African Diaspora in IndiaManish Karmwar* Introduction Africans came to India in different circumstances through the ages. They played a vital role in the Socio-political and Economic life of various dynasties. They came as sailors, traders, soldiers and sometimes, as slaves and were absorbed in the military and administrative services. Their involvement in the court-politics increased so much sometimes that they emerged as king-makers also. In the Janjira and Sachin kingdoms they rose from king-makers to Emperors. African Diaspora is a relatively new concept than the other forms of Diaspora. Diaspora was first applied to Africans outside Africa by Prof. George Shepperson of Edinburgh University, a pioneering scholar of African History. Intellectuals like W.E.B. DuBois, Avtar Brah, Robin Cohen, Colin Palmer, Joseph Harris, and Eric Williams recognized the social, political and historical ramifications of uncovering new meanings of Diaspora. All of these intellectuals of the twentieth century linked the black experience around the world using a Diasporic framework. In order to understand the terrain of African Diaspora research and analysis we must first decide whether it is a concept, a framework or paradigm, or an ideology. This paper sets out to highlight ‘African Diaspora’ as a framework for understanding socio-economic and political condition of a population that has been dispersed in different parts of India. The objective of this paper is to look at the ways in which Africans came in India and settled in different regions of the country, to explore the African participation in economic, social and political system in India and to investigate their acceptance and * The author is an Assistant Professor at Shyam Lal College, University of Delhi, Delhi. Diaspora Studies 3, 1 (2010): 69-91 Organisation for Diaspora Initiatives, New Delhi 70 / MANISH KARMWAR assimilation to Indian culture. The fields which are more focused are Diaspora, in a broader sense, African migration with the special reference to Indian Ocean trade, the two African kingdoms, Janjira and Sachin, Socio-economic condition of Siddis and their role and place in Indian society. Writings of Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, Periplus, and Cosmos also indicate the ancient trade relation between Indian Sub-Continent and east African coast. There are traces of African's role in socio-political and military life during the period of Delhi sultanate, Nizamshahi, Adilshahi, Qutabshahi, Imadshahi, Mughal India and also in Hyderabad till India's independence. The study covers the areas where African dispersal is more prominent like Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Daman and Diu, Goa and Andhra Pradesh. The paper is divided into three major parts. The first part deals with conceptualization of Diaspora and African Diaspora in India. The second part discusses about their trade connections and assimilation in India. The third part focuses on African kingdoms in India and their regional presence in the country. Conceptualizing Diaspora The nature and composition of the African Diaspora have undergone significant changes over time from the forced migration to the voluntary emigration of free, skilled Africans in search of economic opportunities from a Diaspora with little contact with the point of origin (Africa) to one that maintains active contact with the mother continent. There are numerous evidences of the fact that from ancient times, migrating African traders, soldiers, slaves, and diplomats have established communities in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Naturally, they brought their cultures with them, cultures that blended with the cultures of their new homes. The term ‘African Diaspora’ in its more modern usage emerged clearly in the 1950s and sixties. It served in the scholarly debates both as a political term, with which to emphasize unifying experiences of African people dispersed by the slave trade, and also as an analytical term that enabled scholars to talk about black communities across national boundaries. Much of this scholarship examined the dispersal of people of African descent, their role in the transformation and creation of new cultures, institutions, and ideas outside Africa. Recently the American Historical Association devoted the theme for their annual meeting to presentations of Diasporas and migration. Colin Palmer led a panel on the African Diaspora framework and wrote about his theories in the AHA newsletter. He noted how the African Diaspora concept had been around since the 1800s, but its current conceptualizations came about as a result of the independence movements in Diaspora Studies 3, 1 (2010): 69-91 and. African dispersal in India covers several states/provinces namely. it has been pointed out that the nature of Diaspora can be one with little contact with the point of origin (Africa) to one that maintains active contact with the mother continent. In Uttar Pradesh they are situated in Jaunpur. (v) After slavery's demise resettlement of people of African descent all throughout the world. Africans in India are migrants who settled here and completely accepted the culture and assimilated in it. He warns that there is no single African Diasporic community. In context of India it is the first which fits. Karnataka. Joida. In Maharashtra they are settled in Raigad district. or consciousness. In Gujarat. (iii) A trading Diaspora of Europeans and Arabs trading with Africa. Ahmedabad. Goa and Andhra Pradesh. Qutabshahi. 1 (2010): 69-91 . (ii) 3000 BCE when Africans moved to other parts of Africa. Nizamshahi. and Bhavnagar. While conceptualizing Diaspora. they are found in the districts of Surat. Mundagod and Sirs Talukas of Uttara Kannada and in Khanapur of Belgaum and Kalagatgi of Dharwad district. To address the competing definitions of the African Diaspora.000 years ago when people moved out of Africa. What he outlines in his monograph Five Centuries of the Black Experience outside Africa are the various ways that the eleven-million individuals forged a Diaspora identity. Mughal India and Hyderabad. and to investigate when and how an African Diaspora identity was created. They also speak Kannada. Imadshahi. they are concentrated around Yellapur. He points to slavery as the historical process that created the first instance of an African Diaspora identity. Gujarat. Rajkot. Thus they have little contact or no contact with their homeland but they came in the Diasporic framework. Amerili. Maharashtra. Geographical Area There are evidences of African's role in socio-political and military life during the period of Delhi sultanate. (iv) The fifteenth century forward Atlantic trade in African slaves. Haliyal. because there are five major streams of the African Diaspora movement. Those streams in summary form are listed (i) 100. Habishis : Rose to Power Several Africans played an important role in different Indian dynasties. They are normally settled in areas of their own but in Ahmedabad. Adilshahi. Broach/Bharuch near Ratanpur and the former kingdom of Kutch/Katchch. Jamnagar. The work of Ronald Segal cannot be overlooked. Ankola. The first Diaspora Studies 3.African Diaspora in India / 71 Africa. Junagadh. Broach and Kutch they live in mixed areas as they do in parts of Andhra Pradesh. Bengal. Daman and Diu. Their language is a mixture of Sidi-Konkani and Siddi-Marathi. In Karnataka. Some of the Africans who rose to positions of considerable importance were: Malik Kafur. Ulugh Khan. Deccan. This region. His successor Jalalud-din Fath Shah (1481-1486). when they formally submitted to the British. Ikhlas Khan. under the leadership of the chief eunuch. apart from playing their traditional role as bonded guards and servants. who arrived in Hyderabad. Dilawar Khan. and eunuchs in Muslim India. the Governor was the Abyssinian Badr. Malik Ambar. The Sidis were the unchallenged masters of the Konkan coast from 1601 until 1870. Africans also wielded power in east India. The Siddi Risala (African Regiment) was retained until 1948. Significant numbers of slaves entered northern India after the expansion of Islam at the end of the 10th century. In 1347. or peninsular India. of whom there is historical record. Mubarak Shah. Ibn Battuta recalls that at Alapur. were recruited as the Nizam's private bodyguard. concubines. which a century and half later broke up into the sultanates of Ahmednagar. Janjira was important as a base for commerce with the interior of India. Sultan Rukn al-Din Barbak Shah (1460-1481). was probably Jamal al-Din Yaqut. was deposed in 1481 after ruling only a few months. Karnataka. Khavass Khan. Ibrahim Shah. Africans had a high profile in the Indian political arena from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries in various parts . Barbak Shah's grandson. Diaspora Studies 3. slaves seem to have been obtainable through slave markets. The ruler of Bengal. In the 13th century. Their role in the History of India is significant. Malik Sarwar. however. was conquered by the Muslim sultans of Delhi in the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries. Enslaved Abyssinians were soldiers. Habshis were also reported in the interior of northern India. Historical Records There have been both free and forced migration of Africans to India. and Andhra Pradesh. Yaqut Dabuli Habshi. had 8. but slavery has been the mechanism by which most were displaced to a land far away from their homeland (Jayasuriya 2004).of India. murdered Fath Shah.72 / MANISH KARMWAR Habshi. 1 (2010): 69-91 .000 African slaves. attempted to control the power of the Habshis. Malik Sandal. some of whom he elevated to the higher ranks. royal courtier in the kingdom of Delhi. Malik Andil. Sultan Shahzada. In 1486. the present states of Maharashtra. Nowhere in south Asia did African become more prominent than in the Deccan. Forced migration of Africans to India increased in the sixth century when the Arabs became the masters of the Indian Ocean and expanded their trade in Asia. Sikander II. it broke away became the independent Bahmani Sultanate. The Africans. and gained the throne of Bengal (Pankhurst 2003). the Habshis conspired. The Siddis controlled the island of Janjira for almost 300 years. turban and to be. In the Sixteenth century. Bijapur and Golconda. Malik Ambar. The status of Habshi slaves in Deccan society was not.000 Habshis. The pointed shoes. During this period of Commanders. palaces. became the wazir. From 1724. the British government pledged Diaspora Studies 3. the Nizam of Hyderabad who had African slave-soldiers also brought to the fore their musical talents by asking them also to entertain him with their traditional singing and dancing: The descendants of these African military men ‘African Cavalry Guards’. replacing them with Africans of the Sunni persuasion. Malik Sandal. however. The most famous Habshi in Indian history is Malik Ambar. This. Another African Dilawar Khan served as minister of revenue under sultan Mohamud Shah. water systems and for his military and administrative achievements. the stunning portrait of Malik Ambar himself projects the image of a powerful African perfectly assimilated to the contemporary Afro-Indian vision of courtly authority. waistband. both as freedmen and as slaves of other Habshis. Sayf-al-Mulk Miftah. He is also said to have dismissed almost six thousand soldiers who followed the Shia Sect of Islam. who defeated the Mughal army. Yaqut Dabuli Habshi and Ikhlas Khan. schools. In 1811. the British colonial government in India enacted the Abolition Act. was a Habshi chief whose force included 4. who established themselves at various coastal entrepots. from 1600 to 1626 (Harris 1971). a new phase opened in 1600 when Malik Ambar became the first African to Habshi ascendancy. sash. Indian Gujarati merchants on Mozambique Island owned a small number of slaves and shipped a few slaves to the Portuguese enclaves of Diu and Daman (Machado 2004). Although for many years Ethiopians had fought in the service of Afaqi or Deccani enthrone a prince and rule the country as regent. The importance of Africans in the Deccan is indicated by their appearance in many kinds of paintings. African slaves were also brought to India by the Europeans. did not end slavery in India. and ruled the western deccan from Aurangabad. the last Bahmani to exercise any authority (1482-1518). Another prominent African figure was Khavass Khan Habshi of Bijapur who became wazir of the sultanate till his overthrow in 1675. which prohibited the importation of African slaves. The Portuguese. Some of the best-known elite African slaves in the Deccan were Malik Kafur. tombs. who exercising political and economic control over parts of the west coast of India. the governor of Daman during the Portuguese occupation in 1530. fixed or permanent (Eaton 2005). He is renowned for his public works like mosques. 1 (2010): 69-91 . In 1837. purse.African Diaspora in India / 73 Berar. thousands of Ethiopian warriors fought in Nizam shahi service. particularly the Konkan coast transported slaves from East Africa to India from about 1530 until about 1740. however. In the 1730s. Bidar. under the Ptolemies. whereas formerly. Strabo remarked that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels sailed in his time from the Egyptian Red Sea ports of Myos Hormus. By the first century B. only a few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise (Meineke 2007). Archaeological excavations at the site of Rojdi in Gujarat have revealed the presence of domesticated grains that had their origin in Africa. and that it sent back merchandise which sold at 'a hundred Diaspora Studies 3. Indian gold mining on and around the south Zambezi plateau might have started as early as the end of the Second millennium B. Writing about a century later he declares that in no year did India absorb less than fifty million sersteces of the Roman Empire's wealth. in the opinion of Hromnik. The works of early writers make it amply clear that Indian ships sailed regularly to the coast of East Africa at the time.C. where they wreaked havoc until 1859 through a campaign of looting and burning along the border with Goa (Shirodkar 1998). it owed much of its importance to the fact that the African coast lay on the trade route from India to Egypt and the Roman Empire. too. Cotton. around Supa in Uttara Kannada (north Karnataka). a Siddi named Bastian led a group of rebels. Coconut scrapers. the Indian Ocean. 1 (2010): 69-91 . Pliny. Indian commerce with the Horn of Africa was. had Indian origin (Hromnik 1981).C. India had seaworthy ships and it must have left a deep mark on all the coasts of the ocean that bears its name i. of great antiquity. The range of items such as Indian 'Bhang'. The evidence of African trade in India dates back many centuries. Archaeological sites trace the earliest relation between these countries and provide evidences to support their trade related bond. In the wake of the major uprising against the British throughout India in 1857. the arrow heads.e. Beads. including both Sidis and Kanarese (indigenous Indians in Karnataka).74 / MANISH KARMWAR to abolish slavery in the empire. Architecture. underlined the importance of India's trade with the west. the first tools made in Africa. These include finger millet dating around 2500-2300 BC (Weber 1998). Metalwork. this trade had become so lucrative that it was carried out by large numbers of merchants and navigators from both east and west. According to Cyril A. Trade Connections Indo-African trade relations are one of the very important segments among others to understand African settlements in different parts of Indian sub-continent. Hromnik.C. and this was officially accomplished in British India in 1838. as the Periplus suggests. There are ancient sites in South Asia which have yielded evidence for the prehistoric production of Jowar of African origin (Chauhan 1995). different currencies in the east and even South Africa covered the period between 3000 to 200 B. relates that the port traded in a large quantity of ivory. Trading ships came both from Egypt whence they set forth every year in July. All these ports along the coast of the Horn of Africa were of international fame and were visited by vessels which either sailed there expressly or else exchanged their cargoes there while journeying along the neighbouring coast. an expedition had been dispatched from the Persian Gulf to pillage the flourishing port of Thana on the western coast of India.African Diaspora in India / 75 times its prime cost'. such as wheat. cotton cloth. though inferior to that of Adulis. the trade between East Africa and South Asia seems to have ceased as no ceramics from there have yet been discovered at Ras Hafun. Over a millennium and a half later James Bruce pointed to the significance of the trade winds which from early times had so greatly facilitated trading connections between India and the Red Sea. tortoiseshell and rhinoceroshorn.D. The exports of these lands to the south of present-day Ethiopia included a little palm-oil and a great quantity of ivory. rhinoceros horn and tortoise-shell. the Periplus says.D. The Persians and the Persian Gulf may also have begun to play an important role as an intermediary between East Africa and India. an evidence of Safavid Persian hold over western Indian trade. and sugar. apes and slaves. The force migration of Negroes from the African sub-continent into India went up only in the sixth century A. on the other hand. Thirty years later. But the connection with the Gulf did continue. when the Arabs expanded their trade with India. rhinoceros-horns.. which the Periplus terms 'honey from the reed called sacchari. clarified butter. After the coming of Islam on the world scene and consequent upon the conquest of Persia by the Arabs in the seventh century. the Arabs again touched this port. 1 (2010): 69-91 . Ample sources are available to substantiate this contention. seasame oil.. rice. But already by the beginning of the sixth century Indian demand for ivory for the manufacture of bridal ornaments seems to have begun to outstrip local supply. hippopotamus-hides. in the vicinity of Bombay. During the third to fifth centuries A. which. The collapse of the Roman Empire had deprived East Africa of its major ivory market at a time when India was still largely self-sufficient. That demand was securely based on the regular ritual destruction of these ornaments upon the termination of the Hindu marriage by the death of either of the Diaspora Studies 3. was second only to that of India (Pankhurst 1961). The Periplus has little to say about the exports of Adulis and sums them up briefly as ivory. girdles. Pliny. and from the ports between Ariaca and Barygaza on the north-west coast of the Indian sub-continent. As early as 636 A. the Arab merchants tried to control the Oceanic commerce of the Konkan ports (Chauhan 1995).D. These vessels brought the products of their own lands. Edrisis has shown greater demand for East African iron ore in India. who is usually described as an Abyssinian who came to Gujarat to trade in the fourteenth century and whose arrival is associated with the extension of trade in locally mined agate to Africa. Besides there were direct trade contacts between India and East Africa in this period. Ibn-i-Batuta also refers to the slave trade and their role in Delhi Sultanats. Indian merchants took up residence and exercised a profound influence. Al-Baruni mentions. The Siddis of Gujarat trace the roots of their saint and community progenitor. The Muslim invasion and expansion in India was already brisk in thirteenth century which attracted Muslim traders from Yamen and Persian Gulf linking India directly with East Africa. Sofala is referred to by Al-Masudi as a land of gold and in tenth century the gold mint of Oman began striking coins of gold from Sofala. it is probable that the merchants of Oman might have exported gold of Sofala to India (Davidson 1961). It is evident that during the early medieval period. Conversely merchants from the East African coast are known to have frequented western coast of India and East at the beginning of the Sixteenth century (Ali 1960). Diaspora Studies 3. Therefore. Survivor of emporia (Adulis. an important ports of the Makran in what is today Iran. founder of the Khilji dynasty of Malwa. India's trade with East Africa survived on the Arab and Chinese demand. Gori Pir. Ocelis) adopted Islam and before A. Large quantity of gold must have gone to India from the ports of East Africa. Ivory had always been imported in the same way (Davidson 1961). Gervase Mathew has suggested that eighth and twelfth century. Bulk of the Indian Ocean trading system passed into Muslim hands and all its participants acquired a new solidarity. 1000 new settlements were founded that were either Muslim from the beginning or subsequently became so. Gold was another staple import of India. 1 (2010): 69-91 . under Cholas of South India must have developed flourishing trade with East Africa. is reported to have visited Gori Pir's dargah (Catlin 2004). Edrisis. It is obvious from the archaeological evidence that from middle of thirteenth century until the coming of the Portuguese at the end of fifteenth century the East African coast enjoyed a period of quite remarkable prosperity based on overseas trade (Oliver 1972). Al-masudi.76 / MANISH KARMWAR partners (Sheriff 2001). and that in 1451 Sultan Mahmud Khilji (1436-1469). With the advent of thirteenth century when Muslim influence was experienced by not only East Africa but by west Asia. This dating accords well with evidence that by the end of the twelfth century there were resident traders and slaves being traded from both Abyssinian and Zanzibar at Tiz.D. Ibn-i-Batuta and Marco Polo. the prosperity of the ports of Somnath on the north coast of India was based on the African trade (Posnansky 1966). this branch of trade came up with new vigour. though silent on trade exchange. speak in length of Arab and East African contacts on the other. Jaunpur and Janjira also witness a significant role of African slaves in their dominions (Toussaint 1966). and perhaps other Mughal ports. the colonial economy of Mozambique was completely Diaspora Studies 3. to be dyed blue. Portugal was determined to eliminate Muslim merchants. cloth. implements and food articles.D. which cost from 2 to 12 rupees the piece. At mid-century. the increasing vulnerability of the Portuguese in Asia and the steady attrition of their maritime empire in the face of English. This period established a definite pattern to this branch of trade. about which he was unusually well informed. But. Aurangazeb. Mughal emperor. During the seventeenth century A. Dutch. which was taken. it was absolutely central to that of Diu. a cotton cloth dyed blue or dark purple. Nizam of Hyderabad had an African guard during the same period (Mahalingam 1955). But slave trading nonetheless remained subsidiary. For the decades after 1630 A. The products of Gujarat clearly continued to dominate the trade of East Africa during the seventeenth century. 1 (2010): 69-91 . bleached to Agra and Ahmedabad. and Umani Arab competition made them all the more responsive to protest and pressure from Gujarati merchants upon whose commercial activities they came increasingly to rely. Most of these cloths were probably obtained by the correspondents of vania merchants in Diu and Goa who operated in the main towns of Mughal Gujarat. in which East African natural products attract India's finished goods. especially Arabs. employed an African admiral in Bombay. where Indian merchants came to play a vital role as stockiest and middleman in the following century.African Diaspora in India / 77 ‘Rukh -Ud-din Barbak. however. called medieval trade pattern. In 1630. Tavernier notes that "these kinds of cotton cloth. near the source of indigo. At the same time as Portugal was consolidating its hold over Diu. But there also was a certain amount to direct trade in Portuguese vessels with Cambay.D. in the Indian Ocean system. Jean Mocquet noted that bertangil. provincial kingdom of Bahamanid. During the course of the sixteenth century the Portuguese dominated the Indian Ocean and its littoral. and most of the products of East Africa were consumed by Gujarat. or red. and they constitute the principal trade done by the Governor of Mozambique. In 1600. it was probably no more than about four percent of the total exports trade of western India. The trade still remained based on barter system. black. tools. This seems to have been a specific kind of plain white calico. East Africa's share of this trade was probably not much different at the end of the seventeenth century. was the proper trading cloth for the East African market. Delhi Sultanate. are exported to the coast of Malindi. for the Mozambique market. if the trade of East Africa was peripheral to that of Gujarat as a whole. king of the old muslim kingdom of Bengal (1459-74) had 8000 African slaves. mostly to Mozambique Island which over the same period exported 50. chiefly as dock labourers serving vessels from Diu and Daman. other than themselves also refer to the African descendants as Habshi. as a result. and this was exclusively in the hands of the company of Mazanes and a handful of vanias and Muslims from the much less important Portuguese port of Daman in Gujarat. as well as Goa. and as porters. notably on Gujaratis whose cloth trade was inextricably linked to the slave-trade from the interior of Mozambique. slaves continued to be used extensively on Mozambique Island. This section deals about the socio-economic condition of siddis in India in general and Siddis of Gujarat. possibly due to a reduced number of voyages to Quelimane. Telugu and Urdu. and Andhra Pradesh. From 1795 to 1801. The difference between the Diu and Daman slave-trades reflects different commercial structures (Campbell 2004). Indian connections with Quelimane slackened due to the danger of attack in the Mozambique Channel by French corsairs. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the trade of Gujarat with Portuguese East Africa.78 / MANISH KARMWAR dominated by the ivory trade to Gujarat. Badsha. Anti-slave-trade measures from the mid-1820s increasingly impacted on Indian commerce with Mozambique. carrying goods cleared at customs to nearby warehouses and subsequently to markets in the interior. including both Mozambique and the Swahili coast. although a few possessed ten or more slaves (Campbell 2004). slave imports into Diu by Indian merchants dipped in this decade to approximately 220. Slaves could be cheap enough for even 'poor' Indians to purchase. During the 1750s and 1760s.800 slaves were shipped from Quelimane. Kafir. This focuses Diaspora Studies 3. although those like Laxmichand Motichand and Shobhachand Sowchand who could afford the risk managed to continue trading for slaves. Diu stated despondently: The trade with the capital of Mozambique is the only way open to make this island prosper but the news of the ending of the slave trade has meant that most of the goods exported last year have not been successfully traded. Konkani. Gujarati. was almost entirely mediated through the agency of the Indian merchants of Diu (Alpers 1976:24). From 1800 to 1810 an estimated 20. and has discouraged the trade of the merchants (Campbell 2004). In 1829. but the average number owned by Indian residents of Mozambique Island was two or three. Karnataka and Hyderabad in particular. Kannada. Karnataka.000 slaves ( Liesegang 1983). Socio-Economic Condition of Siddis The major Siddi populations in India are found in the states of Gujarat. Besides being names Siddis. 1 (2010): 69-91 . the return has been very small. African and Negro in various languages such as Marathi. However. Shamal. Maharashtra. The Siddis are one of the most interesting Scheduled Tribes (some parts) in India. But it is only in Gujarat that the Siddis are included in the list of Scheduled Tribes. The floors are mostly kutcha and plastered with mud. Though the Siddis are mostly Muslim. Mundgod. The houses do not have separate compounds or surrounding walls. Such high plinths are necessary as protection against the flood waters of the rivers Saraswati and Karkari. An average house is a single room tenement. being the only ethnic group among the population of mainland of India which possesses well-defined and uncontroversial Negroid features. and Muwallads or countrymen. Settlements The Siddis have permanent dwellings but the structures of the same cannot be said to be pucca. or 2½ ft. The doors are generally prepared from wood of Jambuda tree. Abd al-Qadir Jilani (also known as Mahbub Subhani). high plinths. like the Jafarabad house. Yellapur. Diaspora Studies 3. the new comers. The door frames are very low. According to 1961 Census. There are also some aristocratic families of Siddi origin. The roofs are generally very low and the interiors of the houses are dark. and Sirsi venerate a Muslim saint. One has to bend forward in order to enter the house. Though there are no well recognized sub tribes. There is no separate bathroom. who is considered to be the founder of the Qadiri Sufi order (Obeng 2003). Generally they take bath in open space near their house or in the nearby rivers. The same room is used for cooking. But they do not appear to have any social relations with the ordinary Siddis of Gujarat. sleeping and storing household materials. Locally available stone and mud are the main building materials. Earlier Census reports indicated that in other areas there are some Siddis who practice Christianity. which when in spate. 1 (2010): 69-91 . which provides data in respect of the Siddis of Rajkot Division only there are 23 Hindus out of a total of 3. These are built on 2 ft. Siddis in the subdistricts of Haliyal.African Diaspora in India / 79 on the assimilation process of Africans in different stages.645. submerge the road. It is a matter of great social significance that notwithstanding the fact that so many outstanding personalities have arisen from among the Siddis. who are in a condition of near anomie. religion does not appear to be the main plank for their group identity. eating. streets and lanes. Reginald Edward Enthoven mentions that the Muslim Siddis have two divisionsVilaities. The image of the community that prevails among their neighbours is that of a group of people. The doors are like flaps and prepared out of kerosene tin sheets very small in size. The rest are Muslims. Even in Gujarat they are treated as a Scheduled Tribe only in Rajkot Division. Mural designs of animals. As the twilight approaches. The Siddis who reside around the forest area in Junagadh district resort to forest labour. there are no latrines. No separate cattle sheds are provided. It reported that they have also been working as fitters and mechanics in the ships or dock-yards in Bombay and other coastal cities or towns (Russel 1916). Most of them cultivate or earn enough for their maintenance and livelihood from agriculture and other subsidiary work. and sell vegetables and fruits. In the rural areas they have taken up agriculture for quite some time. As labourers they are also engaged in construction work or as coolies in port areas while others pull hand-carts in market places and some of them drive trucks. a special mention is to be made of the persons engaged Diaspora Studies 3. The cultivation. such as a dog and a horse and birds like sparrows and parrots and other floral designs are drawn on the wall bordering the door frame. The houses of Siddis living in larger towns are sometime slightly better and in some cases built of bricks and mortar. as in the forest area there is a constant danger from lions. 1 (2010): 69-91 . such as firewood. the Siddis have taken up jobs such as those of fitters. gum. Later on. the bases of the pillars are coloured with floral designs (Census of Siddis 1998). honey. However. quarrying. Economic Structure Africans have contributed to the Indian economy through their expertise and talents in several spheres and at various levels of the economy. all the grazing cattle are herded together and bounded inside the house. watchmen and truck drivers. agricultural labour. etc. mining. karmads.80 / MANISH KARMWAR Similarly. etc (Ali 1996). Some of the former rulers of the States still retain a few Siddis as attendants. herbs of different varieties and fruits like jambu. As mentioned. most of them do not have sufficiently large holdings and very few among them are prosperous agriculturists. cheetahs and leopards. They also collect forest products. The Siddis have made rather poor progress in the field of education. hunting and fishing and household industry are considered to constitute the traditional sector of the national economy. the Siddis were mostly brought to India as slaves and were made to serve as domestic servants and soldiers. In the traditional sector.34 per cent) of the Siddi working force is engaged in the traditional sector and the remaining half is engaged in the non-traditional sector. some of the Siddis rose to prominent positions and a few founded their separate kingdoms such as those of Sachin and Janjira. factory workers. In urban areas. night watchmen and chowkidars. The cattle are tethered inside the house. It is said that the rulers of former Janjira State were the descendants of the Siddi slaves and soldiers accompanying the Arab invaders and tradesmen after the eighth century onwards. mechanics. It is found that almost half (49. however. Nagarch Pir. Also. are considered to be the will of God and not necessarily his wrath and they have developed a more philosophical attitude towards such misfortunes. infant death. fishing. Siddis regard barrenness as the result of the wrath of the God. It is a simple affair and is practically confined to the reading of the nikah by the kazi. practice Circumcision for the males. they will stifle the child to death. is appeased and a vow is taken. quarrying. Marriage usually takes place as a result of negotiations between the parents of the boy and the girl. they do not marry within the same clan. Among the household articles. As mentioned earlier. the consent of the girl and the boy is obtained before closing the negotiation.. It is very rarely that the married sons continue to live with their parents. however. in vogue among them. the child's head is shaved and fatiha is done. calamities during and after delivery. They say that if they come to know that any Siddi woman has given birth to child bearing non-Siddi features. They are truck and taxi drivers as well as rickshaw and handcart pullers. in keeping with the practice among the other Muslim communities. they have no objection if she so desires. neither. etc. When the child is five to seven years old the Siddis sometimes perform akiko which is accompanied by certain religious rites. Nowadays. The Siddi informants. compulsory nor customary for a widow to marry the younger brother of her deceased husband. On the 6th day after the birth of the child. if the child is a male and one goat is sacrificed if the child is a female. On this occasion. the chief deity. Social Fabric The Siddis trace their descent along the male line. Usually 5 to 6 persons live in a household. however. 1 (2010): 69-91 . This ceremony is known as Sunnat sadi. like still-birth. Confirms the existence of adultery or extra-marital relations in their community. forestry. The Siddis permit their widows to remarry. It is. miscarriage. etc. When the child is bathed and clad in new clothes. wooden cot is a common article in a Siddi house. the chhatthi ceremony is performed. It is their implicit faith that the Pir's blessings will fulfill their wishes. However. In case of widow remarriage there are no elaborate rituals. They are patronymic and patrilocal. abortion. Cross-cousin marriage is however. When a woman does not beget a child for quite some time after marriage. Diaspora Studies 3. A new mother is given advice about child care by her elderly female relatives.African Diaspora in India / 81 in mining. They. two goats are sacrificed. The Siddis do not perform any puberty rite for either sex. The nuclear type of family among the Siddis does not give much scope for a large household. the Siddis are divided into a number of clans. However. It is said by Siddis that nikah of a boy cannot be performed unless he has been circumcised. Hindu. the Siddis have carried their musical traditions with them. If any person is affected by an evil spirit. In particular. They are Sunnis of the Hanafi School. however. They play sacred music and dance as wandering fakirs. evil spirits and sorcerers. In Gujarat. They do not care for the tomorrow. They had learned songs that are sung in a Bantu language in Tanzania during spirit possession rituals to effect healing. In Maharashtra and Karnataka. rattles. and Arabs have contributed to the socio-cultural landscape of India. perform a sacred traditional dance to the rhythm of the dhamal (small drum). They perform dhamal. nafir (conch trumpet). Diaspora Studies 3. The Siddis have also strong beliefs in ghosts. Turks. followers of three religions.The Siddis are considered to be a people of a happy-go-lucky disposition. Hinduism and Christianity are found. a braced musical bow. Bava Gor's urs (the death of a Muslim saint) is celebrated over several days and is an occasion for playing dhamal music and dancing. Most of them. malunga and other musical instruments. Their chief object of worship is Baba Ghor and 'Abyssinian' saint whose tomb stands on a hill near Ratanpur village of the former Rajpila State. During leisure hours. which means ‘drum. a word that has its etymon in the Swahili word ngoma. Islam. It is interesting that faith in Oliyas and Pirs is very widespread among them. Cultural Assimilation Since the early medieval era. the Siddis are mostly Muslims. however. mugarman (footed drum). he is taken to the dargah of Negarchi Pir. and shells on birthdays and weddings in the noble courts (Basu 1993). Siddis in Karnataka play the gumat. The Hindu Siddis are also referred to as Maharashtra Siddis. 1 (2010): 69-91 .’ The most significant African retention is the malunga. madido (big drum). Music seems to be the main African cultural retention in the Hyderabad Siddis. Bava Gor. African retentions also remain in Swahili words in the lyrics of the songs of the Siddis and in the names of the musical instruments of the Siddis. Siddis wearing animal skins and headgear of peacock feathers or other bird feathers. Siddi servants performed ngoma dances with drums. a type of drum that is also used by Indian musicians in Goa and the Goan Diaspora who play Goan Catholic folk songs. singing to the Siddi saint. which they call goma. They have drum bands that play African drums and are hired to play music and dance in ‘African ways’ on special occasions such as weddings. Muslim as well as Christian Siddis are found. and with painted bodies. which is found in many African communities. are adherents to Islam. who excel in music. namely. Today Siddi Goma groups perform in India and abroad. Mai Mishra (coconut rattle).82 / MANISH KARMWAR Among the Siddis. taking tea or smoking bidis and gossiping (Census of Siddis 1998). Africans who came with Persians. Siddi men can be seen flocking around teashops. Balo. An average village in the plateau is constituted of two to six dozen houses. and in the Ghat areas of Yellapur and Ankola only Hindus. 1 (2010): 69-91 . On the slopes they live in homesteads. Several of these settlements exist today in various pockets in the country. to the total Hindu culture of the region. In Haliyal there are only Muslims and Christians. Palakshappa notes that the Siddi assimilation is two-fold. The Siddis also believe in various kinds of spirits inhabiting in the natural environment and they practice ‘ancestor worship/veneration’.African Diaspora in India / 83 which indicates culture crossings. In Uttara Kannada district they are concentrated in Ankola. Hindus and Muslims. In Dharwar and Belgaum they are found in one taluka each Khalghatgi and Khanpapur respectively. first. In the hilly areas of Uttara Kannada. and remains separate from others. Owing to the division of the Siddi people into three religious groups a distinct Siddi self-identity has not developed. Most of the Siddis are settled in the rural and forest areas of Uttara Kannda. that is. either racial or cultural. there are approximately 12. by the Portuguese as slaves. The Siddi identity lies in the Hiriyaru belief for their conceptions are uniquely Siddi. One of these settlements is located in the hilly district of Uttara kannada (Catlin 2004). Leva. Haliyal and Yellapur talukas. The popular folk songs of the Siddis. The Siddis of Karnataka are found in the Ghat area of Uttara Kannada. Mundgod.000 Siddis. Diaspora Studies 3. A stranger to the area would not be in a position to distinguish the Siddis from other groups except through their racial characteristics. The settlement locations are of two types: on slopes and on plateaus. there are no pressures to change. Bandugia-are replete with pride for the community and religious fervor (Chauhan 1995). even if the symbols representing the Hiriyaru are adopted from their respective religions. The Siddis do not suffer from any sort of prejudice. and secondly. Among the Siddi families in Karnataka there are Catholics. Dharwar and Belgaum districts. 30 per cent are Sunni Muslims and 25 per cent are Hindus. though not necessarily in the same places where they historically were formed. to the social structure of various religions. They adhere to three world religion. Supa. Moreover. The majority of these Siddis were said to have come from Goa where they were imported from East Africa. Sirsi. In India permanent settlements of African descendants have been established at least since the early sixteenth century onwards. located in the Western Ghats. 45 per cent are Roman Catholics. mainly Mozambique. Some scholars believe that Siddis belong to a common ethnic stock (Lobo 1984). The village itself is cut by a few meters wide mud road and entrance door faces the mud road (Catlin 2004). each nuclear family has its own houses and agricultural plot. the term Janjira has. but in 1834 the British declared it to be subject to their paramountcy. While Ptolemy called this place an island. It was thereafter one of the Indian Princely States. Pliny identified it as a river and a port.84 / MANISH KARMWAR whatever changes have taken place is voluntary. and the author of Periplus simply as a place on the continent. which gave them possession of almost all of Maharashtra. during historical times. they were the unchallenged masters of the Konkan coast. they had inherited state grants and allowances. and paramountcy Diaspora Studies 3. In fact. Janjira remained independent for some years. In 1818. the word Janjira is derived from the corrupted version of the word in Marathi of the Arabic 'Jazira' which means 'an island'. the Siddis were given control of the island fort of Janjira and for the next two centuries. The fortified inland of Janjira where the Africans emerged as a political force is located between Kolaba and Ratnagiri in western Maharashtra. Most Siddis were landowners and state servants (Pinto 1992). He concludes.to initiate and evaluate their behaviour’ (Palakshappa 1976). Marathas . Janjira also came to be called Habshan or Habsan meaning Abyssinian or African or Negro. These were JANJIRA in Maharastra and SACHIN. six kms from Murud is also known today as Janjira. Siddi Mohammad Khan III signed the Instrument of Accession to India. the accession was accepted on 16 August 1947. Janjira came into prominence in the late fifteenth or early sixteenth century. In the sixteenth century. On 14 August 1947. This terminology is quite misleading because now the entire area is called Janjira. by saying ‘In accepting the value of the local area the Siddis have kept before the dominant castes . What adds more to the confusion is that even the fortress of Danda-Rajpuri. Actually. Most Siddis in Janjira were relatives of the nawab (the head of state) of Janjira. on the South. African Kingdoms Two African kingdoms survived in India until the independence of India. By the nineteenth century the great days of Siddi naval power in the Indian Ocean had passed. come to be known as the great maritime Department of Danda-Rajpuri in the middle of which lies the fortified rocky island of Janjira. They maintained their independence until 1870. (Campbell 1883). 1 (2010): 69-91 . from Daman on the north to that of Terekhol on the Goa frontier. The descendants of immigrant Abyssinians and Arabs still found there in large numbers further speak greatly about its historicity (Campbell 1883). in Gujarat.Having Brahmins. whose kings ruled their territories in subordination to British power. the British annexed the kingdom of the Peshwa. It is situated in Konkan which includes the areas between the Western Ghats and the Indian Ocean. when they formally submitted to the British. In 1660 they received a yearly grant of Rs. the capital of the State was about ten miles south of Surat in the province of Gujarat. The state contained Twenty-one villages scattered through the Chorasi and Jalalpur Talukas (Sub divisions of Surat). Under Bijapur their fleet guarded commerce and carried pilgrims to Mecca. the Janjira Siddis plundered the ships of all the nations except the English whose friendship they cultivated. In 1791 Janjira was exchanged for a place of land near Surat known as the ‘Sachin State’. 1 (2010): 69-91 . and the Peshwa safeguarded himself by undertaking to give Balu Miyan immediate possession of only a small portion of the promised lands. The title of ‘Nawab’ was first conferred on the Rulers of Sachin by Emperor Shah Alam II in about 1797 on payment of Nazrana. During the fifteenth century under the name of the Siddis of Danda Rajpuri and Janjira in the Konkan they were known first as the Bijapur (1489-1686) and afterwards as the Mughal admirals.000/. Anyhow they soon settled down and became masters of Janjira which they have retained. By the treaty of 1733 the English and the Siddis pledged themselves to be perpetual friends. he would grant him territory that yielded the same revenue as the Habshi kingdom Janjira was then in the hands of Balu Miyan's brother-in-law Siddi Jauhar. Balu Miyan's new kingdom remained very small (Robbins 2006). As the Peshwa was never able to take Janjira. ‘In the eighteenth century. At this period the Diaspora Studies 3. The Sachin State was a second class state in the Bombay Presidency . The villages were much more scattered. on the decline of the Mughal power. It will categorically mention about their obediency. some being surrounded by the British territory and others by the portions of the Baroda State. with the rest to follow once Janjira had been conquered. The Nawabs of Sachin were Abyssinians by descent they made their first full appearance in India sometime during the latter half of the 15th century as merchants or freebooters. Sachin. bravery. The present paragraph will specifically highlight this issue by conducting case study of Delhi.from Surat revenues and they became Aurangzeb’s admirals. The Nawab was entitled to a dynastic salute of nine guns. intelligence and clever tact to usurp the throne.African Diaspora in India / 85 over Janjira passed from the British to the new India (Ali 1996). Regional Presence of Africans in India Till now we have focused on ‘African Diaspora in India’ in a broader perspective but it will be incomplete without doing the study of the regional presence of Africans in the country. The Maratha Peshwa promised Balu Miyan that in return for all his rights to the throne of Janjira.30. It is early in the thirteenth century that Indian history affords us a first glimpse of one of the Ethiopian slaves rising to some prominence in state affairs. Bengal and Hyderabad regions. Raja Rameshwar Rao I of Wanaparthy was interested in building up a disciplined armed force under his command. Sikander II. He imported Siddis from Somalia and Abyssinia and organized them into two regiments one of Siddi soldiers known as the 'African Bodyguard' and another regiment of Siddi Diaspora Studies 3. a slave of the King of Dholpur (Gibb 1963). on one occasion paying a tribute of four hundred slaves who are described as 'children of Hindu chiefs and Abyssinians'(Pankhurst 1961). some of whom rapidly gained authority in the realm (Haig 1928). the first batches of Africans were bought. The turning point in Hyderabad's history came during the thirty years of Prime Ministership of Salar Jung I (1853-1883). in 1486. began to maintain large numbers of them for military purposes. During the ziladari of the Raja of Wanaparthy. Indil Khan. a Turkish slave who had made himself the master of most of Northern India. the Nizam was forced to enter into a subsidiary alliance with the British in 1798 and 1800. There is no doubt that in the following century Ethiopian were reaching India in growing numbers.The other Africans who involve in the political sphere of Bengal were Jalal-ul-din. Nasir-ud-din Mohmoud Shah II. endeavoured to curb their power which had apparently become dangerous to the monarchy. at the time of his travels in India of 1333-1342. King of Bengal (1460-1481). raising some to high positions. In the second half of the fifteenth century it is recorded that Rukn-ud-din Barbak Shah. Ibn Batuta makes several references to the presence of Ethiopians in India. thus offending her father's Turkish nobles who were organized in a close corporation. 1 (2010): 69-91 . conspired against him under the leadership of a eunuch who. The creation of Hyderabad as an independent state by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah marked the break-up of the Mughal Empire during the first half of the eighteenth century. was deposed in 1481 after a rule of only a few months. Subsequently. fearing his continued enmity. whom she elevated to the post of master of the royal stables. governor of Gujarat. When his grandson. Jalal-ud-din Fath Shah. The Queen. which was part of the Nizam's dominions.86 / MANISH KARMWAR kingdom of Delhi was ruled by Queen Raziya (1236-1240). particularly on the east coast in the Bengal area where they were destined to play no mean role in the political sphere. He states that the governor of Alapur was an Abyssinian named Badar. He is said to have owned as many as eight thousand African slaves. his successor. A century or so later in 1376-77 we find Shams Damaghari. But the angry Habshis. the daughter of Iltutmish. who was threatened on her accession by the disruption of her father's empire. was said to have shown undue favour to one of the Habshi slaves. Jalal-ud-dinYaqut. had him murdered and usurped the throne of Bengal under the style of Barbak Shah. Sultan Shahzada (Majumdar 1946). Habesh Khan and Ala-ud-din Shah. the last ruler of Wanaparthy.000 chickens. who served for thirty years in the guard. The Siddis. Many of the Siddi call themselves ‘Bin-Bahiree’ or Son of Bahiree. He not only learnt riding there under the supervision of Siddi horsemen but was also regaled with stories of how their ancestors were brought to India and formed the infantry and cavalry. and were appointed as his bodyguard. Bahiree being a title of the Rajas of Wanaparthy. On account of skirmishes and conflicts between the Raja's troops and the Nizam's. a post he held till the guard was disbanded after police action in 1948. moved up to watchman. Diaspora Studies 3.African Diaspora in India / 87 cavalry known as the 'Wanaparthy Lancers'. servants and nobles and their families. These Siddis used to flank the throne of the Nizam. One Siddi. After having saved the Nizam from an attempted assassination in 1947. ultimately became superintendent of the Nizam's entire household. 1 (2010): 69-91 . the British Residency intervened and arranged a tripartite treaty by which the Raja presented his African Bodyguard and 'Wanaparthy Lancers' to the Nizam while he was appointed the Inspector General of the Nizam's field forces. who became a Khanazah. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the Nizam started selecting young Arab and Siddi boys as Khanazahs (protégés). They received their education at the Nizam's court. quickly earned the confidence of the Nizam and his court. Rameshwar Rao III. Muftah became the Nizam's closest confidant. It is called Siddi Ambar Bazar and is still known by the same name (Rao 1932). were honest and upright. These Abyssinians were good soldiers also. he said. The Siddis were trustworthy. was sent for his riding lessons to the African cavalry at Lakdi-ka-pul. was Nasir bin Muftah. This continued under the Qutb shahi kings of golkonda and the Asaf Jahi rulers of Hyderabad. which reportedly fed over 20. Siddi Ambar. The Siddis were brought to work in the armed forces in the Deccan from the time of the Bahmani Sultans. In the 1960s. Brigadier Afsar Ali Baig. There are several cases of Siddi rising to a high position. African Bodyguards were also under his command. He became a lineman. his wealth was considerable. There is a bazaar in Hyderabad named after one of the Siddi commanders. served as the commandant of the non-Indian State forces and was also commander of the Nizam's forces.000 persons dailyfamily concubines. In this last capacity. He owned several rental properties and a poultry farm with 20. The Nizam also agreed to respect the Raja's autonomy. also a former khanazah. There was continuing contact between Somalia and Abyssinia on the one hand and Hyderabad on the other. one of his duty was to supervise the Nizam's kitchen. His son Hussain. personal troops of the Raja of Wanaparthy and how they were presented to the Nizam when the Raja died. London: Cambridge University Press. Basu. London: Frank Cass.1. 1963. Avtar. Kolaba and Janjira’. vol. no. New York: Rutledge. Bombay: Government Central Press. and the adopted residence/home abroad. Banaji. Edward A. History Workshop Journal. All of these factors characterise the dispersed communities of African descent outside Africa. 1 (2010): 69-91 . The Structure of Slavery in Indian ocean Africa and Asia. ‘The African Presence in India: A Preliminary Investigation’ Africa Quarterly.28. 1993. Alpers. Richard F. References Ali.R. ed. Fitzroy. 2008. Basu. Diaspora Studies 3. Battuta.. XI. a sustained resistance to the African presence abroad and an affirmation of their human rights.1829. Edward A. In addition. 1996. pp.R. Brah. Alpers.) Travels in Asia and Africa II. Burton. The African Diaspora concept subsumes a triadic relationship. S. London. no. Jamesh M.65. The History of the Rise of the Mahomdan Power in India. Campbell. 1998. ‘Recollecting Africa: Diasporic Memory in the Indian Ocean World’ African Studies Review. Bombay and the Sidis. 1932. Ibn. 2000. Africa as homeland. Shanti Sadiq. ‘The Siddi and the Cult of Bava Gor in Gujnra’.1. New Delhi: People’s Publishing House. London: Tylston and Edwards. vol. The Geography of the Puranas.1976.88 / MANISH KARMWAR owns property in Hyderabad also (Harris 1971).1.9. The African Dispersal in the Deccan: from Medieval to Modern Times. a common socio-economic condition. ‘Music and the Formation of Sidi Identity in Western India’. Campbell. John. Bombay: Macmillan.M. Briggs. 2004.1960. Ali. Journal of Indian Anthropological Society. H. 1894. H. Africans and their descendants. First Footsteps in East Africa. 43.1883. The International Journal of African Historical Studies.A. vol. this Diaspora has the following characteristics: Collective memories and myths about Africa as the homeland or place of origin. (tr. Spring. This relationship is built on many years of voluntary and involuntary dispersions with primary and secondary migrations as well. 289-300. no. vol. D. Gwyan. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ‘The Gazetteer of Bombay Presidency. H.by Gibbs. vol. a transnational network. ‘Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa’.38. vol. Baptiste. 1996. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities.4 vols. Elliot.. Chauhan. Indo-African Relations in the Post-Nehru Era. India and New South Africa’. Basil. Joseph. Sidis and Scholars: Essays on African Indians. In Emerging Themes of African History. 2004. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society. 1971. London: London Trubner Company. A Social History of the Deccan. Chatterjee. Africans in India: From Slavery to Royalty. Dubey. 8 volumes. Siddi Janagada Samagra Abivraddi Sangha. in T. Davidson. New Jersey and Eritrea: Africa World Press. The History of India as told by its own Historians: The Muhammadan period. New York: St. 24-31October.. New Delhi: Kalinga Publication. Joseph. 1961. 1995. 3-5 December. Delhi: Rainbow Publishers. Robin. UNESCO. ed. Shihan and Richard Pankhurst. vol. 1 (2010): 69-91 .African Diaspora in India / 89 Catlin-Jairazbhoy. De Silva Jayasuriya. 1938. Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora. Dharampal.C. 1968. Richard M. London: James Currey Publishers.1989. E. Census of Siddis in Uttara Annada. and John Dowson. ‘South African Indians. London: Heinemann. S. eds.Yellapur. London : Longmans. Paris. 1867-77. Paper presented at the International Conference on Issues of Memory: Coming to Terms with the Slave Trade and Slavery. 1992.S. The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean. 2005.K. vol. Trenton. New York: Cambridge University Press. George. Commisariat. Amy and Edward.1986. ed. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. Bloomington and Indianapolis: IUP. A. Martin’s Press. Diaspora Studies 3. Eaton. New Delhi: Asian Publication. Slavery and South Asian History. H.S.1982.O. I. Haig.M. ‘The African Abroad or the African Diaspora’. Cohen. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. New York: Macmillan. Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans. Gabriel. London: UCL Press. Harris. III. The African Presence in Asia: Consequences of the East African Slave Trade. M.R. Shaffer. A History of Gujarat. 2003. Wolseley.K. Washington DC: Howard University Press. A. 1998. Harris. Trading on a Thalassic Network. 1928. De Silva Jayasuriya. 2006. Shepperson. Eaton. Economic and Political Weekly. ed. 1967. 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives. Modern Diasporas in International Politics. Alpers eds. R. Kuchagaon. S. E. ed. Ranger. India and Ethiopia from the Seventh Century B. Green & Co. T. 1999. Richard M. The African Slave Trade. 2004. Siddis in Karnataka. 2000. London: Frank Cass. J. 1981. Centre of African Studies. An Introduction to the Economic History of Ethiopia. Nordic Journal of African Studies. Ahmadabad.’ Journal of the American Academy of Religion.90 / MANISH KARMWAR Inikori. Suryanath U. no. and Datta. K. An Advanced History of India. Jones. Omar. 1992. The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies. A Short History of Africa. the Americas and Europe. H.7l. ‘Indian Diaspora in East and South Africa’. no. 2001. Kenneth.1983.11.4. Mathews. South India. pp. London: Macmillan.. Richard. Winter 1988. 1984. Micklem. Khalidi. Portuguese India and the Mozambique Slave Trade. P.1. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. ‘African Diaspora in India: the Case of the Habshis of the Deccan’. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Pasch and A. Madras: University of Madras. Bangalore: Centre for Non-Formal and Continuing Education. ed. 1946. Abdulaziz Y. ‘African Settlements in India’. Indian Horizons. 1976. The Indian Ocean: A History of People and the Sea. McPherson.D. Cyprian. 2003. Societies. G. Machado. ‘A First Look at the Import and Export Trades of Mozambique’. Engerman.P. 17-32.C.1. vol. 1730-1830. eds. Trenton. Liesegang. 1992. Mahalingam. Joseph E. The Siddis of North Kanara. T. and Stanley L. Obeng. Centre of African Studies Edinburgh University. The Structure of Slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia. The Sidis of Gujarat: A Socio-Economic Study and Development Plan. Hamdard Islamicus. South Indian Polity. Edinburgh University. 1983. P. in G. ‘Religion and Empire: Belief and Identity Among African Indians of Karnataka. Bangalore. Campbell. Occasional Papers no. 1966.88. Oliver. J. ‘A Forgotten Corner of the Indian Ocean: Gujarati Merchants. c.1.1972. A Social History of Ethiopia: The Northern and Central Highlands from Early Medieval Times to the Rise of Emperor Tewodros II. NJ: The Red Sea Press. Figuring African Trade: Proceedings of the Symposium on the Quantification and Structure of the Import and Export and Long Distance Trade in Africa 1800-1913.C. Liesegang. Naik. Sidis in Gujarat. and Peoples in Africa. eds. in G. and Pandya. 99-120.C. 1992. R. Pankhurst. Pankhurst. Gerhard. James. Richard.B. from Early Diaspora Studies 3. Uttara Kannada District Gazetteer. Durham: Duke University Press. H.Berlin: Verlag. Kamath. 2004. Lodhi. vol. Roland and Fage. vol. eds.’. New Delhi : Sterling Publishers. Palakshappa. Lobo. Majumdar. no. 1 (2010): 69-91 . Raychaudhuri. K.1955. T.V. 1961. 5. African Report. vol. Abdul. 1933. Himanshu Prabha ed. The Life and Work of Malik Ambar. Vol. London: T.P. 2006. Ratnagar. Encounters: The Westerly Trade of the Harappa Civilization. B. Relevance of Anthropology: the Indian Scenario. Iran. Bombay. Pinto.383-397. Hyderabad. Tirmizi. Some Aspects of Medieval Gujarat. Delhi: Munshiram Manhorlal. Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy1770-1873. Sheriff. VIII.A. 1-2.2. Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World. African and Asian Studies. H. Safran.1966. pp. India: Jaipur Publication Scheme. ‘The African Native in Indiasopra’. William. 1998. Leiden and Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. Wink. R. African Elites in India: Habshi Amarat. General Report. London: OUP. Sobley. in Cultural Council of the Embassy of I. pp. 1978. P. 1991. Husain Khan. Sheriff. Census of India. 1973.18. vol. eds. Kenneth X. Andre. 1968. Historical Roles of Iranians (Shirazis) in the East African Coast. 1 (2010): 69-91 . 1909–1932. Mcleod. Vincent. 1991. ‘The Identity of Siddis in Karnataka’. 1999. Segal. Prelude to the East African History. History of Hyderabad State. P. Davies.G.T. Vithal. London: Lalibela House. Kiran K. 205-220. The Commerce and Navigation of the Ancients in the Indian Ocean. ‘The Historicity of the Shirazi Tradition along the East African Coast’. Rao. Vasant D. Bombay Presidency Part-1.G. 35-38. ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’ Diaspora. eds. 1807. Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora. in B. eds. Shirodkar. New York: Farrar. Cadell and W. Abdul. no.I. and John. Archaeology of Seafaring: the Indian Ocean in the Ancient Period. S. 2006. Straus and Giroux. Rao.G.1.1. 1931. 2001. in P. Tamaskar. Researchers in Indo-Portuguese History. 2002. Posnansky. Prasad. Ronald. W. Ray. 1981. India’s Unknown Africans’. Merrick. Diaspora Studies 3. ‘The Habshis. Delhi: Oxford University Press. 1987. vol. Manik and Rao. vol. Shirodkar. Jeanette.7 vols. pp. Robbins. Jaipur: Rawat Publication. Delhi: Pragati Publication. ‘Bund of Siddi Bastian in North Canara’. Slaves. no. 2001.African Diaspora in India / 91 Times to 1800. Halbar and C. London: James Curry. Delhi: DK Publishers. Ahmedabad: Maping Publishing. Nairobi: Cultural Council.5. vol. Shereen. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. . Further reproduction prohibited without permission.