uestion> why are groups based on linguistic difference entitled to states of their own G the answer is> for convenience. essentially primary sociali2ation is a matter of linguistic interaction 1. Weinrich 61-54. 9ny vehicle carrying such precious fright must come to be viewed as e)ually precious. 1-557. and in particular one's language behaviour. the e presser of patrimony and the carrier of phenomenology. as precious in and of itself. . the influence of one philosopher or another . the historicism. who sees a structural difference between the East and the West. The review of the e isting literature would prompt one to say that it is Eastern Europe. whose writings are so unanimously considered the source of all evils. as derived from #ousseau and the /rench revolutionists was the main inspiration source for moderni2ing elites in Eastern Europe.ut things are indeed more complicated than that. This induces the conclusion that e posure to the difference is actually increasing nationalistic feelings.'hapman et al 6in (iles. which leads to different results according to the society where it was tried.matters less than one would think in the political development of Eastern Europe. "ere comes the revivalist ideology of the past. . of which (eorge .ugar the best typology. The second is the theory of Ernest (ellner. <edourie is not so much concerned with the difference between the two Europes> in fact he rightly stresses the uni)ueness of the principle at work here.$. The nationalist ideology was simply the initial propaganda coat for self-determination. D shall not delay in discussing theories focused on the genealogy of ideas. D shall insist here only on three of the large number of theories pointing to the differences among Western and Eastern European variants of nationalism. which focuses on the relationship between state and nation. in my view. This pragmatic desire of bringing independence and prosperity to their countries via a model already tried in the West was the driving factor in the East> ideology was secondary. )uoting a study which shows that the strongest feelings of language loyalty among the Welsh were in the English-speaking counties of Wales. the nostalgia for a golden age in the small East European countries included in large absolutist multinational empires. EE elites copied the West and the moment where the 'Western' model simply broke into the East was the 1343 #evolution. 13 . /or another. the best account and ?eter . To be sure. !astern and %estern !uropean &ationalism Ane of the most important challenges for the theorists of nationalism is to create a typology that would encompass all national and historic peculiarities. Ddeology was built in order to attract the masses into it> the development plans of the elites were otherwise too abstract to have found any followers. The third is the theory supported by students of political development.chopflin gave. whose brightest e ponent is Elie <edourie. the greater the chances the two groups will interact in real-life competition. 1-557 make the same point. The further challenge for an East European is to understand the difference between 'Western' and 'Eastern' type of nationalism. $. Dndeed this difference is at the core of all nationalism classifications. the stronger the nationalistic feelings bred by the groups. Ane is the theory of "ans <ohn. Eo classification of nationalism or ethnic conflict should ignore this factor of outmost importance.notably "erder and /ichte. The abstract doctrine of collective self-determination. "ere lies the maCor difference between them and (ermany. Ddentity is seen in terms of social comparison> any element of competition will only further differentiate and oppose the two groups. where <edourie's genealogy fits perfectly. /or one thing. which turned good 'Western' nationalism into evil 'Eastern' one. The vaguer the borders. making one aware of the distinction between the self and the others' group. beyond any doubt. elaborated by elites in the act of building an ideology. fails into the classical image of the East which only perverted a Western idea> we feel all through the work of (ellner the regret that the small Eastern states. 6135%. deprived of any important 1- . Eationalism in the West arose in an effort to build a nation in the political reality and struggle of the present without too much sentimental regard for the past* nationalists in central and Eastern Europe created. but which influenced the nascent nation's wishful image of itself and its mission.6<ohn. but the state is precedent in the East. The nation precedes the state in the West. but those who started it in the East. point to the fact that nation-building was a task consciously assumed by Western governments and elites as well.Where the sentiment of nationality e ists in any force. They were liberals guided by a liberal idea. became afterwards real mass representations. )uoted by . but it was in the air since the previous /rench #evolution> Dt is. This is merely to say that the )uestion of government is to be decided by those governed. "e also overestimates the degree to which the nations were formed in the West> more recent evidence. closely linked with the past.ugar 1&7 <ohn is right to point at the differences of political development. in general. Eo wonder they were seen in their countries as 'liberal'. Dndeed what might well have happened and it did happen was that these powerful representations. there is a prima facie case for uniting all the members of the nationality under the same government. "is final outcome. although D think he underestimates the role of the absolutists empires playing the little nationalities ones against the other and preventing an homogeni2ation process on the Western European type to develop.. Eationalism in the West was therefore 'a reality'* in the West it was based on myths and dreams. to )uote only two names.. a necessary condition of free institutions that the boundaries of government should coincide in the main with those of nationality.ill had not written yet his famous passage. such as the works of Eugen Weber and Eric "obsbawn.the "ungarian <ossuth and the #omanian . devoid of any immediate connection with the present and e pected to become sometimes a political reality. . often out of myths of the past and dreams of the future.were pragmatic men. in ?rinciples of #epresentative (overnment7 <ohn's typology is based on a simple distinction.. so powerful that they took over when the political franchise was instituted. however. Then they were at liberty to adorn it with traits for the reali2ation of which they had no immediate responsability .o it was a conscientious act of building an ideology for instrumental puposes. and a government to themselves apart. an ideal fatherland. and to be sure it was an imported one... The theory of Ernest (ellner is perhaps the best known. (ellner masterfully combines features of political and cultural development.ratianu. Where <ohn is undoubtedly right is when attracting our attention to the 'wishful image of nation' created by these elites.. cultures. even if only very roughly. To the theory of <ohn he adds a strong 'cultural' element and a finer delimitation of Europe when writing> #oughly speaking and allowing for certain complications Europe falls into four times 2ones. far from possessing ready-made dynastic states. but no national "igh 'ultures had o be forged from peasant materials. "ere both cultures and politics had to be created. resembling those global maps one sees at airports. continue to write in (erman than in '2ech. which indicate the different time in the various vertically defined stretches of the globe. Dt was the ne t time 2one to the East which presented the greatest problems from the viewpoint of the implementation of the nationalist principle of one culture..o here was indeed a need for polity-building. Df the eventual units were to be %& . one state. half normative. and the underlying opinion the world would have had more to gain had '2echs. however.. it was an area of )uite e ceptional political fragmentation. and by the time of the coming of the age of nationalism had ceased to e ist even in name..7 Eationalism did not draw on peasant cultures so as to invent a new literate one> rather it strove to replace peasant idioms by an e isting court or urban speech6.. normative "igh 'ultures. had long ago lost any effective reality. The maCor metapolitical unit of the area.6.7 . 6..any of the peasant cultures were not clearly endowed with a normative "igh 'ulture at all. codified.ut if the region lacked pre-e isting political units ready for the nationalist re)uirements. an arduous task indeed.iddle 9ges. instead of defining a restricted minority.7 ?easant had to be turned into proper speaking nationals.6.6. correlated with cultural areas.. it was e ceedingly well e)uipped with pre-e isting. The point about this 2one is that from the late . "igh 'ultures had to become co-e tensive with entire societies.7 The ne t 2one to the East was different.. ... half descriptive. endowed with effective political units much smaller than the geographical e tension of the two locally dominant "igh 'ultures.anifest !estiny. which roughly.. it was occupied by strong dynastic states. for instance.ome even had no name. 6.. .7 The Westernmost time 2one is that of the 9tlantic coast of Europe. to be treated lightly. the "oly #oman Empire. then in this 2one the couple has been cohabiting long before their union was acclaimed by nationalist . (ellner is not. Eationalism began with ethnography. despite his 'entral European nostalgias. if not earlier. a kind of salvage operation and cultural engineering combined.7. ever came to life as states. Df nationalism re)uires the marriage of state and culture.. though not for culturebuilding. ritish and /rench beyond the limits of Western Europe. .outh East Europe the . he sees Dreland as an e ception and notes with some satisfaction the failure of the new Drish state to create a new culture as well. and so it stayed until the end of the second %1 .y2antine model was a strong model all through the . 1. 9lgeria. the 'orsicans are falling behind Dreland in their effort to find a suitable political form to e press their -perhaps minor. the . too. 1. labelling it 'bourgeois nationalism'. "e is right to notice both polity and culture had to be created in the East. in.oviet 0nion. the 'atalans. %.compact and reasonably homogenous. Dn . "e considers East European nationalism. ?oland also had a state tradition before being partitioned between great powers. and only minor adCustments of the two in the West. %.ugar considers the '2echs came closer to a Western version of nationalism. (ellner does not account for the strong recurrence of ethnic revival movements in the West. 9ccording to (ellner.ut the degree to which the model was pursued in Eastern Europe was dependent on the development of EE societies.although not similar. similar to the Western one due to its anticlerical. Dreland. and a strong one. we have therefore similar nationalism in . . with all the small nation enclosed first by the '2arist Empire. more had to be done> many. or e pelled. the first time 2one. the . Anly the Attoman occupation confiscated this development.iddle 9ges.y2antine model and 'harlemagne's one depicted for Western Europe.cots. "e is right to notice the difference between the widespread "igh 'ulture in the West and its confinement to a much smaller elitist group in the West. The typology which comes closest to the grounds in ?eter . polity only in proper 'entral Europe. /rance and . for instance. many people had to be either assimilated. (ellner considers political models were lacking from the tradition of Eastern Europe.ritain.ulgarians.a second time 2one. . .as)ues.cultural difference from their fellow citi2ens in the states they belong to. Transvaal. as . D fail to see any notable difference between the .ugar has a much more nuanced version than (ellner's. or killed.ugar's.the third. there are important points in which this theory fails to provide ade)uate answers.erbs and #omanians tried to reproduce it in their own polities and even to e pand it to the neighboring areas under their political domination. egalitarian and constitutional approach. (ellner's theory does not e plain why the worst nationalism developed in (ermany and to some e tent in Dtaly. "owever. We then have the (erman and Dtalian cases. The theory of (ellner is bright.' 6118-1157. (ellner fails to e plain nationalistic behavior of . then by the .he admits independent Dreland was however a political novelty in the area.pain. and Eastern Europe. We are left without a clue to that. "owever. the Welsh. D think he is again wrong to generali2e this assumption. say. ?oland and "ungary lacked a middle-class as developed as the '2echs so their nationalism couldn't be but aristocratic. seen as a successor. The fourth is #ussia. . #ussian. then of .chopflin provide such good theories because they point at key issues of development.or both. more and more under evaluated nowadays> the 'e ternal pressures 6(erman. /inally. peasant clergy and the small traders.alkani2ation was initially described as a fragmentation of cultures and polities in a backward environment. #ussia.erbia and .with their entailed concept of citi2enship. inbetween countries. animated by the low. the city and the countryside. able to survive thorough political change. while states were the e pression of a skillful bureaucracy. discretionary power of the state over the society as the Eastern way. Df . decisive in many cases. Attoman7' that 'never ceased' 6p 187. .y2antine. The key word here is development> development of the society. while the East had no cities in the proper sense> the peasants and the peasant mentality continued to dominate politics even after 1-13. . and a state as well. . The decisive role in the evolution of these countries was played by (ermany. as political scientists know. . The legacy of East European nationalism is to a %% . due to the initial opposition between the secular and the religious rulers became the norm in the West* church subordinated to the state the norm in the East. "owever. D think the same can be said about historic Eastern Europe. #ule of the law and separation of powers. and his application from country to country is Cust> D consider however that the core elements mentioned here are enough for the purpose of this work.chopflin asserts bluntly but orrectly the backwardness as the central feature of Eastern Europe. it then turned to negative effects. the intelligentsia.ugar points out an essential e ternal element in the political development of Eastern Europe. The cities were at the heart of the Western development -not only economical.ugar and . disappeared from the Western conscience. "e is then right to notice that if initially this prompted local nationalism. but the e ternal conte t. (reek and Turkish nationalism are coined as *bureaucratic'. mass nationalism. its economy and its political institutions. subordinating all the others.WW. for comtemporary emerging democracies the strongest influencing factor is not an internal institutional or cultural one.ugar sees it as 'the proCect' of the government.cott . and opposes the political development of the two Europes balancing the weight between state and society. developed a populist.owers.chopflin's understanding of the differences in political traditions between East and West Europe. on these small. This e cellent typology is highlighted further by (eorge . (ellner is right to stress this development is culturally dependent. Dn #omania nationalism was a state proCect. but with little ability for anything else. Ather authors remarked nowadays how this e ternal factor. the bourgeoisie and the peasantry. which lacked an aristocracy. a bourgeoisie. . but political as well. the Attoman and the "absburg Empires.' a prey to the machinations of the great powers' 6?aul .chopflin goes into much more detail.oviet #ussia.ulgaria. in fact a government one. as all strangers were seen as threats 61:7. The undemocratic turn of all Eastern Europe at the end of the %nd WW was not entailed in its history and not a conse)uence of its failure to attain a democratic regime> it was the conse)uence of the influence first of Ea2ism. )uoted in Todorova 147 today's A ford !ictionary dropped all allusion to the historical role of autocratic powers so . 9utonomy and the separation of spheres is identified as the Western way of development.alkani2ation is seen as a phenomenon entirely entailed in some structural default of the people or the region. and . #omanian. they can be rulers or the dominating elite. even if an hierarchy of legacies can be sketched. 9ccording to the stage of development of the respective society. this e posure leads to a pattern of nationalistic behavior.alkans. D tried accordingly to range a few cases of nationalism. This factor tends to be underrated.ugar classifications. and the specificities of each case authors complain about nationalism can be framed. however as diverse as to include the usually hard to classify ones. the conflict is terrible 6the e ample of "utu and Tutsi7. or in another national group inside the same state.or almost. 9ny . ?erceived threats to identity are the source of nationalism. however. When. one will always find out the Attomans manipulation of elites at the heart of it. Dt is a grave delusion to indulge ourselves with the idea that these empires were tolerant political entities struggling to keep peace among small savage tribes 6in all the . encouraging conflict and political corruption in order to dominate. according to this two criterias in /igure 1. Dt@s also impossible to change via policy. because it is lasting. with the "absburgs on top with some positive achievements as well and the Attomans at the botttom. 9 national group can be roughly e posed to another group in four ways> either aliens are living in neighbor states. or they can be the immigrants. Dt is not enough to compare nations> one has to compare nations in similar phases of development to make some sense of nationalism. When groups are inside the same state the problems is the most serious. The two criterias D underlined all along are the identity and the political development.ritish colony in the world received more in terms of a viable political and social order model than East Europe got during its whole history of subordination. too. The main advantage of this classification is that it ranges cases seen in a specific historical moment. Dn describing the types of nationalism resulting D used both the <ohn and . They were autocratic underdeveloped states themselves playing divide et impera. of having foreigners as rulers. Df one looks at the roots of conflicts between nationalities in the . for instance. The combination of the two criterias can make us both range with relative easiness the cases and predict a certain type of nationalism and nationalistic behavior as well. ?olitical development. The third situation. the group which is better-off is not made of foreigners. is usually a transitory one> a war of independence will sooner or later come and relieve the group in an inferior position.large e tent their legacy. D also noted two important elements> what is the social basis of nationalism resulting from this situations 6elite andLor massLandLor state7 and its resilience 6e pressed in the pair of opposites transitory-lasting7. "aving the others in another state is obviously the best situation-only history did not provide many cases of the sort. but they obviously tend to settle when their problems are settled. Eeither e)uality not %1 . but it is crucial. seen in a full geert2ian meaning 6politics as an e pression of culture7 can either ease or aggravate the perception of this threats and the answer to them. but of locals. Dn cases of advanced development and distance of any possible rival group 6situation 17 we deal with a national group high on self-esteem that can display only a form of Fcivic@ nationalism. Dn case problems of development appear nations start looking over the borders.alkan wars infinitely less people died than in the massacre of 9rmenians by the Attomans in the same period7. !espite the wide variety of cases. 3elsh. %cots. but it was e perienced by the rest of the world as well in similar situations 6 most of eastern Europe. /omanian Hungarians #+.# -( 0*TI-0*LI%M 0eighbor states *dvanced $ivic nationalism liberal.-LITI$*L T. 9s it looks this is Cust a historical phase that we witness now in the . /ussia interwar Hungary contemporary (rench $anada Belgium Bas9ues. for instance. too. the main type of nationalism is centered on state-building.TH# '#1#L-./# .M#0T 'I((#/#0$# T2. 9 fair dose of insecurity in these new states will persist for a while. in difficult circumstances.so it is not a solution. (igure )! Types of nationalism $*%#% 3est #urope4 Modern and contemporary Britain. The situation seems to be manageable only in conditions of advanced development and practice of consociatonalism 6the . 7apan. =ow development and territorial separation leads from civil war to war among neighbors.altics.enelu is a good e ample7. 'onsociatonalism seems to have worked in =iban.-%. so former ruling elites turned into minorities will be discriminated against. after countries became independent at the end of the last century and beginning of this one7. (rance Modern 6ermany. based on citi5enship" 0eighbor states Low %tate nationalism aggressive while underdeveloped8 transitory 0eighbor groups in one state %imilar:advanced Lasting elite nationalism focused on symbolic grounds %4 . Irish.. which used to be ruled by foreign elites.seggregation have proven to be great solutions so far. Dn the case of newly independent states. %erbia. Bulgaria. then state nation&building8 more or less ethnic nationalism depending on the e. /ussians Hungarians Italy during *ustrian occupation8 Baltics during %oviets 0eighbor groups in one state . $anada Homogenous but for immigrants *dvanced:more or less prosperous Low support for nationast ideology:dependent on the economic capacity of absorbtion %8 . $roats.. $5ech.6reece. .neven:low Lasting mass ethnic nationalism *lien rulers or elites Low #lite. $roatia and %erbia in former 2ugoslavia &. under -ttoman rule8 . /omanians under 6ermans.%.ost& $ommunist.oland.posure *lien rulers or elites *dvanced:even superior #lite.&multiethnic postcolonial states &Hungary in the Habsburg #mpire. /ussia. /omania /omania. then popular support for state nationalism directed against former ruling groups 3est #urope. lavonic and East European studies dedicated to 'Transylvania and historians' the leading "ungarian historian !omokos <osary complained bitterly about the alleged parti-pris of the founder of the school. To this respect the creation and consolidation of (reater #omania. a group with low self-esteem. that "ungarian aristocrats monopoli2ed for hundreds of years the "ungarian nationalism. which was never dissolved.'. <urds. for instance.' 6Herdery> 1-31> p. *lbanians. (omanian nationalism and )ungarian nationalism* conclusions for the +ear $. #.2ekelys and . had <osary been older and ac)uainted with the "ungarian politicians around the years 1-&& he could not have failed to loathe them in the same manner. The reference to the 'aristocratic' nationalism made here by .oles before the )st 33 7ews Italians diasporas Low development Mild to important of the homeland *dcandec development of the homeland Mild to low $.in .agyars and (ermans. <osary )uoted a conversation he once had with the .. Territorial losses. .14-7 9lthough the Trianon Treaty and the inclusion of Transylvania in modern #omania brought important changes and reshaped practically the nationalism of both nations. the nationalism of "ungarians.W.eton-Watson of making a difference between 'good nationalism' such as the #omanian nationalism. who from at aleast 13&& on were using ethnic identification to e clude others and protect privileges. . who internali2ed the negative image of themselves from the larger society7 with a sense of self-pride. . one can still trace this fundamental #omanian inferiority and feeling of reCection and this fundamental superiority and pride of "ungarians as the basis of nationalistic feelings of today. #omanians built into theirs a yearning for inclusion.chool for . and 'bad' nationalism.eton-Watson came to dominate in time the literature on "ungarian nationalism. . as #omanians found themselves unable to account for their e clusion otherwise but by some structural inferiority of their own.a ons7.. clearly a psychological 'minority' in the taCfelian sense 6that is.eton-Watson simply replied that. as they were the most terrible nationalists ever. Dt was a tremendous effort from the part of the emerging Transylvanian elites to endow this maCority of peasants.ugar> 1--47.ar ist "ungarian historians complained. The #omanian nationalism was also marked forever by the e clusion of #omanians from this basic Transylvanian chart known as FThe pact of three nations' 6"ungarians.ritish historian in which he accused .Irish.eton-Watson. a massive change from the initial datum. but even more the aggressive nationalist ideology of the 'eausescu times played on this low self-esteem to build a paranoid vision of the world into a full blown enophobic nationalism. <atherine Herdery was right to note that '0nlike the . for e)uality and dignity that implied admiration as well as resentment for those with whom they interacted. as they were the only group endowed with political rights > 'the political nation'6/rank Tibor. constant siding %: . .Dn the proceedings of a conference at the . The 13th century nationalism of #omanians started in Transylvania and was built on the conscience of this discrimination.0nio Trium Eatiorum of 1413. for the #omanians. with the losers of the two world wars and the terrible represion of 1-8: alienated more and more "ungarians from the initial aristocratic nationalism> however it did not change the character of this nationalism where it lasted. (eorge ,aranyi was right in this respect to assert that the remarkable thing about the "ungarian nationalism is that 'the more it changes, the more it remains the same'.6in .ugar> 1-:-> p. %8-7. "ungarian nationalism was the only aristocratic-type of the area> former minorities in (reater "ungary 6'roats, .lovaks, #omanians7 all presented a combination of state and peasant nationalism, which favored the development and success of populist peasant parties between the two world wars. "ungarian %&th century nationalism was built on the idea that the Trianon Treaty is unacceptable, so it was revisionist in its essence. ,aranyi recalls how twice a day millions of children were re)uired to recite, long with their prayer before and after the school, the ';agyar 'reed'> D believe in one (od, D believe in one /atherland, D believe in one divine eternal Truth, D believe in the resurection of "ungary. 9men' 6in .ugar> 1-:-* p.%337. 'ommunism appeased "ungarian revisionism in a large e tent 6although a simple search of the word FTransylvania on the Dnternet produces more revisionist materials than anything else7. "owever, its echos were clear in the rhetoric of anti-'ommunists who came to power after 1-3-. /irst +os2ef 9ntall, ?rime ;inister from 1--& to 1--4, declared that he is the ?rime ;inister of all the "ungarians, including those living as minorities in border-states, then Hiktor Arban, the younger generation of conservatives, made similar declarations in his electoral campaign for the 1--3 elections that he won. The policy of acting as an advocate of the "ungarian minorities rights and notably to their right of self-government can be seen, in this respect, as a more liberal form of the same nationalism. (eorge ,aranyi already noted that 'the issue of the ;agyar minorities may be more deeply interowen with the larger )uestion of ;agyar nationalism than is generally assumed' 6in .ugar> 1-:-* p.1&:7. There is, however, an important change in the "ungarian nationalism to be recorded, but this is due to the maCor historical change "ungary undergone after the 1st WW. /rom the absurd dreams of assimilating a population larger than its own 6'Who is either naive or stupid enough to believe that - million "ungarians are able to assimilate the other half of the countryG' asked Askar +as2i, the most liberal "ungarian politician ever, in 1-1%. 6in .ugar> 1-34> %&:7, "ungarian nationalists turned to a dream of elaborating a network of self-governed "ungarian minorities in the bordering countries which would make Trianon superflous and come the closest to bring all the "ungarians again together without going against "elsinki and re)uiring a modification of the borders. The most important document, in this respect, is ?rofessor /erenc (lat2's 6now ?resident of the "ungarian 9cademy7 (uide for a 'onduct towards ;inorities 61--1 for the English version )uoted here7, a basic document created to endow "ungarian diplomats with a %5 coherent proposal at the European organi2ations. The essence of nationalism in this selfgovernment proposal, which is not otherwise deprived of all merit, is however the insistence of having "ungarian an official second language and giving up the legal obligation of all "ungarian minorities in learning the official language of their home countries.Dt is significant this policy proposal did not originate in HoCvodina, or Transylvania, or with a "ungarian minority, but came from a semi-official "ungarian office in ,udapest. This is revisionism in a well-mannered, polished contemporary European form. #omanian nationalism, as D already asserted, was much more changed- and it was not a change for the better. The state nationalism after the formation of the (reater #omania was directed towards builing the state and the nation and integrating together #omanians who had belonged to different states and political traditions for hundreds of years. Dt is unanimously considered to have been a clumsy policy, which alienated both Transylvanian #omanians and ,essarabian #omanians, treated as second-ranked #omanians. ;inorities also received less than they had been promised in terms of selfgovernment, but they kept their cultural autonomy intact. This state nationalism was however very close to the Western type liberal bourgeois nationalism> its stronger accents were due to the backwardness of the political institutions and society both, that the state desperately tried to solve in only one generation. The #omanian elite, however, turned more and more from this design towards another type of nationalism. We have both psychological and sociological reasons to account for that, in the words of two famous nationalists of the interwar times> The bourgeoisie used to be a pioneer of the whole nation, this is why nationalism automatically had a bourgeois hue6...7. Anly later, in our times, nationalism started to break free from the charm of liberalism and ceasing to be mingled with the interests of liberal capitalist bourgeoisie stepped into its autonomous full blown form which is totalitarian nationalism. 6;ihail ;anoilescu, economist and theorist of corporatism, 1-4%7 Aur enophobia is reasonably grounded in the historical ine)uality between minorities and us. Were we a formed nation, our fight with them would be less dramatical in shape. 6#omanian born Emil 'ioran, symphati2er of the fascist Dron (uard, later a famous /rench essayst, in 1-1:7 9cknowledging the historical handicap of #omanians but surpassing it via an act of will 6'Aur nationalism has to start from the wish to revenge our historical sleep, from a messianic idea, from the will to make history, wrote 'ioran7 was the basis of this 'new' nationalism. Dt was to be as short-lived as the "ungarian 'neo-nationalism' of 'ount <lebelsberg based on education. With the dissapearance of the bourgeois bureaucratic %3 state under the blows of first fascists, then 'ommunists, the #omanian liberal nationalism was gone forever. The #ight was completely destroyed in prisons or its representatives emmigrated as ;ircea Eliade and Emil 'ioran. The #omanian fascists had also killed in 1-4& the spiritual father of the #omanian nationalism, historian Eicolae Dorga. Aften portrayed as an anti-.emite and a fierce nationalist Dorga was in fact a 'nation-maker' character on the type of ;asaryk. Dn his famous 1-%4 conference on nationalism Dorga speaks more as a civic than an ethnic nationalist, declaring national minorities have a right to their own culture, and asking for 'a political solidarity with nations who live alongside us'. "e actively opposed tearing down of "ungarian statues and monuments in Transylvania, even when they comemorated characters who allegedly played a negative role in the #omanian history. The simple fact that almost all the "ungarian monuments survived shows that the main trend politicians of the interwar times 6Dorga was also a prime ;inister and leader of a small nationalist party7 weas still closer to the bourgeois nationalism thant to the totalitarian nationalism decribed in 1-4% as an emerging victor by ;anoilescu.Df one is to analyse this time one has to look at facts more than at the rhetoric. 9 far-right enophobic rhetoric is to be found in this epoch 6rasist Eichifor 'rainic is its foremost e ponent7, but it never succeeded in becoming a main trend, not even in the newspapers. "owever, this literature was a source of inspiration for the 'ommunist times new nationalists 6veritably 'new', this time7 as <etherine Herdery proved in another book.6Herdery> 1--47 Ane can easily imagine what happens to a young nation, formed mostly by peasants, when submitted to the heavy repression and uniform education of the 'ommunist age. ?revious research D did in 1--% and 1--4 led to the surprising conclusion that collective memory of #omanian peasants stops in the fifties, and the stalinist years are seen by the survivors 6who were usually speared by repression7 as 'a golden age'. 'eausescu sei2ed the opportunity of winning this rather brain-washed population in the early seventies, when his speechwriters started to )uote #omantic 1-th century nationalists and invented an original ideology labeled afterwards as 'national-communism'. This ideology presented the past in a simplified and mistified version, making the unity of all territories inhabited by #omanians as the main goal of national history, something that never was 6,oia>1-337 The success of #omanian sportsmen and women 6Eadia 'omaneci is the most famous e ample7, the independent stand of 'eausescu from ;oscow when '2echoslovakia was invaded in 1-:3 all led to the consolidation of this 'new' nationalism. Eot to be mistaken, it was an 'ethnic' version, praising the values of '#omanianess', presented as the historical 'e ception' of a =atin 'hristian people who defended the West from the Dnfidel Turk, resisting both the "ungarian nationalism and the .lavic attempt to con)uer it, an island of Europeannes among barbarians. Hia television, movies, and te tbooks, this version prevailed over a tradition e tinguished in 'ommunist prisons with the almost one million #omanians affected by the stalinist repression. 'urrent national social representations as displayed in the #omanian contemporary mass-media belong with this tradition, not the old one Herdery is speaking about. While the "ungarian nationalism changed to remain )uite similar in essence, the #omanian one was entirely reinvented and forged anew. This new ideology made Transylvania from a central feature of the national theory the central feature as the cradle of the !aco-=atin population. This accounts for the fierce nationalism concerning the Transylvanian )uestion both in 'ommunist and post- %- "is e amples range from .'ommunist times compared to the low interest and involvement in the .amuel "untington@s Fmap of civil2ations@ from his famous and 1& . the most important trends in the %&th century history of both nations in order to make some sense of the present day #omanian and "ungarian nationalism. Dn other words.ilosevic to . even in 1--1. displaying a culture which is different from the rest of #omania. 6Tamas> 1--:7 This is not to say that in the present-day #omanian and "ungarian elites only one type of nationalism can be found. when chances were for a possible reunification. This hypothesis implies that nationalities living in Transylvania. towards the rest of #omanians. protested at the line dividing Transylvania from the rest of #omania in . such as> What is the Fnation@ the "ungarians from #omania identify themselves withG What geographic entity do they consider their countryG !o they feel closer to coregionals. and. The Fseparate identity@ hypothesis relies mainly on the different historical development of Transylvania from the other #omanian inhabited regions.iklos Tamas. respectively "ungarians. the 'apolitical and anti-political' new type of nationalists.the FTransylvanian identity@. but many scholars also. #omanians and "ungarians mainly. #omanian nationalist politicians.oldovan politicians who came to say they are not omanians. e)ually created to suit the purpose of an elite 6namely the same7 is only another particular form of what Tamas sees as an incessant attack on 1-th 'entury European =iberalism. National or Regional? Contemporary Identity Attribution in Contemporary !ran yl"ania The group interviews and the survey were concerned with answering a set of related )uestions. have more common than distinctive features. We shall discern many others in the chapter dedicated to elites. regardless of their ethnic origin. to identify this breaking with the tradition and forging of 'new' nationalism. We needed to trace. 3. this means Transylvanians tend to form an in-group with other Transylvanians. however.oldova 6former . or to conationals. the contemporary leading "ungarian political theorist went to the heart of the matter when deacribing the 'etno-anarchists'. and a separate identity of its inhabitants . and the others@ groupG This chapter will also challenge on one of the important assumptions made by a cultural and political trend which considers Transylvania in itself a separate Fsociety@. that can be discerned in their current perceptions of their civili2ation and behavior. but a 'new' nation. regardless of the regionG What stereotypes are used to portray their ethnic group. 9long with communism this new ideology.essarabia7 province. (aspar . that plays an essential part in self and heteroidentification and stereotyping. to an e tent unprecedented before. This pattern is in fact a multicultural one. but acknowledge their contract as #omanian citi2ens with a large maCority and consider #omania is their country 6/igures %. 9fter 3& years of being incorporated in the #omanian . with the #omanian culture closer to the .alkans.o what is perhaps true in terms of historical development may be less so in contemporary social reality.cradle/ to the contemporary . considering themselves part of the "ungarian nation. with the #omanian 'hristian Arthodo population enCoying a relative maCority since at least the Emperor@s +oseph DD first census in the area 615-17. 11 . Dt is not an easy life. and that between "ungarians in "ungary and myself there is no difference but in the past : years D reali2ed there is something else.controversial essay on the clash of Fcivili2ations@. Eone of the respondents indicated "ungary as their country. Tramsylvania is the homeland of at least three distinct cultures 6"ungarian. #omanian. 9s focus group participants put it 6each paragrapgh indicates a different speaker7> 0ntil 1--& D lived in #omania as in a foreign country. (erman7. closer to 'entral Europe than to the . and the "ungarian and (erman closer to 'atholic and ?rotestant 'entral Europe. .eton-Watson was right when describing the situation in the seventies to point that the maCor conflict was that the #omanian 'ommunist state wanted in e change for its liberal policies that "ungarians admit they are "ungarian-speaking #omanians. Transylvania is a part of the #omanian state. .17.ince Transylvania has been the homeland of Transylvanian "ungarians for almost a millenium.tate practically no "ungarian defines himself as F#omanian@. Eo doubt "untington was right. !ue to the absence of geographically clustered communities 6e cept the . to point at Transylvania as to a distinct region. The 18 B "ungarians and 1& B #omanians who look upon Transylvania as their Fcountry@ are a restricted minority in the total sample. .alkan Arthodo one. villages. resulting in the very poor segregation of ethnic groups 6#omanians and "ungarians mingle inside the same counties. in terms of development. until 1--&-D thought D belonged to the ethnic "ungarian minority. and they would not. with "ungary Cust across the border.ut the many ambiguities due to the way the concept of Fcivili2ation@ is used in this conte t show here. "owever it is the e perience of the freedom to travel to "ungary after 1--&. blocks of flats even7 we tend to look upon Transylvania as to an uni)ue society shared by various 6mainly two7 cultures. altough they accepted their #omanian citi2enship as a fact 6. and they are outnumbered by #omanians in the region 6 the report is 1 >17 the result is hardly surprising. .2ekelys area7.margin/ The results of our survey show that #omanian "ungarians have a distinct national identity 6"ungarian7. -rom the historic . but is their homeland also.eton Watson> 1-55> 1347 Table 1 and % about here To be a Transylvanian "ungarian means to share your loyalty between state and country. cities. the fact that D am a #omanian citi2en and most of all to what part of #omania D belong. They feel close only to other "ungarians who share this specific e perience. 9nd if D feel "ungarian so D want to stay until my death.ecuiesc7. D had two maternal languages. other "ungarians from Transylvania. Eational identification is much stronger than regional identification 6for both ethnic groups7.f. D am "ungarian and all the other possible answers are not correct. but mainly we are "ungarians.2ekelys were considerably more nationalist than the intellectuals from multicultural 'luC.agyars. if you want. and D feel "ungarian. #omania is their country since Transylvania is a part of it and Transylvania is their homeland. .ures7. . that is. 'luC and Tg. D think that says it all.ince D am born and come from a long line of ancestors in Transylvania D say D am a "ungarian from Transylvania and that makes me very proud. The "ungarian nation is only one.ince D can hardly e press myself in #omanian or in any other language then the logical result is that D can't get dressed in that coat. for instance we are . and national identification is not however done with the country 6"ungary7. When D say "ungarian from Transylvania that says it all> the nation D belong.2ekelys. who evoked nostalgically the short reunification with "orthyst "ungary during the war years. ?eople interviewed in the groups stated it is e tremely rare if not at all unlikely for someone to have a double identification. Tg. but with a national group 6"ungarians7. (heorghe. /or the latter.Even by saying that D@m a "ungarian from Transylvania D admit somehow that D have less rights than "ungarians from "ungary.agyar nation is Cust one@. Therefore D can be a whole only when D am at ease in my language and culture. since the F. and my mother is "ungarian and D spoke no #omanian at all until 1% when D started to learn it in school.oldova instead now D would be #omanian 6workers. 6"ungarian intellectuals@ groups. my father is a #omanian who came from Timisoara here to the . the historical Fcradle@ of the civili2ation they belong to. . .2ekelys. . but that is a situation D share with every citi2en of #omania who is "ungarian. . D don't know. Everyone with a mi ed background in our groups identified himLherself as 1% . Dt has subdivisions. the language.2ekelys area where 3& B are "ungarians. even if it comes from a mi ed family and is bilingual. What are the main determinants of self-ascriptionG /irst. if they have gone to . . 6"ungarian old men group. stating a difference between "ungarians from #omania and "ungarians from "ungary was politically incorrect. even my father learned "ungarian after staying here so long. /or the old .2ekelys7 The old men from the . * #esearch 'enter for Dnterethnic #elations> 1--37 The most common feeling associated with this identification is pride.. this is not people's fault. "ungarians from "ungary and even the Freligious intolerant@ Western Europeans. which disturbs them> 11 . =ower educated groups especially insisted Fall people look the same. 9nd in most cases we guessed right 6"ungarian students. and the pride of being a "ungarian from Transylvania is reported to #omanians from outside Transylvania. ?eople e pressing this view were however Cust a few and isolated by the rest of the groups. #eligion is seen as important for ascription. Cust as #omanians from Transylvania speak the best #omanian language in #omania. 'luC7 "owever it is not the comparison with #omanians or the treatment they@re subCected by #omanians which make #omanian "ungarians feel inferior. . . but not essential. who was #omanian. self-evaluation is always made by comparison with other groups. mainly for the #omanian group. 9longside pride this identification is related to various frustrations.olyai 0niversity showed that language was an important element of identification for 5. self ascription for 34 B. 9s TaCfel stated. although there is some perception of a difference> D had fun once with a colleague> we waited at the e it of the 0niversity trying to guess who was "ungarian. but during the time they were in four different countries.aramures village who never changed home. 'luC7. 6workers. We speak a more pure "ungarian that "ungarians in "ungary. Fhaving a "ungarian parent@ for 55B and being Fclose to the "ungarian culture@ for 53 B. 9 poll done in 1--5 by the . We come from a very civili2ed region. We here are the cradle of the "ungarian civili2ation."ungarian. it doesn't matter what they are@. while other characteristics such as physical appearance are disregarded.B of the "ungarians.orders kept changing in this part of the world.elf-ascription was considered as important as the maternal language also on the #omanian sample of the same poll 60. with traditions in religious tolerance which was unknown to Western Europeans. Dt is their relationship with "ungarians from "ungary. D have some friends in a .abes . "ere is the place where freedom of religion was first legali2ed. When D was in "ungary D said F"ello@ to an old man who happened to know D was from Transylvania. D saluted him in "ungarian and he answered me in #omanian. .tupidity can be the only e planation for this, in my view. When D was in "ungary D visited the fathers-in-law of a friend of mine. 9nd they were surprised D speak such a good "ungarian. D never felt so insulted in my life. The most significant fact is that we're not even called ;agyars, as they are, when we go there. We're called #omano. 9nd #omanians are called Wallachs, when not dirty Wallachs. 6Workers@ group, 'luC7 The conclusion of these negative e perienced was very well synthesi2ed by an intellectual of Tg. ;ures> We, Transylvanians, sometimes feel like second rank "ungarians when compared to "ungarians from "ungary and second-rank #omanian citi2ens when compared to #omanians. We sometimes feel betrayed by both@ 6"ungarian intellectuals, Tg. ;ures7. What seems like an irreversible loss for Transylvania and is strongly resented is Transylvania@s presence as a cultural, political, spiritual 'center'. Either from ,ucharest or from ,udapest today@s Transylvania is a marginal region. Even the memories of old men from the "orthyist times, otherwise seen as a golden age, display this frustration Transylvania was treated as a margin and all the civil servants positions emptied by the severance of #omanians were occupied by "ungarians from "ungary and not locals. The '.2ekely' identity survived only as a Flocal@ identity. With one e ception, the rest of the F.2ekelys@ we discussed with considered Fit is the #omanian nationalists who say .2ekelys are anything else than "ungarians@. !ue to their homogenous presence in their areas, .2ekelys are in fact less interested in cohabitation than other "ungarians. The young ones ignore completely the fact that .2ekelys have a different ethnic background, and the older ones invented imaginative e planations in order to e plain the traditionally different way of writing which persisted until the 1-th century saying Fshamans only wrote like that@. #omanians want to put this .2ekely coat on us but anytime and to anyone we .2ekelys here we tell we belong to "ungary. Df #omanians from ;oldova and #omanians from #omania are unable to unify, to put the same hat on their heads as they should there is no need to put .2ekelys coats on us. There is a different tradition here, but is mostly social. "ere we had no nobles and no serfs, only e)ual people, warriors defending the border. 14 That e plain why we are different form the rest of the "ungarians in Transylvania. 6workers, Tg. .ecuiesc> old men, .f (heorghe7. !efenses built during the 3& years of #omanian domination make even intellectuals deny the original ethnic background of the .2ekelys was different 6the writing was close to Turkish7 and consider the idea as Fa propaganda thesis of 'eausescu@. When confronted with the "istory of Transylvania edited by the "ungarian 9cademy 6and bitterly disputed by 'eausescu@s historians7 they were stunned to discover this is not propaganda, but history, and tried to e plain it as a mistake, or a concession 6interview with "ungarian ;? by the author7. .tereotypes of "ungarians from "ungary compared to "ungarians from #omania develop easily> They are more concerned with their Cobs and their well being, while we are more patriots than they are. "ere the national feelings, the feeling that you belong to a nation is stronger than in "ungary. We're not so open to the rest of the world as they are, but this local patriotism, this love for these grounds are more intense at us 6Ald men, .f (heorghe7. ?eople from the homeland always feel superior to the rest of us. The same goes with #omanians from ,ucharest towards the rest of #omanians. 6"ungarian intellectuals, 'luC7 D was concerned for si years to understand why this treatment from their part. 9nd D think they are envious, envious because we work harder, we're more persevering, we know more languages. They had more liberties than we had in the past %& years and they lived better and that's why they know better their way around, but this is only because conditions were different. They're afraid we're going to take their Cobs and to eat their bread so they consider us a sort of strangers when we go there. We worked harder than they to be what we are did, and even if we are considered second class "ungarians in "ungary D know D am better than they are. ,ut immigrants from here don't feel at home in "ungary, where they get to meet socially only other "ungarians from #omania. We speak the same language for nothing if ideas are not common. We're more communicative than they are. We learned that from the #omanians, we're more welcoming, friendlier, more =atin, if you want, they are colder than we are. 18 We're tougher than they are, because we had to survive more problems than they did. 6'luC, Tg. ;ures, all "ungarian groups7. To summari2e, one of the maCor problems of the "ungarian identity for the #omanian "ungarian minority is the treatment they are subCected by their fellow "ungarians from "ungary. This is a widespread negative first-hand e perience, since everybody either tried to work in "ungary for more money in the past years or had a close ac)uaintance that did. They felt unwanted, often because they volunteered for hard work for a lower pay so becoming the unwanted immigrants who lower the price of the work. Dn the case of "ungary, national solidarity was manifested occasionally only at the !epartment of /oreign 9ffairs or by political parties such as /D!E.I, and not as a widespread attitude. This lead to various attributions meant to e plain "ungarians@ behavior, such as envy towards their fellows from Transylvania. Dn fact, the perception of this FreCection@ lead to an increase of group ties and ethnic solidarity and a strengthening of the Fin-group@ feelings. The group identifies itself by comparison with other groups, so #omanian "ungarians feel superior to "ungarians from "ungary 6because they speak a more Fpure@ language, allegedly7 superior to the #omanians from outside Transylvania 6FTransylvania is the cradle of civili2ation, it@s 1&& yeard ahead from the rest of #omania@7 and superior to West Europeans, who allegedly have no such tradition of Freligious tolerance@ as Transylvania enCoyed. "owever, the hard trials of the #omanian "ungarians self-esteem did not push them closer to #omanians, but increased their national sensitiveness. .ince they are a small community, which recently discovered they can not really rely on the other "ungarians from the mother country their need of protecting their identity from #omanians and their sensitivity to appeals at group status and prestige is even greater. Eot only "ungarians are defensive when they have to picture themselves as a group. 9ma2ingly, so are Transylvanian #omanians, although they are three times as many as "ungarians. #omanians we talked to were preoccupied the interviewer could misunderstand they are somehow not #omanians, so, if asked FTransylvanian #omaniansG@ they answered FEo, Cust #omanians@ or F9re there more categories of #omaniansG D don't think so@. 6(reek-'atholic, 'luC7 or F#omanians will tell you they@re #omanians. 9sk "ungarians, they@ll tell you they@re Transylvanians@. #omanian worker, 'luC7 Ance established nobody is contesting them being #omanians, it comes out some traces of regional identity e ists, associated with a feeling of pride. Dt's more honorable to be from Transylvania than from any other part of #omania. When D am sometimes ashamed of being a #omanian D feel better when D think D am from Transylvania 6intellectual, 'luC7. The #omanian national group is mainly interested to make clear they are related to the rest of #omanians. They would never allow their regional identity, however present, to go against their national identity, since the fear of "ungarian irredentism is widespread. 1: and middle-class7.ucharest with political science students with no previous ac)uaintance of any other ethnic group all the groups in Transylvania showed e treme caution when describing the others. although "ungarians feel #omanians get more out of their work.2ekelys tend to feel they work harder than anyone does. including the usual negative-labeled (ypsies. The . the stereotypical portrait of the #omanian from Transylvania as seen by a "ungarian mi es positive and negative traits> it is a Fwarm@ and Fcommunicative@ person. Fspeaking too
[email protected] students characteri2ed the (ypsy as Fbarbaric@ and the "ungarians and #ussians as Fenemies of #omanians@. 9nd we still don't do this enough. 'ompared to a control focus group in . Fintolerant@ Fvulgar@. . and
[email protected] are perceived as hard working. they endure more@. The "ungarian once returned home shuts the gate and starts working without further delay 6"ungarian peasants. /inally. seen as a Fbackward@ group> FWe here are prouder people@. and the . although milder.oth "ungarians and #omanians from Transylvania are perceived as superior to the #omanians outside Transylvania. to those of the "ungarian group. while "ungarians are Fmore impulsive@. The e planation for that is Fbecause we are closer to the West. #omanians from outside Transylvania are therefore seen by "ungarians as Funcivili2ed@. but only when compared to #omanians from outside Transylvania. .tereotypes are politically incorrect. as they like to point out. but they were Cust a handful. 15 . as we shall see. The Image of the Other . The #omanians aristocrats were all right. all the groups seemed aware of this.ecuiesc. . "ungarian teachers in our groups complained "ungarian students are less ambitious. The difference between the elite and the ordinary people was bigger at #omanians than at "ungarians. FThey are more obedient towards authorities@. ."owever.any "ungarian respondents apologi2ed when asserting the civili2ation in Transylvania was at least one hundred years in advance compared to the civili2ation in the <ingdom of #omania 6Tg. 9ma2ingly. they are happy if the "ungarians at least learn "ungarian well. workers7. This geographical attribution is more popular in loweducated groups. and while #omanians learn two-three languages. The (ermans and us learned from the #omanians to sit in front of the gate to speak with passers-by. . peasants perhaps less than urban groups. "ungarians see themselves as more Fcivili2ed@. Fless patient@. when it comes to stereotyping #omanians from the rest of #omania their representations are )uite similar. Fcolder@. "ungarians.ures 'ounty7 #omanians are also perceived by "ungarians as Fpatient. and Fcrooks@. people are more civili2ed as they are closer to the West@. and the people were much less civili2ed than the "ungarian people 6'iuc. more peaceful. Everybody. #omanians and "ungarians. more communicative. which despised #omanians 6with an intensity close to self-hate7 and resented and feared "ungarians. they become 9merican.tates.@6'luC. in order not to give them back the churches confiscated in 'ommunist times. both workers in Tg. 'luC* peasants. as the e perience. When D go to .iercurea EiraC. They complained the Arthodo 'hurch 6which is in fact the state church. while "ungarians are more serious. so they tend to generali2e usually one e perience 6a wedding they attended or any other single trip7 and the generali2ation is either positive or negative. The (reek 'atholic group displayed the attitudes of a minority persecuted group. . . point out this is Cust a different life style. /or the #omanian (reek 'atholics this is e tremely shameful and humiliating.oldovans Fwho no longer admit they're #omanians@. #omanians.f (heorghe mentioning the case of #omanian . was spreading rumors of them as being F"ungarians@. they're more conformist. =ook at the #omanians who go to 0nited . and they don't stand like "ungarians. The Fbad nationalists@ are in fact called Fe tremists@ and both sides agreed they can be met among #omanians and among "ungarians as well. and was close to the 'ommunist regime7. Ane more reason to be nationalist> to differentiate themselves from "ungarians. distant. ?easants travel so little they can hardly have enough material to create stereotypes. 13 . FThere is no garden without its weeds@6peasants. We all care about tradition here in Transylvania@. 9n interesting problem with both #omanians and "ungarians is that in low-educated milieus Fnationalist@ is a positive attribute. 9 very difficult and psychologically uncomfortable position. The overall image of both groups is that #omanians are warmer. When asked FWho is more nationalistic. #omanians envy "ungarians for their stronger national awareness> Wherever one of them is born he is a "ungarian. =ive2i"arghita7 "ungarians agree with this view. #omanians or "ungarians@ the answer was FWe both areM.ucharest D keep asking myself FWhat are these people arguing aboutG@ and then D reali2e it's Cust their way of speaking. #omanians in "ungary were assimilated. however. 6#omanian workers. seemed to agree F. #omanian intellectuals7. .ures county7.outherners@ are faster and noisier. #omanians have less personality. and he will be a "ungarian in %&& years still.ecuiesc and old men in . proud. while the "ungarians are still "ungarian. Dt's the same with the millions who were (reek 'atholic when 'ommunists forbid it and who became Arthodo without any problem. 'iuc. . These newcomers who were brought here to shut us down when factories were built in the seventies. while "ungarians perceive that F#omanians care about each other more. Tg. intellectuals7.ures7 is indeed very great.olyai 0niversity faculty members tend to endorse this very simple e planation despite any lack of evidence. What #omanians fear is the political cohesiveness of the "ungarian group. 'luC. . towns where #omanians were a minority in the 1-th century and which have now an important #omanian population 65& B in 'luC. regardless if they are #omanian or "ungarian.abes . .ut there is also a dark-side of the Transylvanian identity. we're more used to the Fotherness@. 9lso the West got there before getting here. we're here in a sort of province. We people here changed states and were alternatively maCorities and minorities. and "ungarians. tend to be more intolerant and distrustful towards the other ethnic group. They don't understand why streets carry so many "ungarian names. . The temptation to blame it all on newcomers Fpeople who were not raised here. and academic milieus such as the . their culture. "ungarian workers7. protected by Western influences@ 6Tg.ures.ures.ures7.outherners are considered Funcivili2ed@ by Transylvanians. . much superior in fact to the #omanian groupG /or instance. their identity. We here have a permanent feeling a danger. therefore locals. although the two groups are e)ually numerous the mayor is "ungarian because "ungarians vote according to the ethnic criteria with the 1- .oth groups tend to consider the cohesiveness of the other group as superior to their own. middle-class7. in Tirgu . #omanians are actually scared of the fact that F"ungarians are more united@. There are actually two different types of Funity@ perceived here. 8& B in Tg. They've lived only among #omanians so when they hear us speaking "ungarian with our children in the streets they feel insulted@ 6'luC. our common history. especially by "ungarians.f. Aur e perience points to the contrary> old inhabitants of Transylvania. "ungarian intellectuals believe in a sort of Transylvanian Fidentity@ or at least Fspecificity@. . (heorghe7 displayed fierce nationalism. in the spirit of Transylvanian tolerance@ 6"ungarian intellectuals.ures.Eot only . .o are newcomers. having their personal memories to support their preCudices.oth our third age groups 6#omanian (reek-'atholics. who are blamed with all the interethnic problems and intolerance. They know nothing of our history. . although they admit this is not crosscutting the much stronger national loyalties. both in 'luC and Tg. . while people in "ungary never think they have to preserve their language. they help each other more than we do@. workers. we were in the same basketball team and they would have to leave with us. Dn simple words. D can understand everything e cept one> why is your husband in the Hatra. to some building to be found. The few constituents of FHatra #omaneasca' 6'The #omanian 'radle'7 the #omanian national preservation association are attracted on the basis of this fear. The distinctive group conscience of the "ungarians as a minority scares the #omanians. Then D tell her> you go with my husband to Hatra and D'll go with yours to !9"#. are not organi2ed as a self-conscious group. although we have been colleagues for years. in their own words Fcomple es@ towards the "ungarian group. and is constantly used by #omanian nationalist politicians. #omanian classes. . sided with them. who.outh don't have to worry since the pattern in Transylvania goes as follows> once "ungarians start to organi2e #omanians follow behind. "ungarian. a few weeks before the violent clashes in Tg. . only she says> F$ou. "ungarians from my class who had learned in #omanian until then. 9 maCority which is divided and has no clear direction is weaker than a homogenous. although they form the maCority.ures told this author back in 1--&. . . The Funity@ of #omanians as perceived by "ungarians is very different. They never give up. 6#omanian peasants. while #omanians divide their votes politically among several #omanian parties 6Eationalists. which is perceived as unity.ures> $ou people from the . Dt is tiresome to always respect the commands you are given in church. 'luC7 When the "ungarian classes wanted to separate the school and to send us.ariut2a. the place where all the important commandments for the "ungarian 4& . here is a description of this Fmirroring@ mobili2ation mechanism in the words of a #omanian peasant from the 'luC 'ounty> D have this good neighbor and friend of mine. 6#omanian student.oscovici > 1-3%7 and somehow #omanians perceive that. Dt is mostly a form of sociability. goal-oriented minority 6. 'luC7 Ather #omanians interviewed pitied the "ungarians for this Funity@ which they perceived as a perpetual state of mobili2ation. and that makes them feel . Their mobili2ation is a reaction against the "ungarian mobili2ation.abes 0niversity.ocialists and 'hristian-!emocrats mainly7. and we get along fine. . an increased participation to the others@ life."ungarian 9lliance 6!9"#7. 9s a physician from Tg. They pursue their goal like we're not around. 6Tg. . which you don't understand. The unity of "ungarians is imposed from upside down and it needs a lot of effort to keep Dt. 'ommunication seems to be the main concern of #omanians. . as they say. #omanians cannot admit "ungarians keep their distance from fear of being assimilated 6see demographic statistics below7 and complain of constant reCection > Dnstead of having a "ungarian girl marry a #omanian boy the parents would rather see it dead. . "ungarian intellectual7. a comment on the violence outburst of 1--&. We won't even go for a drink together.i ed families are an e ception in this picture of the two ethnies living alongside each other without any real communication between.6#omanian intellectual. Dt's tiresome to go to a show. who considered nothing will change if they separate the universities completely 6students' group. Table 1 about here The #omanian students at . When the assimilation is not forced. Dt will happen what happened with schools > "ungarians in mi ed schools where "ungarian-taught classes coe ist with #omanian taught-classes know more #omanian and have #omanian friends.for the first time #omanians were a positive e ample. The concern of losing ties with the #omanian community was not present at the "ungarian students of the . one is a (reek 'atholic after his 41 .y brother is a #omanian (reek-'atholic priest and he married a "ungarian. which ended with do2ens of severely inCured people > Dn a way D@m glad it happened.community are given. while fear of being assimilated is the main concern of "ungarians.abes-. This e ceptional state of mobili2ation is confirmed by "ungarians.olyai were concerned #omanians and "ungarians will become two totally separate groups with the separation of universities and. workers7. 6'luC.. since back then in 1--& there was a lot of trust in the development of the #omanian democracy among "ungarians. Dt's an effort to be in a constant state of mobili2ation. while "ungarians in pure "ungarian schools have no #omanian friends at all. They have two children. and D am sure a fast assimilation would have followed. peasants7.ures. it@s more dangerous.ures7. .6Hiisoara. 'luC. Tg.olyai 0niversity. ?eople were confident and off their guard. "ungarians stick together at work and after work. "ere is an impressive statement from the "ungarian intellectuals@ group in Tg.ay 1--57. but mi ed families also tend to get separated along ethnic lines > .abes-. and by speaking only "ungarian they e clude the #omanians.ures. An the other hand. 9sked if they would approve a mi ed marriage the peasants in Hiisoara said 'Ah. when the #omanians take several free days 6for instance. on the contrary. 6. while the mother with the other watches !0E9-TH 6the . Dn the group of intellectuals we were told F#omanians look more religious than us. They watch TH and they feel happy. #omanians are not so. only they wouldn't be happy. An the Eew $ear night. while we are concerned by one or by other and we can't get over it so easy.udapest satellite channel7 in another room. Dn loweducated "ungarian groups #omanians were perceived as Fmore religious@ because. #omanians feel their religious participation is more formal. Dn the #omanian groups. allegedly. Tg. inclined to say "ungarians are less religious because they work on holidays. "owever. 'luC7. peasants. . while the opposite doesn't happen fre)uently. in the same "ungarian groups some members considered the Arthodo religion as Fmore recent@ than 'atholicism and Fmore
[email protected] #omanians need less than we do to feel satisfied. goes to bed at two in the morning and the ne t day we are better than they but they win. ?easants are. middle-class group7.6"ungarian intellectual. yes. drinks a lot of beer. because our religion is so much simpler than theirs 6meaning rituals7@. because they Fdo what they are taught at the church@ and because of the large number of associations connected with the church. the father with the Arthodo child watches the #omanian program on one THs. "ungarians were considered more religious.iercurea 'iuc > The evening before the match with the #omanian team D send my boys Cogging and then put them to bed early stressing the importance of the ne t day match.father and the other one is #omano-'atholic after his mother. We "ungarians are so deadly serious. The #omanian team occupies the porch of the hotel. all night long@ 6'luC. although many told us they disagree that in "ungarian churches Fthey do so much politics. #omanians don't work even during "ungarian holidays. 4% .ore interesting than stereotypes of each other are stereotypes of the difference between the two groups. non-e istent in the Arthodo 'hurch. families will make them split apart sooner or later'. 9s parado ical as nationalism is the perception of the others' religious behavior. however. When my granddaughter upsets me D'm able not to talk to her for two days. workers7. The importance of this perceived difference of character and its impact on the normal social competition was e cellent put by a "ungarian trainer of a handball team in . priests tell them whom to vote and even raise money for !9"#@ 6workers. dances in the near-by disco. on Easter7. of the more impressive rituals of the Arthodo 'hurch. smokes a little. they do not keep anger long. .iercurea 'iuc. .9. that "ungarians receive less gratifications than they deserve and fortifies the drive to create a separate society where competition with #omanians is e cluded for ever and "ungarians will no longer be cheated of what is rightfully theirs. 'luC7 Dn the same time we should not forget the modern dinasty of #omania was of (erman 6"ohen2ollern7 descent.> 1--:7. The e posure to an enlarged communicational environment only increased the group@s desire Fto preserve its separate identity. Dt's a terrible pity they left 6#omanian intellectual. the "ungarian the cook and the #omanian should take care of the house. (roup participants also stressed the difference they perceived between (ermans and "ungarians.iercurea 'iuc7. so difficult it is to imagine an in-group including both #omanians and "ungarians. This e emple highlights the "ungarian usual perception that #omanians do better with less effort. perceived as already internali2ed in the behavior of the two groups. .The FobCective' disadvantage of belonging to a minority group is here transformed into a FsubCective@ disadvantage. When asked FWere #omania a family.agyar nation@. although in polls both communities agree ?resident Emil 'onstantinescu is the political character who did most to improve relations among the two groups. 'luC7. Watch their (erman show on #omanian TH. Dt's fairly decent. not (erman. FDt would be like a mother-in-law with the daughter-in-law@ 6classical image of conflict in the #omanian folk-stories7 6peasants. the life of different nationalities in the kingdom of #omania is viewed retrospectively with some nostalgy by both groups. Eational. (ermans are the most admired by #omanians of all national minorities 6D. while at the "ungarian show they say one thing and they translate another6 #omanian workers. To conclude. The <ing is seen as an arbiter who kept balance and peace. 9t the other e treme is this beautiful representation of a young #omanian student in 'luC> The father should be a (erman. perhaps. (ermans are loyal. and this is further reinforced by an interaction between the Finside@ and Foutside@ attitudes and patterns of social behavour@ 6TaCfel> 1-31 >1187. Even #omanians had difficulties. 'luC7. that a social representation of nations living like a family within #omania is simply missing. how would it look like@ most "ungarian groups told us they cannot conceive it as a family For we would be the intruders' 6intellectual. (ermans never push like "ungarians.uch an arbiter seems to miss today. Eow it's not working because the father is #omanian. as showed mainly in our low-educated participants to group interviews. The most telling fact is. unlike "ungarians. not regional 41 . "ungarians of #omania emerged from the post-'ommunist period with a national identity enforced by the comparison with "ungarians in "ungary 6they see themselves as Fbetter "ungarians@ than those7 and frustrated because of the lack of national solidarity among the Funi)ue . 9lthough far from perfect. and demographically .7.historically <ossovo was a defeat. as they are preoccupied with the alleged "ungarians lack of openness towards them and loyalty towards the #omanian state. 1-38> chapter %7 %.erbs are no longer a maCority for more than one century. pride. =et us take. during times of hardship and golden ages as well. as a part of a need for a positive social identity. Dt is not <ossovo as a specific event or location. but few people see their nation and history this way> usually national ideology has some convenient e planation. 9 myth of common ancestry.hared historical memories. Dt is not the se)uence of particular events. What is important is that the need for a historical identity is there. as with !iaspora peoples. Dndividuals may see themselves as unimportant or even as failures.mith and "utchinson> 1--:* 57 44 . 6. including heroes.identity seems to be the main concern of #omanians also.but the whole self2image of the 3erbs as defenders of 4hristianity that makes . the more they notice their difference. but the perception by nationals that something specific to their group endured along history. ?ositive social identity compensates for low individual self-esteem. history and national identity are so deep interacted that telling them apart is difficult sometimes. for instance. and attitudes towards other national groups. only its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land. "utchinson and .historical. Motivation1 Theoretical assumptions Eationalism would be unconceivable without history. of their self-image. "istory is positive social identity that already passed the most difficult test> the test of time.1. shared memories of a common past or pasts. events.erb people so enraged over the autonomy of 9lbanian . solidarity. so people really feel the need to have one. !efending a specific version of history is seen as enraged nationalism. $OCIA% RE&RE$EN!A!ION$ OF &A$! AND 'I$!OR() !'E *+E$! FOR $EC+RI!( 0. not necessarily in physical occupation by the ethnie. but in fact it is rational behavior> people defend the consistency of their identity. of course. 9 link with a homeland. that is> 1. ?erceptions of the common history by nationals feed national identity.uslims in that territory. Dn other words. Df history is invented or not it matters little. Dn any event. which makes a nation.mith's definition of ethnicity. . a myth rather than a fact. #omanians and "ungarians from Transylvania do try to see each other obCectively> but the harder they try. or better.if that particulate nation is not doing very well at the time. it is not the 9merican #evolution in itself that makes 9mericans feel proud. #. and their commemoration 1. but the inherently 9merican values people perceive were at stake then. however outstanding they might be. and we shall see that at least three of the si elements are strongly related to history. a myth that includes the idea of a common origin in time and place and that gives an ethnie a sense of fictive kinship 6"orowit2. mass media. however. .y Fhistory@ D mean that period placed out of the reach of subCect@s e perience. Therefore D make a distinction between Fsocial representations of history@ and Fcollective memory@. D however use the notion Fcollective memory@ a bit differently. 9 previous research in #omanian villages of .ocial representations of the past and mainly of history are. D mean by Fpast@ here only events from the recent history. #adley had furthermore added that people@s way of remembering the past should be dependent of their relationship to their community 6#adley> 1--&7. and known to him only via other sources.mith. . founding myths. and another between Fpast@ and
[email protected]> 1--87 Dt is already evident that by Fcollective memory@ D mean here not the whole set of representations on the past shared by the members of a community. on the other hand representations and beliefs ac)uired in the sociali2ation process 6school education.cholars and Cournalists use commonly . now reduced and confined to the 'ommunist years 6. which were e perienced by the subCect directly and have in the same time enough social relevance to have generated a social representation.ocial representations of history have a double source> on one part the authentic e perience of a community propagated by collective memories of families or larger groups. and makes an essential contribution to the widespread feelings of sharing a common culture and e periencing solidarity in the present on the model of the past. Dt is oral history which preserves and shapes in the collective memory of ethnies the social representations of common ancestry. either ancestors or other more or less speciali2ed persons. Where this failed to happen 6as in the case of deplaced populations. . Written history. but only the recollections socially reconstructed on the basis of some direct e perience of the community on the length of two generations at outmost 6living memory7. including Fits golden age@ 6"utchinson and . among others. immigrants from rural to urban areas7 it is very likely social representations will be influenced more by outside sources and the public discourse on history. To preserve some collective memories in a community it is necessary that the family and the group can survive in the same environment through social and political change and discontinuity. proved brilliantly. cinema7. . to the origins and ancestors of the community and its historical formation.y choice of terms needs some specifications.aurice "albwachs@ notion of Fcollective
[email protected] showed 'ommunist moderni2ation. 1--:> 57 "istory is therefore an essential element of sociali2ation in the framework of a national culture. homeland. Dn "allwachs@ 61--%7 theory memories are said to be formed and organi2ed in a collective conte t. due more to sources other 48 . while classical psychoanalytical theory considers people repress inconvenient memories. D shall discuss here social representations of the history and the past. but has some connection to the other elements of this definition such as the common culture and the sense of solidarity as well. as an instrument of national self-awareness or even nation building is e)ually important. as studies of Eugen Weber 61-5:7 and Eric "obsbawm 61-317. Ethnicity is essentially Foriented to the past."istory is directly connected to these three. and especially the process of Fvillage systemati2ation@ managed to Ferase@ collective memory. . While D consider these theoretical foundations essential for the understanding of this research. in order to be able to distinguish both the source of recollections and their sharing by the group. 9ppealing to historical resentments to blame difficulties of the transition during the past seven years was a constant policy of the #omanian post-communist governments 6(allagher> 1--8* . Dt is )uite natural. being shared by large collectivities such as ethnic groupLnation. inCustices suffered by #omanian in the 9ustro-"ungarian empire. There is little archeological evidence to support this assumed presence of !aco-=atins.or lack of it N of Transylvania@s belonging to one state or the other. The fact 4: . with a few notable e ceptions 6Herdery> 1-31* .itu> 1--57.than the familyLgroup. historians.ures were also fueled. considered the #omanians as direct heirs of the #oman colonists in !acia and of their mi ed marriages with the native !acian population. Two versions of history Dt is perhaps not uncommon for a territory claimed by two or more countries to have a disputed history. . . Dn the everyday discussion fre)uent historical themes are invoked. starting with Enlightenment. The #omanian history.$. The 1--& violent clashes of Tg. in Transylvania. and families with children remaining in !acia.arch 18 1343 anniversary. which had become a difficult position to keep in front of barbarian invasions. such as treatment of the ever-changing minority group by the ever-changing maCority ethnic group during the %nd World War feed continuously historical propaganda on each historical anniversary. by the #omanians discontent with the mass celebration by the "ungarians of the . farmers. =inguistic arguments are richer. but some are also interpretable in various ways. and so on. The topic of history is constantly absent from sociological and anthropological research in Transylvania. We are not in any event interested in their original Fauthenticity@ or lack of it> we are interested in their instrumental aspect mainly. of native !acia and #oman !acia are to be found. such as continuity of #omanians in Transylvania. among others. date considered by the #omanians as frustrating for their history. Transylvania is however an uni)ue case> the historiography of both countries was dedicated in modern and contemporary times primarily to the task of proving the legitimacy. mostly on the #omanian but also on the "ungarian side.ome of those themes. but there is little trace of them south of !anube either. at least a massive presence. was Transylvania. The #omanian historiography claims that soldiers and clerks only left with the official retreat. while sociologists are bound by clients and tend to measure only present and futureoriented attitudes. limit themselves to documents and do not go into field research. The #oman emperor 9urelian 6%5:7 abandoned !acia. even historians of mentalities.ungiu> 1--87. the =atin-speaking population resulted from the #oman occupation. The homeland of !aco-#omans. since anthropologists are less concerned with actual history. colonists. 0. historical inCustice done by the ?aris Treaty to the "ungarian nation. Dn our group interviews participants considered discussions on history a natural and organic part of the larger #omanian-"ungarian topic. that is5 their role in forming and maintaining current attitudes and behavior. where the two capitals. %:1. and presence of FWallachs@. but from the . When "ungarians fell defending their country and Europe in the . Evidence consists in predominance of .iddle 9ges this social and ethnic element. and to the great number of "ungarian men who died in the war against Turks. . to their reproductive capacities.oldova #omanians also formed a large maCority. and became for almost -&& years the upper class.:&%. at their arrival in the 11th 'entury found a Transylvania that was mostly uninhabited e cept by small groups of . . a different story. subordinated to the Attoman Empire. #omanian historians also claim the take over of Eorthern Transylvania created the opportunity of massacres of #omanians in several villages. . 81.31&. 9ccording to the maCority of "ungarian historians. scarcity of archeological proof showing #omanian presence during the Fdark millennium@ in Transylvania. 9t the end of the /irst World War.is that the first census in Transylvania made by Emperor +oseph DD 615-17 discovered the #omanian ethnic group to be the largest. "ungarian historians do not claim #omanians came from the south of 'arpathians.a ons7. where.lavs. only "ungarian. /eudal lords were. and the defeat of /rance. of course. #omanians. The urban middle class was formed by germans 6. "ungarians. with few e ceptions. The popular assembly of . Dn 1-4&. due to the continuos immigration of #omanians. all !aco-#omans retreated after 9urelian's decision to leave !acia. fascist (ermany and Dtaly decided to return to "ungary northern Transylvania in a decision which was labeled by the #omanian historians as the FHienna !iktat@. a war in which #omanians sided with the winners. 3 B in 1-1& N source =ive2eanu> 1--4> 1187.2ekelys to build cities and guard frontiers and created the Transylvanian civili2ation. originally very few and living in the mountains. performing a military function 6defending the border7 9lmost the entire #omanian population and some "ungarians were serfs.ohacs battle against the Turks in 14%: the "ungarian . imported (ermans and .y that time #omanians made of Transylvania's inhabitants more than all the other ethnic groups taken together 6%. as some proof was published. The "ungarian historiography tells.loody peasants' revolts combined during . who 45 .y 15-1 Transylvania could almost )ualify as an ethnic-ranked society. after more years of "ungarian official revisionist policy. 9fter that the demographic situation started to change )uickly. They started to coloni2e it.outh of !anube.laC proclaimed the unification of Transylvania with #omania after the consent of (erman and "ungarian communities was asked and granted under certain conditions. .&4& of 8.tate ceased to e ist for almost 18& years and the cradle of the "ungarian civili2ation remained the autonomous Transylvanian ?rincipality. started to come in large numbers crossing the 'arpathian passes from the 11th 'entury. Transylvania was occupied by #omanian troops* some of them made of Transylvanians who deserted the 9ustro-"ungarian army. and is mentioned by the "ungarian historians as the@ /irst Hienna 9ward@. The Trianon treaty ratified the unification of Transylvania with #omania. who were #omanians. Dn the other two provinces Wallachia and .lavic names of rivers in Transylvania. #omanian historiography claims that "ungarians arriving in the eleventh century as a migratory people defeated the local scarce chieftains.2ekelys were free landowners. allegedly. The more D have read on Transylvanian history. Dn any case. Dt seems more probable that considerable numbers of =atin-speaking people remained throughout the centuries in these lands than that they all disappeared and a completely new lot took their place a thousand years later. D am not concerned to whether Transylvania Freally belongs@ to either #omania or "ungary N a point D have had to argue with countless people. 9fter an initial defensive reaction met in most of the groups F"istory is the business of historians@ or Flet's leave 43 . as we shall see.1-7. in .'.oldavia.udapest writers to "ungarian car salesmen in . 0. /ew attempts were made to bridge the gap and even recently an attempt of the Apen .alkans.acedonian.are also called F9romanians@ in small ethnic groups scattered all over . .ociety Dnstitute to create a common F"istory of Transylvania@ failed. #evising the two versions. With few e ceptions. (reece.eton Watson concludes> These rival theories are of course inspired by nationalist motives. Wallachia and Transylvania. the more convinced D have become that an obCective rendering of this history is almost impossible. and so on. carefully leaving out all that could contradict or leave some doubt on their theories. . 61-55> p 158-15:7 The 9merican anthropologist <atherine Herdery humorously complained about the difficulties of doing some Fvalue-free@ work in Transylvania. from #omanian villagers to . /irst.agyars 6"ungarians7 because both countries claim or have claimed rights of sovereignty over the region. regardless of the knowledge of history people assess or actually have. and neither can be proved by ade)uate evidence. "ugh .ulgaria. 9s she puts it> Transylvania@s history is one of the most politically e plosive topics in any conversation with #omanians and . their opinions on history are nevertheless strong.ut it is not easy. and that from them emerged the #omanian nation. since most topics touch the e plosive #omanian-"ungarian dispute. 6Herdery> 1-31> p. Eeither am D. This does not of course e clude the probability that there was large-scale immigration also at the later date.. certainty will never be attained. What concerns us in this work is that already before 14&& people speaking this language formed a maCority of the population in . historians in both countries built cohesive versions of history.altimore. Dn both countries Transylvania and its history is considered a central issue in the national formation theory.erbia. . 3ocial representations of the founding myth1 moderates5 e clusivists and pragmatics This absolute division between the two national schools of history was perfectly mirrored by our focus groups. in fact. and displays several nuances as well.ut this good knowledge is rather surprising in "ungarians. We believe more "ungarians than #omanians lived in the .lavic family. 'luC7 What D know is that the history of the #omanians which was taught to us in the school is not true and D think this is a punishment for the #omanians not to know their real history. "ungarians came here first. What matters is to bring some light here. This belief is e pressed in various ways. !uring that period #omanians were also compelled by the . an empty large space. we know only what our parents told us@ everybody was aware of the core of its national theory. because in 'eausescu's last years national indoctrination rivaled 'ommunist indoctrination to be finally synthesi2ed in an uni)ue doctrine 6see Herdery> 1-537. even in "ungarian schools. learned history from #omanian 'ommunist te tbooks. from various reasons. . We also believe "ungarians were the first settlers here. only the arrival of #omanians is controversial. nothing is older than 11th century. who. Everybody agrees about the date of our arrival. especially for the #omanians. . county of 'ovasna7. the number of the #omanians grew faster and more than "ungarians. while we had two. although none of the two theories has enough proof@ 6intellectuals. the immigration theory Oof #omaniansP is the best of two. This is not surprising for #omanians. 9 separate "ungarian history te tbook circulated in this area and allegedly it carried some of the "ungarian version of history.to 1-:4.f. therefore a part of the big . and more recently "ungarian Television can be received almost everywhere in Transylvania7. 9n e ception can be made for the counties that were part of the "ungarian 9utonomous #egion from 1-4. . 9s group participants stated 6different paragraphs indicate different speakers7> The conviction of the "ungarian intellectuals is that the !aco-#oman theory is wrong. 9ll the "ungarians in our group. not #omanians that had been found by the first "ungarians at their descent in Transylvania The e cellent knowledge by "ungarians of their dissident theory shows the effectiveness of a parallel sociali2ation process. according to the degree of education. but afterwards.that to historians and politicians. helped by the pro imity of "ungary 6#adio. with one notable e ception 6a worker in a group in 'luC immediately singled and labeled as Ftraitor@ by two more radical members of the group7 consider the #omanian founding myth a Fpure myth@ and "ungarians the first to have settled in Transylvania. The theory corroborated well with the "ungarian claim that it were .lavs. that is what D think. 6Dntellectuals.iddle 9ges in Transylvania and it is very strange the #omanian official version of history doesn't accept that.oviet 0nion to accept what was called Fthe #oller theory@ which claimed #omanians are. when here was a desert. each village 4- . who had only a source for their history. . (heorghe.lavs. We believe that in 15th-13th centuries the number of the two was balanced.urial grounds show that. of a "ungarian historian.he had serious problems with her #omanian language that was faulty and she claims professors constantly told her she should have tried the "ungarian section instead. returned to the .ecuiesc. was the only one in the group to believe #omanians were the first settlers. 8& .he e pressed bitter frustration for having tried to Fbecome #omanian@ and having failed. somehow picked by this low-educated member of our group. . who couldn't recall where he first heard it. And what might that be7 6. the second around the year 4&& and the third after the year -&&.but after feeling reCected by them she could not reCect it altogether> so the Fgood #omans@ became Fbad #omans@. but also were the only civili2ed population until the import of (erman settlers. The latest myth is not original. and it is always "ungarians who did. "er attribution was constructed as a defense. she decided to leave this homogenous "ungarian region and Fto mingle@. in order the hide something shameful connected with their birth.2ekelys region and took a Cob she despised in the private sector because she didn't own a university diploma.he went to school to 'luC where she enlisted to the #omanian-English /aculty. 'iuc.has its history on who carved the first stone. They invented their whole history. The story was consistent with her own traumatic history> born in the . less important and accepted. their ancestors were criminals. D know when "ungarians became 'hristian* D don't know when #omanians became 'hristian. 9ttributions tend to have )uite a comple elaboration on this matter> D think #omanians don't know their history because they didn6t want to know it. This is another minor theory of a "ungarian writer. The first wave of "ungarians came here three centuries before +esus 'hrist.he was unable to graduate. no wonder they fake their history. but only under these dubious circumstances.oderator7 The #omanians come from #omans convicted and deported to live here. The other members of this group. nobler than "ungarians .he initially Fhad bought@ the idea that #omanians are heirs of #omans. did not argue with him on what even when asked if they share this view. a noble people. . partisans of the Fclassical@ "ungarian theory. listened skeptically to this person. 6=ower middle class.obili2ation against the #omanian theory was spontaneous and almost general in all our group interviews. . The rest of the group. 'ounty of "arghita7. which is a fake.2ekelys area. 6Workers' group. The basic idea of the "ungarian group is that not only is it the first to have settled. but is a theory. . . although some looked skeptical. county of 'ovasna7.convicts of the #oman Empire. . The woman who told us that slightly disapproved by other members of the "ungarian group. . Tg. They Ffeel sorry@ for #omanians who don@t know their real history. than the !acians. . Tg. in villages around "uedin the first #omanian names appear after 15&&. #omanians were the first. together with #ussians and (ermans.ures7 #omania should have been called !acia if the #omanian theory were true. #omans and "uns. Dt looks like #omanians were here forever. on the other side. #omanian intellectuals7 Df you learn #omanian history you will say #omanians are the first settlers. they'll tell you "ungarians. #omanians came here around 15&&. 6'luC. put the man on the tomb of his grandfather and you'll find out who was here earlier. .efore discussing the importance the groups attribute to their historical theories D@d like to point out a few things.lavs. 6#omanian Workers. without a fightG 9ll their theory is nonsense. #omanians are not !acian descendants. Why are so few !acian words in the present #omanian languageG "ow could a !acian mother fail to teach her children the !acian languageG 6"ungarian group. We are %1 millions. 'luC7. We were born here from !acians* we didn't immigrate.We have a saying about that. 'luC7. they are less than % million. Then came the migratory peoples and attacked them. 6"ungarians workers. we should notice the self-assurance and superiority of "ungarians when it comes to this topic. They are descendants of . We did not fall upon any image of the #omanian as 81 . Dn the 'luC urban groups. 6#omanian peasants. They were a migratory people and invaded ?anonia. not us. are strong believers in the F!aco-#oman theory. 6#omanian workers. if you go to a "ungarian school. unlike them who do and have evidence to support it in their immediate environment 6such as tombstones7. The !acians were assimilated by the #omans and left this country. 9nd now they want it all. although they are persuaded F"ungarians will never accept it@. The "ungarians attacked us. village in the 'luC county7 Why should we have left !acia and returned laterG 9nd would they let us in like this. /irst. shamed them. This Frelativism@ disappears in lower educated groups> "istory says the Thracians were the first. We grew up here* we never attacked anyone. 'luC7 #omanians. intellectuals. opinions were far more nuanced. /igure 4 6cahart7 comes about here 1. 1% B of #omanians and 18 B of "ungarians are convinced their theory is Cust. trying to 'give a meaning' to the . . turned into contemporary preCudices. We can consider both representations are actually attributions. . "ungarians display more confidence than the #omanians. peasants.8-B7 accept the other group's historical theory. 51. but that group rights should be e)ual 1.Fimmigrant'. #omanians have largely shared images of "ungarians as invaders> They came on horses and they brought a lot of illnesses. choosing the alternative that rights should be e)ual regardless of when the settlement took place. An the contrary. #omanians try to Custify their inferior position implying they were violently forced into it by ' migratory barbarians '.oderate nationalism 6they consider historically proven their group was the first to settle. 6#omanian workers. this group sees itself as a first-class category of citi2ens and the others as 'lesser rights' groups. Dn our poll Transylvanian #omanians and "ungarians could choose one of the three options> 1. Anly %1B of #omanians and no "ungarians chose this alternative. E clusive nationalism 6whoever settled first has more rights and the others have to play by his rules 6first two answers7 %. 'luC7 #egardless the historical truths. %. 1.iddle 9ge hierarchy. because people who travel a lot usually bring illnesses they take from all places.ince they have been numerically inferior in Transylvania for more than two hundred years they do not dare to challenge the #omanian superiority. ?ragmatism 6they rule out any association between the moment of the settling and the group rights7. but do not think this should affect the rights of the other groups. "ungarians try to avoid the guilt of their superior status by invoking their previous settling and their 'civili2ation'.3 B "ungarians and 1. despite the overspread belief in this theory among "ungarians. "ungarians although so articulate in focus groups about their historical theory chose overwhelmingly the alternative 1. -B of the "ungarians and almost no #omanians 61. 8% . 9lmost a )uarter of #omanian "ungarians therefore considers they should have superior rights to other ethnic groups due to their first arrival.B #omanians 6the relative maCority7 refuse to associate in any form the national birth theory with the distribution of rights. who react defensively and tend to distribute their group in the role of the victim. Dn other words. . 'ommon sense was the prevailing attitude> What matters now is how to make a happier life for our children. although group interviews suggest many more are strong believers in their theory. if this is the case. 9nother third might feel provoked by "ungarian nationalistic slogans that "ungarians are the first and the founders of the "ungarian civili2ation. 'luC7. Aur main problem now is that we get poorer and our managers get richer daily by stealing. The logical se)uence of thought in both #omanian and "ungarian 'pragmatics' runs as follows> 81 .ures. D am not interested who came here first. "ungarians. or only to the e tent that D consider myself at home and somebody might consider me a stranger. The "ungarian community feels disadvantaged by the use of this topic under any circumstances so they choose the most defensive alternative. The displayed attitudes in group interviews towards the importance of the national birth theory were either denial or minimalism. .ures7. 6'iuc.To sum up.ecuiesc7. and that #omanians were here forever and we came later. . 6Workers@ group. "ungarian middle class group7 Dt is important only when we're told we are the immigrants or guests here. Tg. This is as much my homeland as it is for #omanians 6'luC. only a )uarter of the #omanian population in Transylvania identifies with nationalist slogans such as '"ungarians are tolerated by the hospitality of #omanians in Transylvania'. "ungarians. This is a very primitive manipulation of politicians who want us to get at each others' throats* D'm not interested who came here first. when the other group uses the argument> When D am told> speak #omanian. 6'iuc. then D am proud they survived as a nation after such a long way. either #omanian or "ungarian. 6Workers@ group. regardless if they are #omanians and "ungarians. middle class7. workers. "ungarians7 D hate being told my ancestors came from 9sia. intellectuals7 .obili2ation appears immediately. 6Tg. "ungarian group. because you are on #omanian land D get mad 6'iuc. This comes up only when a group wants to stripe the other of its rights@ 6"ungarians. than we had ourselves. 9ll right. Tg. #omanians. "ungarians7. however. ecuiesc. 6"ungarian intellectual.ecuiesc. it is important who is he.oth groups seem today to resort to their national theory not in order to dominate the other group. They become immediately defensive when it comes to it. while the #omanian serfs had ten. 84 . 6(reek-'atholics7 Dt is important because who came first has more rights and decides what rights to share with the newcomers. we're all people. Tg. The "ungarian overlord had only one heir. #omanians on "ungarians7 to become stronger than we are 1. #epresentations of this type can be grouped in four maCor recurrent themes> 1. dear ladyG Dt's like you stay in the house and you have to share the house. "ow can it not be important who settled first. now we're here together. 6Tg. only politicians like to make a big fuss about this %. . . . and this is how #omanians ended by outnumbering us in Transylvania'. . . . so we have to make the best out of this.f. The only outspoken groups on the matter were #omanian (reek-'atholics and peasants of Hiisoara. so we do not have lesser rights 4. "owever we were here first and the others migrated here.ures7. 6"ungarian old men. (heorghe7 The topic is in fact a maCor producer of discriminative representations and attributions even among pragmatics.o when D see it matters to the others then it starts to really matter for me too. then managed somehow 6by higher reproduction rates. The way the two theories are built they can hardly fail to be discriminative. and the person you share with.1.they were tried so hard and so often on the basis of this argument. 9lthough both groups deny the national theories are important. what is his culture.ecuiesc7. "ungarian old men and partly workers in Tirgu . That's why it matters we are not immigrants here. both are reluctant to admit it was not their group to settle first and their theory is as relative as the other group's. Dt is very important because we were the first here. The reproductive potential of #omanians !o you know that sayingG The smarter people are fewer children they have. but natives.y old man told me they believed in this booklet which used to circulate in the forties that #omanians multiply as rabbits. if you can get along with him by the same rules. but to protect themselves. Tg. Dt doesn't matter who settled here fist. "ungarian workers7 . "ungarians on #omanians* by imposing themselves as masters and making the rule. 6Worker. his behavior. we don't have enough children. 'luC7 "ere in town we have a 14th century church made by a #omanian grof 6'lord'7 who married a "ungarian. Dt is our fault.f (heorghe7 %. 'luC and . The lack of 'civili2ation' of the #omanian group "ungarians tend to think of their culture as superior. since history te tbooks and maCor #omanian literature pieces by Transylvanian authors such as =iviu #ebreanu promoted this image. in the other #omania.ome apologi2e when stating that. The #omanian civili2ation was Fa wooden one@. Where #omanians were richer they built stone churches. that's why our number decreased by the years 6"ungarian intellectuals. in 9rad. made of old #oman carved stones and older than "ungarian churches."ungarians as oppressors This is a widespread stereotype among #omanians. inside and outside Transylvania as well. . like the one in !ensus. is itG .ut south of 'arpathians. others see no need. however.fintu (heorghe synthesi2ed this argument perfectly> We are the first because there is overwhelming evidence of this fact.ore educated "ungarians. Df D look around in Transylvania. there are no castles. 1. a belief enforced by the scarcity of #omanian monuments when compared to the "ungarian ones. as you go towards West. tend to blame themselves rather than #omanians. 6"ungarian intellectual.The issue of the #omanians higher reproductive potential came spontaneously in every conversation with the "ungarians.aramures still show. #omanians were serfs at the "ungarian lord 6grof7. "ow could #omanians build stone churchesG 88 . D somehow understand the #omanians* we have so many tombstones and churches to show while they have nothing. Dn "ungary and 9ustria they have even more castles. but even assuming we are not we're the only state-building nation in Transylvania and had been the only civili2ation for centuries. The old men in . . in "unedoara. but the fact remains. everywhere. #omanians resorted to it as the obvious defense when discussing about the large number of monuments "ungarians have in Transylvania. but that's about it. as old churches in . but it is an overspread belief their civili2ation in Transylvania is older and better. what do D seeG 'astles in !eva. D know #omanians say Turks tore them down. ome think so. 8: . but also in the following se)uence of a group interview 6Dnterviewer's interventions are in Dtalics7> This is a political game.. 4.. %hy5 who came later has less rights7 .Dn the last 3o years. ..ures violent clashes in 1--& F$ou should go back to "ungary or wherever you came from and let us leave peacefully here@ and they were surprised to be answered FWhy should D go to "ungary when my ancestors are buried in this land@.. That's why /unar digs all around 'luC to find trace after trace.. who came from 9sia and con)uered Transylvania.. "ungarians are e tremely defensive and reserved when it comes to this topic and the interviewer had to spend time to persuade them they can tell whatever they want regardless of conse)uences. Df "ungarians do have more monuments.. -unar has been mayor of 4lu8 for 9 years only1 this is an older argument.. They're looking for proof. being considered an inferior church7.. #omanians claim this was done at the e pense of #omanians.. Therefore it is widespread among #omanians and provokes strong defense reactions in "ungarians. Eo wonders there are few. !iggings 6archeological7 were made all over Transylvania in the past %& years. D'm persuaded the "ungarians were here fist. it was the domination of #omanians. "istorically... they weren't allowed to build churches.. . This is reflected in the large share of pragmatics. The group of peasant women in a village near 'luC still remembers they told their "ungarian neighbors the second day after the Tg..@ 6#omanian intellectuals. 'luC7. "ungarians as invaders The stereotype of "ungarians as invaders. with their work and on their land.ome consider they can dominate this way. is also due to #omanian history books.. the #omanians claim that they are the only natives in Transylvania developed in a time when they were deprived of elementary rights 6The #omanian Arthodo 'hurch did not enCoy an e)ual status with the other denominations in Transylvania..9nd to persuade you don't have e)ual rights.7 Who ever is first comes up as an argument to critici2e somebody's domination.#omanians weren't allowed to live in cities. and all the rest came after them 6. Two other observations deserve to be made concerning the topic> 1. This prompts group to be cautions and defensive. Everybody.uch was the case of Dancu de "unedoara.0. ?eople even refuse to discuss history. This is the FobCective@ basis for frustration.3ocial5 not ethnic conflict/ The . since ordinary people have little 85 . that's how we live this. . abandoning their ethnic Flosing@ group and Coining another. Therefore. immediately converted into behavior> the #omanian women in Hiisoara fought with the "ungarian women after seeing on television the Tg.iddle 9ges was a dark time indeed for our respondents. 3ocial representations of history 0. a #omanian born noble who became regent of "ungary and is claimed as self by both national groups. displaying stronger preCudicial attitudes towards "ungarians. %ell5 I meant only. Ardinary people have to face the conse)uence of these provocations.. /or the mediaeval history of Transylvania can hardly fail to be other than traumatic for #omanians and it can easily provide the basis of frustration and preCudiceG !eprived of any political rights Transylvanian #omanians could climb the social scale only by ethnic assimilation. it is not surprising this group has a higher interest and knowledge of history. Dt was the (reek 'atholic more than the Arthodo 'hurch. and the past of this denomination.lack on a large scale.oth groups try to shape it in order to fit their general system of beliefs. We would allow ourselves insulting affirmations.Df we answer to these we would walk into a trap. <nowledge of history. 0.oth groups are defensive and do not even need the other group to trigger defense mechanisms. They prefer to stick to what fathers and grandfathers told them about more recent times. seems to be aware it is politically incorrect to consider the first settlers have superior rights. #omanians and "ungarians included. The only e ception seem to be the #omanian (reek-'atholics.especially "ungarians . . although they had a peaceful coe istence until the conflict. that it can turn against us. That's how we see it. "ungarian intellectuals. since nationalist politicians and the media do the Cob almost daily. perhaps also in need to Custify its own unity to #ome.. %.0. from two main reasons> the advanced age of this group 6corresponding to the national character of this aging group7.. closely associated with the national emancipation of #omanians in Transylvania..ures conflict. which fought for the revival of #omanians' conscience as a =atin nation. e cepting some intellectuals . and say it was not a topic in their families. . "owever people have strong views despite that fact and the use of discriminative stereotypes derived from the national 'history' theories is common practice. . .1. The whole story finished with a blood bath after 9ustrians were skillful enough to play nationalities fears and frustration over the "ungarian domination 83 . choose to believe that the Transylvanian mediaeval ranking system was purely social and not ethnic. "ungarian intellectuals. the general overview is of a national emancipation war than of a social revolution N of the "ungarians against "absburgs and of the #omanians against "ungarian lords.2ekelys were always "ungarians* we "ungarians didn't assimilate anyone. Tg. The fact that . .$. The official history of Transylvania edited by the "ungarian 9cademy of .which is also consistent with the whole history of the #omanians in the "absburg Empire . the riot of "orea raises more emotion in #omanians. . Dts contemporary portraying in movies and TH series endorsed this image as well.populari2ation of the riot of "orea.2ekelys were a different ethnic group from the "ungarians. the riot and its bloody repression remains the first traumatic moment of direct confrontation. even from the part of intellectuals. with its failure of bringing a historical agreement between the "ungarian revolutionary bourgeoisie and the #omanian one.2ekelys were a tribe of Turkish origin who came together with "ungarian tribes but had a separate language and conserved for centuries a separate alphabet and writing. while the 1343 moment meets more the feelings of "ungarians. . although there were also "ungarian serfs on the side of the rioters. . Averall.imple. 9 favorite theme of the national communist school of history.2ekelys were finally completely assimilated by the "ungarians. 'luC. 9lthough details are scarce. . This memory generates a very simple representation -and therefore a very powerful one .rights.with "ungarians the e ploiters and #omanians the e ploited..knowledge or interest in the matter.ciences assumes . 9nother mediaeval issue completely erased from the collective memory is the fact that . which used this superimposition of cleavages to blame it all on the "ungarian feudal lords. . 6"ungarian politicians. 'losca and 'risan got roots in the #omanian public opinion.ucharest7 0.The )absburgs played each against the other/ The ne t important moment is the 1-43 #evolution.2ekelys are not entirely "ungarian is a thesis of the 'ommunist propaganda.0. not national@ and consider these cannot be made a part of the conflicting #omanian"ungarian history as official #omanian history puts it. The level of knowledge on this matter would probably scare a history teacher.as they see it .ures7 also consider the big riots of #omanians peasants during feudal times were predominantly Fsocial. but the mere mention of this fact provokes nationalist angry reactions. even rudimentary representations are stronger since they respond to the need of people of attributing a clear e planation to comple historical backgrounds. with minor differences among them 6groups in 'iuc. 9lthough 13th century peasants barely defined themselves as F#omanians@ and bore no national ideal but rose only to fight for elementary social-not even political.f (heorghe. !o ordinary people perceive it soG Dndeed they do. "ungarian intellectuals7.@<ossuth would have granted minorities more rights later. they helped kill the "ungarian revolution. reached. "ungarians in our groups. including "ungarians and 9ustrians. intellectuals7 =ess educated "ungarians freely interpret facts to their advantage. The only ones to blame are the 9ustrians* they promoted the usual "absburg policy of Fdivide et
[email protected] 18. the military leader of the #omanians in 1-43. 1-43. as /unar is
[email protected] also had the recent opportunity to reconsider this historical moment due to the #omanian nationalist mayor of 'luC. and in the end they gained nothing@ 6'luC. had more idea about the 1343 moment.alcescu it was already too late@. due also to the fact that "ungary's Eational !ay is the anniversary of .against emancipated "ungary and asked the '2ar's troops in. although admitting half-heartily> F"e started to reali2e minorities should be a part of all these only when it was too late@ FWhen <ossuth met with . not civilians. Aur respondents were still furious remembering this. namely . 9t the time there were two #omanian ?rincipalities> . now it was important for the "ungarian #evolution to win@. This provoked huge protest from the part of "ungarian political organi2ations. nowhere in Europe at the time the national topic wasn't yet discussed.lovaks and 'roats. The #omanians were victims of this policy. We can't blame <ossuth he didn't give much thought to the national topic. the leader of the #evolution. The compromise that was eventually reached later between 9ustria and "ungary.. the formation of the bourgeois nation. however late. 9nd when the #omanians of Transylvania gathered at .lovaks and #omanians. now 5&B inhabited by #omanians. even the less educated ones.. FThe #omanian participation in 1-43 was actually a counterrevolution. by "ungarians7.oldova and Wallachia. in 1343 almost a pure "ungarian town.f (heorghe. creating the "ungarian national state allowed unprecedented displays of "ungarian nationalism on behalf of minorities. the statue of 9vram Dancu. Dn the whole revolution there were 4&&&& deaths. "e didn't understand that nationalities within "ungary.laC and 8- . and all these are regular troops.f (heorghe. 'iuc. with an inscription saying forty thousands #omanians were killed during those battles 6of course. /unar raised in 1--1 in the middle of the town. The "ungarian nation had formed earlier while in the 9ustrian Empire@ 6. #omanian democratic parties also blamed this Fprovocation'. #omanians. . . "ungarians honor <ossuth. (heorghe /unar."e didn't understand until it was too late what a danger was lying here. 2ekelys area. knowing only about the celebration of . The two #omanian churches and 9vram Dancu thought them better to become allies of the Hienna emperor against "ungarians.. what country could they have meantG "ungary only. although few people know what actually happened on .arch 18. and 1: B attended it in 1--560.arch 18 "ungarian celebration so highG 48B of the Transylvanian "ungarians say they attended it in 1--&. who hoped they could change his orientation but failed.alcescu tried.olyayi 0niversity in 'luC. both #omanians and "ungarians. 9vram Dancu.. . looks like shit@ 6#omanian students. that is why 'oats and (erman were also against "ungarians@. especially in the . when finding out he was manipulated by 9ustrians to turn against "ungary got mad.abes .ures were the least informed. "ungarians have this pride of a small nation. 'luC7. This former official national day in "ungary is still respected in Transylvania and gives birth to popular holidays in every village and town. This reCection feeling is very common in the #omanians' version of the common history. at least #omanians. a people which always keeps towards others. . poll7. considered the birth of the "ungarian national state. #omanians in 1-43 saw the maCor danger in "ungarians. and they were unanimously blaming /unar for giving the city Fsuch a poor statue.tudents in . but they couldn't succeed because of the "ungarian position of dominant nation. The politics of <ossuth e cluded order nationalities. who were in a period of nationalism. Ane e planation is the opportunity it gives to "ungarians. a distance. 'luC7.6workers. What then is keeping the participation rate in the .shouted FWe want to unite with the
[email protected] 18 1-43. to use this traditional moment to display their national flag and reassert their separate :& . Ald (reek-'atholic #omanians consider the 1343 #evolution Cust one more episode in the long history of reCection of #omanians by "ungarians.revolution are applied to the 1-43 one Dt was a spontaneous revolution well organi2ed with the #omanians manipulated by the 9ustrians. showed not only ignorance but total lack of interest to the matter.... #ecent clichQs borrowed from the TH analysis of the !ecember 1-3.0nfortunately it ended by the defeat of the #evolution. "ungarian peasants in 'ovasna and . There were also #omanians on <ossuth's side. F#omanians tried to reach a common view with them. .inister Hiktor Arban. recollections of family histories recreate for #omanians the picture of an oppressive rule. but an official national one. 6#omanian intellectual. but high-ranked "ungarian politicians from #omania and "ungary attend it. The "ungarian celebration is a community celebration> civil society is involved to a similar e tent as politicians. in fact celebrations of national victories on the behalf of the other nation or nations. The #omanian celebration is an official.5 million #omanians. dislike the #omanian Eational !ay.identity. 'luC7. 6. although #omanian politicians as prete t for nationalist speeches constantly use it. These mutual e clusive holidays. Eone of these can compensate the fact that !ecember 1 is not a popular celebration turned into a national one.4. therefore cutting Transylvanian "ungarians from their mother country. Dn all Transylvania there were only two #omanian high schools and there were %. /ormer /oreign 9ffairs . the day when in 1-13 the #omanian popular assembly at 9lba Dulia decided the unification of Transylvania with #omania. "ungarians.any #omanians share the view Ffreedom of "ungarians in 1-43 meant only further enslaving of #omanians@ 6worker. They were very poor. This national holiday e cludes us. #omanians should have chosen another day. 4. 'luC7. 'luC7.ures fueled the rising tension in the city. the 1st of !ecember. . Fstatelead@ holiday.F#omanians were no worse than the rest of peasants. . with little or no involvement of the public and the civil society. and so was current "ungarian ?rime . :1 .@ 'oming closer to our times.inister (e2a +essensky used to come on a regular basis.. the strong participation of the "ungarian elite can account for this massive participation> not only are the church and the local governments associated in organi2ing the event. An the other hand.y grandmother told me how they were working for the grof. intellectual7. This e plains why the sudden decline in 1--5. in their turn. Dn 1--& the celebration in Tg. #omanians considering insulting the pompous celebration of a revolution which failed to grant them the right of being recogni2ed as a nation. . so the need for identity politics dropped.1. the first year when the "ungarian 9lliance 6!9"#7 was participating to government. (reek 'atholic. Dn !ecember 1--3 ?resident Emil 'onstantinescu organised the first military parade of the post-'ommunist era on this occasion. The grof's children never played with the other children. 6#omanian. and even the traditional celebration from Tebea in Transylvania is more and more organised by officials. generating no widespread popular emotion. are however )uite different when it comes to popular participation. Each year when politicians make speeches about the unification they never think what the unification meant for us. close to a colonial vision of Transylvania. #omanian Television displays on such occasions only official speeches and ceremonies.f (heorghe. who were #omanian* they didn't even know #omanian. . . There is not even a recognition of the situation. Dn the rest of #omania they built such roads only after the fifties. but not as bad as #omanians complain. #omanians were not promoted easily. but it was never applied as such. "ungarian intellectuals7. D suspect :% .alkans were under control. when in prison for anti-"ungarian articles in his newspaper was allowed to visit his wife who was giving birth. 'luC7. . 6Tg. . 6'luC.i ed families were the only ones with a bilateral vision. The education law passed by the "ungarian government was bad for minorities. if the grof 6landlord7 was treating serfs well or not 6"ungarian intellectuals. road were built. e cept that Fit was better for the "ungarians@7 )uoted mainly books and written history. their bottom line being Fit was bad..onarchy. especially after 13:5 when "ungary became a sovereign state and e)ual partner in the !ual . D think "ungarians perceive those times only for their bright side and they cannot understand what did they not directly e perience.ut they could study at . Dt was a time of economic development. ?roblems that afterwards surfaced in the . although perhaps it was not the best way of solving them even then. The essential attribution of the "ungarians is that #omanians were discriminated on social.. D think it was up to individuals.ures. intellectuals7 were Dt was a region like any other that lived a normal life."ungarians do not share this view. while "ungarians 6intellectuals only.ures. ?roblems started only after 1-13. "ungarian intellectuals7. intellectuals7. so how could any guilt be foundG . since the rest knew nothing. .ources of these recollections for the two groups remain )uite different.udapest or in Hienna. D could not find any trace of collective guilt from the part of the "ungarian intellectuals over the harsh discriminative treatment #omanians and other nationalities suffered under the "ungarian domination. 9fter all. #omanians )uoted mainly what parents and grandparents told them about the distant past 6therefore the collective memory7.f (heorghe.lavici 6#omanian writer from Transylvania7. not ethnic grounds. They were no worse than the "ungarian serfs 6. 6Tg. but the Trianon !iktat@ The ne t crucial moment in the collective memory of both.ecuiesc. "ungarian workers7.7G Dt was the same we felt then..rancovici. When D go here Tg. FF/or us it is not the Trianon treaty. but.. Anly oblivion and ignorance are common. "ungarians were punished because they lost the war 6"ungarian workers.ava . but the area e perienced more problems after the empire was over. "ungarian intellectual. a terrible time for the others. Eostalgia with the "absburg Empire is deed present> $ou could travel without a passport from .ures7 9 golden age for some.essarabia. .it was an empire. from a mi ed family7. . :1 . but mostly of the "ungarians.. "ere the two versions collide more than ever. which after months of negotiations and military operations acknowledged Transylvania as a part of the #omanian <ingdom.tates of Europe. but they are constantly disturbed by nationalistic propaganda. Dt's the same to when we are e plaining #omanians who do not understand why we suffered more during 'eausescu than they did.. .oldova 6actually . is the Trianon treaty. !o you think D like thatG F6"ungarian intellectual. Two perfect opposites. and feel pointed at even if they were not born at the times.. What felt the #omanians when #ussians took ..rasov to <iev and from <rakow to ?redeal.6Tg.minorities were persecuted to the last degree. Dt was somehow the 0nited . 'luC7.ishop who was persecuted for refusing to convert to 'atholicism7.. Dt started like a good thing.ishop@ 6the picture represents probably . an Arthodo . Tg. Dt was a big disaster then. 6'luC. . "ungarians complain the fact that #omanians remember these times as times of national oppression. and promises made to us were not kept. Trianon is remembered in Transylvanian "ungarian families as a maCor disruption. like a rapprochement of nationalities.ut "ungarians remember it better* it was more a topic in their families than in the #omanian families.ures in the Arthodo 'athedral D see the picture of 'hrist who is whipped by "ungarian hussars and beyond it says F?oor . #omanians complain "ungarians look upon these times as a golden age. our note.and it is interesting how states resulting from it went to pieces after 1--&.. a change of all the societal norms. #omanians are not aware of the importance "ungarians attach to the 9lba-Dulia statement. #omania's allies in the 1st World War. Then it would imply it was very unCust what happened to the "ungarians in 1-13 and it was only Custice in 1-4&. Educated "ungarians' recollections present important differences compared to less educated ones. who promised at 9lba Dulia a different status of minorities. This was embodied in the so-called F9lbaDulia statement@ which granted Fnational autonomy@ to Transylvanian nationalities. Tg. but we can't make. however. We can't however say it is Custice only if you belong to your national state. as the leader of the #omanian Eational ?arty put it later. the Fnational
[email protected] was a catastrophe. each with its minorities. as to the nowadays-"ungarian intellectual living in #omania. . The truth is the #omanian national state. Alba Iulia as the first moment of the (omanian2)ungarian relationship :4 . Dt was the policy of the #omanian government at the time. 1. defined #omania as a nation-state. the end of the world.ut D think the problem should be seen under a different angle.tate.tatement@ promised nationalities e actly the same rights #omanians had been asking unsuccessfully from "ungary for the past 8& years. 'ovasna county. 6"ungarian peasants.ures7. but not. Two maCor representations of 9lba-Dulia shape even today the attitudes of "ungarians towards the #omania . /or the present "ungarian politicians. the first official act. The #omanian 'onstitution of 1-%1. . Trianon means mostly the breaking of the trust between the "ungarian minority and the #omanians.ome of it was granted. Dt was the original tragedy* all our troubles originated then 6"ungarian intellectuals. Tg.ures7. "ungarian intellectuals see in Trianon a twofold act of treason> treason of the West. was too insecure to be able to promote a federal form of government and respect entirely the promises made to minorities by the #omanian Eational party.an2iene7. and treason by #omanians. The F9lba-Dulia . 4& years only after its independence and having to cope with the difficult problem of integrating three new regions. . swept from power already by 1-%1. and only the Fcultural autonomy@. which punished "ungary for losing the war and was unable to make agreements on minorities@ treatment respected. The catastrophe described in low-educated groups has )uite an elaborate representation in high-educated ones. Aur problems originated into a certain policy. Ance (reater #omania was formed #omanian politicians pursued as political ideal the Western nation-state on the type of /rance or . . village of . D don't know. some metaphysical connection between #omania in general and that particular government 6"ungarian intellectual.ritain. to the loss of everyone. 6Dntellectuals. not even a Transylvanian. . therefore a starting point with "ungarians being frustrated by the #omanian state. 9nd afterwards they were fired. therefore freeing "ungarians from their obligation to be loyal towards the #omanian . where there were almost no #omanians. The second is the fact that public servants had to swear loyalty to the #omanian . than he was finally replaced with a #omanian. in the 1-%1 'onstitution they put it that #omania was a nation-state. "ungarian intellectuals recall those moments> They asked them to swear even before the ?aris Treaty and they refused since they still had some hope the treaty will give Transylvania to "ungary. We consider those times as times of coloni2ation.y grandfather learned enough #omanian to keep his Cob for a while. .f (heorghe7. Dntellectuals and ordinary people both have two traumatic recollections connected to the event.2ekelys area. The number of "ungarians therefore decreased. /irst. Alba Iulia as a broken contract 9lba Dulia is seen as a contract broken by the #omanians. the 9ngelescu education laws reduced almost all the "ungarian schools to confessional and religious schools. and with a .f (heorghe . The 9lba Dulia statement is considered the starting point of the common #omanian"ungarian history./or most of the "ungarian politicians in nowadays #omania. :8 .Dntellectual7.outherner. #omanians broke their word. the situation of the #omanian maCority in pre-war Transylvania is not an issue. while a more comple approach would certainly mine the aggressive touch of this frustration-based policy. even here. 6. a language. #elations between #omanians and "ungarians then started to degrade. The "ungarian politicians complaining back in 1-%4 did not forget to add this touch of bilateral approach. 6Ald "ungarians. Ane is the massive e odus of "ungarians leaving for "ungary.tate. although it was the determining factor of the #omanian policy in the area after Trianon. assuming "ungary@s guilt as well> this is over today. $. "undreds of thousands of "ungarians left Transylvania then and most of them never came back. in the . on the grounds that #omanians had no means to build churches before. . The unilateral reconstruction of the past is necessary in order to build a strong demanding policy. Then.tate in #omanian. We were forced to accept building of orthodo 'hurches.f (heorghe7. ut for most of our low-educated "ungarian respondents. Hery few :: . the "ungarians were the maCority in 1-13. (heorghe7 #omanian old men 6(reek 'atholic7 tell a different story. Eothing in the collective memory can compete in terror with the 1-4&-1-44 period for the Transylvanian #omanians. That firmly grounded conviction makes the inCustice even greater in their eyes and their loss even harder to endure. superior to the present times. 4. the 'ommunist "ungarian 9utonomous #egion with 'ommunism. here all "ungarians agree the solution chosen by the . of revenge. even . Dt was a time of economic boom. #omanians associate. besides the 1-13 disruption the inter-war time was a good one.f. e cept that man in 'luC singled out by the group. 6"ungarian old men.oviet troops.which concentrated on the commemoration of the year 1-4&. The professors of the "ungarian 0niversity in 'luC refused to swear a fidelity oath to the #omanian . like . .wit2erland@. for instance. The situation is further complicated by two historical facts> the support "ungarians received from the . and to a less e tent to the end of war for the "ungarians. since they had more land. Anly some educated "ungarians acknowledge it was a #omanian maCority in Transylvania.4. as northern Transylvania was first occupied by "ungary.ig ?owers was the worse. especially for the peasants.FThere were times of hate. Would there have been a better solutionG Af course. . which would make one guilty. than reoccupied by #omanian and . /or the rest of the "ungarian respondents. The Fideal solutions@ indicated by our respondents vary from an Findependent Transylvania@ and a FTransylvanian state@ to a Ffederal #omania.and even after . and my grandfather told me all would have been good had the times stayed the same as then@ 6"ungarian intellectual.4. and so are the defenses in remembering a version of the past. ?ersonal recollections are still present.tate* that's why the 0niversity had to be shut down. economically and politically.The agrarian reform also hit the "ungarians harder.oviet 0nion after 1-48 to build an autonomous region. 9nother controversial issue is which of the two ethnies made the maCority back in 1-13. These two events affected the personal recollections and attitudes of people.oviet 'ommunism and hate its memory. 'luC7. there were evil times then@ The most serious traumas undergone by the two communities originate the %nd World War. while "ungarians reCect any criticism of the "orthyist regime in Transylvania because they were so indoctrinated with it during 'eausescu. and the strong national communist campaign during 'eausescu's times . ut overall none of the groups is prepared to accept a bilateral view of the events. D was a student in the high school in Easaud. The only #omanian teacher left was the teacher who taught #omanian language. and he died later because of the blow. . even today in the 'luC phone book you can find 4& names of . while "ungarian soldiers guarded the house. . third age. "ungarians were appointed in every position. some #omanian intellectuals. but as (lodeyan. both in 'luC and Tg. Everything was done and written in "ungarian language only. Hery few #omanians -almost none. who was an assimilated #omanian. 9nd one night the "ungarians attacked them and he was wounded with an a e to his head. 'luC7. #omanians evoke the FHienna 9ward@ when (ermany and Dtaly decided Eorthern Transylvania 6including 'luC7 is to return to "ungary and the conse)uences for the #omanian population. 9fter 1-45 it was still difficult to change those names. such as> FThat's what your grandfather told you.2ylagy.cared to comment on the issue* most of them underlining that even if some atrocities really happened they were greatly e aggerated by the #omanian propaganda. D went to high school in Aradea during that time and at the admission they didn't record me as (lodeanu. We cannot succeed in a hundred years to do something similar to the "ungari2ation they did in four years only. When we left they told my mother F!on't leave the dog behind. 6#omanian workers.ures showed critical distance towards recollections of other respondents. and education. Dn a few months. They changed names into "ungarian names. "owever.y grandfather lived in a #omanian village. because he's also a Wallach 6#omanian intellectual. which was the only high school with #omanian as a teaching language. 'luC7.also accepted the idea that in 1-44 some #omanians. spelled #omanian 6. which was separated from town by a "ungarian village.ilaghi7 with #omanian first names. tried to revenge what happened in 1-4&. 'luC7 We had to pack everything and leave town in only a few hours. . They always carried some arm when having to cross that village :5 . all teachers were replaced with "ungarian teachers who didn't know #omanian. 6(reek 'atholics. administration. health. organi2ed in paramilitary groups. you had no means of checking@. since most 'ommunist authorities here in 'luC were "ungarians and refused to change names. Eot only the television populari2ed the atrocities of the "orthyist army. and then they took him first to . 9fter '3. "ungarians poured gasoline on the #omanians and they put them on fire. people put on fire. too. in order to educate children. soldiers were told to kill the #omanian children in their mother@s' belly@ 6#omanian intellectuals. Tg. =awyers.at night.chool. "ungarians were throwing priests into holes full of paint. having all in common the idea of total. then turn away and fled. Hiisoara7 D've seen a poster reproduced in a book. . 6(reek-'atholics. 6#omanian intellectuals. they broke in. Hiisoara7 These social representations are often to be found outside Transylvania in the other #omania as well. symbolic destruction of the other ethnic group> unborn infants killed in their mothers@ belly. The "ungarians surrounded the Theology . because you still have to cross this "ungarian village to get to Tirgu . The crowd was gathered when he got there.the same happened. 'luC7. 'luC7.ishop. 'luC7. 'ollective memory was organised by national 'ommunist propaganda to a large e tent. 9t Tra2nea soldiers stabbed pregnant women with their bayonets.ures 6#omanian priest. it is easy to tell apart the real. e perienced traumas from these Flegendary@ pictures.ures7. most of them personal or family inherited to the social representations of the #omanians who did not actually lived through the events is spectacular. especially. :3 . "ungarians have similar images from the end of the war.ishop was asked to come the ne t day to the bishopric. and a "ungarian broke the policemen' ranges and spat in the face of the . 6#omanian peasants. They were after priests and teachers. the places of events. The (reek-'atholic . old people from the village told us when we were there. but also 'luC students remembered that their schools used to organise yearly trips to Dp and Tra2nea.y grandfather was a priest and they made a hole under the living room table and hid him there until a neighbor told "ungarians he's there. The difference between these recollections. 6#omanian peasants.ighet and then to 'luC and then he succeeded to evade and to cross the mountains on foot to #omania. 9lthough we do not doubt events were indeed terrible. The (reek-'atholic #omanian school was closed. and they beat the #ector. . The people from outside did that. because this helps them cohabit further with their neighbors. /or the only survivor of one of the famous massacres in Dp.olyayi remember that when a furious #omanian came to their block after the 1--& Tg. either it was #omania which took over. having no other place to go.ures violent clashes asking #omanians to Fgo after "ungarians@ who shared the same block it was a #omanian who sent him away. witnessed the savage killing of his brothers and sisters from the barn of a "ungarian neighbor who helped him hide. This version. "ungarian intellectuals7. Dn many of these tragic stories about ethnic hatred and violence human understanding and solidarity makes. 9nother #omanian remembers his father. or "ungary. Whoever had something to revenge took that opportunity and they did it immediately after the retreat of the #omanian army and the coming of the "ungarian one. not locals. "ungarian students at . strangely.The #omanian army gave ba2ooka to the children and taught them to burn "ungarians 6Tg. 6.@6#eported by the #omanian news weekly E presLno1%L1--47. /or the #omanians. not the locals. Who did itG #ecollections are unclear and contradictory.abes-. it was mostly Fthe "orthyst army@. . since they knew that afterwards anarchy will no longer be possible. a part of the same story. both #omanians and "ungarians.ures. 9 "ungarian in 'luC recalled how his father protected a #omanian priest from an aggressive "ungarian gang. who were each time considered better and smarter. it was a part of the local "ungarians who killed all the #omanian inhabitants. women and children included. only a small boy then. each of them were replaced from their positions with people brought from the mother country. that people prefer to believe it was outsiders who did it all. was protected by a "ungarian friend.f (heorghe7 The story of the only survivor from Dp is also worth telling for something else. 9lthough most of the "ungarians we talked to deny almost everything considering it Fheavy e aggerations@ the point they make is very similar to the point of the #omanians. . "ungarian neighbors warned the family of the Dp survivor that something bad was about to happen. "ungarians in 'iuc also recalled that after Trianon the #omanian peasants told a #omanian grocer who refused to help a "ungarian child who didn@t know #omanian they would boycott his grocery if he behaves this way. They didn't leave the village. "e even recalls that a week later. different of the #omanian official one is shared by many middle-aged "ungarians but is strongly opposed by the old "ungarians> 9ll the troubles were due to personal rivalries. "ungarian intellectuals in 'luC put it like this> Each change of regime. in fact. The same mechanism goes for the 1--& :- . The man himself. Dt is true 'ommunist propaganda blamed it all on "orthy and "ungarian fascism. after order was reinstated and he was able to leave his hiding place he heard a "ungarian soldier from "ungary telling a villager FD don't know what could these #omanians have done to you for you to hate them so. a railroad clerk. was bad for the locals. Dt seems. Hiolence was the work of private persons. tidiness. .f (heorghe it was a real euphoria the taking over by "ungarian authorities was made peacefully. We felt well because we felt as first rank citi2ens. who had their own vendettas. . #ailroads.. which the 8& following years were unable to make us forget.ures clashes.ures inhabitants blame politicians. 'eausescu@s secret police. everyone but locals. and the "ungarians from . several times. and so on. that's why the population was afterwards decimated.flee to #omania in massive numbers. as Tg. between the departure of #omanian troops and the arrival of "ungarian troops. so was the Hienna settlement which made the #omanians from Eorthern Transylvania -which went to "ungary. . if ever a settlement was a disaster. streets.. 'ulturally speaking. what we know is that the army was met with machine-guns fire.outhern Transylvania flee to "ungary. a lot were killed. The local administration had an orderly style* it was the rule of pedantry even. The memory of this one more e odus is well remembered by both. 9sked if they still think there were good times considering what happened to the +ews they answered 5& . 9 lot was built during these four years..#eprisals against #omanians were only in the vacuum of authority. discipline. villagers from outside Tg. 9nyway. 9nd they beat an old. as the old . roads. because here there are only a few #omanians. The only lucky ones where those who happened to be in the right country.2ekelys from . retired Arthodo priest. Those four years are remembered by everyone as years of order. that is it.Tg. 9nyway. 'hildren were told even in a #omanian village now order is coming after %8 years of .ures. 9t Hienna (ermany and Dtaly made the right decision to return Eorthern Transylvania to "ungary. The #omanian was compulsory in "ungarian schools during "orthy.alkanism. what happened was not in this area. because the "ungarian administration couldn't stand disorder. but D think that mediation was a Cust one.9s for the army. The food supply was very well organi2ed* everybody had food tickets for bread. When the radio announced it here in . sugar. and punctuality. The evaluation of the "orthy times was totally uncritical in this group.. children learned songs. They broke the windows of the #omanian doctor. D'm not a doctor in international law.f (heorghe who pictured a golden "orthyst time> We must understand the year 1-4& from the perspective of what had happened in the inter-war times. goes as follows> "ungarians say in 1-44 the #omanians paid them back dearly. but not a Coyful one> . 3o it was the )ungarians who started it7 $es. perhaps because they had to reply for years to the #omanians stories about the 1-4& abuses.. The reoccupation of Eorthern Transylvania by #omania is also remembered differently by #omanians and "ungarians. like a vendetta. Handalism.. that's fact.aniu guards killed people. they retreated with the "ungarian army. e cept for the old men in . 51 . 9 woman in the "ungarian working class group in 'luC remembered their mayor in a village near .laC. but there were fewer cases. threatening the "ungarians. . Dt's a big difference. the . it wasn't the army* they were villagers.. . Their only e cuse although there can never be an e cuse to behave aggressively is the fact that they were reacting to what had happened previously to them.fintu (heorghe. Abviously this did not make them see those times less as a Fgolden age@. not "ungarians.ost of the stories about the paramilitary #omanian troops 6the so-called . more like putting fire to barns. that are not theory. deported +ews. The se)uence of violence as perceived by the #omanian intellectuals in 'luC.. scaring. see. a group that was perhaps the most tolerant and trying to be obCective.(ermans. it was liberation.o there were some debts to be paid. sort of. /or #omanians. because the guilty "ungarians left.he recalled her mother and the rest of women F hit him with the spoon in the head until he was dead because he had humiliated us too much@. who remembered without any visible emotion that Fthey cut off the heads off of two boys F. and when the #omanian armies came thousands of people took revenge on "ungarians.What have you heard about that in your familiesG There were no actual murders in 1-44.oviets were there and an uncertain future.ut they were well documented to tell about abuses "ungarians suffered. Eobody from the "ungarian groups had a first-hand recollection to tell. . but you can never tell how far the revenge goes. The "ungarian army met in villages a population which was almost entirely #omanian and they did what they did.aniu's guards7 and their abuses in 1-44 were therefore second-hand memories. a (ypsy who tried to F"ungari2e@ a #omanian village and in the end was killed by women. . The "ungarian armies started it all in 1-4&. people who had lost someone. iercurea EiraC7 /rustration with the others along history is important today. Aur survey tried to measure frustration and coping with it. "owever these #omanians and "ungarians admit their own group id wrong towards the other. 9ssuming guilt is difficult.3B #omanians and %&.. an invention. -. since both #omanian history and propaganda present a unilateral view of the events. This group associates history and past with a negative affect and is prone to e perience fear and defensive attitudes which can de mobili2ed either by "ungarians campaigns of national assertiveness or by #omanian nationalist propaganda. 41. Dt is on this theme that nationalist propaganda plays more often..3 #omanians compared to only 1. /rustration of Transylvanian #omanians and blame of the "ungarians for past wronging has important dimension. %. even stories told by intellectuals> @The #omanian army gave guns and ba2ookas to children and taught the children to shoot "ungarians. 5% . unilateral attribution of guilt 6either one group.ome of the stories look )uite unlikely. with limited access to alternative sources. #espondents had to three alternatives to choose from> 1. %. bilateral attribution of guilt 6'7 1. Tg. . . "ungarians were in fact subCected to the same history and propaganda themselves.. as they had been #omanian citi2ens for the past 3& years.talin suppressed the #omanian administration in Transylvania and took over. but that's not nice and it should be blamed by the ones and by the others@ 6. "ungarian peasants in the .ures 'ounty knew little about the events.7 %.Women in Hiisoara reCected angrily the suggestion some #omanians paid it back to "ungarians in 1-44 and declared it was all a "ungarian lie. even more important than today@s competition. positive reconstruction of the past with elimination of the guilt 6!7 'hart 8 !istribution of the answers went as follows> 1.@ 6"ungarians. Whatever the reason Npersonal recollections or nationalist indoctrination the figure is high. or the other had a preCudicial attitude and wronged the other group7 69. That is why .3B "ungarians considered their ethnic group was persecuted during history by the other group.3 B "ungarians agree the two groups wronged each other during history. 9 higher figure of #omanians would be indeed surprising.ures7. but had a fair opinion on it> The "ungarians came and killed children and then the #omanians came and killed in revenge. The important presence of "ungarians apparatchiks in the structures of this region also contributed to the #omanians@ impression that F"ungarians were more 'ommunist than #omanians@. but also heterogeneous areas with many #omanians living within. They lived better than #omanians did. This included the homogeneously populated . #omanian graduates were also forced to take the mandatory Cobs offered at the end of their university studies. and complain this is Cust lack of solidarity from the part of "ungarians. Tg.oviet authorities thought proper to regulate the #omanian-"ungarian relationship by creating an autonomous "ungarian region. when it was 'eausescu who made everybody suffer 6Workers. together we suffered the lack of heat and electric light. Together we were )ueuing for food.ures7. Dt created rather traumatic memories to #omanians.8. 6Tg.2ekelys areas. This was the same for everybody. e cepting some intellectuals in 'luC.ures. (reek-'atholics. and forced university graduates to take Cobs outside their native area. and "ungarians always claim it was them alone who suffered. reCection of guilt and positive reconstruction of the past 55B of the "ungarians in the sample and 44 B of the #omanians choose to reorgani2e the past by eliminating conflicting elements and retaining of those favoring a peaceful cohabitation. since Fit was 'ommunists who run it@ or Fit was called autonomous but it was run from . 6Workers. 'luC7. #omanians. 9 time of common enemies . old (reek'atholic complaining about the fact that "ungarians would not answer if said F"ello@ in #omanian and that public signs were in "ungarian only. refuse to accept the last years of 'eausescu's rule had this particular nationalist touch directed against "ungarians. . replaced high bureaucrats in the party and administration of "ungarian descent by #omanians. intellectuals7. 'hart : Dn fact.1. The "ungarian autonomous region failed to satisfy "ungarians. they even imply we made them suffer. as the 'ommunist government reduced "ungarian classes in high schools. This population is probably avoiding to meet conflicting evocations and e presses frustration when those are forced upon it 6such as the endless sessions of the #omanian ?arliament commemorating the Hienna 9ward7. Anly 8 B 51 .4. /or the "ungarian intellectuals it was a disaster. 'luC7.ucharest like everything in 'ommunist times@. 4. . they has relatives in "ungary who sent them provisions. only a fifth 6%1B7 of our small "ungarian sample consider "ungarians were worse off during 'eausescu than #omanians. 6#omanians intellectuals. The times of 'eausescu are perceived differently again. D'm not interested in the topic either. but D think a history should be written by #omanian and "ungarian historians. %hat if you would write it5 what would you write in this chapter7 Each stands by his ideas.uote anything or anyone. it's obviously a political debate.0. /reedom allowed resentments and claims to surface. they try to provoke us with that. since it is relevant for the chances of such a history to be written and accepted 6Dnterviewer's )uestions are in italic7 3o5 in your view5 who were the first settlers7 +our personal opinion5 you needn6t . Even if knowledge is scarce people display not only interest but also strong preCudgments. #omanian and "ungarian historians should write it. a history which would be accepted both by #omanians and "ungarians..9.Well. We display this part of the interview entirely. This was never a topic in lower circles. Dn one group the idea of a common history written by "ungarian and #omanian historians came up spontaneously. 9lthough we constantly pointed to them it is not the historical truth we are after. $es. Even today the hierarchy of needs e pressed by both groups look very much the same 6D. 54 . poll7 Dn fact. this is a topic of higher circles. leaving behind the good times the time when "ungarians and #omanians had a common enemy to busy with. e cept in the young generation. while 3& B of #omanians think #omanians suffered more.of #omanians admit "ungarians had a even harder time. 0. 'eausescu@s times seem to have been beneficial for ethnic cohabitation. and since borders change. here's the debate. we got used to such discussions..: On history "istory raised a lot of interest in our groups. When "ungarians and #omanians had a common enemy to busy with. since the maCority of #omanians and "ungarians consider their relationship degraded after 1-3-.. #omanians more skeptical than "ungarians.. but D don't think it is still very influential on people's lives as it used to be. The results are not surprising> people react more to economic deprivation in times of severe hardship than to symbolic issues. such as my family. Everybody agreed writing of a common history of Transylvania is necessary. but their personal memories and impressions discussions turned into real debates immediately and a lot of controversies occurred. Oh5 and what would history tell at this point to be accepted both by (omanians and )ungarians7 Dt should tell the reality as it is. following a policy initiated by 'eausescu.ut 58 . as in this e ample> Aur land is uphill and theirs is downhill. teacher in 'iuc put it bluntly> D can't see why my children should learn the #omanian history at all. On sharing The maCor problem of Transylvania is that territory is shared among ethnic groups. Hiisoara7. which circulated lately to teach minorities separately the history of their own group. Every nation should learn its own history. is not the best. accepted by everyone is impossible. at least not in any detail.OR $OCIA% RE&RE$EN!A!ION$ AND !'EIR CON$E*+ENCE$ 8. often united in their resentment and contempt for them. #oma 'simply don't matter@ 6#omanian villagers. either. 'When a #oma shows up and starts with their tricks we immediately unite with #omanians against him@ 6"ungarian student. . the pattern for most of the Transylvanian villages and towns is intricately mi ed.9 "ungarian lady. E cepting villages that are pure #omanian. The idea. streets and blocks of flats. but which only generated more conflict. 'luC7. The retreat of the (ermans left Transylvania a field for ethnic competition between #omanians and "ungarians. as an open wound. ne t to each other. . The presence of (ypsies doesn't somehow matter for #omanians and "ungarians. . The intermediate national group the (ermans -left so massively before and after 1--& that in many places their retreat is visible. The difficulty is to address the #omanian-"ungarian relationship and not to build separate histories. The houses are.he was obCective towards the cohabitation> only she was not interested in it. O!'ER -A. . The way it looks today the #omanian and "ungarian histories can only be sources of preCudice and frustration towards the other national group. which are a part of the problem as they are and would be only false if they avoided the topic. however. 9n ideal version. The same lady showed a lot of obCectivity during the earlier interview. and Cust a few basic things about the history of others. and we often cross to their gate if we run into some need. . contradicting the others and telling them #omanian villages in "ateg are at least as old as "ungarian villages. "ungarian or (erman.1. Dn many cases in the place of the (ermans left (ypsies were settled. 0ntil the time such a history is written #omanian and "ungarian children find out more often about the conflict from the school or the media than from their direct e perience with neighbors and colleagues. and geographical.haring of physical space between the two groups has a twofold signification> symbolic. #omanians and "ungarians mi inside neighborhoods.ut one to show theories. as Transylvania is the 'cradle' of both groups. not absolute facts. wherever the two versions collide and to try to teach bilateral thinking instead of unilateral one might be possible.. 2ekely peasants. as the tradition used to be7 is in fact a competition for scarce space> Aur children are 18 in one classroom. 6#omanian peasants. 6#etired economist. 6Hillagers. Dt has its advantages. when we're more than one.at church and at the fields. 'ovasna county7 Dt has disadvantages where people are not separated into different villages. 1--:7 To understand cohabitation one has to understand at first this territorial disposition. like in this e ample of nowadays-natural economy. They never sell any land.oldovans and change potatoes for corn and others. even if we have money to buy it. half "ungarians.an2iene. they sell only to "ungarians. where competition is fierce. we stick with ours and they stick with theirs'. Hiisoara. Why do they want their old schools back. Ane of the most troubled political problems. Anly "ungarians may be half of the workers in that particular factory but since they are less than #omanians are their shares of unemployment from the total will be much greater. . 6'luC. #omanian workers7 The competition also turns ethnic when it comes to employment> Df one manager decides to lay off 1&& workers in a mi ed factory he will say usually> half #omanians. but compelled to share the same village> The "ungarians have the better lands. where it fosters e change based on complementarity> We here in the hills can grow only potatoes* we have to cross the mountains to . Hiisoara7 Dn this type of situation competition and envy from the part of whoever feels is losing the economic and social competition is likely to occur. now that there have so few children leftG Df they take the old high-school back they'll have two classes to fill while #omanians won't have where to learn. 'luC7 !istribution of economic gratifications also gets an ethnical interpretation> 5: . The same happens in the cities. 9ll my business partners are #omanians from across the mountains' 6. while the "ungarians are only 18. that's the rule. ?resident of the 9ssociation of "ungarian workers. to be e)uitable. They hire (ypsies to work their lands. the issue of school separation 6"ungarian oppose mi ing inside the same school of #omanian and "ungarian classes and demand to have separate #omanian and "ungarian schools. .ince it's the state that runs everything even here in the heart of .2ekelys auctions and privati2ation are arranged from advance. ;y wife and D were among the first workers since this factory was built. Eow they're privati2ing it and we won't be able to get any shares, people from ,ucharest will help their friends take everything* they will push "ungarians out legally and even with finesse. 6Worker, Tg. .ecuiesc7 #omanians don't understand why most of commercial spaces, shops and others in the center have "ungarian owners and managers. That's because /unar is a nationalist only in words, when it comes to business whoever gives him a larger share takes either the license or the space. 6"ungarian workers, 'luC7. ,ut the most visible competition is the one for social power and recognition> "ungarians used to complain they suffered more than us during 'eausescu but if you looked around in Tg. ;ures all directors and managers were "ungarian 6#omanian intellectuals, Tg. ;ures7. There's not one "ungarian manager in a former state factory in 'luC left and if you ask the government they'll tell you appointments are done based on competence only, like that's not one competent "ungarian to be found to run #omanians 6?resident, 9ssociation of "ungarian workers, 'luC7 We know that there are positions we will never be granted access to. D can be very good, D can be better than any #omanian, he will run the Telephone 'ompany, D may eventually rise to be his deputy. 6"ungarian intellectuals, 'luC7. There are several "ungarian ?rofessors in the faculty, there is even a !eputy #ector who is "ungarian, but they cannot run things entirely their own way, that's why they want a separate 0niversity 6#omanian intellectuals, 'luC7. Dt doesn't bother me we shall always have a "ungarian mayor, since "ungarians are united and we're not. What bothers me is that people do not vote taking into account competence, but ethnic criterias only 6#omanian intellectuals, Tg. ;ures7. E ceptionally people take into account competence above ethnic affiliation, as happened in a community in 'iuc, including several "ungarian villages and one small #omanian one 6=ive2i7. Dn this environment where all local councilors are "ungarian 6"ungarian was the language spoken by local authorities already back in 1--: when this was still not legal7, "ungarians overwhelmingly voted a #omanian as mayor in +une 1--: elections since he had the reputation of being a good organi2er. #omanians in the small village of =ive2i were flattered, but remained cautious. =ike most of the #omanians we talked to, 55 e cept intellectuals, they resented the fact that !9"# presented a candidate for the office of ?resident of #omania in 1--:, although the candidate spoke perfect #omanian and he had been for year a representative of the ?arliament of #omania at the 'ouncil of Europe. 'They dare too much' we were told. Dntellectuals were more liberal, some confessing they would vote for a "ungarian candidate who proved better than a #omanian 6some even did7, but #omanian peasants and workers admitted they would never vote for a "ungarian as ?resident were he better than any #omanian, because 'here is #omania, not "ungary'. 9.$. On traumas The years of the .econd World War- between the Hienna 9ward and the entrance in Transylvania of .oviet and #omanian armies - had the highest traumatic impact on #omanians. 'We did the school years - in a "ungarian high-school - mostly in the hall, because each time the air was bad it was the fault of 'stinky #omanians' and we were all sent outside' 6old man, (reek-'atholic, 'luC7. /or "ungarians, the same effect was produced by 'eausescu@s last years, when he started to cut "ungarian schools and classes, replaced "ungarians from leading positions with #omanians and shut down all the radio local stations, a decision which left the "ungarian community without its "ungarian-language radio programs. ,ut the most traumatic act was the forced work placement of "ungarian graduates in all-#omanian ;oldova, while graduates from the main ;oldavian 0niversity were sent to "ungarian areas. #omanians, e cepting a few intellectuals, usually fail to grasp the intensity of the threat the "ungarians perceived on that occasion and the e tent to which their present behavior is based upon this traumatic e perience. The insistence of "ungarians to separate the schools completely in "ungarian and #omanian schools is partly based upon this negative e perience 6once a mi ed school "ungarian classes could be downsi2ed easily7. ,ut since #omanians do not fully comprehend what "ungarians e perienced during 'eausescu they tend to attribute this re)uest to bad intentions such as separatism or disdain towards #omanians. The #evolution of 1-3- brought times of shared traumas. The ethnic cohabitation, at least as perceived by #omanians, seemed to have been better during 'ommunist times, since 'ommunism, on one hand, was everybody's common enemy, and on the other hand, it had its own policy of affirmative action. ,oth #omanians and "ungarians agree ethnic cohabitation deteriorated after 1-3-, which is confirmed by the D;9. survey 6D;9.> 1--4 and 1--87. This happened because of 'that air of liberty'* each national group attributes to the other the responsibility for the deterioration. 53 "ungarians rushed to re)uire too much without caring what would happen to others. They asked their schools back before knowing if #omanian children have another place to go to'. 6 'luC, intellectuals7. The days of the 1-3- Frevolution' as lived in the .2ekelys area seem to have been more traumatic than elsewhere in #omania. The #omanian nationalist propaganda tried to e aggerate and distort them> the "ungarian official version tried to deny this e ceptional character altogether. "owever, there it was, a social and national uprising combined, unlike the rest of #omania, where the maCority of the population was made of #omanians. Dn these "ungarian dominated areas of the .2ekelys the representatives of the 'ommunist political order had been #omanians, notably the policemen. The superimposition of the ethnic difference on the political one certainly mattered. /or weeks all the elements of social and political order seemed to have disappeared forever all around #omania, and the same went for the national order in some "ungarian dominated counties, where "ungarian flags were displayed on official buildings, #omanian policemen and .ecuritate officers were beaten and some savagely killed. !9"# claims they were identified as symbols of the 'ommunist persecution and killed on political, not national, grounds. "owever, if policemen had to flee in the rest of the country, too, they were killed only in the .2ekelys. #omania's nationalist former government turned this into a demonstration of "ungarians' intolerance and irredentist behavior, and a booklet was printed to prove #omanians were chased from the .2ekelys area after 1--&, although evidence is pointing people who left were graduates who had been compelled previously to take Cobs in the area. 9nyway, the climate at the #evolution was confusing and dangerous, no doubt about that, and this contributed to the state of mind inhabitants of Tg. ;ures had in ;arch 1--& when the tension finally turned into violence. ?ermanent inhabitants of the area, who of course did not flee with graduates at the first chance, as the peasants from =ive2i, reconstruct by their recollections 'the days of the #evolution' in the .2ekelys> > %e were hiding in corners of the trains...%e didn6t dare speak (omanian until home... They revenged themselves on policemen... Was it serious G %ell5 isn6t enough a few policemen were killed 7 The policemen had to leave5 because groups of hooligans attacked them5 they threw them out of houses with children5 with everything. %e hid them5 gave them civil clothes so they could leave5 they took a train and left5 they were from Bistrita... 5- .. They had courage5 in 4iceu they put they )ungarian flag and it stayed for weeks on the railroad station5 nobody dared to get it down5 including authorities.... these policemen G %ell5 they didn6t treat them worse than they treated us.. And after they revenged themselves on policemen they took on to (omanians.uarters5 and after that conversation everything calmed down... What did they do G %ell5 if there was a (omanian school director5 they made him leave. I have telephone5 I was speaking with someone from Mihaileni ?the near village@ )e called me because he had heard (omanians are on their way to them. It6s their blood5 you can6t help that. I was at work at (eghin and heard the bells tolling at noon5 and they told me 6(omanians started killing )ungarians6.And in factories5 all (omanian managers were dismissed. )e called to ask what6s going on because rumors in their village said people from AiveBi are coming to put Mihaileni on fire. I say 6%here6re you going 67 And she says 6>on6t undress5 )ungarians will come to kill us tonight6 -inally we stayed... )e told me a group of drunkards were shouting in the street Aet6s go to AiveBi to make 8ustice."ad they been really bad.. I told him to mind his business5 because we knew they were coming at us to put fire. 3& . They couldn6t stand even during 4eausescu not to sing their national hymn on &ews +ear6s night... I come home one night in 6<= and I find my wife fully dressed. I told him to let them come5 we have 1$ hunters in this village.. They destroyed everything those people possessed. The operator heard the conversation5 she had a son who had already devastated the police head.. But more serious people told them to stop5 because they would only seek trouble coming here..But wild rumors went around5 (omanians were in panic5 if these rumors had not stopped a disaster could have happened.. while "ungarians won the 'battlefield' by their savagery on %&. both #omanians and "ungarians.ut what was in the rest of #omania a revolution against 'ommunist establishment in the regions where "ungarians had the maCority turned into a revolution against the #omanian domination as well. #omanians.arch 1-. 'There was no inhabitant of this town there' insisted blindly the intellectuals in Tg. .And did that bother you 7 Actually it did5 A little common sense5 what is the point in singing the )ungarian hymn at midnight when we were half and half5 what5 do I start singing 6That6s the (omanian way6?popular song in Transylvania@7 That6s their character5 I don6t know what (omania means for this people. This story from =ive2i is very telling for the mood in the .ince it is close to an important railroad crossing men work mostly at the railroads. This was true even before the war. and representatives of the 'ommunist establishment were chased. a few bureaucrats and clerks.ures. 9.ures. #omanian peasants are especially known for their patience and submission to authorities and were particularly frightened by the chase after policemen. mobili2ed by priests and transported in official buses and "ungarian (ypsies who fought savagely. on . =ocal people point to the fact that it was #omanian peasants. Dnhabitants of =ive2i know "ungarian )uite well. although the 'ommunist policemen were universally hated. those considered by the . took on a national character so #omanians felt threatened. =ive2i.ecuritate it was however ordinary #omanians and ordinary "ungarians who actually did the fighting in 1--& at Tg. which were afterwards used by nationalistic leaders and the government.esides them as old inhabitants. brought from the nearby villages. to help them survive.'. and since here most of the workers were "ungarians. . they told us. after 'eausescu's discriminative policy there is no wonder all these people were replaced. . On violence Eobody is guilty of violence. Dt is surprising how reluctantly people let themselves be reminded that. . a day before.eing state owned. Dn 1-3-. . the #ailroad 'ompany traditionally hires #omanians in that area. /or weeks workers all over the country were 'democratically' electing their managers. Even today outside the intelligentsia circles some macho pride surfaces> 31 . since local authorities are "ungarian. . a 1:th century village. army officers. attacked the head)uarters of !9"# and hurt people. despite the alleged instigation of the .2ekelys region during the #evolution and the traumas it left behind.2ekelys representatives for the state of 'occupation' > policemen. "owever. Eo violence could happen in one's community where everything goes so well. has less than 1&& houses and is isolated among hills. always instigated. only few #omanians live there. naturally #omanians. . 'ofariu 6the victim7 shouldn't have been there in the first place.?. approved by the rest of the group7. and was populari2ed as 'a victim of the "ungarians' by the #omanian . . while filmed by a television crew. 'Eo big deal. . the 'abused' man was met at the prison door by his lawyers.. ?eople were confident and off their guard. "ungarian intellectuals7. . . 6"ungarian peasants. The victim suffered serious trauma. Athers saw the good part of Tg. !9"#. Tg. . he saw he was not moving and went further There's no point for him to be in prison. #omanian have theirs and if these people get face to face we do not know what will happen'. considered a city 'deeply hurt' both #omanian and "ungarian intellectuals refuse this approach> 'We all lost. The only few people convicted were (ypsies. they didn't have courage to go to town or to cross our village for months after'. The image went all around the world as one of a #omanian beating a "ungarian and two days later when everybody was identified it proved to be the other way round.' "ungarians are especially frustrated because later on police started to summon for investigation "ungarians who allegedly took part at the rally on . .iercurea EiraC7. . he only hit him twice with his foot. and D am sure a fast assimilation 3% . 6'luC. when all the friends of 'eausescu were released in a few months'.ecause we have our e tremists. who ranked the value of "ungarian identity a lot above the desire of having #omania a democratic state or avoiding the violence of Tg.uresP. since back then in 1--& there was a lot of trust in the development of the #omanian democracy among "ungarians.ures> Dn a way D'm glad it happened OTg.tate television until saturation. we don't know what will come out. Dn Tg. who were also !9"# .iercurea EiraCului7. When finally released.arch %&. a man who savagely kicked a fallen old peasant. from Tg. '2eresnyes wore sport shoes. on the other part. . people who were trained to hate.f (heorghe. not entirely recovered until today. for the first time #omanians were a positive e ample.'Dt is true there were more #omanians hurt finally than "ungarians. 6Dntellectual. they started it' 6!9"# leader. but we didn't start it.ures. We did not provoke the fight. and !9"# lead a long lasting and obstinate campaign for the release of the only "ungarian who suffered a longer imprisonment.ures could happen again or that it could have happened in his or her town. like another "ungarian intellectual.ures this time. 1--&. 9lthough everybody denies Tg.ures.ures7 '#omanians learned their lesson. but we won it' 6. filled several complaints to European organi2ation asking for the release of the aggressor on the grounds that he only kicked the fallen man so he was not really the author of the damage. a few doubt and fear the future 'Df once again they bring from outside. B #omanians believe that #omanian local government authorities are to blame. ?eople took refuge in their own camps and blamed it all on the others. 9bout 8 B of each group think that in similar situations citi2ens must take Custice in their own hands while %8 B think it is wiser to give up.f (heorghe7 Tg.wiss charity pretends. even in the town 6Adorheiu . covered by nationalist #omanian press e tensively. then on the government. There were few. /igures 5 and 3 about here ?eople consider it is the business of the state to contain violence.ures tore Transylvania apart. a few #omanian nuns.ures was a "ungarian7 11 B of "ungarians blame #omanians compared to 1. .B of #omanians who blame "ungarians. blaming both F#omanians and "ungarians@. it's more dangerous' Dn the .2ekely area this feeling of mobili2ation is widespread> 'Df #omanian e tremists like /unar ever try to start something here. We wouldn't stay like people in . D know . 9nyway. we're ready for them.ures can actually happen again. When the assimilation is not forced. Hersions clash if the orphans were supposed to be only "ungarians.ecuiesc7 where the most radical autonomist wing of !9"# is based 6a wing which is in minority but provoked serious discussions opposing mi ed marriages or asking for the organi2ation of a regional poll to decide about autonomy7 a serious incident occurred. or indirectly on the administration identified with the others' culture. but if somebody from outside comes (od preserve him. %& B of #omanians and %1 B of "ungarians display a more bilateral attitude.2ekely area. blames it unilaterally on the other group> either directly on the people.f (heorghe well* nothing will start here. The maCority of each national group. however.ecuiesc. of course. or simply orphan. . .would have followed. The e perience of Adorheiu showed incidents similar to Tg. in a way. whoever e cept themselves. . even with good friends belonging to the others. 13 B "ungarians and . 9 little more than :& B of each national group consider it is the state who should intervene in events like Tg. D think my colleagues will approve when D say that here it couldn't have happened what happened in 1--& when miners came to . the orphanage was built with considerable e pense. as the . which is normal. and %1 B #omanians and 5 B of the "ungarians blame "ungarian local government 6the mayor of Tg. This about a )uarter of each population is probably able of having a bilateral view of the situation. when the mayor heard orphans are going to be from all #omania 31 . as the city council claims. apparently. . .ecuritate.ucharest with our arms crossed to look while they butcher our children@ 6old man. (reek-'atholic were installed there. The 'ity 'ouncil granted the permission for a .ucharest* no miner would have left alive.wiss charity to build an orphanage. Eobody tried to discuss it with #omanian or "ungarian friends. Dn pure . if any attempts to discuss the events with the other group. ?eople attributed the guilt to the government 615 B "ungarians and %8 B of the #omanians blamed 'Don Dliescu and his government'7. accused of wanting to ruin the ethnic composition of the region. The local press into icated the public opinion with rumors claiming some hidden design was behind the orphanage. not when deciding to take it back. 9fter discussing with #omanian police officers that denied it we finally met a "ungarian police officer who volunteered to show us his receipts to prove it is Cust a rumor. who want to change the demographic status )uo. Town-dwellers consider #omanians as occupants.2ekely area is viewed differently than in the rest of Transylvania. Tg.r. that they envisaged bringing in criminal youth and #omanian whores.wiss charity is only laundering 'eausescu's money. . but that didn't prevent the council members from inciting the population to chase the invaders. the building.ures7. keep people mobili2ed.ures ruled in favor of the . Tokay's. This 1--5 incident shows that. Ane of the rumors still going on is about the supplementary pay policemen in the . however.ecuiesc had also #omanian inhabitants.The .. despite opposite opinions.ures could happen again. Then they give Cobs to the relatives of the officer. since at the countryside there are almost no #omanians e cept one policeman per village.wiss charity. but local "ungarian councilors remained firm on their position. the inhabitants of the town are mostly on the mayor's side than on . said it is shameful this could happen and never in their history did "ungarians treated women and nuns so badly..2ekelys kept their identity by isolating themselves from everything around. (yorgy Tokay. who are in the middle of #omania.uch rumors.2ekelys.2ekely area. they would have probably run to the defense of the nuns and confronted the "ungarian mob. '?eople ne t the border with "ungary know better #omanian than some people from the . . what is worse. Tg.r. 9n officer married a "ungarian girl here and his children speak only "ungarian but he doesn't know a word of "ungarian' 6Tg. then houses and so they settle. and so on. Dt was written that the . evacuated by force the nuns and sei2ed the building.ecuiesc. . 9fter a stormy meeting the local government claimed back its land and. The scandal that followed only strengthened the locals in the idea trouble was brought about by foreigners and that the mistake was made when granting the first license. "ad Adorheiu . . . that the plan was to bring #omanians in the pure "ungarian Adorheiu town.instead of Cust .2ekely area. This seems to be a main concern both for ordinary "ungarians and for opinion leaders in the area. 9ttitudes towards the incident fitted well the pattern of F#omanians as invaders@ of the . 9 mob went to the orphanage. workers7. !espite the fact that pictures were published showing the evacuation and the "ungarian minister of . 'ohabitation in the .2ekelys is allegedly receiving for working in a 'risk area'. 9 court in . sometimes including the nearby village.inorities. especially in towns. 'Each officer comes here with his family and they get a higher pay to come here because we're considered dangerous here. 34 . !9"# officially disapproved the incident. Those who do not work in some other place don't even know #omanian@ 6"ungarian intellectual. although the meaning of misunderstanding is very different from 'luC. .iercurea 'iuc7 'The truth is we're not very curious to understand the "ungarian culture' 6#omanian playwright. while they know nothing of our history or of the other minoritiesG@6"ungarian teacher.2ekelys region. Eow it's not working because the father is #omanian.ures or isolated .ost of the #omanian liberal intellectuals never read a "ungarian history book> while reCecting the nationalists propaganda they do not try to supplant this biased information with some first-hand knowledge. more parado ical. a true multicultural city. An the other hand. '(ermans never push like "ungarians. not (erman'. (ermans are the most admired by #omanians of all national minorities 6<ivu and (alat > 1--:7. 'luC7. The most telling fact is. 9t the other e treme is this beautiful representation of a young #omanian student in . Dntellectuals attribute it to the little knowledge the two national groups have of each others' culture. "ungarian leadership rarely tried to make it e plained. however. . mutual understanding being based on the total ignorance of the others' views. Tg..iercurea 'iuc7.ibiu> 'The father should be a (erman. how would it look like' most "ungarian groups told us they cannot conceive it as a family 'or we would be the intruders' 6intellectual. 'Why should we learn the history of #omanians.4 On communication 'omplaints about misunderstanding from the others occur often. 'Dt would be like a mother-in-law with the daughter-in-law' 6classical image of conflict in the #omanian folk-stories7 6peasants.ures7. perhaps.uch is the case of many intellectuals who are strong promoters of a reconciliation without understanding nothing of the essence of the conflict. . Dt's a terrible pity they left' 6#omanian intellectual. 'luC7. that a social representation of nations living like a family within #omania is simply missing. . the "ungarian the cook and the #omanian should take care of the house. Eot only ethnic conflict is grounded in misunderstanding and lack of knowledge. 38 . but ethnic peace as well.. When asked 'Were #omania a family.and choose to ignore the problems and aspirations of "ungarians in #omania cannot be all satisfied keeping #omania as they know it. The situation is. even with them in power. so difficult it is to imagine an in-group including both #omanians and "ungarians.build their friendship for "ungarians on the hate for the common enemy -the national-communists . Even #omanians had difficulties.. #omanian liberals -most of them. There are real differences in the approach of #omanian and "ungarian intellectuals but they are not even known reciprocally.8. to traumati2ed Tg. . 6. 9ttila Ionda. "ungarians thus saw the presidential elections of 1--: as an opportunity to know 'their real number' assumed higher than the 1--% census' figures. "aving a uni)ue presidential candidate was seen 3: . a pattern perfectly similar to the one e perienced by the /rench community of Kuebec. 9.eptember 1--3. since "ungarian independents run beside !9"#.ishop =as2lo Tokes also went on speaking of 'cultural genocide' as in 'eausescu's times even after 1--&. but also at the famous 'ernat meeting of . "owever.and by several "ungarian E(A's and lobby groups inside and outside #omania is the danger of e tinction. This catastrophic prediction seems as least strange considering the fact that in the last 8& years the "ungarian community resisted )uite well.and the slight decrease of the population after 1--& can be attributed to immigration to "ungary or to Western countries. "ungarians imply that this will lead to a demographic catastrophe sometimes in the future.Dn the same time we should not forget the modern <ings of #omania were of (erman 6"ohen2ollern7 descent. which has usually around 5 B of the total vote. 'Dn 8& years no word in "ungarian shall be heard in Transylvania. especially when abroad. -ear of e tinction The most mobili2ing issue of the ethnic politics in #omania as made by !9"# in recent years . Hotes in legislative elections are difficult to trace. or at the most it will be spoken only in the back rooms of the houses' 6!9"# ?resident. . )=EE The irrational core of this belief that "ungarians are 'disappearing' is shown in its coe istence with the belief the number of "ungarians is underscored in official census figures. $luG&0apoca. =ow fertility rate is invoked as hurting the "ungarian community only.9. There are no facts to suggest assimilation is under way -by any means . Tg. even though after 1--8 #omania on the whole presented a negative natural growth.reton* 1-33* -1-1&%7 .ures7. and is now doing better than ever. due to poor economic and social conditions. The evolution of the number of "ungarians since the unification of Transylvania to #omania is shown in the following figure> )=>? 4 )!>@>!ABC )=@C 4 )!@DB!CB@ )=CC 4 )!C)=!@=A )=BB 4 )!B?@!D)? )==A 4 )!CAE!=@=F • 'ata from 'The Hungarians in /omania' edited by the $enter for Transylvanian %tudies. Dn 1--8 !9"# was able to gather 4%& &&& signatures for their proCect of amending the Education =aw.: On language The language and the linguistic difference lie at the heart of the Transylvanian problem.y e perience confirms the theory of Walker 'onnor that fighting for obCective issues such as the use of the language in administration is e plained by the need for selfidentification and political affirmation of a group of people who consider themselves to be different 6'onnor. The danger of e tinction is invoked especially associated with e clusionist demands. The !9"# campaign to allow "ungarians to use their own language in administration and Custice is however not entirely grounded in functional reasons. . who don't know #omanian. . 1-5%7. in (iles> 1--%7. but the results were deceiving. accused of assimilationist policies. =anguage is then the crucial vehicle of ethnic mobili2ation 6#oss. learn by heart and then forget everything they learn' 35 .ures in 1--& started from the fact that a "ungarian pharmacist wanted to replace the #omanian sign with a "ungarian one. and even a "ungarian high-school. since in their village 6. . Even peasants we talked to knew by heart the demands of !9"# 'The government must give us the language'. otherwise our children. the only good news being a few #omanians voted the "ungarian candidate as well. they answered '$es. but history and geography are taught in #omanian. 9s it is it is fully Custified.as the only opportunity to do a 'honest census' 6peasants. We want everything taught in "ungarian. weight is attached also to the demonstration that the "ungarian language is not inferior to the #omanian one 6so based on prestige grounds7. there were a few schools. In the same way territory prompts communication between the two groups the language seems to be pushing apart (omanians and )ungarians. The fist s)uabble in Tg. "ungarians are no more than the figures of 1--%.iercurea EiraCului7 a large one. as it is common in all similar cases and therefore supports "orowit2 e planation it is proCection-based 66"orowit2 > 1-38* 3&7. as we have seen. Dt is also the key to convenience> support for language policies derive from what seems to be the determination of each group not to learn another language but have all possible facilities in itw own. all in "ungarian. =anguage is the main instrument of self-ascription. of an overall attempt to chase and eliminate "ungarians from #omania. 9. such as school separation. Dn other words the repression of the idea that what the "ungarian community really needs is the whole space for itself in order to survive leads to the transfer of this desire to the #omanian community. 9nd when asked what do they mean by that.iercurea EiraC7. "owever. Even in this line of argument one can notice it is not the securing of the rights for the "ungarians that make the maCor concern. !9"# claimed that the article specifying that education in the native language of all minorities regardless the level will be provided is 'canceled' by the e istence of the previous article specifying that in every town a class in #omanian should be organi2ed 6?rofessor . to enCoy any special status.6The 'iorbea government accepted the modification of this article as proposed by !9"# in 1--57. albeit an attempt to search for rational grounds of symbolic behavior makes no sense. This post-traumatic logic is not meaningless. the only official one. Ane idea springs forward> that for !9"# and for most of the "ungarian elite in #omania education has one supreme task > to preserve the national identity of children. seen as depreciation in itself of a "ungarian language. the number of classes taught in "ungarian will be reduced sometime in the future. That's why we need to separate the schools' 6!9"# education advisor7. for them it's like birds language. and they consider the communication and interethnic sociali2ation. insisting #omanian children should not be favored under any circumstances and that in places where there are not enough #omanians to form a class 6at least 187 they should learn in "ungarian. Dt was very humiliating' 6. but actually as threats to the "ungarian identity. 'Why should our children learn #omanian denominations G They won't remember them. regardless if classes are taught in "ungarian.The obCections !9"# made to the Education law had this twofold legitimi2ation. not only as subordinated obCectives.They'll learn them later 33 . D said for instance Eagyvarog. like we did not know this was the same town. 'The #omanian language always wins in the schoolyard or in corridors. as already happened during 'eausescu. middle-class7.econd-ranked language. These types of obCections are directed towards the elimination of the superiority of the #omanian language. while in a pure "ungarian school they will survive even with less students * and so on. it is based on a post-traumatic logic. second-hand citi2ens who speak it@ this is how it runs the logical se)uence behind this political attribution. We see as 'symbolic obCections' those which are concerned with the creation of an e)ual status of "ungarian with the #omanian official language.2ylagy.iercurea 'iuc.. An one hand. The origin of symbolic issues in the language campaigns is twofold. but the care to prevent the #omanian language. as Walker 'onnor noticed. unpublished paper7. 9ll the other roles education might and should have become secondary or subordinated to this one. An the other. That class of #omanians shouldn't e ist even as a legal possibility because when a nationalist government will come he might force "ungarians to enroll * schools must be separated in pure "ungarian and pure #omanian because otherwise. but you had to put 'Aradea' ne t. '!uring 'eausescu you couldn't write in the literature te tbook "ungarian names without their #omanian translation in a parenthesis. F.. We can describe as functional the obCections referring to the possibility of having vocational education in "ungarian or having a full education cycle 6from elementary schools to graduate studies7 in this language. it is an attempt of self-assertion. This doesn't imply #omanian should not be taught at that 0niversity. and so on. This makes the issue of studying geography in "ungarian such a political issue.abes-. names in Transylvania. 9nd when our !epartment of /oreign 9ffairs complained about this they claimed "ungarians across the borders watch "ungarian television so it's normal to put the names in "ungarian'.andor. '. in $ugoslavia. or should it be left to the free will of citi2ens to decide if to learn it or notG . 'They always compare #omanian to any language and say > what do you care if we learn or not. D want to learn #omanian. and this lead to the bi2arre specification when liberal amendments to the Education law were proposed by the 'iorbea government that geography shall be taught in "ungarian e cept for denominations which will have to be given the #omanian version also.?.r.if they will need them. 'D want a separate "ungarian state university run by "ungarians with "ungarian teachers. 3- . .6#omanian intellectuals. on the other hand.unpublished paper7. have their own complaints> 'The "ungarian Television.erbian ones. it's useful to know languages'6"ungarian student. The problem is indeed a political one> should the official language be compulsory. "ungarian section. when showing the weather. as D want to learn English or (erman. the fact that "ungarian names for places are entirely different than #omanian and . 'luC7. at school they should learn geography in "ungarian. advisor to =as2lo Tokes. ?resident of !9"#7 The autonomy to decide if one should or not learn the official language is the framed in the general philosophy of 'subsidiarity'.olyayi 0niversity7. . not to be compelled to learn it' 6Tamas .. /aculty of +ournalism. 'luC7.oth ordinary "ungarians and political leaders are against the former and endorse the latter.'6#omanian intellectual. indeed. "ungarian .abes-. #omanians. gives a map without borders and all the names are in "ungarian. /runda 6the "ungarian candidate for presidency7 repeatedly stated that he knows #omanian the same as English and /rench and he is sorry he does not know the (ypsy's language for he would speak it also. like everywhere it's "ungary.olyayi 0niversity7. Ane obCective problem is. comments on '?entru o democratie transetnica'. 'We think the person should make the decision if he wants to learn the #omanian language or not. meaning in this specific circumstance that the maCority cannot decide for the minority in any matter concerning language and education 69nton Eiculescu.This type of internationalism wants to reduce the importance of the #omanian language. it's not your concern.. with "ungarian denominations'. who needs it will certainly learn it' 6#omanian student. '. because they live among #omanians'. "owever. the fact that a few parents. '.-B7 thought some test of #omanian knowledge should be undertaken by "ungarian. could raise this legitimate claim 6Eeier >1--:7.A0T "E#E Dn the present system #omanian is in fact learned only outside the education system. as any state. They learn there in one year more than they learned in 1% years of school. Dn our 1--3 poll the two communities were split over this issue> the maCority of #omanians 653. the degree. the admission to 0niversity. !9"# fights to eliminate any form of testing the knowledge of #omanian. middle-class "ungarian group7.chool where competition is fierce because he doesn't know #omanian enough. because they say 'Df there is an e am in #omanian.iercurea 'iuc7. or anything else parents will send their children to a #omanian highschool because they fear children won't otherwise pass the e am' 6!9"# .chool is the only way for me to become a lawyer'.iercurea 'iuc. The maCority of the "ungarians 68: B7 were however against it.?. 6"ungarian student. will choose a #omanian instead of a "ungarian form of higher education is a constant fear of !9"# and many radicals consider this a form of national treason. learning #omanian is not seen as one of the duties implied by the #omanian citi2enship. '"9#T . and now she's interested in learning #omanian. even if they have the alternative close.ucharest7.omebody who graduated after 1% years of "ungarian school does not stand a chance to go to the =aw . although the #omanian state.2ekelys learn #omanian in the army. . .9. but at school she used to hold her hands on the ears saying 'it's too difficult' 6'iuc. ''hildren from . 'D admit te tbooks of #omanian might be too complicated and should be simplified but D do not agree with !9"#'s demand #omanian should be studied as a foreign language in "ungarian schools' 6schools' inspector. compared to 13 B "ungarian. the few hours of #omanian in the "ungarian schools being highly ineffective. 6. Df schools are to be totally separated and conscription waived if #omania Coins E9TA the "ungarians in #omania would be pushed to live even in a closer ethnic community than they do now since they would have no opportunity to learn #omanian from their -& . "ungarian teacher7. although laws are not issued in a "ungarian version also7.olyayi 0niversity7 This is why the !9"# insisted for having every possible discipline taught in "ungarian in state universities 6including =aw.abes-..y daughter made this summer two #omanian friends. so having a "ungarian =aw . .ut in practice. The linguistic policy of !9"# is rather inspired with the policy of the seventies pursued by =e ?arti Kuebecois. broadcasting programs.. Transylvanian #omanians are aware of this and act defensively.. $ounger people tend to look favorably upon the introduction of bilingual signs. a fight to have bilinguism official. Aet6s not e aggerate. years. but old people like the (reek 'atholic in 'luC feel threatened> !o you think (heorghe /unar has the right policy towards "ungarians G )e e aggerates. with several private and state-supported maga2ines and newspapers.as)ue or the Welsh which had to be revived. #ermans never contested the (omanian 3tate5 #ermans are loyal.. What if the signs are written in two languages G Why does that bother you G %e can6t admit that now5 with the present relations between (omanian and )ungarians.. considering the language #omanians in fact lose rights won by "ungarians.. consider the survival of their minority language is more important.. %e would have now every sign in two languages... 9nd indeed it is> only we can't compare "ungarian in Transylvania. "ow could the %& B "ungarians in 'luC hope that G They can5 from bilingual signs they would pass to signs in )ungarian only. If it hadn6t been for -unar the last four years here..)ungarians provoke us permanently.rasov they put signs in 1 languages and all is fine.. spoken by at least % million "ungarian and #omanians. and numerous contacts with neighboring countries with e tinct languages such as the .. )e understands problems5 but makes serious mistakes. D saw in .environment.....Maybe in 1. And we don6t know how to react. !9"# disregards this danger. or $.a catastrophe would have happened.. They want this only to earn grounds for a future territorial separation. to have the e)uality between the two languages officially granted. -1 . -% . '. such as a group of three doctors we discussed to in Tg.9nd they will care that no work is available for who is not "ungarian' 6#omanian peasants. Automatically they compel you to learn )ungarian.. especially a "ungarian speaking-doctor. D know a few "ungarian words and D am not ashamed to use them' 6#omanian doctors. then we would not be able to do so.ut how come in .Eow we speak #omanian from time to time..2ekelys area7. Tg.ures who approve bilinguism have a negative perception towards the language problem > '. Even #omanians who know "ungarian well.D have colleagues who do not know "ungarian and they were accused by patients they do not know it'. "ungarians will not content themselves to that and they will afterwards force #omanians to learn "ungarian.y e perience as a doctor.. in face of "ungarian patients is )uite sad.russels they can have everything in two languages and nobody cares G But what about )ungary5 they don6t have signs in two languages.Aook at minorities shows on (omanian television..any "ungarians refuse to speak the #omanian language even if they know it.. If we would have two languages in 4lu8 postcards with 4lu8 will disappear5 we would have only Collosvar. . !o you fear this is the step towards something else G +es5 it feeds ideas and feelings.. is a step to territorial separation ii.ures7.. . since they will hire only people who know "ungarian if it's up to them. 'They will obtain that the #omanian language should be completely chased from administration. %e have an official language they should have signs in this language only. .The #erman one is decent while in the )ungarian one they say one thing and they translate another5 . #omanians oppose and fear bilinguism on the grounds that > i.... Bilinguism is dangerous... That would be a mistake. 'ould they grab it G Think. years he knew almost no (omanian5 only )ungarian.. +es5 but I was paying her and I asked her. If they do not give us comple es.If everything is. I keep thinking5 I had this baby sitter5 )ungarian5 but she spoke good (omanian5 I left the child years with her5 she didn6t teach him a word of (omanian.... "eople who want Transylvania are in minority even in )ungary. %e would have to speak only )ungarian then... At 1.....What scares #omanians so much is not even the history of Transylvania. which is strange for the 'laisse2 passer' life style of #omanians.. If everything is clearly specified. This fragment from the group interview with #omanian workers in 'luC 6who approved bilinguism7 says it all > Who in the group thinks "ungarian may have their cultural autonomy G 6moderator7 &o problem5 if they make a contract with the government and then respect it. They can have all they want5 the )ungarians5 but in each of us persists the doubt * are they not going to grab Transylvania 7 >o you think they could 7 &o &o.: million )ungarians make the 0 million (omanians of Transylvania ac. 4an the 1.. is the "ungarian determination and constant offensive. Maybe that6s not bad5 now he can learn (omanian and he knows two languages.uire comple es 7 -1 . iercurea 'iuc7 =egal developments had caught the reality by 1--5 and amendments proposed by the 'iorbea government to the education and local administration law were intended to make -4 ..Dn the international train station in . to end the supremacy of the #omanian language. .while in Aradea. because there are always some 1&& #omanians around. .. The different view was also e pressed.aybe that's not the way to Europe'6"ungarian intellectual... but only once > 'We should know the language of the state. 'iuc7. 6old men..udapest they also announce in the #omanian the destination of trains.tates. where daily %&&& "ungarians cross the border to #omania they don't announce anything in "ungarian'. today their policy is Custified by the fear of being assimilated.. Df you don't speak English in 0nited . but since we do not have the children to learn it when they're young it becomes increasingly difficult later. If in the seventies you asked somebody in a crowded bus 6>o you get down at the first station76 the answer was 6&em todo (omano6. ?arado ically. '!uring the "orthy regime you could learn #omanian in the "ungarian schools.ut this is only a part of the story> what runs deeper is the need to have the two languages e)ual. . And as we hear these times are coming back. now you can't learn "ungarian in #omanian schools. although #omanians have a comfortable maCority they still fear "ungarians will finally eliminate the #omanian language and have only the "ungarian. D have a %-years old kid and when D think D might send him to a #omanian school D am terrified'6middle class group.. They want always to impose their point of view. Why is that G They never consider people6s feelings5 they go their own way without looking around.f (heorghe7. 'When the ?resident of #omania will be able to speak "ungarian D shall stop feeling as a second-rank citi2en' 'Aur number decreases daily while the number of the #omanian grows. %e6d feel bad if they had so many liberties. and that's a threat to our language and thought..I think they can.. 9lso a parado is the fact that even if historically "ungarians were the culture with the highest assimilation potential 6Herdery >1-3%7. . despite a few complaints from #omanians in Tg. 9 car from ?rahova broke here in Tusnad and our peasants didn't help the driver because he was not speaking "ungarian'. The e perience of the "ungarian autonomous region is also recalled negatively by the #omanians. since there was no incentive for communication whatsoever. e ceptional that the vendor and the buyer don't find a way to communicate. 6. or anyone else. a Transylvanian #omanian. from the local 'ouncil only one member is #omanian. 'There are people and people. Dt was not however called so. Tg. while in 'luC the opening of a "ungarian consulate long prevented by /unar provoked no adverse reaction. 6"ungarian middle-class group.ecuiesc. .ures7.iercurea 'iuc7. in their turn. 'oe istence of nationalism with a command economy led to the reCection of the others' language. . intellectuals7 The whole battle for self-government is actually a battle around language. communication is difficult. Even people from outside Transylvania. This supports the idea that /unar's provocative nationalist behavior somehow immuni2ed the city. and nobody there speaks "ungarian she will not be able to solve her problem and they may even mock her' 6!9"# ?resident. The "ungarian language was anyway used in administration before being legali2ed* in Tg. cultural associations. Hictor 'iorbea.ures has a "ungarian theater and opera 6attended by many #omanians as well7. and so on. so the meetings of the 'ouncil were held in "ungarian in 1--:. "owever. . but even applause from the population. . When the 'iorbea government had for the first time since the "ungarian 9utonomous region the name of the city written in two languages the "ungarian version was erased with paint in only a few hours after the sign was installed 6+uly %4. when private trade flourishes it is.ures the #omanian authorities and part of the #omanians population were against bilingual inscriptions although Tg. despite the law. but also the idea that #omanians react mostly when the #omanian language is challenged.ures. . so if the old lady. people look at them without sympathy or even ask them to speak #omanian. Today. Dn Tg. on the contrary. for instance. where this incentive doesn't e ist. "ungarians. complain that if they speak "ungarian outside Transylvania. especially at the countryside. The first ?rime . The whole logic of self-government evolves around language> 'Df an old "ungarian woman who doesn't know #omanian because she was born under the 9ustro-"ungarian Empire goes to the 'ity "all because she needs a certificate. 1--57.f (heorghe. .inister after the 1--: victory of the centrist coalition. from fear of nationalist reactions from the part of #omanians. doesn't know enough #omanian to ask for a -8 . was sincerely willing to 'do Custice to "ungarians'. being very tolerant for the rest. "ungarian newspapers. even between themselves. claim that when crossing the region they were faced with a total refusal of the inhabitants to answer in the #omanian language."ungarian almost an official language.ut nobody could in fact be alive today who went to school under the 9ustro-"ungarian regime. in (iles >1--%7 and implies the demand for the reform of the political system and a decisive change of the rule of the game. This type of policy can be noticed in .tate. =ocal ta es were introduced in 1--% but they represent an insignificant amount of the ta es raised from the inhabitants.6. !uring the post communist years the prefect enCoyed more authority and power than the mayor did. especially from the political opposition being dismissed by prefects by 1--:. but this because it is obvious "ungarians living in compact areas do not know #omanian and because finally the state is meant to function. Dn our survey the #omanian community showed relative tolerance towards bilingual signs. by the way. and education. copied after the /rench. Dmportant reservations were made however towards the idea that #omanian civil servants in "ungarian dominated areas should pass a "ungarian language test when applying for the Cob. 1--:7 .no law of financement of local governments e isted. !epartment of Dnformation. and not to teach the official language to recalcitrant students.ost local institutions are also centrally subordinated > health. 'administration' because in the view of many #omanian politicians 'local governments e ist only in federal systems' 6#omanian . Af course "ungarian-speaking clerks should e ist in all institutions in regions inhabited by "ungarians. Df "ungarian becomes an official language in "ungarian-inhabited areas self-government is under way.ecretary of .elgium and Kuebec 6#oss.: On state5 citiBenship5 government and self2government The #omanian . so to provide services. These specifications are necessary in order to understand the amount of frustrations local governments .olyai 0niversity or even the study of history and geography in "ungarian.tate is of the unitary-fused type. where party lists are made.A0T "E#E 9. /D(0#E 1& 9. several mayors. This political order is firmly grounded in the social structure created by the -: . police. ?olitics in #omania is a central game and due to the proportional system and the voting on party lists only . The 'national' element. The stake of the second official language is that this in all probability prompts also the reorgani2ation of the state along linguistic lines. . even less because she will know in every institution she will find somebody to speak "ungarian.ures this would probably increase ethnic resentment and bring more voters to #omanian nationalist parties.certificate it is because she did not want to know. 0ntil 1--. "owever.named.2ekely area will know in :& years as little #omanian as the old lady mentioned.accumulated during the postcommunist transition.abes-. so each mayor's budget was at the mercy of the central government.elluci >1-3-7. with central and local government fused in the office of prefect.ucharest politics matters. an all-"ungarian section of . /or 2ones where #omanians and "ungarians are in similar proportion such as Tg. /or the rest of Transylvania it would probably make little difference from the present situation. if any form of testing the #omanian language will be e empted from the education system a young girl from the . Ta es are collected by local agencies of the /inance !epartment and redistributed by the government. . be it politics. television or culture carries away in front of the local one. Dt matters when you put meat in a soup if you get some of it finally or you get li)uid only'. The state is 'nationalist' because 'They claim they want to integrate into Europe but they do Cust the opposite'.ungiu >1--87.'6"ungarian peasants7 'Anly 4 B of our ta es came back for the county last year.ut whose fault is it G Dt's . "ungarian respondents were unanimous in their blame for the 'state'. why shouldn't D benefit of my work and my money G Why should D give it to . and are willing to pay more local ta es than national ones 6. D do my Cob. . ignorant of the way the budget is designed but able to draw on figures to make their point. via at least education.ures7 9lthough the comple ity of these discourses varies greatly their construction is similar in many points.ucharest. They laid off some bureaucrats. middle-class group7 'Df a "ungarian family has economic difficulties -the same #omanian families have. Tg. The resentment against the state is Custified by the situation we described above. 'We should have ta es for the development of state. They take all the goods for . and ordinary peasants resorting to sayings in order to do the same were in fact constructing an attribution for a resentment. The state is 'sucking the blood' of the counties. 6although e cept peasants and the middle class group they all worked in the state sector7. but the rest still sit on the country.ince they pay their ta es they consider the state .iercurea 'iuc. while in Tg. but considered they could live a completely autarchic life if their ta es come -5 . defense or public order.'ommunist system that leveled regional and social differences to a surprising e tent 6. none of our respondents considered for a moment some of the public goods the state provides reaches their area. ?eople feel little of their money come back to them in the form of some valuable service. all money are put in the central purse and then. Dn the view of our "ungarian respondents.ucharest R' 'D work here. Whoever is appointed here doesn't go back to . They come here at the end of the month and take our money' 6"ungarian workers7 '$ou know the Coke > why does the . .ucharest G' 'The state kills us.ures money is not enough even for street sweepers. Dn the .ungiu and Donita> 1-337. duties towards the state as a citi2en are ta paying and lawabiding. . 9nd the prefect decided to give more money to =udus 6#omanian town7 to help them build an Arthodo church.outherners have a long neck > to look over the mountains in Transylvania.which is usually considered the '#omanian' state 6only now !9"# is associated to government7 owes them.6.. ..' 6Dntellectuals.ucharest people from here.then the "ungarian says > it's not my fault. at least..2ekelys area. since D am a hard worker. of region and of town. .. Eot like this. because it takes large ta es and returns insignificant parts of them.ote2 > 1-3: * .oth intellectuals. not only "ungarians but some #omanians too are persuaded they support the rest of #omania.ucharest. they told us7 of course they considered these two fields unworthy of their financement. who reali2e the matter is more complicated.back to local governments.2ekelys area mirror each other perfectly.f (heorghe. ' Why can't we do it as in . ours -3 . few people reali2e that due to a large central budget they benefit still of important subsidies in the cost of energy and gasoline and pay insignificant amounts for education or health care.oldova.2ekelys area.anat. 'When inspection comes from !epartment of Education in . Transylvania into two parts. . where "ungarians fear /unar will become even more aggressive had he more autonomy from the central government7. for us and for the #omanians as well' "ow to do it is a more complicated problem. .untenia. Why should .ucharest inspect us G They're interested only if children know #omanian. ?aying for education is also frustrating. and not understood even by them since it is )uite confuse but people we talked to knew well enough what kind of self-government they want. Dn the . self-government is seen as the solution of all problems 6e cepting 'luC."ere opinions are different from the working and middle class "ungarians we discussed to in the . 'luC.ucharest here they don't understand anything. ' What's good for us' ' Dt means laws that concern us shouldn't be passed if we do not approve' '!ecentrali2ation.ures.iercurea 'iuc'. regardless of education share the political model > ethnic-grounded territorial autonomy. who are radical autonomists and intellectuals in Tg.6Iamfir> 1--47 9lthough #omania did not have after 1--& a strategy of regional distribution of resources 6a law to this effect was passed in 1--5. . and even . since education is subordinated to . 9fter complaining too many garrisons are located in their region and the #omanian policemen don't know "ungarian well 6but "ungarians traditionally don't enroll as policemen. Af course. "owever the post-'ommunist state took from everybody with little discrimination in order to support the massive state sector and avoid unemployment for both #omanians and "ungarians.2ekelys area most "ungarians.wit2erland G They should split the country into regions > . 9nd of course children almost don't'6"ungarian teacher. The complicated system of 'autonomy steps' built by !9"# is not even known e cepting "ungarian intellectuals. but with little practical conse)uences7 inhabitants of Transylvania. They are both based on stereotypes> the #omanian stereotype of the "ungarian as a traitor citi2en who has to be kept under constant surveillance and the "ungarian stereotype of the #omanian state which takes from "ungarians to give #omanians. ?reCudices of both the #omanian nationalists and the citi2ens from the . . rasov.6Dntellectuals. The present structure of 45 counties is a compromise between the even more fragmented inter-war administrative organi2ation and the 'ommunist one.with 'ovasna. another one in Eorthern Transylvania. We can solve it only with the #omanians living here' 'Df the #omanians would want to emancipate from .ures and . that's federali2ation. The . "arghita.. This is one of many cases5 but a very significant one5 of the pattern according to which development of democracy in (omania is hindered due to the national problem.ut still the solution would be the . The only solution is a more autonomous Transylvania as a whole' 6!9"# leader.2ekelys do not make the maCority of "ungarians in Transylvania. that's what we need'. 9ccording to our survey self-government of the . although due to their compact presence they are of the the main initiators of political attitudes. Tg. !9"# . 6workers. impossible. 'luC7 'Territorial autonomy on ethnic grounds is difficult to achieve. have a different point of view. Dn any event. bringing an escalation of the "ungarians drive towards some form of ethnic-based territorial separation.ecuiesc7. however.andor. Dt would be surprising if it did. .ures and eventually .?. since the maCority does not inhabit there. with the rights of #omanians and "ungarians who make a minority in a community being firmly ensured' 6Tamas .ince #omanians are against it. 55 B of our sample made of #omanians and "ungarians scored against the special status region.ucharest together we could work something out'. -- . however. each with his own laws and interests.outh Tyrol model. the others outside a "ungarian autonomous region.2ekelys. The rest of the "ungarians in Transylvania. Dntellectuals share this ideal.2ekely region by itself does not meet the approval of the maCority of "ungarians. The 'iorbea government planned to return to the inter-war structure. ones inside. but are more aware of its difficulties > 'We cannot create two categories of "ungarians. 4& B.f (heorghe7. would like to see a special status region in the . . . although the proCect was strongly critici2ed. . slightly more numerous. e cepting a brief and failed reform of administrative organi2ation attempted by 'harles DD. The opinion is much more balanced when it comes to consociative solutions> 13 B #omanians favor and 15 B oppose the appointment of "ungarian prefects in "ungarian dominated areas. advisor of =as2lo Tokes7 'We can't think of a separate solution for the "ungarians living here. . . it doesn't matter. Tg. an administrative organi2ation on larger regions and provinces is absent from the #omanian tradition.ut this is precisely what the #omanians fear> that normal decentrali2ation will only further complicate the national problem.teps towards normal decentrali2ation were constantly blocked in the 1--%1--: ?arliament 6the most nationalistic until now7 which prevented the reform of the administrative system in the whole country on the grounds that "ungarians might benefit from it in their interest. . weden play football together .although D.tate > 'We all here approved to what the . 18 B of #omanians.9.When the #evolution started in "ungary we were all touched and we hoped it will start in #omania. polls made however clear that #omanians tend to endorse whatever rights minorities already have and to oppose the granting of new ones. they are disciplined and listen to national commandments in ways #omanians cannot dream of. /D(0#E 11 9. although strongly critici2ed by advocates of selfgovernment meets the approval of "ungarians and of a minority of #omanians as well.. too. which D think is one of the very important moments of the European history they couldn't help using only to e ult their pride' 'The #omanian people resented 'ommunism..' 6workers. however.A0T "E#E #omanians show disbelief when it comes to the "ungarian attachment to the #omanian . 'luC7 1&& .r..A0T "E#E ?articipation of !9"# to government.. in the same time escaping the responsibility for what they had done in the last 4 years 61-4&-1-447'. while in #omania "ungarians do the opposite. never will they accept the fact that are part of the #omanian state. Even this fantastic moment. polls from 1--4-1--: showed a larger opposition.Then the leaders of the "ungarians in #omania understood the importance of that moment and they saw in 'ommunism a double opportunity > to defend their interests and to continue the fighting against the same #omanian state. /D(0#E 1% 9.wedes in /inland cheer for the /innish team. #atiu said when asked by the "ungarians why can't they have a state university the way .. when /inland and . he said. but that man was telling us defiantly '#omanians are not capable of something like this. The same D.Dn 1-8: D was working in Hatra !ornei and subordinated to a very tough "ungarian apparatchik. Dn 1-44 almost no #omanian enrolled in the 'ommunist party.9. enroll in the 'ommunist ?arty early and you will occupy the key positions. believe !9"# participation to the government as having a negative impact on the #omanian-"ungarian relationship.wedish minority has in /inland.. Well.? . proportionally. Dn 1--3 the "ungarian prefects had already been in place for almost one year and a half so the population had grown accustomed to them. They killed. #omanians. then in 1-44 they were told > you are "ungarians you shouldn't be subordinated to #omanians. 6Ald #omanian intellectuals. 'luC7 '"ungarians will never accept #omanian domination. To them the nation is more important than everything is. maybe even more +ews than the (ermans in order to have the (ermans support them. :. 6. which only feeds the an iety and fear of the #omanians. 9s "ungarians #omanians also noticed immigrants in Western Europe end up in the black labor market. or to compete with the WestG ?rovincialism.!9"# is right in theory when e plaining that asking "ungarians to prove their loyalty towards the state is similar to giving up the presumption of innocence. On !ast and %est ?oliticians and intellectuals both often said that #omania's path can no longer be distinct from the general trend towards European integration. . 'ontact with the few multinationals landed in #omania also increased the perception that work attitudes are different in the .tates7.D. as one can notice. . The maCority. "ungarians identify themselves more with the civili2ed West. Af the 11 B who chose the national option the most are highly educated people. higher among educated people. ?eople fear for good reason their values and attitudes might be closer tot he realities of a under-developed post-totalitarian country than to Western Europe.ut is it certain that the discourse of conservative intellectuals is directly linked with this national option.A0T "E#E Twice as many #omanians as "ungarians. option East 6best foreign policy is seek an alliance with the 'ommunity of Dndependent . if Westerners do not come here massively as investors as managers to compel us live with them and by them this nation will disappear or will become Cust a populace. 0se and abuse of the identity need> the role of elites 1&1 . and most #omanians share the perception of a barbaric East.arko . Aur survey provided three options to be chosen by respondents> option West 6best foreign policy is seek speedy integration in E9TA and the 0E7. more eager to protect their culture and their roleG !ifficult to answer.ela none of the legal proposals of !9"# does even allude to the matter of loyalty.ome want to keep the differences embodied in the original 'third way. 9rmy Af Transylvania7 Transylvania wants to belong to the West but stumbles over the doubt it is 'West@>. and national option 6best policy is to pursue its own original path unlike the East or the West7.6officer. however. 9. some are afraid of that> Df neither E9TA nor the 0E will accept us in 1---.ela> 1--37 "owever even the more moderate #omanians 6like the workers in 'luC7 would feel better that autonomy would be a 'contract' and loyalty the trade-off.# . To what cause can we attribute this factG The higher awareness of the difference between the #omanian and the Western systemsG The fear of being reCected.alkans than in Western Europe or 0nited .ased on the logic summed up by . '"9#T 11 9.arko . The European integration of #omania is by no means certain> but people's choice of a political way is nevertheless highly relevant for a certain value-system. is inclined towards the option FWest@. The theme was also constantly invoked in our focus groups.tates. believe that #omania should indeed seek an 'original way' and a third of the whole sample representative for Transylvania share this belief. . SDn short.aharan 9frica. and in the .alkan area. The event has a twofold importance> in broader European terms. The ?resident of !9"#. 9s a conse)uence of the victory the ally-since 1--1.of the winner !emocratic 'onvention of #omania 6'!#7. This chapter will analy2e by looking into this issue the composition of nationalistic elites in present-day #omania and the perception by the public of the elites@ role in the national conflict. notably the "ungarians. the presence of !9"# in the government proved to be a daily struggle. representing the 1. The maCor conflict is between those who see the "ungarians participation at government as an end in itself.? and followers. We find it at work in nineteenth century Eastern Europe. while on one hand strongly keeping its party together and in the ranks of the larger coalition is currently describing the situation as a F'atch %%@ one.The victory in Eovember 1--: elections of the centrist coalition in #omania-the only alternative to the post-communist and nationalist alliance which had rules since 1--&brought an area premiere that remained if not unnoticed than little analy2ed.mith>>1-3%>p 1&. or professional classes. the process of politici2ing the intelligentsia cuts across the distinction between ethnic and territorial nationalism. 9lthough the maCor improvements in the "ungarians@ self-government promoted by the government 6such as appointment of "ungarian prefects in "ungarian dominated-areas of Transylvania7 brought no popular discontent. "owever. where such collaboration is rarer and rarer. play a special part in the process of politici2ing nascent ethnic sentiment6M7/ewer and fewer of the educated elites from different ethnic groups are able to find positions which match their professional )ualifications6M7Dn fact. despite the maCor achievements of these two years nationalists on both sides find good reason to claim the e periment had failed.. the debate on what the status should be of the "ungarian community in #omania was only reopened.mith put it >@ The intelligentsia.5 million "ungarians and enCoying almost 5 B of the total seats in the #omanian ?arliament. in the widest sense. of the #omanian coalition leaders with their . 6M7 6. Ane would e pect that such a move would appease nationalists in both camps. while others. of the government with the media and a rebellious ?arliament. see it as a means towards their program of full self-government.117 1&% . since !9"# is the largest ethnic party in Europe. post-1-48 Western Europe. Dt is widely admitted that the elites. and among the territorial nationalism of contemporary sub-. 9s 9nthony . and their involvement is often a conse)uence of failed assimilation and frustrations over perceived reCection from the part of the dominant culture. the "ungarian alliance 6!9"#7 Coined the new-formed government. most notably what in Europe is called Fintellectuals@ play an important part in the articulation of ethnic and national revival political movements. of the !9"# leaders with various discontent wings of their party. %. We would like to stress that if "ungarians feel #omanians do better with less effort #omanians. Dt is always difficult to discern between the real problem of the national or ethnic group. strengthened by the habits ac)uired during 'ommunism. of avoiding or reducing competition by all means. clergymen7 1. drinks a lot of beer. either regionally or locally influential 6priests. as ideological differences are less important since their main program is focused on the welfare of the "ungarian community. #omanians were not allowed to live in cities and build churchesMWhat they boast with was done on our e pense@ $. complained about it in the following terms> The evening before the match with the #omanian team D send my boys Cogging and then put them to bed early stressing the importance of the ne t day match. The result is that nationalism is a common feature. but in the case of nationalists in #omania we should say reCection is only a part of a larger game. in both camps. its fiercest accents to be met mostly in parliamentary debates and the #omanian media. #omanian intellectuals also have a serious inferiority comple towards Western Europe. "ungarian intellectuals feel as second class citi2ens often from symbolic reasons only Nthat their culture is a minority culture.elites/7 D understand by Felite@ in the present work three categories of persons> 1. intellectuals. the rule rather than the e ception. mostly Transylvanians.ome politicians can be described as 1&1 . still e perience the comple of being politically and culturally dominated for hundreds of years. /rustration over ethnic competition is resented )uite often. comprising politicians with ideologies varying from e treme nationalist to liberal regionalism and part of a political spectrum for the "ungarian politicians. outstanding opinion leaders 6Cournalists. FTheir cultural heritage is richer because they were the masters here. The intellectual class is especially good at this game. dances in the near-by disco. other locally acknowledged intellectuals or public figures7. "ere one can find the full spectrum of the #omanian elite. . Ane focus group participant. goes to bed at two in the morning and the ne t day we are better than they but they win.ut it would be wrong to assume that the top opinion leaders are cut from their base. a "ungarian coach. Apinion leaders. . in their turn. The #omanian team occupies the porch of the hotel. =eaders and political class. smokes a little. mirrored by leaders or elite. 9s members in a focus group of 'luC #omanian intellectuals put it. and the problems the leaders help subsist in order to take advantage on them and consolidate their position. %ho makes the . teachers.#eCection or perceived reCection plays a part. 1&4 . ranging from the protection of an e tinct language 6like the Welsh.arko. Dt is a well known fact that writers tend to be nationalist leaders in the first stages of a nationalist movement> in the former 0. 9nd these are only the famous ones> Transylvania is full of people like them. This leads to the subordination of elites which otherwise have both the money and the wit to do their own politics to the nationalist leaders. They end by sponsoring nationalist movements by group conformity only. although they are disinterested by the nature of their occupation in linguistic battles and prestige wars. seeing it even as duty of the well-to-do community members towards the rest.any influential people in a community would never have nationalist initiatives or would support personally such a movement.pro/e ional nationali t as they are directly interested not to solve an ethnic conflict on whose behalf their career is made. !omokos (e2a.ishop =as2lo Tokes. These are the voluntary soldiers of nationalist causes. priests such as . =eonida =ari.ela . in order to gain primarily political influence..any middle-class and business characters find themselves passive supporters of nationalism due to this mechanism.# #epublics ?opular and Eational /ronts were mostly lead by writers in late F3&@s and early@-&@s. passed from one writer.* the movement to protect the /rench language from anglicisms* the Fcrusade@ to protect the #omanian language by writer and senator (eorge ?ruteanu. . school principals.also discover nationalism as a Fcause@ they pretend to embrace in a non-political and non-partisan manner. but since they are dependent of the groupLcommunity they are willing to pay to have their identity as good group members confirmed by nationalists who speak in the name of the group. The third and the largest category of nationalists are. . the presidency. all voluntary to share with me their view on the essence of the national problem in #omania. or. but least known.reton.artolomeu 9nania. even on the genetic heritage threatened by mi ed marriages. 'orneliu Hadim Tudor. so e actly from categories aspiring to reach political influence by nonpolitical means. This last category likes to show itself as prophets and defenders of some endangered cause. The situation is obscured even further by the absence in #omania of a class of professional politicians. Ather persons with political ambitions denied by their position in society Nsuch as priests and Cournalists. literary critics such as (eorge ?ruteanu.as)ue7 to the protection of a well-to-do language they claim is abused 6the movement to make English an official language in 0. Their cause is most of the times a language N but they can also focus on a minority religion or denomination. the 1on/ormi t . t0e 1ru ader nationali t . Each of these three categories can be found within the two elites. history professors and librarians. the . the . union leaders. The supreme office of !9"#. and so was !9"# 6the !emocratic 9lliance of "ungarians #omanian7. however. as intellectuals and priests. favoring communication over e treme differentiation. )uite often. all guided by the ambition of being protectors and leaders of their community. to another. (rigore Hieru. . The background of people serving as politicians in these times of Ftransition@ are either as lawyers. #omanian and "ungarian. The most notable characters of #omanian nationalism are poets such as 9drian ?aunescu. The most popular !9"# character is still the . (roup conformity is a vital element in the understanding of the mobili2ation and support building of nationalism. immediately after political pluralism was allowed was a natural phenomenon. Dn fact it included parties.$. a political and cultural nationalist association. which helped him emerge as a political leader of the "ungarian community in those days. secret service officers. E(A's. !omokos (e2a. an establishment position. Dts first leaders had been actually the leaders of the community already in the 'ommunist times. mostly written by Cournalists. The strange informal coalition governing #omania at the time.imilar "ungarian parties were forming at the time in all the neighboring states including "ungarian minorities. )uite disoriented itself and having as only political option a party with a national more than a political program. than to counteract the creation of an ethnic party. !9"# is indeed a political alliance. !9"# acts and is perceived more as an ethnic party..ureau and had protested openly against its national policies. Ane of the . then to its political wing. had been ?resident of the "ungarian section of !9"#. 9lso essential was the fact that 'eausescu's policy of denationali2ation of the last years had prepared the program of !9"#. Dt was never recorded as a political party according to the #omanian parties@ legislation. 0. This lack of interest from . Dts constituency is either 'centre'. but since they registered as a party barely a month before elections. their performance can be considered a success. The )ungarian political class1 ideology5 evolution5 trends The creation of !9"# in 1--&. The "ungarian community lacks an ideological orientation even more than the #omanian community. 1&8 . point to the e istence inside !9"# of a 'radical' and a 'moderate' group. the first president. This discussion originated in the sanctions given by !9"# leadership to the presence of two . =as2lo Tokes had had a powerful start as a hero of the #omanian #evolution. /runda (yorgy.:. poll7. former nomenklatura and the former 'ommunist newspapers supporting them seemed more concerned to prevent the creation of a real #omanian opposition challenge to post-communist establishment.? to receive a party sanction then was the future candidate to ?residency. 9 large body of literature in #omania and abroad. "ungarians were united and so !9"# became the largest opposition party in the 1--& ?arliament. the ?arty for the 0nity of #omanians 6?0E#7. !espite individual contestings this group held together well> ama2ingly when one considers later attacks against !9"# as an ethnic party that no essential contesting was directed against it that days. or cannot say what it is 641B.ucharest lead to the creation in Transylvania first of 'Hatra #omaneasca'. ?0E# managed to win a few seats in the 1--& 9ssembly. While #omanians were confused and divided in their new une pected freedom. as its name shows. Dt is important to establish that the first #omanian nationalist post-'ommunist movement started in Transylvania.? at a conciliatory meeting with the #omanian government in 1--1 at Eeptun 6organi2ed by the 9merican ?roCect on Ethnic #elations7. Athers like <arol <iraly had been members of 'eausescu's ?olitical . made up of 9rmy. 9lthough ideological trends within !9"# vary from 'hristian !emocrats to =iberals. and cultural associations as well. . 'sapo Dos2ef and . =ater on. post-'ommunist ?arty for . Dn his speech Tokes was bitter 1&: . #omanian center-right parties. This group sees "ungarians in #omania as a minority and considers its problems can be resolved without a reform of the #omanian political system or the state structure.ocial !emocracy 6?!. needless to say.? and establishment became 'moderate'. The political system must be reformed in order to accommodate this separate 'political subCect'.ela . only by the establishment and protection of individual and derivative rights 6rights deriving from the appurtenance to a community7. !uring this time !9"# adopted important documents such as the 'luC .tatute.orbely Dmre.9fter . the government party. Dn 1--:.arko as ?resident of !9"# replaced !omokos (e2a the alliance entered a more radical stage. either by creating a special status region on the model of . who have presented their own draft for a minorities' law. after becoming partners of the government coalition with their long times allies. .ince !9"# became a member of the governing coalition incentives for a consociative formula increased and most of !9"#'s .outh Tyrol in Dtaly or a federal state instead of a unitary one with Transylvania as a federal unit. They dislike !9"# being treated as a minority only* its rhetoric makes from the large number of "ungarians a decisive issue and they consider a difference should be made between "ungarians and other minorities in #omania and this difference should be embodied in the recognition of "ungarians as political subCects.#7 associated itself with nationalistic ?0E# and the more recent (reater #omania ?arty 6?#.eptember 1--3 a meeting to discuss !9"# leadership in critical terms and ask for a change in its policy failed as most of the "ungarian political establishment boycotted the meeting. This history helps us emphasi2e a distinction. which may prove instrumental to classify trends within !9"#. thus leaving "ungarians no hope their claims can be resolved in the framework of the #omanian political system.tatute of ?ersonal 9utonomy 61--:7. which lasted from 1--% to 1--:. or a separate political subCect as it is specified in the ?ersonal 9utonomy .7. We consider as nationalist or 'radical' the "ungarian politicians or ideologues who look upon "ungarians in #omania as a 'nation'. in which. The 9lliance between !9"# and the #omanian opposition at the 1--% elections brought !9"# nothing.tatement 61--%7 and the . treatment of minority group is non-differential. The attempt of ?astor Tokes to organi2e in . /runda (yorgy and Herestoy 9ttila were the most outspoken representatives of this group until now. We therefore consider as 'moderates' the !9"# leaders who seek the fulfillment of the "ungarian community problems in the adoption and enforcement of the legal provisions comprised in the framework of European institutions such as the 'ouncil of Europe and the European 0nion minority and minority language regulations. This group includes =as2lo Tokes. and #omanians electoral losses. This policy line was never very much agreed by the other minorities. !9"# abandoned this language and pursued their claim for cultural autonomy via general laws 6amendments to the laws of Education. =ocal (overnment7. These documents proclaimed "ungarians in #omania as a separate 'political subCect' and asked for the internal 'self-government' and 'self'determination' of the "ungarians as a political community. onn and WashingtonR What do European documents and Western diplomats do to be so disliked . Transylvanian and healthy. "e accuses the "ungarian ..ishop TokesG Ane thing mainly> they do not encourage unilateral actions. even if they are not opposed to self-government. 9merican.ishop Tokes than critici2ed a "ungarians columnist for attacking !9"# leaders who want to )uit the government coalition and retreat to their ethnic
[email protected] area in 1--:.tatute of ?ersonal 9utonomy was close to turn into a unilateral action as steps were taken by radicals to organi2e a referendum and adopt it in the . 9s violent as =as2lo Tokes against moderates is <iraly <aroly. !ue to important international-in fact. same as the popular assembly at =utita in 1343 that we commemorate these days. the old 'ommunist turned nationalist in the eighties. their allies. !9"# officials want to have their positions for the life 6.t. Eot (reater 1&5 . This cut the grounds from under "ungarian nationalists' feet in #omania. whom he portrayed as 'opportunists' and the liberal "ungarian newspapers from .? of controlling the 'ouncil of #epresentatives.. Ar the .effort and to the eagerness of both "ungarians and #omanian leaders to be granted international recognition as stable countries -both were applying to become members of E9TA. 6. .2ekelys tradition. and (yorgy /runda for playing by the rules of the European 'ouncil before concluding> /rom here.tatementG Eot to mention the oath taken in ... . . Where is the promising spirit of our internal ?arliament that adopted the 'luC . is different from the official vision of !9"#.ucharest.inority =anguages and the 1%&1 #ecommendation of the European 'ouncil . "appily. the #omanian center-right won Cust two months later the elections and they invited them to Coin the government.... The treaty included European provisions for protection of the minorities such as the 'harter of .with the specification asked by the #omanian side that in no way interpretation of these documents could compel the #omanian state to grant ethnic-based territorial autonomy and collective rights to members of "ungarian minority.udapest that did not support his wing.7This represents the greatest danger for the e istence of "ungarians in #omania.against the moderates.. in 'ernatul de +os.a bilateral treaty was eventually concluded after many difficulties in 1--:.udapest. of .7 These persons practically represent only themselves at every level. one can clearly distinguish how much our point of view.7 What does the "ungarian nation of Transylvania wishG This e pression of our political wills is organically integrated in the historical . the body including both central and local !9"# leaders supposed to become a F?arliament@ of the "ungarian minority. the one said to embody the self-government of our community 6.ichael's 'hurchR Anly with bitter irony can one call this body our internal ?arliament. . not /unar. Kuite on the contrary. The other is based upon 'tradition'. according to the historical and territorial specificity c.. territorial. E)uality of chances' 6reproduced by #ompres.6in . Ane is the liberal rhetoric also used in the language of international law* provisions for minorities. from now on national community. which can have an individual practice.tatute approved.2ekelyfold. therefore the rights which rest upon the national autonomous community as a political subCect6. 14 ?ersonal autonomy guarantees for community and its members> a. article 1 The national "ungarian community of #omania. inferior in numbers but safe keeper of historical . whose members affirm their belonging to the community by their free will 'hapter %.no8L1--37 The nationalists were influential enough back in 1--: to have the ?ersonal 9utonomy . 9 few e cerpts of this document are telling> An the basis of internal self-determination.7. Eational ?ress 9gency.ucharest. self-government inside the state. which by the way of selfgovernment inside the state guarantees the preservation of the national identity of the "ungarian community. 1& in the territorial administrative units where persons belonging to the minority group make a maCority their language are e)ual to the state language. "ere belong unmistakably e pressions such as 'e)uality of chances'.and is therefore a national rhetoric. a long list of them. 9rt. . volunteered some e planations in an interview with #adio . make actually the opening statement of the document. they are of help to us. and 'historical and territorial specificity' -whatever that means. the individual and collective practice of rights specific to persons belonging to these minorities 'hapter 1.. 1&3 . /ull and real e)uality as citi2ens b. not Dliescu are the danger. The most striking feature of this document is the mi of two types of rhetoric. religious traditions on the native homeland. art 8 ?ersonal autonomy included all minority rights.#omania ?arty.enator 'sapo. 9rt. all the specific rights which can be e ercised collectively only. 114L&1L1--:7. considered the author of the document. cultural linguistic. as an autonomous political subCect is the e)uivalent of the "ungarian body. This is our mandate and goal. collectively or privately.arch 1. even when necessary 6The Economist 1&- .. and are too few to be able to have parliamentary representation. built around the concept of minority self-government. why do we insist G To claim our rights. declared in /ebruary 1--5 that !9"# did not give up its autonomy program. most of the "ungarians claims from 1--: were resolved via participation in government.2o. %:L&:L-37. )uoted by #ador of .inorities that D consulted in the summer of 1--3 was however not inspired by these documents but rested more upon a consociative logic. number6R7 traditions inside the #omanian state..enator 'sapo insisted after 1--5 that 0!. to be able to create the necessary framework to e ercise the minority rights. The society should therefore reflect if a federal form of government does not provide better decentrali2ation and e ercise of the authority. "ungarian nationalists point often to the "ungarian law for minorities. but instead sees its participation in the government as a gradual approach towards it 6#omanian daily #omania libera. so the community is considered a person. a ?resident of the "ungarian 9cademy 6(lat2>1--17 and adopted also by other "ungarian parties in the region 6such as in HoCvodina. and by passing new laws 6such as /inancement of =ocal (overnments7.. securing positions for minorities inside government offices. Why are we present. . 9ll these positive developments were possible only by amending general laws such as education and =ocal 9dministration law. =ocal government appointees are now "ungarians* the "ungarian language can be used in Custice and administration* local communities are better financed. They tend to forget. The mere idea of having a "ungarian prefect in "ungarian maCority areas was viewed as heresy in 1--:.agyar . however.7 ?ower must be granted to the authorities that are closer to the respective community. since the "ungarian community has its historical and territorial traditions. "is rather complicated and wordy program was in fact inspired largely by a policy proposal written by ?rofessor /erenc (lat2. that in "ungary minorities have no reserved seats in parliament as in #omania. on the other side. The proCect for minorities@ law drafted by the !epartment of . The Fselfgovernments@ of minorities are therefore only able to supervise and distribute funds for cultural activities and fail to take any other actions.a legal or political person6..# should )uit the government coalition. 1--:7.arko .ucurestilor interview.Why is autonomy 'personal'G . part of $ugoslavia7. historical. 9long the years an approach trying to balance between the two wings of the party seemed the best policy to keep the party united around its current leaders. so important steps forward were possible by consociatonalism. .. but lost the final vote in the 'ouncil of #epresentatives 6#omaniai . 6#adio 9ntena . "ungarian nationalists will probably disagree with minorities' law that makes no difference between "ungarians and other minorities and abandons the self-government rhetoric. !espite scandals and temporary setback of symbolic issues such as the "ungarian 0niversity.. specific territorial.ela.ecause it points to a community recogni2ed by the state as an e istence inside the state and points to the selfgovernment of this community as a person. :L&%L-57. "owever.. These difference of views inside !9"# is often mirrored by its reactions to various challenging events. not to speak of nuns. "owever. ?olitics is the art of realism. more important is that Transylvania.arch 1-L1---7.ela. "owever. intolerant.ela and Tokes =a2slo.. An the contrary. They both shared the ideas of
[email protected] not in the fields of Custice. administration.r. .arko . To the e tent that culture is involved this already e ists.the Transylvanian cat.ut it should R 6.r .7 Df we reason in large European conte t. for instance..of .. . in 'umpana 17. . this nostalgic trend of the thirties now revived in a more political form> F9ccepting Transylvania as an independent entity.ecuiesc orphanage. considering therefore the current situation a Fforced cohabitation@. this attitude complies moderates to act with e treme caution.. such as territorial and regional autonomy. 6Tokes =as2lo > To be a Transylvanian "ungarian. of its historical and geographical determinations leads us unwillingly to the most modern European theories and purposes.arko . . other specifications made by . The official reaction of !9"#. but few people can be realists when it comes to nationalism. in 'umpana 1. it doesn't matter to which state Transylvania belongs. signed by influential e ecutive president Takacs 'saba slighted the fault of "ungarian local authorities for the incident and laid the blame on the intervention 6late after the events7 of the governmental 9gency for =ocal (overnment. politics.ut think of it as a political program@.. 9ctually it became a political program because the same arguments are used for the motivation of the Fautonomy@ program in 1--4. the making of a continental unity possible through concerns regarding autonomous regions and federalism6.7 all these aspiration cannot be accomplished@. within a national undemocratic state. 6. 9ntologia revistei <orunk7 FTransilvanism means common and separate e istence. .? from Eeptun gave a public apology for the behavior of locals towards (reek-'atholic nuns are stated bitterly that never in their history "ungarians failed to be courteous toward women. While the concept of territorial autonomy remains obscure in the )uoted document. minister of minorities and one of the Fsanctioned@ . together with the whole #omania. this makes the difference between . 6.#7..arko 1--4 > The 9utonomy ?rogram of 0!.arko ..arko . this is Cust a metaphor.. Tokay (yorgy. The common being of separate e istences.6.ela.D know.ela are relevant > the fact that the Fautonomy system' is inspired from the Fmediaeval traditions@ of Transylvania and that present institutions only create a Fcoercive coe istence@ FEeither the forced coe istence nor the forced separation are practicable ways@ states . Dn the case of Adorheiu . 11& . becomes an organic part of Europe and the surrounding space.7There is no alternative to the common e istence of separate e istences. the recognition of its specificity.ela . however.ack in 1--& their language was not so different as it is today. i months later.ures. Hotes@ results in 1--3 on staying in government showed the moderate trend grew since 1--:. while local political leaders see no advantages in cooperating with . but we can@t step back. while the . all-"ungarian. the entire "ungarian political class in #omania wishes that #omania will give up seeing itself s a nation-state. 9 minority can never step
[email protected]. !espite some differences. .: million "ungarians and around 4&&. !espite this fact. the (ypsies are %-1 millions.outh Tyrol and two 'atalonia as political models for Transylvania. and the usual understanding of Custice in a market economy 6the =ocal 'ouncil tried to sei2e the building of the . When asked about the #omanian public opinion and the negative conse)uences of the laws still waiting to pass and bring further good provisions for minorities they told me@ we know this is not tactful.? are the main beneficiary of consociatonalism. e plained> The #omanians have to give up the phrase from the 'onstitution saying #omania is a nation-state. !uring and after a television talc-show D organised and moderated in . 9ttila . This is easily e plained since .to act and censure the behavior of the =ocal 'ouncil of Adorheiu.sided in declaring #emus Apris. &&& may be closer to truth7.ucharest and prefer to enhance their power. The nationalist argument for self-government relies on the numbers when stating we cannot treat "ungarians as a minority. what kind of nation-state has more than 1& B minoritiesG The 1--1 census recorded only 1.fintu (heorghe on this issue all the "ungarians present Neither appointed by the 'entral government or directly elected. in the summer of 1--3 !9"# politicians present at the 'luC 'ouncil of #epresentatives meeting were interviewed by my team and asked about the incident. 5 #emus Apris and : Fthe #omanian nationalist press@. and chose as the main !9"# priority Fto find a suitable territorial autonomy for regions where "ungarians have a maCority7. nationalists or moderates. The !9"# leader of Tirgu .? clubs look like having a definite moderate maCority. "owever. Ten of these considered .wiss /oundation. Dt is difficult to speculate who has the maCority inside !9"#. the 'ouncil of #epresentations looks divided and perhaps having a nationalist maCority. We@re more than % millions. fantastic e aggerations like this one are necessary in order to make the point. Af fifteen interviewed only four laid some blame on the =ocal 'ouncil.r Takacs than .The view of the "ungarian 9lliance seems to have been closer to .r Tokay. head of =ocal (overnment 9gency was the only one to blame. They all refrained to comment the fact that the government stepped in pushed by the #omanian media only months after waiting for the local authorities Nfor the first time. 111 . but as a nation. Ethnic solidarity proved a lot stronger than either the desire to prove "ungarians can be obCective and allowed to rule themselves. and conse)uently remove this e pression from the 1--1 'onstitution. 1& blamed the .wiss /oundation and use if for its own purposes7.&&& #oma 6although other estimations suggest 1 &&&. The 1--%-1--: ?arliament. . local representatives. Dn all these ?arliaments the rhetoric was far more nationalistic than the actual vote. where post-'ommunists and nationalists formed a maCority. were the first to point to the ideological incoherence of the #omanian political class.? we can distinguish )uite clearly a few well-differentiated nationalist trends.%&-7. "owever. who tried to measure the economic vision of the 'hamber of !eputies.y Fassimilationism@ D mean the denial of any particular pluralistic claims. which had a strong post-'ommunist maCority also approved an article in the 'onstitution that made international legislation prevail over domestic one in human rights matters. 9llowing "ungarian representation in ?arliament and bringing them in a close alliance with #omanian parties was worth. displayed no less parado ical behavior> it passed most of the European legislation concerning minorities. 9ccording to the ideology of this group "ungarians are or ought to be. even if minimal@ 6. and top bureaucracy besides ordinary .ihai 0ngheanu. when !9"# was dominated by nationalists as since it was dominated by moderates the national problem remained in the framework of the law. Haleriu Tabara. passed with a maCority of only one vote the support letter for E9TA in the <ossovo business. They consider ethnic parties should not be allowed to e ist and cultural difference should be reduced as not to have any political implications. for instance. (omanian political class and nationalism The e ercise of discovering the ideology of the #omanian political class is a difficult one. F#omanian@. . very few followed the appeal to civil disobedience so active mobili2ation failed. in almost al cases "ungarian schools.?.The #omanian political system is however a democratic one. and the treaty with "ungary. The 1--&-1--% ?arliament. 9ligica and Donita. #adu Theodoru. This political view is 11% . and strong authoritarian party leadership of the government coalition was needed in order to pass the government@s drafts. which would have been unconceivable a year before. The 1--: parliament.imon>1--&> p. ?arents so no reason not to take their children to schools. but also Doan (avra. since at all times. ?etre Turlea. ?assive mobili2ation had been a success> 4&&&&& "ungarians signed for modifications to be made in the Education law. in 1--5. when re)uesting parents to boycott schools to protest against the 1--8 Education =aw. the law granting foreigners the right to buy land in #omania. in fact. The assimilationist nationalists This group of enophobic nationalists include the voiciest (heorghe /unar and 'orneliu Hadim Tudor. after endless bargains and fierce nationalistic speeches made by all parties* the same ?arliament had passed earlier. The same ?arliament was at least ambivalent. Dt was the opportunity for them to measure the ethnic mobili2ation.'. if not opposed. 1. They see the political organi2ation and self-awareness of the "ungarian minority as a perpetual cause of instability and dissent inside the #omanian . Anly one in ten years did !9"# asked for civil disobedience. Taking into account as F#omanian political class@ party leaders who are not necessarily . to the 'iorbea legislation meant to satisfy "ungarians@ demands on education and local government. :.tate. /unar. the main ideological manifesto of the nationalists. the budget as being decided with the national priorities above regional or local ones. FHocea #omaniei@. more than an ideology in which the state is the supreme value. unfortunately. the army and the police playing an important political role. more powerful than elected local governments. who has been a mayor of 'luC since 1--% was the most influential and tried everything he could as a mayor. and of course the center is the e pression of the dominant culture. but not e clusively.embers of this group also had during the Hacaroiu government 61--%-1--:7 key positions in the !epartment of 'ulture. other notions such as accountability or effectiveness being ranked under control. considered to be the eternal preCudiced and scapegoats of international conspiracies.tatist Eationalists D find necessary to adapt the /rench word 'etatisme' 6the noun7. They see the prefects appointed by the government as the real powerful men in the regions.overeignty is seen as the main values in this ideology and subsidiarity a form of anarchy. . . . This vision.arshall Don 9ntonescu to left-wing 'eausescu.tatist nationalists do not identify the state with the dominant nation necessarily. both praised in the (reater #omania weekly.tatist nationalists are against any devolution of powers and believe that as e pression of the popular vote the central government is the only one supposed 111 .ecuritate 6secret service7 officers who continue to have key positions in the #omanian press. due to the persistence in the #omanian press of many Cournalists who served 'eausescu@s national-communist ideology campaigns or to former .post 'ommunist mainly. Their view is that control by the state is the important thing. ?oliticians of the group were never in really influential positions. but they consider regions should be clearly subordinated by the center. "owever the Fassimilationism@ of this group also characteri2ed more the rhetoric than the actual policy. dominates from far in many circumstances the whole of the #omanian press. 9lso in those times some of this ideology could be found in the government@s own mouthpiece. #omanian political class is 'etatiste'. <atherine Herdery FEational Ddeology under 'ommunism@ sums up the archeology of national-communist ideology in the e cellent book.# this policy did not become a government policy. The term is meant to design a conception.which was not a lot> he changed streets names from "ungarian to #omanian.well matched with a paranoid theory on the political history of #omanians. . ranging from right-wing . ' etatist' 6the adCective7 because an ade)uate English e)uivalent is missing. "owever when his party was at government as an associate of ?!. 9na analysis of this type of rhetoric and its stereotypes can also be found in my previous book F#omanians after F3-@. which leads to the rehabilitation of various authoritarian leaders. . threatened to evacuate !9"# from the buildings they held as tenants from the local government. %. since most politicians were sociali2ed in the 'ommunist regime. Eationalist conservatives see themselves as mere Fpatriots@ and think of themselves they are representatives of civic nationalism. The instability that characteri2es plural societies is based on a conflict opposing different value-systems. Eothing could be more natural> of all institutions the 'hurch is bound to be 114 . /ormer ?resident Don Dliescu used to )uote this e ample often.tate did e actly that. 'rusaders and conformists Dn the first line of the national battle. Dn theory they accept a plural society* in practice they reCect institutional pluralism. Essayist and liberal senator 9le andru ?aleologu made a point. the rest of the administration having only to implement its policies. as one culture dominates the others. from the fact that . seen by "ungarians as a state belonging only to the dominant nation or culture.alkan@. the 'hurches. a 'hristian. but only amplify the hate towards the state. for instance. :. These strategies cannot reduce the conflict. This residual. The favorite model of solving a national dispute )uoted by this group is the solving by /rance and (ermany of the 9lsace-=orraine (erman speaking population dispute. To be a #omanian. 1. and on the other a reason for an iety as the #omanian culture is crossing a difficult time in being recogni2ed as a European culture. Df "ungarians reCect it at home there is really little hope the rest of the world will accept it. since all the battle for emancipation of "ungarians is based upon the fact that they do not admit the cultural superiority of #omanians and do not wish that citi2enship had any cultural connotation the conflict is finally unavoidable. "owever. intellectuals and the (reek 'atholic clergy 6the Arthodo clergy is closer to the first trend described here7.to have real power.ocrates and 9ristotel were also F. The creed of conservative nationalism is the belief in some Fgood #omanianess@ to be showed to Europe and the world.4. or best. #omanian "ungarians reCected it. controlling "ungarian maCority regions by appointment of #omanian nationalist prefects and maintaining a strong presence of the army in the region. peasant-born becomes a value in this ideology. They can be tolerant towards "ungarians if only "ungarians openly dissuade the #omanian culture under-evaluation line of the "ungarian classic nationalism. today as ever. The #omanian post 'ommunist . The only way to maintain the balance of such societies is the enhanced control of the state over the dissent regions or areas. 'onservative Eationalists or autochtonists This trend is to be found mostly among aged members of the so-called Fhistorical parties@. The value of being #omanian is one hand overvalued. we find the 'hurch. To defend the Feuropeanness@ of #omanian and to render Custice to east Europeans when compared to Western ones conservative nationalists overestimate the value of the #omanian culture as an European culture and display the belief that #omania could have been a sort of /rance under more favorable circumstances. ?lural societies are anyway. nostalgic trend is based upon an identity problem. as "orowit2 mentioned Fpregnant with conflict@. The 'hurch perceives the national status war as a war for its own status.ishop Tokes himself. Eot only the "ungarian churches. preserve the "ungarian nation@. The Arthodo 'hurch is insecure enough to become e tremely self-assertive> in 1--3 Arthodo priests refused to evacuate churches and restore them to (reek-'atholics. therefore @"ungarian@. such as ?rotestant priests more involved in social than political work are also present.ecuiesc. Dn its turn the Arthodo Transylvanian 'hurch is involved in prestige wars and tries to make its own symbols dominant. Therefore the 0niate 'hurch. .etropolyte . an irritating fact in itself for the #omanian churches. FThis is such a
[email protected] %1L1---7. prestige and traditions.sensitive to symbolic issues. Dt also likes to point at itself as the only F#omanian@ church. 9fter the e pulsion of the 0niate nuns from Adorheiu . The "ungarian national hymn we sing in 'hurch says> '(od. but also "ungarian civil society protested against the preferential treatment granted by the #omanian . but the tenths of thousands believers who turned Arthodo meanwhile. Ather trends. The connection between the national mission and the "ungarian churches is so deep because. 'ompetition for restitution of real estate nationali2ed by the 'ommunist regime and for state funds is also an important part of the rivalry among churches. the "ungarian churches asked the 0niates to meet for mediation. @when we were the ones to fight "ungarians even more than the Arthodo did@. since most of the (reek-'atholic buildings have passed in the Arthodo hands when the 'ommunist regime forbid the 0niate denomination in 1-43. The 0niate bishop refused. The most outstanding e ample is . The (reek-'atholics often have to face rumors that they are F'atholics@. a 'luC prelate confessed to me. 'hurch and nation are conflated in this vision so intimately they can@t be told apart. The statement was signed '"istorical 'hurches of Transylvania@. in the words of the 'atholic spokesperson from 'luC@ 'hristianism made us a nation.is almost compelled to accentuate its difference from the "ungarian churches and "ungarians. The Arthodo 'hurch felt threatened by the coming out of illegality of the (reek'atholic 'hurch in 1--&.ecuiesc.artolomeu 118 .tate to the Arthodo 'hurch 6reported by .ome of them volunteered their churches as places where hunger strikers could be observed and gathered signatures for the amendments to the Education law. but are less influential. Arthodo priests had the same obligations towards the grof as serfs did. "istorically the Arthodo 'hurch had indeed the worst situation> it was the only denomination discriminated against in Transylvania. 'ases of direct political involvement of the 'hurch are many. since the 'hurch identifies itself with the community. who tries to recuperate from the Arthodo not only the churches. saying that the Custice is called to resolve the conflict of the orphanage in Adorheiu . The "ungarian 'hurches started to recuperate their former schools and other buildings with great difficulties only in 1--3.udapest. . "ungarian priests were e tremely active in the Fcivil disobedience campaign@ of 1--8. who often uses the 'hurch infrastructure to combine religious with political events. Dts most active presence is .ediafa Eew 9gency on . 'laude <arnouh also reported in F!ilema@ the presence of bishops of "ungarian churches at revisionist rallies in . also complained the 'hristian !emocrat regime is doing less for the 'hurch than the ?ost-'ommunist one. Dntellectuals. whose meeting was broadcast live by a local television station> attackers were lead by local intellectuals. 9nd indeed 'ommunist affirmative action seems to have been effective.oth groups discourage neutrality. said to have decayed because of state negligence and disinterest from the part of "ungarian local authorities.ecuiesc was only following the lead given by the =ocal 'ouncil. complained the good times of 'ommunist Faffirmative action@ are gone. for instance. from conformist reasons mainly* intellectuals. and blackmailed the 'hurch of Transylvania.ecuritate agents.ilence . "ungarian this time. ?easants from Hiisoara participate to FHatra@ as to a club. a former 'ommunist apparatchik. Eot once did they mention in this campaign that the main cause for the decay of the 'hurches was the absence of communities. and by #omanian intellectuals as keeping the control in the cultural affairs of the "ungarians. Dt is ironical former 'ommunists are often more tolerant towards the national problem.)uare a new Arthodo 'athedral to defy the e isting "ungarian one. however. Cournalists and writers Coin them mainly. which allegedly supported 'hristian !emocrats will retreat its support. .most of the 'hurches involved were built by the #omanian state after 1-13 in regions with little or not-at all #omanian population. The mob that attacked the orphanage of Adorheiu . 9nother .0.etropolyte. The ?resident of the "ungarian Workers@ (roup. . Dntellectuals also bet on Fmulticulturalism@ instead of more practical Finter-culturalism@. 9nania is an outspoken partisan of 'hurch involvement in politics and lead in 1--3 a F. from . F9t least they r4espected then the percent of "
[email protected] . was e tremely upset to find out about our research and blamed #omanians from the village for envying "ungarians and attributing a Fnational@ correlation to their social envy.arch@ against the Fabandon@ of the Arthodo 'hurch by the state 6an interpretation of the winning by (reek-'atholics of many restitution trials7 and was stopped only by Eational "eritage from building in the 'luC historical 0nirii . :. 'entral Arthodo authorities also encouraged a campaign for the rehabilitation of churches in 'ovasna-"arghita.ulticulturalism is understood by "ungarian intellectuals as complete separation of the two cultures. doctors. Dn 1--:. "erception of the elites role by the public ?articipants in our focus groups have unanimously pointed at Fpolitical leaders@ as the main responsible of the ethnic conflict. The priests are however not the only Fcrusaders@ of the region.ometimes one can find neutrals in influential positions.9nania of 'luC. !aniel. The elite was described by terms such as Fthe 11: . . #omanian intellectuals are also present in Hatra #omaneasca. "ungarians have trouble for not being as radicals as !9"# wanted them to be* #omanians were pressured by FHatra@ to be harder on "ungarians. when we toured the . The pressure was especially hard on people who founded mi ed families and had to face daily conflicts of loyalty. are well aware FHatra@ is more than a club and is stuffed with retired 9rmy officers and former 'eausescu@s . The mayor of Hiisoara. school inspectors complained of the pressures put upon them by nationalists.olyai 0niversity ?rofessors to elementary schools teachers.2ekelys area. With few e ceptions "ungarian attribute the conflict to #omanian e tremists. 9drian Eastase. #esults are consistent with the 0.oth groups consider Emil 'onstantinescu* the 1--: elected ?resident. %8 B agreeing that he amplifies tensions between #omanians and "ungarians. D. Dn my survey #omanians considered as Fe tremists@ leaders as =as2lo Tokes 6:1B7. They set to this Courney blessed by the local priest and persuaded they were going to save Transylvania.. Df fed with this type of information the locals could not fail to run Fsave@ their town. . . but insist they be for nothing in this conflict. politics that is* we ordinary people get along fine.ela . #omanians blame both sides. "ungarians consider as Fe tremists@ only #omanian politicians. 115 . . as the political leader who does the most to appease the conflict. 6"ungarian workers. while other 13 B answer@ somehow e
[email protected] as the most trusted "ungarian politician 6by the "ungarian community7.%. as it was in 'eausescu@s times. 18 B somehow7. They also pick as Fe tremists@ #omanian politicians such as Don Dliescu. mainly television. poll.arko . but are politically passive.B. but also the #omanians (heorghe /unar 641B plain yes. 18 B somehow e tremist7 and Hadim Tudor 64% B yes.bosses@. The relative maCority however denies that. This is the bosses business.iercurea EiraC7 The truth is all these groups tend to form national in-groups. we were all alike then. the @press@ Fthe politicians@. which placed him the second after . The only "ungarian leader with some negative appreciation is =as2lo Tokes N%: B of "ungarians see him as Fe tremist@ in our poll.ela 64&B7. 'luC7 Dt weren@t for politics we wouldn@t even know who@s #omanian. Df #omanian peasants from Dbanesti had embarked in buses to be brought to Tg. 'luC7 $ou Cust can@t imagine how well we get along with people here O#omanianP. who@s "ungarian. but the highest rate of confidence also. polls of 1--8 and 1--: also showed tokes as having the highest rate of confidence lack. . ?etre #oman.eyond active or passive mobili2ation when summoned by elites the two communities are )uite different when it comes to estimate the performance of political leaders. 6#omanian workers.ures they wouldn@t have had this initiative. ?olitics doesn@t let us live peacefully. . An the other hand people acknowledge they are sensitive to provocations by press.9. /runda (yorgy and Tokay (yorgy 618B7. 6"ungarian peasants. "ungarian inhabitants from Adorheiu also heard from people they respected best that the presence of the nuns was part of a diabolic conspiracy meant to change the ethnic composition of the region. 1& B consider as e tremist and somehow e tremists also (eorge ?ruteanu and Haleriu Tabara. FDnstead of the orphans they planned to bring here #omanian prostitutes and criminals@ a "ungarian Cournalist in the public broadcasting told me in 1--5. This means afterwards we@ll have to be at "ungarians@ throats daily and they at ours. widely seen as an organi2ation that protects only "ungarians and even has an Factivity directed against #omanians' 6D. I$ !'ERE an inter3et0ni1 CONF%IC! IN RO-ANIAG D. my "ungarian neighbor and D barely speak to each other the ne t day. !istance from e tremist nationalist policies is showed only at polls. 6"ungarian worker.1. 2. although they do not admit so. =ive2i7. "owever groups are ready to feel preCudiced. we don@t. too. ?eople live intensely and tend to remake conflicts at the top. we ordinary people get along fine'. 'luC7. "erception of the ethnic conflict .ures conflict. . 113 . Well. or /unar said something. Ardinary people show even more restraint> their first reaction in all the focus groups was similar to this line of a "ungarian peasant in 'ovasna > 'Dt's only the bosses.oth political parties and ordinary citi2ens in #omania do not like to admit any ethnic conflict e ists.Transylvanian #omanians see things under a more bilateral angle than "ungarians do. ranging from organi2ations like the ?E# mentioned to the 9merican embassy in . but refrain themselves from )ualifying it as 'conflict'. . ?oliticians are also blamed for the Tg.ucharest point out usually that there is a serious amount of ethnic competition going on. /oreigners. We would never vote a /unar here. and fails to make accepted "ungarian moderate politicians or !9"#.. !iscontent with e tremist politicians showed often in group interviews. Dt is because of them that people in the rest of #omania think we kill each other here in Transylvania. 'luC7 9ppeals by e tremist politicians would fail to raise such an echo if groups would not be ultra sensitive in their turn. the bosses and the television. Df D see at TH that Tokes said something.9. 6#omanian peasants. they make the trouble.ut we don@t look very nicely at each other either 6#omanian workers. "owever this obCectivity functions only in order to blame #omanians nationalists. Dn connection with a country neighboring $ugoslavia the use of this term risks being politically e plosive. This discontent point to the idea that attributing the whole responsibility to leaders is not Cust. 1--:7. poll. . Dn fact it is not> many ethnic conflicts.lovakia are not violent. The other is that "ungarians are dissatisfied with the status-)uo and want more rights than the #omanian state is willing to grant them so it is natural they feel more than #omanians a conflict e ists. To admit an ethnic conflict e ists would have been to accept it e ists in the close vicinity. but to amplify all kinds of incidents. This is a national conflict..ut they are nevertheless conflicts. although the problems of the "ungarian community were greater before> but before it was clear 'eausescu was the cause and any public discussion of the matter was impossible. always ready not only to show nationalist speeches. Ane answer is the minority status of "ungarians* being in minority "ungarians feel more easily threatened by nationalist and enophobic speeches constantly made in the #omanian ?arliament. compared to a large maCority of #omanians share this view. Why then in every group people were reluctant to admit itG .outh Tyrol to . that the public debate around the problem feeds the problem. asked for a personal one they reCect it and attribute the responsibility to elites. ?eople who discard easily the idea of an 'ethnic conflict' imagine a conflict is necessarily and always violent. bringing the national problem daily in the house of every #omanian or "ungarian and therefore prompting a further need of security. This only strengthens the idea that #omanians were in fact ignorant of the problems of the "ungarians so they considered there was no 11- . /rom this point of view it is indeed an elite-engineered conflict. however. from . 1--57. #omanians and "ungarians do not fight in ..9. Dt is clear. Ardinary people feel that you can have a conflict without violence> 58 B "ungarians and 48 B #omanians 6absolute and relative maCorities7 consider a conflict e ists between "ungarians and #omanians 60.elgium. $ouths who should be the most susceptible to engage in daily aggressive conduct are in fact the most disinterested. fights to attain obCectives and simultaneously to neutrali2e. #omanians being satisfied with the present situation they tend to react only at the e cessive publicity of nationalist statements by some !9"# leaders. only half of the "ungarians.ut the 'bosses' are there and so is the media. 9sked for a global evaluation Transylvanians admit the conflict. from Kuebec to . and not a daily communitarian conflict for small rewards or resources. centered on national symbols at the scale of the two communities as whole.ecause the logic of the group discussion was centered on one's community. affect or eliminate rivals 6"orowit2> 1-347. Why do more "ungarians feel a conflict e ists than #omanians doG We can think of two complementary answers here.aturday night discos and pubs> instead they are reminded via media by their leaders that they belong to a group and should act as such. therefore to assume some kind of personal involvement. 9ccording to D. This is why people consider in polls that the relations between "ungarians and #omanians degraded after 1-3-. /or the rest they consider there would be no problem at all if !9"# does not make one. that is. real or fictitious. national and indivisible state'.$ The language battles !espite several discussions on the topic. was widespread. the =aw of ?ublic 9dministration. where the "ungarian population makes up to -& B in certain places. and the =aw on Education. D. authoritatively led by a #omanian literary critic and host of a popular TH show on #omanian language. . (eorge ?ruteanu sided with the opposition and started a crusade for the #omanian language. The law also specifically re)uired all mayors in regions where minorities make more than %& B of the population to display signs carrying denominations of towns or other important notices in the "ungarian language also. a maCority of both "ungarians and #omanians consider that improving the relationship between the two groups is am emergency 6D. . but it cannot discuss them article by article if an emergency procedure is re)uired.2ekelys region.enate. The relationship between the groups is only the top of the iceberg in the e)uation of the conflict. . under the abstract general provision that #omania is 'a unitary. This e isted previously only in the . The two laws can be considered to fulfill at last the spirit of the 1--1 'onstitution. poll> 1--:7. The life of the ethnic minorities and their entitlement to a public sphere of their own is regulated by the 1--1 'onstitution 6)uite liberal7. 9mendments to the administration law legali2ed for the first time the use of minorities' language in the state administration. The government chose this way because ordinances start being active from the moment of their promulgation by the government > the ?arliament is entitled to reCect or approve them later.r.problem at all. which granted minorities full rights of representation and education in their language.?s insisted in discussing them by article and despite an agreement within the government coalition these laws brought the first maCor defections inside the coalition ranks and most notably inside its leading Eational ?easant 'hristian !emocratic ?arty 6?ETcd7. "owever. "ungarians think. or create othersG Would it bring together the two communities or would it only estrange them furtherG =et us review the sources of conflict before answering this )uestion. although its practice. The 'iorbea government coalition of which !9"# is a member proposed in 1--5 amendments to the public administration law 6Ardinance %%L1--57 and the Education =aw 6Ardinance 1:L1--57. Would bilinguism and self-government solve problems.9. #omania has not yet adopted a minorities' law. The party's club in the . 9lthough the application of the ordinances in Transylvania met no opposition or unrest from the part of the #omanian population their fate in the ?arliament was rather different. especially in "ungarian dominated regions. The most contested 1%& . The relationship would be good only if #omanians grant the rights the "ungarians desire.oth laws have had a strange fate since their promulgation as emergency ordinances. 9nd it is not easy for an observer to say who is right. The relationship would be good if "ungarians cease to ask for more rights. #omanians believe. Trips were organi2ed by the leftist nationalist opposition to "arghita and 'ovasna counties in 1--5 in order to prove that "ungarian children have little or no knowledge of the #omanian language. !espite being adopted with relatively mild discussions. . "owever. The findings resulted from those trips were afterwards used as more arguments that the study of the official language should be enforced. develop and e ercise their ethnic. The government proposed a compromise allowing the study of geography and history in "ungarian under the provision that children are compelled to learn geographic denominations in the stateLofficial language also. the 1--1 'onstitution only makes the general statement >' The state acknowledges and protects the right of persons belonging to different nationalities to preserve. Cudiciary and administration in the language of minorities. since all important e ams 6capacity. linguistic and religious identity.which alone Custifies the approach of the government to make such provisions emergency rulings .lead to the reCection of the Ardinance in the . 1-8% and 1-:8 which all provided mother tongue education at all levels. #omanians are not 1%1 . The %% Ardinance suffered a worse fate.enate. since senators considered ten-years old "ungarian children should be capable of addressing #omanian not as a foreign language anymore.inister and . /ebruary %% 1--57. allowed professional education in "ungarian. although the government had turned it into an ordinary bill and submitted it again to the ?arliament. 9lso the proposal that special te tbooks be made for "ungarians allowing them to learn #omanian as a foreign language was downgraded from the secondary school level 6eight grades7 to the elementary school 6four grades only7.in "ungarian schools children simply do not know enough #omanian to be able to learn comple matters in this language .enate. !espite the practical common sense of the provision .enate reversing again to the study of the two disciplines in #omanian. the . admitted that #omanian language education is not compulsory in a village with no #omanian inhabitants and created a framework with practically no e amination of the #omanian language. This is perhaps the logic behind =a2slo Tokes' demand that the 1--1 'onstitution be revised and terms and paragraphs directed against minorities be eliminated 6?ress 9gency .ayor. "owever the proposal did not pass as such.the debate on education e posed the deep cleavage in the battle for bilinguism. high-school graduation and university admission7 can be taken in the maternal language.ediafa .it was met with harsh opposition at the . The version adopted. however. cultural. "ungarians consider this version still inferior to the 'ommunist 'onstitutions of 1-43.inister Hictor 'iorbea -granting the right of enCoying simultaneously the position of ?rime . Dt is worth mentioning that the article allowing "ungarians to use their language in the public administration and compelling authorities to hire "ungarian-speaking personnel were passed encountering no serious difficulties. a provision concerning e ?rime . The law is still to be discussed in the 'hamber of !eputies. and if a different version is adopted it will be mediated between the two 'hambers. 9lso the 'ourt who ruled in its favor accepted a petition to the 'onstitutional 'ourt denying the Femergency@ character of this emergency ruling.esides the chronic ineffectiveness of the #omanian ?arliament .'69rticle : . The Ardinance was still applied in 1--3.article was the !epartment of Education proposal that history and geography should be taught in "ungarian in all-"ungarian schools. since there are no such terms or paragraphs. which is often the case.The right for identity7. 'Dt is like one would put a provision asking citi2ens not to waste their money needlessly' claims . that is. =obby has been going on concerning another provision of the Education law. The diaboli2ation of the Education =aw 34L1--8 as an instrument of 'cultural genocide' for introducing a test of #omanian at the admission e ams in the 0niversity was however an e aggeration. politicians and 'hurch . "ungarian leaders went so far as to ask "ungarians to go on hunger strike in order to obtain the amendments debated. host of his grammar show.enator (eorge ?ruteanu already mentioned. The government finally agreed with this and established #omanian children in a "ungarian environment should group from different villages to form a class. The Education law was a mistake of the Hacaroiu government. The protest also showed the deep alliance between "ungarian educators. but the argument had been that they should accept to go to a "ungarian language class if a #omanian one was not at hand. ?rofessor 's /erenc (lat2 of the "ungarian 9cademy policy proposal towards minorities '?rinciples for a 'ode of 'onduct' 6(lat2 *1--17 is clear on this point. the !9"#. Dn short. was invaded with protests and accusations it did not take his part more because being subordinated to the government.article 3>17 is insulting for the minorities. . . #omanians mention always with fear this e ceptional mobili2ation of the "ungarian community. The masterwork inspiring every "ungarian community. who says that the phrasing of the Education =aw 'The study and learning of the #omanian language in school as a state official language is compulsory for all citi2ens regardless the nationality' . white flags hanged above "ungarian schools and 4%& &&& signatures gathered to support !9"# amendments to the law. Dt was a poor law. that #omanian-language education should not be organi2ed if there are too few children to make a class. 9lthough few registered as re)uired as strikers the protest form is no less radical. 'ourts and the administration written in "ungarian and the general idea that the learning of the #omanian language should be a right. "owever. When ?ruteanu was e pelled from the party in 9pril 1--3 at the re)uest of !9"# the public television.prepared to accept "ungarian as a second official language. 9 group of youngsters marched on foot across Europe to protest in front of the 'ouncil of Europe at . making steps back. their attempt of having the papers of the schools.ut the debate and the unrest surrounding it only worsened the daily. usual relations between "ungarians and #omanians.inorities ought to have. in fact. . having "ungarian as a second official language. not an obligation 6. The "ungarian political elite decided at the time to make it an e ample.ut.2ilagy E.2ilagy . in his view. ?eople were instigated to civil disobedience.the 'hurch lead the 'rusade against the education law recording people who decided to strike and encouraging people to take part in the protest. The e aggeration also laid ground for the )uest for 'defending' and 'preserving' the #omanian language of ?ETcd . being aware of this fact.andor > 1--3 > 1187 points to the real issues > making "ungarian an official second language. "ungarians do not present their claim as such. subse)uently to ?ETcd and their allies. a referendum of the boycott of schools was dropped because !9"# had clear signals there would be no mass following on this issue. . full 1%% .trasbourg. which could only lead to revolt. the fight is to make the two languages e)ual. The language battles were the toughest of the past years.andor. claiming that> Eational minorities and autonomous communities as political subCects together with the #omanian nation constitute the state. "ungarians do not agree within !9"# and do not agree with other minorities on the contents of such a law.language autonomy regardless their number in a community. ready. and its fundamental challenging can only bring about controversy but not compromise. #omania was. The current system enCoys legitimacy. Kuestioning the regime 6republic or constitutional monarchy7 and the state structure 6unitary or federal7 is unpopular. The system conceived by (lat2 is e)uitable. the costs of translation being supported by the state andLor local budget. a government attempt to set up the (lat2 system will probably bring votes to nationalist parties only. This includes addressing in their mother-tongue the officials.inorities and 9utonomous 'ommunities proposed in 1--4 by the !9"# club in the 'hamber of !eputies is based upon the ?ersonal 9utonomy . however. /urthermore. The draft of the =aw concerning Eational . Dn a richer country and with a stable political situation it could eventually be tried. Dts main problem is that it practically forces the reorgani2ation of the #omanian unitary state into a federal state. Eo referendum is needed in order to find out what #omanians think about that. when the change of the paradigm 'nation state' from the #omanian 'onstitution is one of their main goalsG 1%1 . 9 resolution of the "ungarians' demands via special laws has indeed a weak spot "ungarian usually point out. 9 minorities law would be harder to modify from fear of international scandal if not from other reasons.is to be treated as a minority language. This revising was debated without being even possible during ten years> a law on referendum is only now. in 1---. although not compulsory. When a minority makes more than 81 B the minority language should become the first language in the specific territorial unit the minority lives on. 9 nationalist government to revert these modifications or pass even more restrictive amendments can use the same way a liberal government modified the education =aw to serve its purpose. and the maCority language -state language. and the media.ucharest bureaucracy in a state of this si2e devolution of powers to the regions might mean more bureaucracy and more corruption before anything else occurs. and without it any modifications of the 'onstitution would have been impossible. despite well-grounded criti)ues directed against the . #egions have a weak identity and even the designation of a region capital would create controversy. although great costs are re)uired in order to protect minorities from learning the maCority language. that knowledge of the language and culture of the maCority is important. "ow could !9"# refrain from proposing constitutional modifications. (lat2 mentions in his proposal. an unitary state during its whole e istence as a state. ?olls show clearly they endorse the current system and consider destabili2ing the endless discussion on its essential revising.tatute.69rticle %7 This paradigm change from a state made of individual citi2ens to a state made up by nations and communities stands little chance of being adopted. Cudges. Dn a country with a bankrupt state and nationalist parties always accusing minorities for their refusal to learn the official language. however. The 'ouncil would decide over budget subventions.?s directly elected in the national elections. !espite carrying the vote on this by the moderates the nationalists grew in influence and managed to have the minorities minister.amuel "untington's article 'The clash of civili2ations' showing a line separating Transylvania. The conclusion of a bilateral treaty with "ungary represented a maCor setback for nationalists.ocial !emocrats. "ad the 1--1 'onstitution a different phrasing ?!. from the 'Arthodo ' rest of #omania. Echoes of this debate became more familiar since the granting of a 1%4 . the inability of the government coalition to pass the two government ordinances in due time and form led to the reemergence of nationalist dissent within !9"#. "owever. deal with "ungary and the #omanian officials. Dn this respect the ?ersonal 9utonomy . and for little reason. organi2e and supervise the autonomous educational network of all-"ungarian schools. Dronically. . The position of !9"# moderate leaders became difficult as nationalists asked them to leave the government. control "ungarian public media. "is party tried until the last day to impress voters with the old feararousing appeals. deprived in the electoral campaign of 1--: of their maCor asset. propose Cudges. directly elected on a four years term. the regulatory body of "ungarians in #omania would become the 'ouncil of #epresentatives. notably by ?resident Don Dliescu. 1--5 was a year of dQtente.ut unfortunately the energy invested in symbolic politics and national assertiveness seems to surpass by far the more applied policies. The problem did not e ist in "ungary.' A war of political symbols The national topic dominated the political debate since 1--% till 1--:. sacked in early 1---.considered as belonging to 'entral Europe. more modestly. the participation of !9"# to government did the same for the "ungarian nationalists. 9ccording to this draft. with immediate conse)uences on people's lives. 0nfortunately its side-effect was an escalation of nationalist rhetoric on both sides. D. The main conflicting issue remains the claim of a part of !9"# to have #omanian "ungarians as a separate 'political subCect'. and oppose a veto on the decisions concerning "ungarians it disagrees with. among the conse)uences of the treaty the immediate one was the loss of power by the #omanian party. where the 'onstitution. push for a referendum lawG Anly symbolic and prestige motives can serve as a Custification for this policy. which accommodates the largest minority in 'entral Europe. Tokay (yorgy.What was the point to push this claim instead of.# would have still allied itself with nationalist parties and !9"# would have acceded to government also via its alliance with #omanian centrists.tatute was inspired by the "ungarian legislation. 'hristian !emocrats and . so in the conte t of the "ungarian political system the minorities law has no practical importance. but it entirely disregarded the fact that "ungary practically has no minorities. Dt is not clear what would be the relationship of this body with the large number of . What can however be considered only minor legislation in "ungary would pose a serious challenge in the case of #omania. with a note saying that if the centrist coalition wins the Western powers would divide #omania along the line. /or instance a map was published from . unlike the #omanian 1--1 'onstitution does not grant seats for each minority and minorities are not large enough to pass the electoral threshold.as the treaty had left weaponless the #omanian nationalists. cottish ?arliament.m. #omanian politicians oppose it from the following reasons> i. . while pure .2ekelys are the 'Eorth ?ole' of #omania. The . ?oor communications and infrastructure links. . temperatures falling easily to -1&' only isolate further this region. different language and culture. and must be accepted as a constitutive unit of the state in corpore. Dt is based on the fact that the first Transylvanian state was "ungarian.cottish matters would be confined to the . 6worker.? in the "ouse would have the right to vote in matters concerning England. the general perception of #omanians is that "ungary and "ungarians were the traditional enemies opposing the unification of #omanian-inhabited regions.. and after the "absburgs 613:5-13137.2ekelys region accommodates roughly half of the #omanian "ungarians it is the only region where their presence is more compact. #omanian governments keep complaining the region is isolated but do nothing to help it out. Tg. but these help little. being disconnected from the life of the population. There is nothing else to do but drink. Even within the "ungarian community an endless debate is going on between those who side with the 'scattered' versus the 'gathered' "ungarians.cottish . 9ny attempt to fragment the #omanian state. such an 1%8 . and a terrible weather on top of it. Dt was sometimes difficult to persuade participants to postpone drinking alcohol and try our 'okes instead until the end of the interview. This increases the perception of inhabitants they are different from the rest of #omanian and makes the rest of #omanians look upon them as different as well.2ekelys and the refusal to grant it are politically grounded. The train from .cots a privilege over the English.2ekelys that each of the focus groups had to end in a sot of on spot party. in a public letter addressed to =as2lo Tokes in 1--3 asks !9"# to revive its claim to the self-government of the . the most important city in the region. not a 'minority'.haring at least one drink with them became afterwards compulsory and we had trouble trying to protect at least our driver from the local brandy. =ocal authorities after 1--: were almost entirely of "ungarian descent. (heorgheL'ovasna because of detours and needs two transfers 6the same distance by car is of only one hour7. 9lthough "ungarians have been in minority in Transylvania for over at least 1&& years.cottish ?arliament. princes of "ungarian descent ran the state between 1:-15th centuries. 9nalysts and conservative politicians opposed it on the grounds that . thus giving . 9lthough the .ecuiesc7 !rinking is so much part of the local culture in this isolated villages or small towns off the . Dt is on this basis that <iraly <aroly. The main political problem is however the claim of a part of "ungarians that this group constitutes a 'nation'.2ekelys.oth the demands for a special status for the . This claim is not entirely groundless.the . .rasov. E(As organi2e summer camps. so it is a historical claim. even through a mild federal formula is seen as an antistate attempt. . makes seven hours to .ince #omanian regions show little or no cultural difference.2ekelys are anyway a highly isolated and parochial community.f. Eobody is sober here after 5 p. not only "ungarian public servants. +une 1-7. The appeal to the past only makes more resentments surface.2ekelys a '"ungary' inside #omania. . Things go so far that the 'ity "all of Tg.outh Tyrol this group would become a minority. ii. "ungarian students admitted it is a risk but e plained the risk is not important considering the other advantages a pure "ungarian university would 1%: . 9t the present time this is still )uite an unlikely approach.attempt would single out the "ungarians as being the only interested in 'dismantling' the unitary state. communication across borders is common. The isolated from #omania . . .ecuiesc or Adorheiu7.r. The theme of the separation drive of "ungarians is a dear one for #omanian nationalist or post-'ommunist leaders. #omanian students complain of the perfect segregation between #omanian and "ungarian students. 9fter blaming !9"# for years for a policy of promoting a 'ghetto' for the "ungarian community former ?resident Don Dliescu launched in 1--3 the 'Transylvania ?roclamation' accusing !9"# of separatist plans 6Aradea. a minority of #omanians inhabit the . =ocal authorities e plained 'this is the flag of the "ungarian nation. "owever the #omanian government fears that if this happens without any special status the special status would practically make the . . Ar. #omanian dislike the separation even in instances when the space is not an issue. 9 more regional approach towards the administration of #omania would be the only one to make acceptable such an approach towards the . 9ccording to the (lat2 proposal they would be then treated as such and granted the same rights "ungarian have.ecuiesc displays the "ungarian flag in the meeting hall. however.2ekelys are in fact connected and well connected with towns and villages from "ungary. as we showed. the times of the "ungarian 9utonomous #egion bring about bad memories. #ather the consociative way of the 'iorbea-#adu Hasile governments that tries to accommodate "ungarians in the framework of the e isting system . discriminating the #omanian maCority. Dndeed besides the "ungarian flag they had the #omanian and the county flags. and blaming it most on the graduates of pure "ungarian highschools. #omanians claim "ungarians had so many schools because they were in control before 1-13.ince we live in a post-modern world. #omanians claim that if the 0niversity would split #omanians and "ungarians would not get together at all. The appeal of this type of discourse is less grounded in the rhetoric of . not of the "ungarian state'. Dn the event of a special status 2one on the model of . for instance. as in the Adorheiu case.iercurea 'iuc and under 1& B in Tg. The #omanian governments do not oppose it.appointing "ungarian prefects in the "ungarian dominated districts could work if "ungarian bureaucrats would consider themselves public servants.2ekelys 6proportions vary between 1& B in . Dliescu as in the e perience of Transylvanians.2ekelys.mall-scale separatism such as the school separatism laid out a pattern of one ethnic group retreating in order to leave the space to the other not very different from the general pattern people fear would follow the special status granting. "ungarians claim with good right the school belonged to the "ungarian community and should be returned regardless the number of students today. olyai also failed. Dt almost pushed !9"# out of the government coalition in the fall of 1--3. retreated at . Dn 1-13. 1--:7. The #ector not only refused to swear allegiance to the new #omanian state.abes . Eastern Arthodo or #oman 'atholic section7.olyai being split it would have been the end of this multicultural university.olyai 0niversity is favoring its separation. .o the (erman-"ungarian ?etofi-. but the idea it is the old "ungarian university finally recuperated. The maCority of "ungarians want a separate university. . .grant them. saying that students are already perfectly segregated even in the present form. Dt mattered less the idea that such an university is necessary in order to solve the disadvantage "ungarians are at.chiller. The idea of splitting . "ad . !9"# . however> if the issue is not addressed focusing on its practical side but on the symbolical side. if is seen as a flag-issue. for instance7.abes .ibiu. 0niate. this sad compromise of the #adu Hasile government failed without regrets.ore advocacy and less appeal to mass mobili2ation would be a good start. although they do not endorse a special status region. 6<arnoouh. The attempt to solve it by making a "ungarian(erman university failed. !ata show proportions of "ungarians in key disciplines inferior to #omanians 6there are fewer "ungarian than #omanian lawyers. the #omanian 0niversity. 'ommunists put the two universities together after 1-8:. The /rench anthropologist 'laude <arnoouh who taught at .ince 1--& due to a liberal #ector the 0niversity multiplied its languages 6including now a #omani language section7 and denominations 6it is the only 0niversity in #omania where a theology student can graduate from a #eformist. When "orthyst troops occupied 'luC in 1-4& after the (erman arbitrage. Df mass mobili2ation remains the real target we shall continue to have a dramatic split in the public opinion.2eged across the border a ''luC 0niversity' which became a symbol of revisionism. because #omanian professors opposed it and #omanian students threatened with rallies. but again on the past. and the institutions involved in the evaluation of the proCect had been in fact opposed for a long time. but declared no #omanian will ever learn there 6=ive2eanu > 1--57 The 0niversity was therefore nationali2ed by the #omanian state. then chances of a resolution look dim. 1%5 . and event seen as a drama by the "ungarian community> a vice-#ector committed suicide in protest. Ane certitude emerges. since "ungarians would have probably enrolled all in the new "ungarian one. although #omanians made the maCority of Transylvanian inhabitants. .abes . These two topics are far from settled. in other words. this pure "ungarian 0niversity had no #omanian students. while "ungary settled at . E(As and independent analysts favoring the restitution of a "ungarian university used mainly affirmative action arguments. still bearing the same name. The topic of a separate 0niversity also fuels conflict.ut the argument was not built on e)uality grounds. 0nfortunately the debate was again centered on symbolic issues.? we interviewed were against setting it anywhere else but 'luC. Aur survey showed Transylvanian #omanians against a separate "ungarian university 65%B7 and "ungarians in favor 634B7. (ermans refused to be used as cover saying they are happy with the current system. since it satisfied nobody. and they meet the more lasting resentment.arch 18. while keeping #omania on the black list of visas could well turn into a nightmare. the solution proposed might be what radicals from !9"# had been long asking for > the granting of double citi2enship for #omanian "ungarians.and especially not /ides2. at least from the "ungarian part. /unar's attempts have been mocked constantly in the #omanian press.. 9n outspoken assimilationist in his propagandistic speeches.ince no "ungarian government .chengen agreements "ungary will have to introduce a visa for #omanian citi2ens. This might be based on the "ungarian elite's belief that the #omanian state is identifying with the dominant ethnie without admitting so. . Dnstead. the 'autonomy' !9"# asks is not.ut his policy was doomed even without that. /unar changed street names from "ungarian to #omanian and built #omanian statues while on the other hand encouraging business regardless of nationality and contributing to the city's development. would forbid access to "ungarians. in "ungarians view. a figure decreased to 1: B in 1--57 with a top-down state organi2ed national enthusiasm. Ardinary #omanians had little participation to the status war. poll they participated to the . . which long advocated the granting of double citi2enship to the 1. means 'ethnic' and cannot under any circumstances have a civic meaning. They have the largest popular mobili2ation. however. however./igure 14 "ungarians would perhaps accept easier the e isting system would the %% ordinance and the =aw of local budgets be finally passed by the ?arliament. ordinary decentrali2ation of a contemporary state. but shows also the ideological conviction that generally speaking the state cannot fail to be an ethnic state so multinational states are the only democratic states. The !9"# claim that the 'onstitution be modified in order to specify #omania is a multinational state shows that 'nation'. since he tries to fight a spontaneous mass behavior 648 B of "ungarians declare in the 0. 1--& when "ungarians for the first time were allowed to celebrate reminded that 4& &&& #omanians were killed on the occasion of the historical event celebrated.arch 18 celebration in 1--1. Dn the same poll only a handful of #omanians declare they take part 1%3 . The "ungarian government is aware of this problem and advocates for a "ungarian integration simultaneous with a removal of #omania from the 'black' visa list.ayor (heorghe /unar helped to escalate it.. but a pragmatic local governor. and the opinion of the moderates who oppose it. in a phrasing )uite different from the official one of !9"# that mildly asks for a 'history of minority groups'. a rightist party.ediafa ?ress 9gency7 can be found. The decision of the E0 to invite "ungary to Coin. The status wars make the strangest part of the conflict. Eot to be mistaken. as even many "ungarians in our groups seemed to think. An the list of claims =a2slo Tokes makes the teaching of history ' of the "ungarian nation' 6. #omania still needs badly the normal. #omanian authorities such as .: million "ungarians in #omania. ordinary decentrali2ation. Df Coining the . Apinions inside !9"# are split between the radicals' group. #omanian newspapers on . but an attempt of modifying the e isting territorial administration. The most serious issue. including the 1. lies in the future.: million "ungarians the situation might get out of hand. 9ttempts made by 'eausescu to 'ethnificate' them. prefects. and the #omanians give up the claim #omania is a national state on the model of /rance or . #omanian nationalism is mostly formal and centrali2ed. has a homeland it has been inhabiting for centuries . This type of escalation. The #omanian authorities. although according to 9nthony . living in another state.Transylvania . since "ungarians feel a superior need to assert themselves. that the whole #omanian political system be reorgani2ed in order to accommodate them better. which in various forms is what some leaders feel is missing and what they seek.> 437 or 9nthony (iddens' definitions they would not 6(iddens 1-38 > 11:7 The only thing missing to "ungarians of #omania is their own state. especially in a region where history is so mutually e clusive . a myth of common descent. Dt is relevant that the "ungarian participation to the .Aomen 6Amen > 1--:7. as a multiplication of 9lba Dulia. While "ungarian nationalism is grass-rooted. however. An !ecember 1 e cept for the big rally at 9lba Dulia attended by the ?resident and the ?atriarch there is no spontaneous manifestation from the part of the #omanians > rather. 9ccording to Aomen they would )ualify as a nation. Dt is natural that the "ungarian minority shows a superior mobili2ation when it comes to national events.arch 18 events decreased significantly from 1--: to 1--5 and 1--3 60. when manifestations of this kind were simply forbidden. which is an official celebration.9. Even democrat ?resident Emil 'onstantinescu felt the need in 1--5 and 1--3 to endorse celebrations of the #omanian 1343 #evolution . both local and central.when not really offensive. regard with enough suspicion this type of manifestations .arch 18 by the "ungarian leaders.7 that cohabitation was better during 'eausescu. that is. failed. a strong nostalgia for the times when they were the dominant culture. 4onclusions 1%- . such as (e2a +es2ensky and Hiktor Arban attend them.: million "ungarians enCoy full self-government..<. These celebrations are always state-organi2ed. The participation of #omanians in celebrations such as Tebea and . and so on.laC has always been reduced. culture. so the participation of !9"# to the government led to a decrease in national mobili2ation. does no good to the cohabitation and e plains why both #omanians and "ungarians answer in polls 6D. that #omania becomes if not a federal state at least something close so the 1.ritain. Even if organi2ed with the best intentions.mostly because leading "ungarian politicians from "ungary. "ungarians in #omania consider themselves a 'nation'. to use the e cellent term of T. The "ungarian community in #omania considers itself a nation. The essence of the ethnic conflict between #omanians and "ungarians lies here > to the fact that people of "ungarian descent seek. 'ommunities cannot see on television e amples of mobili2ation from rival communities without this raising their an iety. even if lead by the elite. lead authoritatively by their political elite. to deterritoriali2e them.mith 61-5.in order to balance the large attention given to .in ceremonies celebrating the #omanian national day.a common language. poll7. mayors and the 9rmy all over the country enlist themselves in the boring ritual of deposing flowers to some official monument. the ostensible display of national celebrations and anthems have something offensive for the other community. without impeding on the rights of the others G $es. .?s can be considered representative for the #omanian people %. most of the struggle. since most of the struggle of !9"# is directed against the state G D think it is. but also in ours. The mobili2ation on the "ungarian side is 1&&B. proportionally elected #omanian . although not very involved or interested in the conflict. Df several "ungarian rights claimed are in fact rights that can be e ercised without affecting others' rights 6the right to have a 0niversity * the right to professional education in "ungarian* the local autonomy * the use of their language in local government7. from two reasons> i. The mobili2ation of the #omanians is weaker. 9ll these polls.ome specifications and distinctions will perhaps help us clear this issue> 1. when the population blamed the government for not intervening in time. #omanians. !oes this elite-dirven conflict enCoy mass support G 11& .enate. in the same time considering the claims of the "ungarians e aggerated. notably the D. 4. others fall far beyond this category and are closer to a nationalist policy than to the )uest for e)ual opportunities. 1.To sum up. the battle around the 1: ordinance in the . despite the fact that most of the "ungarians claim policy pretends to be only a legitimate e ercise of rights. ii.2ekelys area better. are nevertheless supportive towards the state policy when it comes to minorities > all the polls since 1--&. Ar. is located in the two 'hambers.. that its study must remain compulsory and can be checked when applying for certain positions in #omania without considering that a discrimination* creating political structures to prepare and govern the future autonomous region when its creation is not decided yet and it cannot be decided by unilateral decision only. Ds it right to consider the 'rivalry' aspect. besides this perception we have only elite-engineered issues. for instance. it is indeed evidence of mobili2ation along ethnic lines regardless the particular circumstances or the responsibilities that come with it. 9s the case of Adorheiu shows. Ds the mobili2ation along ethnic lines present at all times and issues of conflict G $es. due to the strong presence of !9"# in the ?arliament.9. can we say that a perceived conflict is real G 9fter all. Ds it right to confound the #omanian state with the #omanian people. and '0#. the most recent one. eliminating the system of parallel classes in either one of the two languages functioning in the same school * reorgani2ing the entire #omanian administrative system in order to accommodate the . showed clear support for the government's status )uo policy.ures conflict. Dn this category fall the demand for separating schools into pure #omanian and pure "ungarian. with the notable e ception of the Tg. . showed that the #omanian people is endorsing the government even if slight changes of policy occur. but however consistent. it is. as. since most is not all. although this affects many #omanians living there * modifying symbolic constitutional wordings such as 'national state' and considering it directed against minorities * campaigning against the fact that #omanian is the official language. it is. but real. . Af course. a strong ethnic party with a national proCect to 111 .9gain the answer is> yes. either that they want Transylvania to return to "ungary 6#omanian chauvinistic parties and Cournals. The conflict is not a recent one. it has centuries of history. "ungarian Transylvanians are not so outspoken on separatism> with the "ungarian state close at hand any such open policy would not be regarded favorably by the international community. ordinary. in Tg. or merely a political program G Df so. people endorse their politicians and their positions and they would do the same in a referendum. as the Adorheiu case proves. each wrong > i. however. when an issue is present. in most polls "ungarians and #omanians complain of the same social and economic issues* the ethnic issue is rarely mentioned spontaneously and most of the people have no initiative in this direction ii.ome communities in the .o it started at Tg. :. and has a maCor motive > two peoples are forced to share a state. . The matter is not simple at all. alternative culture felt as a second-rank participant in the state and engaged on a process of national revival and finally separatism 6 . . but this is why such isolation shouldn't be encouraged. human rights' 6#omanian and "ungarian intellectual Cournals7. shows all the characteristics of parochialism.ost polls show a remarkable similarity between concerns. when "ungarians pushed #omanians to retreat from a school which had been a pure "ungarian school before * at Adorheiu. it involves two countries. are e tremely isolated. as it did not in Kuebec after constitutional changes made /rench the first language of the province. What are the chances of this conflict to become violent G 'hances of ethnic violence are scarce. "ungarians in #omania are not a different society. 8. The #omanian-"ungarian conflict is a basic one. and satisfying one or the other of punctual demands may improve people's lives but it will not solve the conflict. Triggers of violence are always the same > attempts of one side to occupy the territory of the other. Ds the claim of !9"# that "ungarians in #omania are 'a distinct society' a reality. Their isolation is not Cust one from the #omanian society. but.2ekelys area violent conflict may yet occur. where fear #omanians will 'invade' the town by means of the orphanage lead to the mobili2ation of the local community and the e pulsion of #omanian nuns. i. . . nationalist #omanians7.ures.ures or the . We could not find between the two groups a deep division. Dn both cases. an ieties and values of #omanians and "ungarians inhabiting Transylvania.2ekelys area.reton > 1--%7. Df border regions and 'luC display more tolerance. what bearing does it have on the conflict G We think !9"# is wrong here. it is true. a past-oriented minority considering itself as 'state builder' and owner of an older. ii either that they seek 'normal. such as Adorheiu. although they are obviously a distinct culture. although each would simplify somehow the matter. most of the people are afraid of conflict and feel that the politicians go too far iii. The #omanian debate around "ungarians is centered on two basic ideas. each e cluding each other. with some amendments. Kuebec is indeed the closest model for Transylvania. Eone is true. it does. "ungarian radicals need #omanian radicals.oderates still hold the leadership of !9"# although they shall lose it if #omanian nationalists return to power. This conflict depends on the political and economic situation and will evolve with it. -ACRO &O%I!ICA% -ODE%$5 IN $EARC' OF A 6IA7%E AND E*+I!A7%E $O%+!ION The e periment of governing with the "ungarian alliance since 1--: is a remarkable one. .and at least : million inhabitants of Transylvania. but the attributions stayed the same7 is what the government turns into policy.and what can be better than turning nationalistic G .inimi2ing the issue is only enhancing chances of deterioration in the future.oth !9"# radicals and the #omanian nationalists wish the e periment to fail. . What this ?olitical 'ouncil decides 6the name changed repeatedly. 9 permanent board made of parties heads or their deputies in fact settled important matters. and vice versa. Dt is perhaps the last time that such a solution can be sought. and have the blessing of the international organi2ations for it as well. despite conflicting issues. to negotiate an agreement between #omanians and "ungarians.ince #omania has the worse economical situation of east Europe many hardships are yet in store so populist nationalist rhetoric may have a future still. 4.accomplish. The presence of "ungarians in the #omanian government is not limited to the seats !9"# had in the 'iorbea and Hasile governments starting with 1--:. this e periment in itself cannot be considered a 'model' of solving the minorities problem. . 11% .meetings. 9 nationalist government will immediately eliminate the "ungarian prefects and all administrative forms of consociatonalism and may start legal procedures to revise the laws of Education and =ocal government as well. a roundtable as !9"# asked for in its 1--. . . D believe that the temporary participation to the government did not succeed in solving the conflict-and it could not have even if things had worked out more smoothly. several post-'ommunist groupings with roots in the secret services and the 'ommunist propaganda in bad need of survival tactics .polls already showed serious drops of support for the coalition. This is why is so important to move before that. and unfortunately even the initiators of the e periment have little idea what to do ne t. which is a plausible development and cannot fail to happen sometime in the future. "owever. Df centrists lose elections. This would be the best way of eliminating both. the whole e periment is endangered. Dt is highly unlikely post-'ommunists will govern with !9"#> for ten years they were allies of nationalists and displayed strong nationalistic attitudes themselves. mainly because of its inability of solving economic problems. This is why a more permanent solution of the "ungarian problem is desirable.y 1--. The regime settled in 1--: provided a dQtente between #omanians and "ungarians. Even if one is inclined to see it as a success one cannot fail to see its frailty. 9dCusting the political system in order to satisfy the listed re)uirements with reasonable costs and at a pace that would not endanger the stability of the political system 6so often threatened both by ethno-regionalism and by the #omanian nationalist reaction7. and the 'atalan is on its way to make the 'astilian a second language in 'atalonia. ?reventing a deepening of the division between the two national groups and keeping a decent level of communication and interactivity between them in order to create at least occasionally a 'in-group' of both #omanians and "ungarians. This space already e ists to a large e tent> all that is needed are supplementary legal guarantees. that meaning 'a communal domain that is constructed not only as an arena of cooperation for the purpose of securing one's interests but also as a space where one's communal identity finds e pression' 6Tamir> 1--1> 547.outh Tyrol did not prevent them from seeking separation. Eliminating the "ungarian theme from the #omanian internal political debate 3. %. There are no permanent solutions. Ddeal linguistic e)uality is also a passing dream> the /rench became the first language of Kuebec. either> constitutional modifications in 'anada and selfgovernment for the (ermans of . 1."owever such a proposal does not e ist. 'reating incentives for the "ungarian elite to choose moderate instead of radical policies 4. while being accused by leaders of other minorities of speaking on behalf of all the minorities when making anti-constitutional statements 6reported by .olyai7 reserved seats for "ungarians applying for the =aw . however. Ar. to eliminate by a policy of affirmative action the disadvantages "ungarians still e perience 6proportion of "ungarian students compared to #omanians* proportion of "ungarian policemen.1---7.ay 15. We have to assume. Dn my view the obCectives of a permanent solution should be the following> 1. instead of having them permanently e clude each other. and so on7 This was started in 1--5. that no proposal can entirely satisfy everybody.ediafa on . when the 0niversity of 'luC 6babes-. to secure the right of the "ungarian minority to a shared public sphere of its own. Everybody agrees there are no universal models for the solving of ethnic conflicts.chool> this allowed them to be accepted with a much lower threshold than the #omanians. Dn the 111 . To design a model acceptable for all the parts one has to establish a few minimal obCectives to be solved. Eliminating unnecessary competition between the two national groups as groups wherever this can be avoided :. !9"# asks for a round table. the language of the maCority is the main language of communication. The same for the #omanian Transylvanian elite 8. 5. Dn the name of times when it was discriminated the regional language is pushing the national language or the language of the maCority in a second position. a regime which makes use of force in order to contain an ethnic minority that challenges the 'onstitution. Dn the case of #omania. The newlyliberated nations of Eastern and 'entral Europe. 'ommon e amples are Eorthern Dreland and Dsrael 6=in2> 1-557. federalism and consociatonalism.as)ue country have become associated with government parties. compared to Cust two.cotland. The term 'hegemonic control@ belongs to =ustick 6)uoted by A'=eary and . 114 .EET /A# "E(E. both in Dreland and the .14-187. alongside many of the former E/T9 countries.case of Kuebec or 'atalonia it is a language of universal circulation. nations are asserting their right to self-determinationa fundamental principle enshrined in international law. These developments occurred in the framework of institutional Europe> it is obvious separatist movements find here rather favorable grounds for their policies 6=ynch> 1--:* p. The 'liberation' of east European states from either the . Ale 3almond M"5 leader of the 3cottish &ational "arty5 1==$ ?. 'ombining some degree of domination with some degree of inclusion of the elites seems to be a successful formula. Those are multiethnic democracy 6other authors name it )uite properly hegemonic control7.russels is relevant in this respect.AED' 'AET#A= "egemonic control or multiethnic democracy is the most common way of solving an ethnic conflict. its is the language %& millions speak. ?olitical wings of terrorist movements.are )ueuing up to Coin the European 'ommunity. Df people are given a choice people will stick to their own language.oviet 0nion or $ugoslavia also provided further legitimacy to minority nationalism in Western Europe.many of them smaller and all of them poorer than . Ethno-regionalism is on the rise. This shows mainstream parties consider they can no longer allow this trend to remain isolate and eventually turn against them. ?ure bilinguism is a delusion> the case of . as one nationalist leader puts it> #ight across Europe.uoted by Aynch*1==:*1@ !espite the varying circumstances three models are worth discussing in an European conte t and in the conte t of Transylvania as we described it. Dts undemocratic variant is the regime described by =in2 as the Fmultiethnic democracy without
[email protected](arry> 1--1> %17 and it coins regimes which either by coercion or cooperation manages successfully to control an ethnic challenge to the political order. Eone of them would settle for some sort of second-rate regional status* all insist on becoming independent member-states in their own right. much more useful than the regional language. T"E 9#(0. 1. Even if Transylvanian #omanians should know some "ungarian the #omanian language cannot be replaced as language of the state. Even former terrorist movements had found a way in the legitimate part of the political spectrum. 7 'antonisation must be distinguished from 118 .r. 9 return to the government of the coalition that ruled in 1--1-1--: 6socialists with nationalists7 would throw #omania further out from Europe. The key word of this system is subsidiarity.ay 1---. "ungarian leaders remained in the running bodies of the 'ommunist ?arty until the end.erbs to confront the whole world. .alvation front.iddle 9ge philosophy and organi2ation. the 'atholic word for devolution of powers to the lowest. %.ocial !emocracy 6Don Dliescu's party7 was characteri2ed by the hypertrophy of a nationalist discourse. . most appropriate level in the political hierarchy.6.aragan in . This is left for each state to evaluate. the (lat2 documents doesn't say what modifications specific political systems should undergo in order to adCust to the system it proposes. discussing the $ugoslav situation> '9 man beats his wife and here comes one who calls himself a friend of democracy and knocks him down 6reported by 9drian 0rsu in 9devarul7. but it is closer to the . and the '2apo Dos2ef proposal for a minorities' law 6making the "ungarian community a 'political subCect'7 can be accommodated only in a cantonalfederal type of political system 6. 9s former ?resident Don Dliescu. after the great repression had passed. with the notable e ception of <iraly <aroly. 9s we see it. e pressed during the <osovo crisis on 1---.although unofficial demands are older . the (lat2 proposal.EET /A# /E!E#9=D.? e pressed for the courage of . The state.eing a general document. put it during a gathering of peasants in . The #omanian post'ommunist leaders tried to respect the framework of procedural democracy* in the absence of other repressive policies the nationalist and anti-minority discourse e panded until it became the official discourse 6since 1--% to 1--:7... centered on the theme of state protection in front of separatist "ungarian movement.ut one must consider the admiration many #omanian . although we think the (lat2 document gives us a fair and more detailed account on how this should be interpreted. This is true even for the 'eausescu regime> 'eausescu did not imprison nationalist leaders and until the attempt to compel ?astor Tokes =a2slo to change his parish only moderate coercion was necessary in order to keep #omanian "ungarians under control. represented at first by the party-state transitional Eational . made to fit every state. . then by the ?arty for .urke was the first to e plain subsidiarity that is not e)ual to the modern decentrali2ation of a liberal state. 'hances of the dark side of this model have not vanished.This was also the form the 'ommunist states used in the last period..ince 1--1 . perfectly positioned to win ne t elections as well.the "ungarian elite has constantly asked for a 'special status'.arko . This 'special status' can be understood in various ways. T"E 9#(0. Edmund . This was however mainly a reaction to the impossibility of making further use of the hegemonic control the way the 'ommunist regime had done.wit2erland was often pointed to us in discussions with "ungarian politicians as a suitable model7. . The difference between cantonisation and ordinary decentrali2ation or devolution is its organi2ation 'on an ethno-territorial basis.ela pointed again and again the model of mediaeval autonomy was useful in constructing !9"#'s own model of autonomy. The inheritance of this model showed its limits after 1--&. . confusing between a regional-ethnic identity and nationalism. federali2ation presuppose the e istence of geographically clustered communities.oldova with #omania 6a highly unlikely possibility7 was not meant to accommodate the national identities of the two regions.wit2erland is )uoted ignoring a few essential facts. The mention of these models in support of "ungarians' claims for autonomy is at least surprising.oldovan 'onstitution. common in unitary states > it is built upon the recognition of ethnic difference and allows for asymmetrical relations between different cantons and the central government' 6A'=eary J . since they have none.wit2erland as we know it today %.onde. !ue to separatist tactics supported by the 14th .outhern . especially during (eneral =ebed' stage as 'ommander of the /ourth 9rmy and was rightly depicted as the last bation of hard-line .oldova and were finally granted a 'special status' embodied in the new . a historical error* many wars were needed to create .oviet -than #ussian . as we've often seen it happen in the Third World 1. confusing the stability and endurance of a state formula reached organically compared to an artificial model imposed on a society.wiss model' one can count> 1.oldova's freedom to choose the reunification path with #omania is reduced. The legal framework for (agau2ia and The !niestr #epublic . (agau2ia is a small region in . The model of . 6A'=eary J . D interviewed president Topal 11: . Where communities are well segregated indeed the e perience often shows 'good fences make good neighbors'. but #ussian is their native language.oviet 0nionists.wiss case there are many linguistic and ethnic identities. Dts inhabitants have a remote different ethnic origin 6presumably Turkish7.oldova6118. 'The reason why federalism proved totally insufficient as a conflict-regulating device in $ugoslavia was because the insufficient geographical clustering of the relevant ethnic communities.c(eary > 1--1>117. eventually combined with most wanted criminals who became leaders of paramilitary troops in this wonderful refuge place 6see for instance coverage of the !niestr war by /rench Cournals =e .9rmy between 1--1 and 1--1 both (agau2ia and the !niestr #epublic broke free from . as was the case of former $ugoslavia. Ar. 9mong 'preCudices or errors contained in the '.mere administrative decentrali2ation.oviet elites that .&&& inhabitants7.c (eary > 1--1*117.wiss model federalists in #omania constantly bring up the '(agau2ia' model. 'antonali2ation and its larger version. ?roblems usually arise when communities which are not well ethnically segregated try to become so in order to seek some political design. buy none of a national intensity. =e ?oint and the Dnternational "erald Tribune7. in the .whose main fear what the possible union of . but only to secure post-. Eationalism tends to stop only when he nation-state is attained. 9t the opposite e treme of the . implying this model was attained peacefully. The two regions were visited by several Western Cournalists. eradicated. while comparing #omania with any other European country where national and ethnic groups evolved naturally.r.oviet . 6which we did7. self-determination is Custifiable if seen as democratic collective rights seeking. Eowhere else in Europe 6until <osovo7 have entire populations been displaced. 9fter the disappearance of the 'ommunist party the new political 115 . it 'is not a search for . .2ekelys area is autonomous already> his arbitration was seen and is seen by the "ungarian elite as the gravest offense.talin's . The second important argument. #ather it is made by the commitment of an important part of the "ungarian elite to it. cleansed and denationali2ed in the recent past. The local tradition is in favor of cantonalism> a town like Tg. is the presence of an ethnic regional party. but only to the loss of the Cob. connected closely to the first. unstable ethnic composure. as Tamir points out.oviet 0nion. comparing a post-. an e periment which failed. deported. The most important argument for federalism cannot be found in (agau2ia. living on arms' and drugs' deals.as in .oviet environment with the rest of Europe is a mistake. 9bstract models help little in the solving of an ethnic conflict > rather. . . a strong #ussified region with no political tradition of the local 6non-#ussian.ubsidiarity. The models of (agau2ia and the !niestr are even less worth mentioning because they represent attempts of institutionali2ing by undemocratic means undemocratic regional units . admitted he was a former apparatchik. !uring his most oppressive time 'eausescu went so far as to compel 0niversity graduates to take Cobs outside their native areas. 'omparing post-'eausescu #omania with post-. The museum contained a rather limited stock of . Dn any event.to amount finally to an artificial.oviet-type identity revival attempts made only in order to control the real attempts for national emancipation of nations.iddle 9ge flags of the 'Three 'hairs' together with the "ungarian and the #omanian flags. but for status' and this is done '9t the cost of relin)uishing their civil rights and liberties' 6Tamir 1--1> 517. /urthermore. =ocal authorities behaved in their dispute with .ut often. since refusal did not lead to prison. . but #ussian speaking population7 and where even the term of traditionalism makes no sense. it is the ground conditions that impose the solutions.useum.of (agau2ia personally in 1--1 * the ?resident spoke no (agau2 language. but nothing more > it was the typical .ecuiesc again displays the . =arger towns with larger #omanians minorities do not dare to do so openly but the spirit is there. Dn the case of this artifact to speak of 'the practical application of subsidiarity' as #enate Weber does 6Weber >1--57 makes little sense. #emus Apris as if the . complained Turkey is not answering properly to the (agau2 friendly tentatives and strongly recommended to the group of Western Cournalists to visit the Eational (agau2 .ince then efforts have been made to reinvent the (agau2 language. but the population remains closer to the name it is usually given in press agencies reports > #ussophone.oldova. a concept understandable in (ermany due to the tradition and organi2ation which allowed the survival of 'lander' cannot apply to . and national feelings are genuine can be useful.oviet-times displays such as medals and awards for surpassing the production plan.outhern .illian liberties and civil liberties. as the case of Adorheiu showed. which "elene 'arrere d'Encausse so masterfully described in her books 6 7.leaving a helpless population at a mercy of the local oligarchy. theoretically and practically.oldova is therefore groundless. This is obviously the case of the two regions mentioned. The 'special status' area would create two categories of "ungarians and two categories of #omanians . the most likely outcome of such an attempt would be a strong nationalist mobili2ation on the #omanian side. while the structure of the #omanian unitary state allows even the most liberal government a strong hand in local affairs. Apris stepped in immediately.2ekelys' complicate and attempt to cantonali2ation. Ane reason is the prompt.and also from conservatism. not only the #omanian government.were also seen at the time with good reason as anticipating a federal organisation. almost immediate founding of !9"#. The structures !9"# created in 1--8 -like the 'ouncil of #epresentatives. Even the liberal 'iorbea government had reserves. or at least the need for the local government to communicate to the center if not seek approval for many regional matters.r. Where the local authorities seemed to have abused their powers the government. Will <ymlicka. The argument against federalism is also strong enough.2ekelys area with some form of territorial autonomy would be unpopular. to the benefit of #omanian nationalist parties. The 'ouncil gained some e perience to be able to function as a regional ?arliament. . mi ed villages and towns.1--:7 with the #omanian challengers to Dliescu agreed by !9"#. Would democracy and cohabitation profit from this or rather would new problems arise G The most outspoken promoter of a federalist solution. #eshaping the #omanian entire administrative organi2ation in this radical form never e perienced before.trict delimitation of powers between central and regional government is the main incentive of federalism. the geographical segregation is not complete.esides obvious reasons. for instance. would Coin the #omanian =iberal ?arty. . cannot fail to notice that while federalism offers ethno-cultural minorities the best conditions possible.the ones inside and outside the special status area. These structures have functioned within the limited possibilities of the e isting legal and administrative framework. but also the lack of interest of the #omanian parties for this problem. Dnterest in shown either in the worst possible way by nationalist parties.ut of what regionG The main advantage of federalism as "ungarians see it is the elimination at least for a restricted area of the continuous bargain with #omanian authorities over various issues. and the fact that half of the "ungarians live in #omanian maCority areas outside the . "ungarians voted in fact at each presidential elections 61--&.6<ymlicka> 1--37 The #omanians. other #omanian pockets. in order to find a solution to provide the . but despite the e istence of ideological clubs inside the 9lliance it is highly unlikely one day the =iberal 'lub.system was unable to create trans-ethnic parties.ost important. #umors about a split of !9"# on doctrinal or ideological lines have been going on for years. do not agree to this solution. in the person of . ?ublic opinion is against federalism both from fear of irredentism . or in electoral years as #omanian parties remember they need the votes of "ungarians for their presidential candidate. regardless the guarantees the #omanian minority in the area might receive.the interwar revisionist times are not so far . for instance. it stops short from providing the bonds of solidarity necessary to keep together even a federal state> ethnic-based federations seem doomed to separation sooner or later. Even if homogenous "ungarians pockets can be found in the . . 1--%. . Even now the #omanian press runs strong 113 .2ekelys area. which can accompany or not the federal organi2ation of the state. pointing to the case of .A'D9TAE9=D. 9s it was often pointed consociatonalism can function only in proportional systems. since the most important cleavage of the #omanian society after 1--& was between the post-communist left and the anti-'ommunist right. /iCi and Eorthern Dreland.. Where it made people 6"ungarians and #omanians7 aware of an important difference 6as in the case of a common 0niversity7 the e posure to the others only enforced the separate group identity. 'onsociatonalism arose at first an e traordinary enthusiasm. and it was tried by !utch and =ebanese politicians mainly.oldovans ?arty' 6with no following7 this development is highly unlikely.alaysia. Where e posure to communications revealed a minor difference. but also politically. 11- .elgium is rather a model of conflicting federalism -at least constitutionally.campaigns accusing the government it does nothing to prevent the denationali2ation of #omanians in the area. The fact that this was done rather on a party basis than on an ethnic basis .elgium.EET /A# 'AE. Dn its complete form as =iCphart described it is rather a complicated mechanism. Dn any event. 'onnor was amending the !eutsch model by pointing out that while' increased sectional contacts tend to dissipate sectional differences among diverse ethno-national conscious groups appear more apt to cement and reinforce the divisive sense of uni)ueness'6'onnor >1--4* 1517. but also e perimented in . the difference was gradually eliminated. T"E 9#(0. but the . What are the arguments is favor of consociatonalism in #omania G The strongest one is that it is already under way. completely or not. 'onsciously or not.ocial !emocrats also. while the policy of the #omanian monarchy and then the 'ommunist #epublic to create a homogenous #omanian population succeeded. as among #omanian regions.c (eary and A'=eary that consociatonalism is rather an alternative to federalism. The country is governed by a grand coalition featuring every sector of the divided society. only to be then submitted to hard trials. Dn this respect the assimilationist attempts of the 'ommunist regime directed against "ungarians failed. . We side with . 1. also it can be a complement sometimes as well. . being difficult if not impossible to accommodate with Westminster-type democracies.ome "ungarian leaders in favor of decentrali2ation hope that the ne t years will bring an increase in the regional identity feelings of #omanians and somehow and agreement can be reached among Transylvanians to seek a special status together. 0nder consociative rule as =iCphart described it 6=iCphart> 1-557 minorities enCoy community autonomy in matters that concern them and have the right to a constitutional veto. is another proof of consociatonal rule. The essence of consociatonalism is power sharing.since !9"# was not the only party invited to participate. and the same rule applies to employment in the public sector. the #omanian situation rather verifies the theory of Walker 'onnor. consociatonalism does not e)ual federalism as some authors think. this was the way tried by the winners of the Eovember 1--: elections when inviting !9"# to the government coalition and dividing public positions proportionally in order to accommodate them. !espite minor incidents such as the attempt of the mayor of Dasi to create a '. The presence of a strong !9"# as a permanent partner. and the !emocrat ?arty. /ew of these are now left. #omanians to fear it . in a few lines usually encouraging the conservation of the present situation. in their turn."ungarians to praise it. The commitment for consociatonalism is thus reduced only to "ungarian politicians involved directly with the government. bitterly divided over power. "ungarian politicians. are divided. their old allies. still cohabitation based on power sharing and civic nationalism looks like the only solution possible. 1--3 speech at the 'ouncil of #epresentatives meeting at 'luC.arko reproached them in his +une %5. start by mirroring ethnic conflict. although they reali2e it is not a realistic one.'onsociatonalism rises serious obCections as well. nor the #omanian state have made from ethnic cross-cutting organi2ations and inter-culturalism a policy. While both #omanians and "ungarians have some understanding of federalism . if cultural autonomy could be achieved and. . Ethnic parties. due to its unity. while the #omanian state confuses it with an organi2ation dominated some way or another by #omanians. consociatonalism would become more popular. the second raises doubts. a third partner in what should be a state to state relationship between #omania and "ungary. "owever. as . as their votes in the ?arliament show. the least. the division line cutting across parliamentary clubs as well. but end by giving it more depth it 6"orowit2 > 1-347. while 'antonisation is difficult and risky. 'onsociatonalism re)uires the absence of a will to assimilate the minority and a commitment of politicians to make it work 6. discourages any attempt at any organi2ations cutting across the ethnic line.ince the main goal is not inter ethnic communication. The main one is the lack of knowledge surrounding it.ost of them favor the cantonali2ation-federali2ation solution. Eo party ever organi2ed a serious debate on the accommodation of the "ungarian minority in #omania. . so unlike the other "ungarian communities in the 'arpathians.c (arry and A'=eary >1--1 > 147. . Dn contemporary Europe we should conceive communication as something more than Cust acknowledgment of 14& . !9"# itself might be the main obstacle in front of consociatonalism.arko was right to say that !9"# is the 'the main achievement' of the "ungarian community after 1--&. #omanian politicians are only vaguely committed to governing with "ungarians -the !emocratic 'onvention. 9dmitting the first point is met now to an e tent still unprecedented in #omania.r. Dt may seem as )uite a long shot. but they are little aware of what they are. . "ungarians intellectuals also push for more radical approaches. Dts main advantage remains its feasibility. !9"# openly avoids this. what was an advantage during the post-communist regime might turn into a disadvantage in the long term.#omanian politicians have never debated the advantages and disadvantages of consociatonalism. . but the preservation of the "ungarian cultural identity common cultural organi2ations are not encouraged. some form of veto for the "ungarian community institutionali2ed. Eeither !9"#. The politicians of the centrist coalition are no longer committed assimilationists as the post-'ommunists. Dt is obvious this strong policy of cultivating the national identity only increases the division between the two national groups.ela .arko admitted in the same speech 6)uoted by #ompres Eews 9gency7. ?arty programs address very superficially the problem. as "orowit2 showed. as .r. the most. "owever. Dn this formula a new form of communication between the two groups needs to be designed. 'onsociatonalism has the advantage of not referring to territory in any way. more a part of the . $helcea. including democrats. Eationalism is there in Transylvania. '. Transylvania is. 9ttempts of shaping a separate destiny for its "ungarian minority would only trigger disaster. Dts problem can be solved only if #omania succeeds in politically becoming ''entral Europe' and escaping the '. both can escape control if some international development creates e ceptional situations. The effort to find a common solution for all the national groups may however create a new successful model of solving an inter-ethnic conflict. =ooking at Transylvania as it is now. #ditura 0apoca. The policy of escalating national celebrations and displaying national anthems. henceforth it can stand easier attacks from #omanian nationalists. but the entire #omanian political class.alkans'. in the desire to circumscribe a territory where "ungarians should not have to share power with #omanians.eparation of borders only mirrors the psychological separation> preventing the latter is essential in order to keep the peace between the two national groups. unfortunately. encouraged by politicians of both groups. and a selfgovernment program of the "ungarian minority are not elements of a good prognosis. in the attempts to hinder the e pression of national identity of "ungarians and deny them the right to use their maternal language in administration or any other part of the public sphere. $arpatica 141 . and of the #omanian centrist parties. The commitment of the entire #omanian political class to European and E9TA integration is a positive element>. Dncreasing economic and social hardship. but has a historical opportunity to be fulfilled in the present political conditions. A final word Will Transylvania find finally the peace and become only the legendary cradle of vampire stories.alkan area due to its present ethnic configuration than a part of 'entral Europe. . BHdescu I )==@" Interethnic Relations in Romania. should be given up and left to e tremist nationalists only. . would unite against a "ungarian attempt to proclaim self-government unilaterally of some part of the Transylvanian territoryS. %. 9 Coint effort to create that 'larger circle' which avoids clashes of 'loyalties of identical scope' 69llport >1-84 > 417 is not only necessary. a peaceful region where inhabitants share both rewards and hardships it would be tempting to say Transylvania will never again see another nightmare as the ones in its past. or will it turn into another <osovoG The answer to this is difficult. 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