CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND In 2010, Omokehinde studied the effect of crude oil contaminated sand on the compressive strength of concrete and his results showed that the presence of crude oil in sand has a negative effect on the compressive strength of the concrete made from the sand. The extent of the reduction in strength is proportional to the percentage of crude oil present in the sand. Regular crude oil spillage on the surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems of the built environs culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures which has become a regular news item, (Ukoli, 2001). Since we have to continue building in these oil spill contaminated environment, several work has been carried out on how to improve the compressive strength of the concrete made from the contaminated sand. Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil imparted sand can be improved by reducing the water cement ratio. But not much work has been done on how to improve the compressive strength of concrete cast with uncontaminated sand, but cured in a crude oil medium. However, research has pointed to the pozzolanic effect of glass powder. Vijayakumar et al (2013) established that very finely ground glass may have sufficient pozzolanic properties to serve as partial replacement of cement, He said the effect of alkali-silica reaction appear to be reduced with finer glass particles. The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction tendency, an effect similar to supplementary cementations materials (Vijayakumar et al, 2013). 1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY The aim of this study is to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil with waste glass powder The Objectives of the study include; 1. To monitor the strength of concrete when it is cured in crude oil medium 2. To verify the effect of waste glass powder on concrete properties 3. To improve the compressive strength of concrete using waste glass powder 4. To determine the effect of crude oil on the improved properties of concrete 1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY Concrete cubes samples with size 150 by 150mm were produced with 0%, 10% and 20% of the cement content replaced with waste glass powder in the mix design, the concrete cubes were cured in crude oil medium and an equal number of cubes were cast and cured in water for control experiment. The slump test was carried out on the fresh concrete and compressive strength of the concrete cubes were examined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days after curing. Curing concrete in crude oil actually modeled the condition in the Niger Delta, area of Nigeria where oil spillage is a regular occurrence contaminating soil and water. Many oil spill incidents had occurred in the past (Nwilo and Badejo, 2001) and persist till date due to pipeline vandalisms and seepage of oil to the surface. 1.4 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Ramzi et al, 2000 established that the rate of crude oil absorption by concrete is high at early age and this reduces the compressive strength of such concrete. This findings coupled with the high degree of oil spillage in the Niger delta region of Nigeria forms the basis for this research. It is highly essential that every concrete structure should carry out its intended functions such as 2 strength and serviceability during its specified service life. It follows that concrete must be able to withstand the processes of deterioration to which it can be expected to get exposed to. 3 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION For over four decades, Nigeria has continued to experience remarkable increase in operational activities in her oil and gas exploration, exploitation, refining and product marketing which is concentrated in Niger Delta region, and that the region has been mired by various degrees of health and environmental pollution problems (Ukoli, 2001). Regular crude oil spillage on the surface and subsurface water resources, erosion and drainage problems of the built environs culminating to incessant failure of buildings and other onshore structures have become a regular news item. Ukoli (2001) also reported on the various control programmes and polices articulated by government for the mitigation of environmental problems associated with the oil and gas industry, but the problem remains whether the measures are being implemented efficiently. Recent research have shown that concrete deterioration and cracking in marine environment is more severe than in any other terrestrial environment and this has elicited more investigation on the causes of concrete deterioration in similar environment (Ejeh, et al2009). In their report on the bond between repair materials and concrete substrate in marine environment, Jonnesari, et al, in 2005 observed that deterioration occur as result of such factors as physical and chemical characteristic of repair compound, initial curing periods, environmental conditions among other factors. Onabolu, (1989) in his work on some properties of crude oil soaked concrete exposed at ambient temperature observed variations in mechanical properties of the concrete materials with time. Ramzi et al, 2000 analysed the compressive and tensile strength of concrete loaded and soaked in crude oil. Based on short and long term loading, the effect of crude oil on compressive and 4 flexural tensile strength of concrete was investigated. He found that the rate of crude oil absorption is high at early stage of soaking, but later on, the rate decreases. Study by Matti, (1976) have shown that the factors significantly affecting concrete properties include conditions of curing prior to exposure, moisture condition of the concrete at the time of exposure, storage temperature of the crude oil as well as the cement type. Research findings have shown that concrete made with recycled glass powder have shown better long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass aggregates (Samtur, 1974). The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their alkali-silica reaction tendency, an effect similar to supplementary cementations materials. (Seung, et.al 2004). Therefore, glass is used as a replacement or supplementary cementitious materials. Very finely ground glass has been shown to be excellent filler and may have sufficient pozzolanic properties to serve as partial cement replacement, the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be reduced with finer glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004). 2.2 CONCRETE Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space between the aggregate particles and glues them together. We can also consider concrete as a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of aggregates. 5 2.2.1 Fresh Concrete Fresh concrete is defined as concrete at the state when its components are fully mixed but its strength has not yet developed. This period corresponds to the cement hydration stages 1, 2, and 3. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the handling, placing and consolidation, as well as the properties of hardened concrete. 2.2.1.1 Workability Workability is a general term to describe the properties of fresh concrete. Workability is often defined as the amount of mechanical work required for full compaction of the concrete without segregation (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). This is a useful definition because the final strength of the concrete is largely influenced by compaction. A small increase in void content due to insufficient compaction could lead to a large decease in strength. The primary characteristics of workability are consistency (or fluidity) and cohesiveness. Consistency is used to measure the ease of flow of fresh concrete. And cohesiveness is used to describe the ability of fresh concrete to hold all ingredients together without segregation and excessive bleeding. 2.2.1.2 Factors affecting workability Water content: Except for the absorption by particle surfaces, water must fill the spaces among particles. Additional water "lubricates" the particles by separating them with a water film. Increasing the amount of water will increase the fluidity and make concrete easy to be compacted. Indeed, the total water content is the most important parameter governing consistency. But, too much water reduces cohesiveness, leading to segregation and bleeding. With increasing water content, concrete strength is also reduced. The following factors were identified from the ust.hk lecture note to affect the workability. 6 1. Aggregate mix proportion: For a fixed water cement ratio, an increase in the aggregate/cement ratio will decrease the fluidity. (Note that less cement implies less water, as water cement ratio is fixed.) Generally speaking, a higher fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio leads to a higher cohesiveness. 2. Maximum aggregate size: For a given water cement ratio, as the maximum size of aggregate increases, the fluidity increases. This is generally due to the overall reduction in surface area of the aggregates. 3. Aggregate properties: The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect the workability. As a general rule, the more nearly spherical and smoother the particles, the more workable the concrete. 4. Cement: The higher the cement content, the better the workability. 2.2.2 Hardened Concrete 2.2.2.1 Strength of hardened concrete Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The failure of concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the propagation of a single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a large number of cracks, leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as „crushing‟. The strength is the property generally specified in construction design and quality control, for the following reasons: (1) it is relatively easy to measure, and (2) other properties are related to the strength and can be deduced from strength data. The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a standard uniaxial compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete strength. 7 2.2.2.2 Factors affecting concrete strength 1. Water Cement Ratio Odufuwa (2010), noted that the strength of concrete made from crude oil imparted sand can be improved by reducing the water cement ratio. The strength of concrete depends very much upon the hydration reaction which is the reaction between water and cement to form a paste that begins to harden (set). This paste binds the aggregate particles through the chemical process of hydration (Concrete: Scientific Principles, 2011). Cement + Water = hardened cement paste (Hydration.) The properties of this hardened cement paste, called binder, control the properties of the concrete. It is the inclusion of water (hydration) into the product that causes concrete to set, stiffen, and become hard and once set, concrete continues to harden (cure) and become stronger for a long period of time, often up to several years. In simple terms, water-cement ratio is the ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in a concrete mix. According to Arum and Udoh (2006), water-cement ratio of concrete is the single most important factor that influences the strength of concrete. 2. Age and Curing Condition The effect of curing temperature on concrete strength has already been discussed before. Provided the concrete is properly cured, the strength increases with time due to the increased degree of hydration. As a rule of thumb, for type I cement, the 7 day strength can range from 60 – 80% of the 28 day strength, with a higher percentage for a lower w/c ratio (ust.hk lecture note, 2014). After 28 days, the strength can continue to go up. Experimental data indicates that the strength after one year can be over 20% higher than that of the 28 day strength. The reliance on such strength increase 8 in structural design needs to be done with caution, as the progress of cement hydration under real world conditions may vary greatly from site to site. 3. Aggregates For the same water cement ratio, mixes with larger aggregates give lower strength. This is due to the presence of a weak zone at the aggregate/paste interface, where cracking will first occur. With larger aggregates, larger cracks can form at the interface, and they can interact easier with paste cracks as well as other interfacial cracks. With the same mix proportion, rougher and more angular aggregates give higher strength than smooth and round aggregates. However, with smooth aggregates, a lower water cement ratio can be employed to achieve the same workability. Therefore, it is possible to achieve similar strength with smooth and rough aggregates, by adopting slightly different water cement ratios. However, in the development of high strength concrete, it is important to select aggregates with strength higher than that of the hardened paste. 4. Admixtures Air-entraining agents decrease concrete strength by incorporation of bubbles. Set-retarding and accelerating agents affect the early strength development but have little effect on ultimate strength. Incorporation of mineral admixtures increases ultimate strength through the pozzolanic reaction. 2.3 SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS Supplementary cementitious materials, SCM are materials that can be used to replace cement in concrete production. SCM, known as Pozzolans are substances that when used in conjunction with Portland cement contributes to the properties of the hardened cement. According to ASTM C618, Pozzolans are the siliceous and aluminous materials which in themselves possesses little 9 or no cementitious value but will in the presence of moisture, at ordinary temperature chemically react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds having cementitious properties. 2.3.1 Pozzolans Pozzolans are siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials that alone possess little or no cementitious value, but will, in a finely divided form and in the presence of water, chemically react with calcium hydroxide, such as found in hydrated cement at ordinary temperatures, to form compounds possessing hydraulic cementitious properties. Pozzolanic materials react with the calcium hydroxide produced as concrete hardens, this forms compounds with cementitious properties (American Geological Institute 1997). The pozzolanic and cementitious properties along with other characteristics make these materials attractive as partial substitutes for Portland cement in concrete applications or inter-ground with Portland cement clinker to create blended cements. Pozzolans can counteract adverse effects of undesirable aggregates used in concretes and help to create a concrete highly resistant to penetration and corrosion (Klaus, et al, 2005). For centuries, many of the natural Pozzolans have been used in concrete or cement. With increasing fuel costs and environmental concerns over the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions associated with the production of Portland cement clinker, several pozzolanic by-products of industrial processes are gaining acceptance as admixtures to concrete products. (American Concrete Institute, 2000). 2.3.2 Chemical principles of the pozzolanic reactions Pozzolanic reactions take place when significant quantities of reactive CaO, Al2O3 and SiO2 are mixed in presence of water (Seco. et al, 2012). Usually CaO is added as lime or cement meanwhile Al2O3 and SiO2 can be present in the material to develop cementation gels to be added as cement or, for example, with a pozzolan. In this process the hydration of the CaO 10 liberates OH- ions, which causes an increase pH values up to approximate 12.4 (Seco. et al, 2012) Under these conditions pozzolanic reactions occur: the Si and Al combine with the available Ca, resulting in cementitious compounds called Calcium Silicate Hydrates (CSH) and Calcium Aluminate Hydrates (Dermatas and Meng, 2003; Nalbantoglu, 2004; Guney et al., 2007; Yong and Ouhadi, 2007; Chen and Lin, 2009). These compounds are responsible for improving the mechanical properties of the mix, due to the increasing development of pozzolanic reactions over time, which some authors indicated this may take place over years (Wild et al., 1998). 2.3.3 Categories of Pozzolans Pozzolans fall into two categories, either natural or artificial, depending on their provenance. Natural Pozzolans are either raw or calcined natural materials such as volcanic ash, opaline chert, tuff, some shale and some diatomaceous earth that have pozzolanic properties (American Concrete Institute 2000). The amount of amorphous or unstructured material often determines the reactivity of the natural pozzolans. There are three categories of natural pozzolans: 1. Volcanic ash, called tuff when indurated, in which the amorphous constituent is a glass produced by rapid cooling of magma 2. Those derived from rocks or earth in which the silica is mainly opal, and diatomaceous earth 3. Some clays and shales. Volcanic glass has a disordered structure because of the relatively quick cooling time and tends to have a porous texture created by escaping gases (Hoffman, 2006). Hydrothermally altered volcanic glass can become zeolitic, and when finely ground, zeolitic tuffs become reactive with lime. Deposits of trachyte tuff from a volcanic eruption near the town of Pozzuoli (Italy) are the source of the term Pozzolans (Hoffman, 2006). Romans used this material 11 with lime to form cement for many of their large building projects. Today, volcanic tuffs and pumicite are still used as Pozzolans throughout the world and are often referred to as Pozzolans in the literature. Although clay and shale occur naturally, calcinating them enhances their pozzolanic characteristics. Calcining is necessary to destroy existing crystal structure and to form an amorphous or disordered alumino-silicate structure. An example is metakaolin which is derived from high-purity kaolin that undergoes low-temperature calcination and grinding to a fine particle size. It is a highly reactive product having excellent pozzolanic properties (Hoffman, 2006). Hoffman, 2006 also noted that it is not all clays and shales, however, are suitable as Pozzolans, even when calcined. 2.3.4 Artificial Pozzolans Artificial Pozzolans used today are mostly by-products. Silica fume is a by-product of the reduction of high purity quartz with coal in electric arc furnaces in the production of ferrosilicon alloys and silicon metal (Hoffman, 2006). The silicon dioxide (SiO2) that vaporizes during this process condenses to very fine (0.1-μm diameter) non-crystalline spheres (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). Use of these pozzolanic spheres in blended cement or as a mineral admixture produces a high-strength concrete. Rice hull (or husk) ash, when burned in the production of electricity or milling, produces a high-silica ash. This ash has potential as a pozzolanic admixture in concrete (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). 2.3.4.1 Silica Fume Silica fume is a by-product of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys by reduction of highpurity quartz with coal or coke and wood chips in an electric arc furnace. The silica fume is condensed from gases escaping from the furnace. During the production of silicon metals and alloys, baghouse filters collect the silica fume from the furnace gases. The gas has a very high 12 content of amorphous SiO2 (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). Depending on the process, silica fume is 94%–98% SiO2 from silicon production and 85%–90% SiO2 from ferrosilicon production (Harben 2002). Silica fume is a very fine, gray powder consisting of glassy spherical particles in the size range of 0.1–0.2μm with surface areas of 20–23 m2/g. As a comparison, fly ash is typically less than 45μm in diameter (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). The chemical composition, size, and surface area of these particles create a very reactive pozzolanic material. The limited availability of silica fume increases the cost of the finished concrete when added to Portland cement, limiting its use to projects where cost is not a primary consideration and the improved performance of silica fume, such as high compressive strength and increased resistance to sulfate attack, are required in the concrete application (Hoffman, 2006). 2.3.4.2 Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag The iron-making process creates slag during a high-temperature reaction with carbon-reducing agents and fluxes. The impurities of the iron oxide ores and fluxing agents combine to form a liquid silicate melt, called slag, which floats on top of the liquid crude iron. The slag is removed or tapped from the blast furnaces separately. There are several methods of cooling the slag, but quickly quenching the slag in water creates sand-sized particles of glass, granulated blast furnace slag, and grinding of this granulated slag increases the surface area and the reactivity of the Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag product (King 2000). 2.3.4.3 Fly Ash Fly ash is the major coal combustion by-product of electrical generation from coal-burning power plants. The amount of coal combustion by-product produced at each power plant varies, depending on the type of burners and precipitators, and the percentage of ash in the coal source. The ratio of fly ash to bottom ash produced by coal combustion depends on the type of burner 13 and the type of boiler. Electrical or mechanical precipitators collect fly ash from the flue-gas stream coming from the combustion chamber (Hoffman, 2006). The composition of fly ash is dependent on the composition of the coal feed and the efficiency of the combustion process. Most fly ash particles are spherical and glassy, and possess pozzolanic properties with particle size less than 45μm in size (Malhotra and Mehta 1996). 2.3.4.4 Rice Hull Ash Rice is a primary staple crop in the world, and rice milling produces more than 100 MT of hulls annually (King 2000). The common practice of burning rice hulls in the field creates a pollution problem. The combustion of hulls to produce energy or burning hulls to complete the milling process creates ash. Collecting and grinding this ash creates a product similar to silica fume. Rice hull ash has the greatest potential in major rice-producing countries such as China and India. The market for rice hull ash has not developed in the United States to the point of having specific marketers of the product. 2.3.5 Advantages of Pozzolans Mineral admixtures have many advantages in Portland cement applications where they can improve the properties of concrete. Their pozzolanic nature adds a component by replacing part of the Portland cement in concrete, in general reducing cost. The characteristics of concrete influenced by adding Pozzolans are discussed in the following paragraphs. 1. The very fine particle size of many of the mineral admixtures can be advantageous when the aggregate is deficient in sand-sized material (Lohtia and Jodhi 1995). The admixtures act as filler and are part of the cement paste, reducing the total surface area to be coated with cementitious material. Adding fine (1–20μm), spherical particles such as fly ash can also refine the pore 14 structure in the concrete, which reduces the amount of water needed to produce a concrete of certain consistency. 2. Workability is the homogeneity and ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported, compacted, and finished (Ramachandran and Feldman 1995). The spherical shape of the fly ash, in particular, acts like ball bearings and increases workability of the concrete, decreasing the need for aggregate fines. Calcined shale and clay also improve the workability of a concrete pour; silica fume, however, actually decreases workability because of its highly reactive nature. 3. Strength and durability of concrete are improved by the fine grained nature of mineral admixtures, which decreases the porosity of the concrete (Lohtia and Joshi 1995). 4. Formation of cementitious compounds by pozzolanic reaction causes pore refinement and reduces micro-cracking in the transition zone between the cement paste and aggregate. This significantly improves the strength and durability of the concrete. 5. Because of retarded heat of hydration, adding fly ash, or natural pozzolans to concrete lowers the early strength. Strength increases over time and eventually meets, and can exceed the strength of concrete made with Portland cement alone (Lohtia and Joshi 1995). Silica fume is highly reactive, and concrete made with silica fume attains high compressive strength in the same time as Portland cement concrete and exceeds the norm in 3 days (Lohtia and Joshi 1995). 2.4 RECYCLED GLASS POWDER Recently, Glasses and its powder has been used as a construction material to reduce environmental problems. The coarse and fine glass aggregates could cause alkali-silica reaction in concrete, but the glass powder could suppress their ASR tendency, an effect similar to supplementary cementations materials. Therefore, glass is used as a replacement of supplementary cementitious materials (Federio and Chidiac, 2001). 15 Table 2.1 Chemical Composition of glass powder Source: Vijayakumar, et. al, 2013 S/No. Content % by mass 1 SiO2 67.33 2 Al2O3 2.62 3 Fe2O3 1.42 4 TiO2 0.157 5 CaO 12.45 6 MgO 2.738 7 Na2O 12.05 8 K2O 0.638 9 ZrO2 0.019 10 ZnO 0.008 11 SrO 0.016 12 P2O5 0.051 13 NiO 0.014 14 CuO 0.009 15 Cr2O3 0.022 Today, global warming and environmental devastation have become manifest harms in recent years and concern about environmental issues is now viewed as significant (Rekha, 2014). Normally glass does not harm the environment in any way because it does not give off pollutants, but it can harm humans as well as animals, if not dealt with carefully and it is less friendly to environment because it is non-biodegradable (Rekha, 2014). Thus, the development of new technologies has been required. The term glass contains several chemical diversities 16 including soda-lime silicate glass, alkali-silicate glass and boro-silicate glass. To date, the powder of these types of glasses have been widely used in cement and aggregate mixture as pozzolans for civil works. The introduction of waste glass in cement will increase the alkali content in the cement the effect of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) appear to be reduced with finer glass particles (Seung, et.al 2004). It also help in bricks and ceramic manufacture and it preserves raw materials, decreases energy consumption and volume of waste sent to landfill. As useful recycled materials, glasses and glass powder are mainly used in fields related to civil engineering. For example, in cement, as Pozzolans (supplementary cementitious materials), and coarse aggregate. Their recycling ratio is close to 100%, and it is also used in concrete without adverse effects in concrete durability (Deshmukh, 2012). 17 CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 MATERIALS 3.1.1 Cement Ordinary Portland cement (Grade 42.5R) brand manufactured by Dangote plc was used in the experiment. Generally, care was taken in both material procurement and experimental procedure to ensure test reliability. The typical chemical composition of the cement is given in Table (3.1). Table 3:1 Typical Chemical Composition of Grade 42.5R Cement Source: ASTM C-150 2014 COMPOUND COMPOSITION ABBREVATION % By Weight WEIGHT Calcium Oxide CaO 65.60 Iron III Oxide Fe2O3 3.30 Silicon II Oxide SiO2 21.00 Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 5.30 Magnesium Oxide MgO 1.10 Potassium Oxide K2O 0.71 Loss on ignition (%), LOI 0.90 Insoluble residue (%), IR 4.7 Specific surface area (m2/kg) SSA 358 Setting Time (sec) 105 Lime saturation factor LSF 86.3 Silica ratio SR 2.70 Tricalcium Aluminate C3 A 8.05 Free Lime F/CaO 0.95 18 3.1.2 Glass Powder Broken Louvre glasses were gotten from a local construction site in Ibadan and were grinded at Bodija market in Ibadan. The grinded glass powder was passed through the 150 microns sieve for effective pozzolanic effect. The typical chemical composition of the glass powder is given in Table (3.2). Table 3.2: Typical Chemical Composition of glass powder Source: Vijayakumar et. al, 2013 S/No. Content % by mass 1 SiO2 67.33 2 Al2O3 2.62 3 Fe2O3 1.42 4 TiO2 0.157 5 CaO 12.45 6 MgO 2.738 7 Na2O 12.05 8 K2O 0.638 9 ZrO2 0.019 10 ZnO 0.008 11 SrO 0.016 12 P2O5 0.051 13 NiO 0.014 14 CuO 0.009 15 Cr2O3 0.022 19 Plate 3.1: Glass Powder during Sieving 3.1.3 Fine aggregate (Sand) The fine aggregate was naturally occurring clean sand obtained from a local construction site in Ibadan. The fine aggregate was supplied to the Materials laboratory of Segun Labiran and Associates, Ibadan, Nigeria for experimental purposes. Sieve Analyses were conducted in accordance BS EN 1097-8:2000. Plate 3.2: Fine aggregate (sand) 20 3.1.4 Coarse aggregate (Gravel) The coarse aggregates were continuously graded irregular shaped gravel of 20 mm maximum size. They were obtained from a local construction site in Ibadan. Sieve Analyses were conducted in accordance to BS EN 1097-8:2000 Plate3.3: Coarse Aggregate (Gravel) 3.1.5 Water Potable water obtained from a local bore-hole at the Segun Labiran and Associate Materials Laboratory was used in mixing the concrete. 3.1.6 Crude Oil The Crude Oil was obtained from Warri Refining and Petrochemical Company. A chemical analysis of the crude oil was carried out by the WRPC laboratory and its properties rated using the American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity scale degree which is widely used in expressing quality of crude oil and this is shown in Table 3.2. Matti (1976) had established that the main properties of the crude oil do not change significantly after contact with hardened concrete. 21 Table 3.3: Chemical Properties of the Crude Oil Used in the Investigation Source: WRPC, 2014 Parameters Magnitude Gravity Degree, API 33.7 Specific Gravity 0.86 Sulfur, wt % 0.16 Nitrogen, ppm 1190 Pour Point OF 26.6 Pour Point OC -3 Acid Number, mg KOH/g 0.52 Back-Blended acid, mg KOH/g 0.48 Viscosity @ 40 OC, cSt 4.19 Viscosity @ 40 OC, cSt 3.32 Asphaltenes, C7, % 0.03 Nickel, ppm 4.55 Vanadium, ppm 0.51 Characterization Factor, K 11.74 22 3.2 METHODOLOGY 3.2.1 Sample Preparation The aggregate samples, fine and coarse were spread out on concrete floor to dry out, so as to obtain a saturated surface dry condition to ensure that water-cement ratio is not affected (BS EN 933-3:1997). After air drying, the fine aggregate was passed through a sieve to remove the lumps in the fine aggregate. 3.2.2 Concrete Specimens The cube sizes of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were used to conduct the compressive strength test. The specimens were differentiated with respect to percentage of the added recycled glass powder content by weight of cement (0%, 10% and 20%). Specimens without glass powder were used as the control specimens. 3.2.3 Concrete Mixtures A mix design is used for the appropriate concrete mixture determination. It is the process of selecting suitable components of concrete and determining their relative quantities for producing concrete of certain minimum properties such as strength, durability consistency etc. as economically as possible. Compressive strength is, in general, related to durability. The greater the strength the more durable the concrete. To satisfy the required compressive strength, a value for water/cement (w/c) ratio is estimated for an appropriate test age (generally 28 days) and cement type. Tables in the BRE mix design handbook are consulted relating aggregate: cement content, workability and water: cement (w/c) ratio for the different aggregate particle shapes and maximum size. A desired level of workability is chosen. The ratio of sand to coarse aggregate is chosen to produce a satisfactory concrete. 23 3.2.4 BRE Method of Concrete Mix Design fm = fk + (K * S) fm = Target mean strength fk = Characteristic strength K = Statistical coefficient known as tolerance factor, using K = 1.6 S = Standard deviation, using S = 8 N/mm2 Cement Type – Ordinary Portland cement Aggregate Type: Coarse - crushed Fine – crushed Targeted characteristic strength = 40 N/mm2 Targeted mean strength fm = fk + 1.6 (8) Using a standard deviation of 8 at 5% defective fm = 40+12.8 = 52.8N/mm2 Slump = 30 - 60mm Free water content (for 20mm aggregate) = 210Kg/m3 Free water/cement ratio = 0.46 Cement Content = 210/0.46 = 456.52 Kg/m3 Saturated surface dried relative density = 2.6 Concrete density = 2400 Kg/m3 Aggregate Content = Concrete density – Cement Content – Free water content = 2400 – 456.52 – 210 24 = 1733.48 Kg/m3 Proportion of fine aggregate = 30% Fine aggregate content = 1733.48 X 0.3 = 520 Kg/m3 Coarse aggregate content = 1733.48 – 520 = 1213.48Kg/m3 Mix ratio (per m3) = 456.52: 520: 1213.48 = 1: 1.14: 2.66 3.2.5 Mould preparation The moulds used for the casting of the concrete cubes were made of soft wood with internal dimensions of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm (plate 3.4). Firstly, the moulds were inspected to ensure that they were clean and in general good order. The alignment as well as the precision of the faces were also checked. The internal surfaces of the mould were coated with a thin layer of oil. In order to prevent the development of bond between the mould and concrete so as to ensure easy de-moulding. 3.2.6 Casting of Concrete Specimens The objective of mixing the ingredients (casting) was to ensure that each particle of aggregates in fresh concrete will be coated with the cement paste. In order to achieve uniform consistency throughout the process a potable mechanical mixing machine was used for the mixing. The fine and coarse aggregates were generally dried to laboratory room temperature before use; this was done to bring the aggregates to a saturated surface dry (SSD) condition (BS EN 9333:1997) prior to mixing. Batching was by weight to the nearest 1gm. Mixing was done in a 1m 3 mechanical mixer and the slump was taken immediately after mixing. 25 3.2.7 Mixing Equipment The equipment used in mixing of the concrete was: Portable mixing machine Weighing balance Head pans Hand trowel Shovels Slump cone Steel tamping rod (with straight, end rounded, ø16mm and 600mm length) 3.2.8 Procedure 1. The materials were weighed out in accordance to the mix proportion for each batch of concrete. 2. The concrete making materials were poured into the portable mechanical mixer and mixed thoroughly to form a homogeneous material 3. The oiled cube moulds were placed on a level, rigid, horizontal surface, free from vibration and other disturbances, and near as practicable to storage location. 4. After mixing, the concrete was placed in the slump cone and the slumps of each batches was measured in turn. 5. After taking the slump, the concrete was placed in the moulds with a hand trowel and even distribution of the concrete was ensured. 6. The concrete was filled one-third of the cube mould. This was followed by compaction of the layers 25 times using the tamping rod. 26 7. More concrete mixture was added to the two-third mark of the mould. Then rodding 25 times was repeated. Rodding was done just barely into previous layer. 8. The moulds were then filled up with the concrete mixture with some excess concrete coming out, then rodding 25 times was repeated. 9. Excess concrete mixture was removed and the surface of it is properly leveled with a hand trowel. 10. The concrete was then left undisturbed for 24hrs before de-moulding. Plate 3.4: Wooden Mould (dimension: 150 x 150 x 150 mm) 27 Plate 3.5: Mixing machine during mixing 3.2.9 Method of Curing The objective of curing is to maintain proper moisture and temperature to ensure continuous hydration (Somayaji, 2001). After de-moulding, the specimens were cured in water and crude oil respectively in different curing tank (Plate 3.12 and 3.13) before testing for compressive strength. The compressive strengths of concretes were determined at ages 7, 14 and 28 days according to BS EN 12390-2:2000. Plate 3.8 shows the compression machine used to conduct this study. 28 Plate 3.6: Curing of concrete cubes in water Plate 3.7: Curing of concrete cubes in Crude Oil 3.2.10 Concrete Compression Test The compression test was conducted using the compression machine (Plate 3.8) at the materials laboratory of Segun-Labiran & Associates as specified in the test method (BS EN 123902:2000). The concrete cubes to be tested were first removed from the curing tanks, five (5) cubes per batch for both curing media at 7, 14 and 28 days and allowed to drain off moisture from the surfaces for some minutes. The concrete cubes were then put in the compression machine, and 29 then an increasing compressive load was applied to the specimen until failure occurred to obtain the maximum compression load (Plate 3.9). Plate 3.8: Compression Machine 30 Plate 3.9: Failure of Concrete Cube in a Compression Machine Plate 3.10: Slump Test 31 3.2.11 Modified Chapelle’s Test The chapelle‟s test is one of the physical methods employed in determining the pozzolanic activity of material. The test is defined based on the amount of Calcium oxide (or calcium hydroxide) consumed by a specific amount of the pozzolan. PROCEDURE One (1) gram of glass powder was added to a clean and dry conical flask. Two (2) grams of Calcium oxide was added to the flask. 250ml of distilled water was added to the flask and the mixture was heated and kept in a water bath at a temperature of 85±5˚C for 16 hours with continuous stirring. A control mixture was prepared without the glass powder and subjected to the same environment. The mixtures was cooled down to room temperature. 60g of sugar was dissolved in 250ml of distilled water and this solution was added to the mixture in the conical flask and stirred for 15 minutes. The mixture was filtered and about 25ml of the solution was taken with a calibrated pipette. The sample taken was then titrated with 0.1M HCL solution using 2 drops of Phenolphthalein as indicator. 32 Plate 3.11: Set up of Modified Chapelle‟s Test Experiment 3.2.11.1Modified Chapelle’s Test Calculations Let V1 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the control Let V2 be the volume of the HCL necessary for the 25ml of solution obtained from the solution The titration reaction equation is given as CaO + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O The amount of CaO fixed = The result is expressed in mg Ca(OH)2 consumed by the glass powder. The result is checked against the minimum value of 660mg per 1g of pozzolanic material for it to be regarded as a pozzolan. 33 Plate 3.12: Titration of the mixture against 0.1M of HCl 34 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 RESULTS In the previous chapter, the experiments performed were briefly explained. In this chapter, the results of those experiments are presented; and findings from the analyses of the results are presented, followed by discussions on the results. The experiments carried out were slump and compressive strength tests. Presented in the following sections are results of the slump test as well as the compressive strength test of the concrete cubes. 4.1.1 Modified Chappelle’s Test The results for the test for Pozzolanic activity of glass powder samples of particle size 150µm and 300 µm are shown against the amount of Ca(OH)2 taken by 1g of glass powder in Table 4.1 Table 4.1: Modified Chappelle‟s Test Result Sieve size µm Average titre value Amount in mg of CaO consumed by 1g of glass 150 4.03 1203.99 powder 300 4.43 1090.98 4.1.2 Slump Test Table 4.1 below shows the values obtained for the slump test performed on the fresh concrete with 0%, 10% and 20% addition of glass powder. Table 4.2: Slump Test Results % of glass powder Slump test result 0% 30mm 10 % 26mm 20 % 17mm 35 4.1.3 Compressive Strength Test The compressive strength test was carried out in the materials laboratory of Segun-Labiran & Associates, Ibadan and the results are summarized as shown below, See appendices for full details of the compressive strength results. Table 4.3: Compressive Test Results Concrete Compressive Strength (N/mm2) Age 0% Water 0% Oil 10% 10% Oil 20% Water Water 23.11 14.96 22.96 21.48 18.81 Day 7 20% Oil 18.52 Day 14 26.81 17.78 23.26 22.37 21.19 20.89 Day 28 31.41 20.44 25.33 25.33 22.52 22.81 Compressive Strength Result 35 Value in N/mm2 30 25 20 Day 7 15 Day 14 10 Day 28 5 0 0% Water 0% Oil 10% Water 10% Oil 20% Water Percentage replacement and curing media Figure 4.1a: Compressive Test Results 36 20% Oil Compressive Test Results 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 0% Water 0% Oil 10% Water Day 7 10% Oil Day 14 20% Water 20% Oil Day 28 Figure 4.1b: Compressive Test Results 4.2 DISCUSSION 4.2.1 Modified Chappelle’s Test This test was performed to confirm the Pozzolanic activities in glass powder before an attempt was made to use it to improve the compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil in the experiment. . According to the French standard (NF P 18-513 Annexe A, 2010), the minimum amount of Ca(OH)2 to be fixed by the glass powder for it to be considered a pozollan is 660mg/g and the result gave values of 1203.99 and 1090.98mg for 150µm and 300µm respectively showing that glass powder is pozzolanic. From the test result, it can be seen that the average titre value gotten from glass powder with particle size 300µm is higher than that of 150µm particle size, this shows that the rate of reaction is affected by the particle size. According to the law of chemical kinetics, the rate or chemical 37 reaction increases with increase in surface area i.e. the finer the particle, the faster the rate of chemical reaction. 4.2.2 Slump Test The result of the slump test showed that all the concrete samples gave slump values within the range specified for the mix design (30-60mm). However, the test result shows that the workability of the concrete mix decreases with increase in the percentage of glass powder in the mix, this was due to the fact that the unit weight of cement is more that the unit weight of glass powder. This means that there is an increase in the volume of cementitious material in the mix and since the water/cementitious materials ratio is kept constant for all the mixes, there is a decrease in the workability evident in the lower slump value. 4.2.2 Compressive Strength Test The results of the compressive strength test carried out on the cubes cured in water are presented in table 4.3. For the control experiment (i.e. 0%), 10% and 20% replacement of cement with glass powder. As expected, the result of the compressive strength of the cubes irrespective of the percentage replacement of cement with glass powder increased with curing age as noted in in Table 4.3. The test results demonstrates that the compressive strength of reference concrete is increased as the time of continuous curing in water increase, this is due to continuous hydration of cement paste, which increases the bond between cement paste and aggregate (Shetty 2000) and (Neville 2010). An average compressive strength of 31.5N/mm2 was recorded for the 28 day crushing of the 0% control experiment in water. It is important to note that the characteristic compressive strength of 40N/mm2 was not achieved, this could have resulted from the quality control on site, not 38 perfectly smooth and inconsistent material for form work which might have affected the proper consolidation of the concrete thereby affecting its compressive strength. However, these factors pose the same effect on all the batches of concrete and as such; a basis for comparison is still maintained. From the test result, it was observed that the compressive strength of the pure concrete (0% glasss powder) cured in crude oil has a reduction of about 35% in strength when compared to the concrete (0% glass powder) cure in water. The decrease in strength may be attribute to the absorption of crude oil into the microstructure of the matrix of concrete which may have caused dilation of the gel and weakening of the cohesive forces in the paste thus, resulting to a low strength development (Ejeh and Uche, 2009). Also, the decreased in compressive strength of concrete cured in crude oil may be attributed to the weakening in the bond strength between cement paste and aggregate and concrete matrix during curing process. (AL-Saraj 1998) and (Francis et al., 2010). From test results it can be seen that the compressive strength of the cubes cured in oil with the addition of glass powder is increase when compared with the concrete without glass powder also cure in crude oil. The glass powder when added enable the concrete to react with Ca(OH)2 to form additional calcium silicate hydrate which increases the density , fill the pores properly, refine the pore structure and the permeability which leads to the better durability (Folagbade et al.,2012). As the percentage of replacement of cement with glass powder increases strength also increases up to 10% and it decreased at 20%. The percentage increase in the compressive strength was about 30% at 10% replacement with glass powder. The increase in strength by the addition of glass powder is due to the pozzolanic reaction of glass powder in the concrete due to 39 high silica content. Also, the glass powder effectively fills the voids and gives a dense concrete, early curing strength was slow due to pore filling effect. (Nathan, 2008) 40 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 CONCLUSIONS The project monitored the pozzolanic effect of glass powder on the strength development of concrete cured in crude oil and water. Based on the tests carried out, observations, analysis and discussions on the pozzolanic effect of glass powder, the following conclusions are made: 1. There is an increase in the strength of concrete cured in crude oil when glass powder is added to the concrete mix. 2. The 28 day compressive strength of concrete cured in crude Oil reduced by 35% when compared to concrete cured in water 3. The deteriorating effect of the crude oil curing medium on the compressive strength of concrete was reduced to 19% when 10% of the cement is replaced by glass powder as against the 35% reduction in compressive strength when glass powder was not added. 5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS With the analysis provided in this project, the following recommendations are hereby made for future work. 1. The experiment should also be carried out with the use of plasticizer for further improvement in the compressive strength. 2. Curing should be done for a longer duration to study the long term effect of the crude and glass powder on the concrete samples. 3. Durability test should be conducted to verify the permeability of the concrete cured in crude oil. 41 REFERENCES AL – Saraj, K.I., (1988) “Strength Characteristics of Plain Concrete Exposed to Oil”. Ms.c. Thesis, Military College of engineering Baghdad, October 1995, pp. 84 American Concrete Institute. 2000. Use of Raw or Processed Natural Pozzolans in Concrete. ACI 232.1R-00. Farmington Hills, MI: American Concrete Institute. American Geological Institute. 1997. Glossary of Geology. Edited by J.A. Jackson. Alexandria, VA: American Geological Institute. Arum, C., and Udoh, I. (2005). Effect of dust inclusion in aggregate on the compressive strength of concrete: Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 12 No. 2, ChykeCee, Enugu. pp. 6170-6184. ASTM C150: Standard Specification for Portland Cement. 49 CFR 571.108. BS EN 933-3:2012 Tests for geometrical properties of aggregates. Determination of particle shape. Flakiness index BS EN 1097-8:2000 Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates. Determination of the polished stone value BS EN 12390-2:2000 Testing hardened concrete - Part 2: Making and curing specimens for strength tests Chen, L., Lin, D-F., Stabilization treatment of soft subgrade soil by sewage sludge ash and cement, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Volume 162, Issue 1, 15 February 2009, Pages 321-327. Dermatas, D. Meng, X. Utilization of fly ash for stabilization/solidification of heavy metal contaminated soils, Engineering Geology, Volume 70, Issues 3-4, November 2003, Pages 377-394. 42 Deshmukh P. S and Deshmukh R. Y. (2012), Comparative Study of Waste Glass Powder Utilized In Concrete International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR) ISSN (Online): 2319-7064 Ejeh, S.P and Uche, O.A.U (2009). Effect of Crude Oil Spill on Compressive Strength of Concrete Materials: Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 5(10): 1756-1761, INSInet Publication. Federio.L.M and Chidiac S.E, (2001) “ Waste glass as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete – Critical review of treatment methods”, Cement and Concrtete Composites Folagbade et al. (2012). Effect of Fly ash and Silica fumes on the sorptivity of concrete, International Journal of Engineering Science and Technology (IJEST), Vol. 4 No.09. Francis, R.A, Mattioli, A. and Smith, S. (2010) "Relining of Potable Water Tanks for Strength and Corrosion Resistance", pp. 1-9. Guney Y., Sari D., Cetin M., Tuncan M., Impact of cyclic wetting-drying on swelling behavior of lime-stabilized soil, Building and Environment, Volume 42, Issue 2, February 2007, Pages 681-688. Harben, P.W. 2002. The Industrial Minerals HandyBook: A Guide to Markets, Specifications and Prices. 4th edition. London: Industrial Minerals Information. Hoffman, G.K., 2006, Pozzolans and Supplementary Cementitious Materials: Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Littleton, CO, p. 1161-1172 Jonnesari, H. and A. Mosharaf, 2005. The Bond Between Repair materials and Concrete Substrate in Marine Environment, Asian Jorunal of Civil Engineering (Building & Housing), 6(4): 267-272. 43 King, B. 2000. A Brief Introduction to Pozzolans. Available from http://www.ecobuildnetwork.org/pozzo.html. Accessed March 2004. Klaus, K. E, Neuendorf, J. P, Julia, A, 2005, Glossary of Geology, fifth edition. American Geological nstitute. Lohtia, R.P., and R.C. Joshi. 1995. Mineral admixtures. Pages 657– 731 in Concrete Admixtures Handbook. Edited by V.S. Ramachandran. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Malhotra, V.M., and P.K. Mehta.1996. Pozzolanic and cementitious materials. Pages 1–191 in Advances in Concrete Technology. Volume 1. Edited by V.M. Malhotra. Ottawa, Canada: Gordon and Breach Publishers. Matti, A.M., 1976. Some Properties and Permeability of Concrete in direct contact with Crude Oil, Ph.D thesis, Sheffield University. UK. pp: 230. Mohammed, A.A., “Properties of Crude Oil Soaked Concrete Exposed to Loading” Ms.c. Thesis, University of technology Baghdad, Iraq. April 1997, pp.94. Nalbantoglu Z., Effectiveness of Class C fly ash as an expansive soil stabilizer, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 18, Issue 6, July 2004, Pages 377-381. Nathan, S. and Narayanan, N., (2008). "Influence of a fine glass powder on cement hydration: comparison to fly ash and modeling the degree of hydration," Cement and Concrete Research, 38, 429-436. Neville, A.M. and Brooks, J.J. Properties of Concrete, Second Edition, England, 2010, pp.317, 403. Nwilo, P.C. and Badejo, O.T. (2001). Impacts of oil spill pollution along the Nigerian coast. Journal of Environmental Assessment and Remediation, 10(1), 1-5. 44 Odufuwa, O.O. (2011). Improving the compressive strength of crude oil impacted Sand concrete, Unpublished B.sc thesis: Civil Engineering Department. University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Omokehinde, O.S. (2010). The effect of crude oil impacted sand on the compressive strength of concrete, Unpublished B.sc thesis: Civil Engineering Dept. University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Onabolu, O.A., 1989. Effect of Hot Crude Oil on Concrete for offshore storage application, PhD thesis, University of London, pp: 298. Ramachandran, V.S., and R.F. Feldman. 1995. Concrete science. Pages 1–66 in Concrete Admixtures Handbook. Edited by V.S. Ramachandran. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications. Ramzi B.Abdul, et al (2000). Compressive and tensile strength of concrete loaded and soaked in crude oil. Engineering journal of the University of Qatar, vol.13, 2000 Rekha Shinde, (2014) Utilization of Glass Powder And Fly Ash In Concrete Prodution IJSRD International Journal for Scientific Research & Development| Vol. 2, Issue 03, 2014 ISSN (online): 2321-0613 Samtur.H.R, (1974) “Glass Recycling and Reuse,” university of Wisconsin, Madison Institute for Environmental Studies, Report No.17. Scientific principles (2011): Concrete. Retrieved on 7th of April, 2011 at 12:17a.m (http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/concrete) Seco A., Ramirez F., L. Miqueleiz, P. Urmeneta, B. García, E. Prieto and V. Oroz (2012). Types of Waste for the Production of Pozzolanic Materials – A Review, Industrial Waste, Prof. Kuan-Yeow Show (Ed.), ISBN:978-953-51-0253-3. Seung Bum Park and Bong-Chum Lee, “studies on expansion properties in mortar containing waste glass and fibers”, Cement and concrete Research, vol. 34, 1145-1152, 2004. 45 Shetty, M.S. Concrete Technology, India, 2000, pp.526-531. Somayaji, S. (2001). Civil Engineering Material, Second Edition. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 3-222. www.teaching.ust.hk Construction Materials Lecture Notes, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. Ukoli, M.K., 2001. Environmental Factors in the management of the Oil and Gas Industry in Nigeria posted in web. (http://www.warmafloor.co.uk). Vijayakumar G, Vishaliny H and Govindarajulu D (2013), “Studies on glass powder as partial replacement of cement in concrete production”, International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp.153-157. Wild, S., Kinuthia, J. M., Jones, G. I., Higgins, D. D (1988). Effects of partial substitution of lime with ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) on the strength properties of lime-stabilized sulphate-bearing clay soils, Volume 51, Pages 37-53. Yong, R. N., Ouhadi, V.R., Experimental study on instability of bases on natural lime/cement-stabilized clayey soils, Applied Clay Science, Volume 35, Issues 3-4, February 2007, Pages 238-249. 46 and APPENDICES APPENDIX A: SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR AGGREGATES SIEVE ANALAYSIS FOR FINE AGGREGATES SIEVE SIZE MASS Of SIEV E (gram s) MASS OF SAMPLE RETAINE D (grams) PERCENTA GE RETAINED CUMMULATI VE MASS RETAINED (grams) PERCENTA GE FINER 412 390 MASS OF SIEVE + SAMPL E (grams) 412 390 6.3mm 4.75m m 2.36m m 1.18m m 600µm 300µm 150µm 75µm Receiv er 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 350 352 2 0.4 0.4 99.6 362 398 36 7.2 7.6 92.4 356 332 340 348 314 459 490 486 390 326 103 158 146 42 12 20.6 31.6 29.2 8.4 2.4 28.2 59.8 89 97.4 99.8 71.8 40.2 11 2.6 0.2 TOTAL 499 99.8 47 SIEVE ANALYSIS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES SIEVE SIZE 25mm 20mm 12.5m m 10mm 6.3mm Receiv er MAS S OS SIEV E (gram s) 390 388 414 MASS OF SIEVE + SAMPL E (grams) 390 590 1470 MASS OF SAMPLE RETAINED (grams) PERCENTA GE RETAINED CUMMULATI VE MASS RETAINED (grams) PERCENTA GE FINER 0 202 1056 0 10.1 52.8 0 10.1 62.9 100 89.9 37.1 396 412 314 646 754 464 250 342 150 12.5 17.1 7.5 75.4 92.5 100 24.6 7.5 0 2000 100 48 APPENDIX B: MODIFIED CHAPPELLE’S TEST RESULT SIEVE SIZE TITRE VALUES 4.5 4.4 4.4 4.0 4.1 4.1 300µm 150µm 49 AVERAGE TITRE VALUE 4.43 4.03 APPENDIX C - COMPRESSIVE TEST RAW DATA RAW DATA Day 7 LOAD 0% Glass powder 10% Glass Powder Water Crude Water Crude 520.00 330.00 500.00 490.00 460.00 320.00 600.00 400.00 500.00 200.00 520.00 460.00 540.00 260.00 560.00 530.00 540.00 360.00 530.00 500.00 20% Glass Powder Water Crude 400.00 320.00 320.00 390.00 450.00 440.00 380.00 450.00 420.00 420.00 Day 14 0% Glass powder 10% Glass Powder Water Crude Water Crude 20% Glass Powder Water Crude 620.00 630.00 600.00 560.00 590.00 580.00 500.00 470.00 430.00 460.00 400.00 450.00 420.00 380.00 380.00 520.00 400.00 500.00 570.00 550.00 500.00 300.00 490.00 520.00 380.00 460.00 520.00 480.00 410.00 470.00 Day 28 0% Glass powder 10% Glass Powder Water Crude Water Crude 20% Glass Powder Water Crude 710.00 750.00 680.00 650.00 730.00 500.00 480.00 500.00 555.00 520.00 480.00 500.00 460.00 430.00 440.00 560.00 570.00 580.00 410.00 500.00 570.00 510.00 560.00 580.00 510.00 550.00 510.00 520.00 430.00 50