ASIAN AND AFRICAN STUDIES, 7, 1998, 1, 87–104FEATURES OF THE ETHIOPIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH AND THE CLERGY Getnet TAMENE Institute of Oriental and African Studies, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Klemensova 19, 813 64 Bratislava, Slovakia The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has significantly declined since the disruption of her ally the so-called “Solomonic Line” in 1974, when the last monarch was overthrown; nevertheless, she still exerts strong influence on the lives of millions even without the support of her ally, the State. Neither the divorce of Church-State relations, which culminated with the end of the monarchy and introduction of Communist ideology in the 1970s, nor the trends of pluralistic democracy-based currently flourishing Independent Churches, could remove away her influence in the country. In fact, these events have threatened the position of this archaic Church and made questionable the possiblity of her perpetuation, as can be well observed at the turn of the century. 1. Introduction Features of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Clergy is a topic designed to give a historical overview of the Church, ecclesiastical establishment and the process undertaken to develop Orthodox Christianity within the country. The paper gives an analysis of one part of my on-going Ph.D. dissertation on the history of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, in relation to the country’s state systems. 1.1 Definition of the Terms Orthodox Church and the Clergy The terms Orthodox Church and the Clergy, in this text, are terms interwaved to refer to one type of Christian religious institution (the Orthodox Church) and the group of ordained persons (clergy) who minister in the Church. 2. The Place of Orthodox Church in Abyssinian Ecclesiastical History The study of Ethiopian history has clearly indicated, that the history of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the history of one of the oldest Christian Church- 87 159. 1974. JONES A. pp. 1992). p.D. (1970). Jean DORESSE. WONDMAGEGNEHU Aymro and MOTOVU Joachim. 1970). pp. In: The Cambridge History of Africa. 87. Etiópèania (Bratislava. p. 146-7. 1989). 1968. vol. 2 ULLENDORFF Edward. 1963-). A History of Eastern Christianity (London. GERSTER Georg. for every monastery housed at least one church. indicates the significant position the Church occupies..C. usually perched upon a hill. also see cf. Stevan KAPLAN. c. see in particular the Bibliography pp. For general accounts of Ethiopian history. p. GERSTER. vol.2 The Church and empire. 2000 years of Christianity in Africa (Nairobi. 4 The number of churches is immense. A social history of Ethiopia (1992). A. 5.3 Churches and monasteries though distinct from each other were often associated. 1926).M. 1936). vol. 647-649. A History of Christianity in Africa (1992). the Red sea and the Horn”. 5-7. vol 138. The monophysite doctrine. 2 vols. p.. 4 PANKHURST. In: The Cambridge History of Africa. 200 to 700. were so united that they were universally respected and feared as true sources of power and authority as well as of the national culture in Ethiopia. 625-639..H. “Searching out Medieval Churches in Ethiopia’s Wilds”. 1935). RUBENSON Sven. Ethiopia and the Bible (London. 3. (1978). 1968). pp. TADDESSE Tamrat.”Ethiopia. culture and church. “Ethiopia and the Horn”. p. 115. Journal of Ethiopian Studies (Addis Abäba. 39. The Church of Abyssinia (London. 15. 6.M. and their size varies from the little round village churches. FREND W. No. 451 also see P ANKHURST Richard. Church and State in Ethiopia 1270-1570 (Oxford. ISICHEI Elizabeth. (1977). while many churches had monks attached to them. The Ethiopian Church Historical Notes on the Church of Abyssinia (London. I think. DROZDÍKOVÁ Jarmila. HYATT H. 3 ATIYA. 99-177. HASTINGS Adrian. has been so strongly and passionately defended in Ethiopia over the centuries because it was felt to accord more closely with concepts of Old Testament monotheism5 and traces of Semitic culture and civilization which has influenced Ethiopian Christianity and the lives of the people. 1957). pp. 88 . 861 ff. 1928). 2. (1976). (Paris. 1972). 5 ULLENDORFF. 29. pp. 1 BAUR John..H. though dissimilar institutions.. Thus it well attests the key place the Church holds in the Ethiopian state systems and her crucial role in the process of remoulding the history of what is now known as Ethiopian society. ATIYA Aziz s. see O’LEARY D. 1984). The Monastic Holy man and the Christianization of Early Solomonic Ethiopia (Wiesbaden. and MONROE Elizabeth. 1968).. The Christian Period in Mediterranean Africa.M. The fact that number of churches is prolific and their frequent placing on tops of hills or higher points. to large rectangular and octagonal buildings or modern cathedrals built in most of the centres of the country.. The most emphatic aspect which shows the place that the Church holds maybe the monophysite principles. A History of Ethiopia (Oxford. National Geography. HARDEN J. The Church in Africa 1450-1950 (Oxford. täwahdo.1 and is united with the historical development of the whole country. An Introduction to Ethiopic Christian Literature (London. T ADDESSE Tamrat. 640-644. L’Empire du prêtreJean. In: The Cambridge History of Africa.es in Africa. 1996). The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (Addis Abäba. Motovu in their book The Ethiopian Orthodox Church. the stream of Sunni Muslim identified with the Ethiopian Somalis. They adhere to traditional African religion also known. the Church with her cross became the rallying point for desparate and fiercely independent highland people. since 4th century.7 million (1996) population follow Christianity. The remainder of the population in the southern and eastern part of Ethiopia practiced various indigenous religions. and the Armenian – which are by the historian Adrian Fortescue called “The Lesser Eastern Churches”. About thirty five per cent of its population. do not use the controversial formula “Two natures in one person”. the Syrian. and have therefore been accused of the heresy known as “Monophysitism”. 861 ff. but adhere to the older formula “One Incarnate nature of God the Word”. fifty per cent of the inhabitants belong to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.e. Like the four other Churches in this group the Ethiopian Church believes in the full Divinity and the true Humanity of Jesus Christ and is. as ‘Animism’ which insists that all objects have souls and can connect man with God. Orthodoxy being identified with the Amhara and Tigray people. therefore. to persist into our times. Wondmagegnehu and J. It resisted wave after wave of Islamic assault. after the coming of Islam.2. thereafter gradually become fully indigenized and has survived the forces which wiped out Christianity from within and from 6 GERSTER. the Ethiopian. The Fälasha who inhabit the area north of Lake Tana. a Christian island in a Muslim sea. and affinities of religious habits and culture. who inhabit the highlands of the country.1 Historical Background Ethiopia is an ancient polyreligious African country that boasts of rich traditions.6 The Church has. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is numerically the largest of the five nonChalcedonian Eastern Churches – the Coptic. and who remained after the airlifting of 1984-91 to the State of Israel are repositories of a specific form of Judaism and contribute a constituent part to the religious mosaic of the country. the Indian. perfectly Orthodox in its christological teaching as is also confirmed by A. Afars. Later on. p. 89 . More than half its 56. after the Church gradually expanded southward. who inhabit the lowlands of the southern region. i. Bedjas and others. Two per cent are Protestant and Roman Catholic combined. These Churches in their description of Jesus Christ. Islamicized Oromos. but which others prefer to call “The Oriental Orthodox Churches”. The cross which had been planted in what is now called Ethiopia by Frumentius was the sign of the Church. by others. God-Incarnate. In fact it was later accepted by Christianized Oromos and other groups as well. Around her grew the Ethiopian empire. to distinguish them from the Byzantine Orthodox Churches. which proved the early advent of Christianity to this ancient land. adhere to Islam. without. but original. cit. op. The prophecy nurtured the hope of all Africans. in a highly distinctive form. the Orthodox Church of Ethiopia. Ethiopianism is regarded as a nationalistic movement which is spreading among African Churches. religious domination. “Ethiopia shall stretch forth her hands to God”. in Missionsgeschichte Kirchengeschichte Weltgeschichte (Stuttgart. i. The biblical source of Ethiopianism comes from Psalm 68:31. 2 ff. 125 ff. attained the status known as Ethiopianism. 8 ISICHEI.e. 1996). In the long course of her history. commonly labelled “separatist”.8 2. 7-8. i.e. 9. the Church has been indigenized and has made the heritage which it thus received her own and even developed it in a unique way against the cultural and social background of Ethiopia. 125-133 ff.9 African Churches which were founded between 1880 and 1920. Ethiopia preserved its national adherence to Christianity. ISICHEI. She not only occupies a remarkable place in the country’s history. African Church History and Mission History. It is a well known fact that this Church has received the spiritual and theological traditions of the Orthodox Church from its earliest days. p. The long history of indigenization of the Church has enabled her to develop unique features which show that she is more African. and of a Christian theocracy embracing the entire continent. p.. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church which has been thoroughly indigenized in the course of a nearly two-thousand year long history of Christianity. a Yoruba member of the African Methodist Church of Sierra Leone that had been 7 NIWAGILA Wilson B. 10 ULLENDORFF. 51. pp. BAUR. This was in essence an attempt to escape the most glaring aspect of white cultural domination.2 The Contemporary Image of the Ethiopian Church in Africa and Abroad The archaic form of Christianity which the Ethiopian Orthodox Church represents. pp. pp. expressing nationalistic aspirations in the Churches. p. It was basically not a political but a religious movement. 90 . 9 BAUR. often assuming the organizational forms of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. established new religious organizations that were run by Africans10 as religious protest movement based on the idea of Ethiopianism. One of the chief leaders of such idea was James Johnson (1832-1917). of future glory for the Negro race. through the establishment of an African black variant. The Ethiopian Orthodox Church’s uniqueness implies that she is not a copy of either the Coptic (meaning Egyptian) or any other church in the world. which is almost accepted as a contribution to African cultural nationalism and particularism based on a self-conscious cultivation of African indigenous values and attitudes.. in other neighbouring areas. dates back at least to the fourth century AD and is still exerting a powerful influence on the lives of millions.7 Hence. 1930-38” (pp. while the latter insists he is anointed to rule as a King by God. 1970). The former believe that Selassie is Jah God. 1971). 8. I. the seat of Jah.founded by Black American settlers in 1821. cf.J. 130-132. then best by Negros from America. IX No 1 (Addis Abäba. who ruled Ethiopia between 1930 and 1974.1 Efforts to improve the Church The Church has been trying to come out of its isolation for a long time. 13 HRBEK. Moreover he attributed the success of Islam to its use of African customs and institutions.14 This peculiar trait of religious syncretism which is embodied by the Ethiopian Church offers her remarkable identity. This religious revival of the “rastas” started in the Caribbean island of Jamaica in the 1930s. They insist that they and all Africans in the diaspora are but exiles in Babylon. p. Finally he was ordained and became a Bishop in west Africa from 1900-1917.W.11 The other manifestation of Ethiopianism is the rise of Rastafarianism which looked for religious inspiration to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. foundation of an Ethiopian branch of the Church in AmerCf.2. 12. “Rastafarianism”. the land of our ancestors. In fact. “ Africa in the context of world history” in: General History of Africa III. ed. “The Bible as ideology: Ethiopianism in Jamaica. Repatriation is one of the corner-stones of Rastafarian belief. he advocated the evangelization of Africa by Africans. The name comes from Ras. 185-207). cit.” Shaikh Zäkaryas: an Ethiopian Prophet. 14 ULLENDORFF. Presented to Thomas Hodgkin. Politics and Economics of Africa. that is Ethiopia.12 Followers of Rastafarianism and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church enjoy common interest in that both stick to the Old Testament rites.13 Secondly it preserves many ancient features on one hand and the strong influence of African traditional religion and Judaism on the other. BAUR. note 6. p. in: Journal of Ethiopian Studies vol. 15. 12 11 91 . Therefore. He intwined religion and patriotism as indicated by his motto: “God and my Country”. meaning Lord and Tafari. pp. OHNSON: African perspectives. p. and that they will eventually find release from oppression in an African promised land. See specially POST’s. The five essays in the section “Colonial Misfortune and Religious Response” reveal a wide range of interpretations. op.. also see D. Donald CRUMMER.. ALLEN and R. the Ethiopian Orthodox Church is unique firstly for its isolation from other Christian centres for quite a good number of centuries (except for loose cooperation with the Church of Alexandria which profoundly shrunk with the advent of Islam to Egypt in the 7th century). (California. 2. in: BBC English (London. the family name of the Emperor Haile Selassie I. (Cambridge. BRIGHT Martin. 1994). pp. 56. and if by expatriates. even though he died in 1975. or Africa. 7 f. Some signs of this effort are its enrolment in the universal family of the World Council of Churches. destined to be delivered out of captivity by a return to Zion. 1988). Papers in the history. BAUR. GERSTER.. 160 f. architectural skill. 17 ATIYA. 18 ATIYA. the Ethiopians have developed their own peculiar octagonal or round churches. Besides this. PANKHURST. 2. inspired by their conception of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. when Ethiopia was plunged into a socialist revolution. 37. 38. The Theological College at Addis Ababa. pp..16 followed by the Marxist military dictatorship known as the Derg. BAUR.cit. T. p.15 The College was interrupted and it became largely impossible for the Church to expand its educational service throughout the country. p. The oldest Ethiopian churches (Däbrä Damo. MEKOURIA. 19 Cf.19 The latest ones are either circular or octagonal style and are most familiar form of churches in Ethiopia. Aksum Zion) not only exhibit rectangular structure but a wood-and-stone “sandwich” style of construction. which was circular. Because of their monolithic character. These churches are usually built on elevations and with thatched roofs. but a great deal of adjustment and labour are still necessary to preserve the custom of friendship between religions in the country in general and to bring this ancient and august Church into line with the swift pace of modern developments in particular. p. “The Horn of Africa”: General History of Africa III. the country seems to have returned to normality and all the religions in the country seem to have achieved equality based on the pluralistic principles of democracy.ica which was consecrated by Aba Theophilus. p. 59-60. 570. who also encouraged sending of more theological scholars to Coptic institutions in Egypt. founded towards the end of 1944. Cf. With the collapse of the Derg towards the beginning of 1991. 16 15 92 . 401 ff. archbishop of Harar province in December 1959. The countryside is spotted with such churches.18 Style and church construction: three styles can be observed in the structural pattern of Ethiopian church construction. 865. The third type of Ethiopian churches is the historic rockhewn group founded by the pious monarch Lalibela (1181-1221) of the Zagwè dynasty. 166. It thus seems that dawn is breaking on the Ethiopian horizon. and which has been enlarged under government auspices is part of the signs that show the success of Ethiopian Christian Church. p. a more effective branch was established in Trinidad. pp. Another important aspect of this effort is the translation of the Bible into the more intelligible Amharic which was done at the initiative of Emperor Haile Selassie I. pp.T.3 Church Buildings Although the original basilica or rectangular and cruciform styles have been preserved in a multitude of ancient churches. after 1974. it has been asserted that this may have purely a reproduction of the customary southern Ethiopian habitation. op .17 On the other hand. as the truly Christian outpost in the African continent. massive diATIYA. 401 ff. “Etiopská ortodoxní církev”. ATIYA. others five. p. 21 20 93 . 161. 23 Cf.24 Däbra Damo monastery: Däbra Damo is a monastery Gedam built probably as early as the seventh century by Emperor Gäbrä Mäskäl and still standing atop a plateau. Arches. the craftsmen set themselves to hollow the interior and to design extraordinary forms of architecture which could never have been accomplished by normal building processes and techniques.mensions. No 1. of Petra in Jordan. with rows of impressive columns. After building it. “The Gebzena Charter 1894”. The centre of the monastery is occupied by a church that is a jewel of Abyssinian ecclesiastical architecture. Cf. decorative rock mouldings and friezes of geometrical shapes. PANKHURST. or rather mountain peak. 37-38. also see POLÁÈEK Zdenìk. 1968. windows. these monolithic structures were detached from the body of the mountain by excavating deep trenches around each of them. The roof was gabled or carved flat. A Farni church (däbr) has a somewhat higher status. possess the general air of ancient Egyptian temples. capitals. Their exterior imitates the ancient Ethiopian wood-andstone “sandwich” style of construction. 1974.20 Individual church status: there are three types of Church status in Ethiopia. a däbr church is often situated around Imperial or Royal capital and enjoyed the Imperial attention more than other churches. ATIYA. carefully carved colonnades.21 The most common is church of venko (geter). The church service here is carried on by unmarried priests and monks (menekusewoch). vol. niches. in: Nový Orient. op. Afterwards. 24 Cf. cruciform or simple. Though carved from the live rock in the mountain side. p. 1971). 570. 22 and married priests can hold service here. arcades and vaulted ceilings. GERSTER. and of Ellora in the Indian state of Hyderabad – all monuments of singular exotic beauty. Architecture of the Lalibela churches: the churches are sculptured from a single block of tuff. apses and domes – all these and other features have truly rendered the Lalibela churches enduring monuments of Christian architecture in the heart of the African continent. IX.. invariably with an attractive cornice. cit. pp. in: Journal of Ethiopian Studies. MEKOURIA. 572-3. 74. colossal crosses and swastikas in bas-relief and haut-relief. eleven in number. 22 Haile Gäbriel DAGNE. 6 and 7 /93. p. Some churches had three naves.. cf. The panels Cf. these churches are considered by archaeologists to rank amongst the finest achievements in ecclesiastical architecture of any age throughout Christendom. the emperor ordered the connecting staircase to be demolished. as they were well portrayed by Atiya. 161 f. 1970. pp. cf. (Addis Abäba. accessible only by means of the rope. These churches have often been compared in their grandeur to the rockhewn temples of Abu Simbel in Nubia.23 The Lalibela churches. The third type of church which possesses the highest status is called gedam. p. Its stone and wood carving is exquisite. 60. ATYIA. 29 Church interior: the church building (bete krstiyan) in Ethiopia invariably consists of three concentric rings: a square sanctuary (mäqdäs) or the Holy of Holies (qdduse qddusan) is situated in the middle of the circle and is screened.000 years.25 Round the church. cf. Ethiopian monasticism is marked by severe austerity and a tendency toward eremitism. ATIYA. Only priests and the king can enter into this part of the church. 569-578. Cf. 880-1. 91-2. POLÁÈEK.27 The famous ones are Däbrä Libanos. This is an area reserved for those receiving Holy Communion. Of this type. the most famous examples are Imrahanna Kristos and Jammadu Mariam. cf. 15. The design of alternating layer of wood and dressed masonry with the distinctive protruding beams called “monkeyhead”. the monastic cells spread out in greater intimacy than in most other monasteries. Men and women are separated by a partition. on the floor covered with matting. also in the Lasta Mountains. 37-8. MEKOURIA. dates from before the dawn of Christianity. This is the third part reserved for the choir and is called (kine mahlet).. pp. As a rule. Däbrä Bizen. 6 and 7/93. The first was built inside a tremendous cave in the Lasta Mountains by the Emperor who imparted his name to it after deciding to retire from the throne to monasticism. POLÁÈEK. All these and other similar monuments were probably built by anonymous monastic architects as an act of faith. Ibid. 94 . Cf. Däbrä Damo. Priests circulate in their midst while praying. 160. pp. pp. ULLENDORFF. pp.30 Next to the qdduse qddusan comes the second part of the church (qddist).26 It is estimated that there are about 850 monasteries in the country.of animal haut-relief and the geometrical friezes are reminiscent of specimens to be found in early Coptic art. Täklä Haymanot. 6 and 7/93. cf. p. ATYIA. p. Cf. Its mural structure has the obelisk patterns of Aksum. GERSTER. Ethiopian architects used the style for more than 1. He died and was buried in that church about the middle of the twelfth century. Zikwala and the huge Ethiopian monastery in Jerusalem called Däbrä Genet. The second was built by Emperor Yekuno-Amlak about 1268. The rest of the congregation stands in the outer ring.28 Cave church architecture: another notable type of Ethiopian mediaeval ecclesiastical architecture is the cave church pattern. p. 162. The use of massive wooden beams and stone in alternating horizontal tiers lends an unusual charm to its outward appearance. blessing and swinging their censers until the interior is 25 26 27 28 29 30 Cf. PANKHURST. The Ark (tabot or tsilat) and its contents with its container or mämbära tabot are treasured here. always barefooted. to commemorate the restoration of the line of Solomon with the support of the great Ethiopian saint. If all types of churches are taken into account.6:14 to compare the Ethiopian case with Old Testament rites. as scholars confirm. and like them it usually has the Ten Commandments written on it. in whose sanctuary the Mosaic Ark is enshrined and where the imperial coronation took place.31 The Ark: the Ark and its contents have never been described in an official Christian sources and is kept top secret (msttir). Although all Ethiopian churches are normally open to both sexes. According to ATIYA they are estimated at 20. 31:26 Heb. quoted in: ATIYA.34 PANKHURST. The Cathedral of Aksum: the oldest Ethiopian church is of course the Cathedral of Aksum. The central objects are the coming of the Ark. The “tabot” rests on a cupboard-like container with an open cupola at the top. 33 Ibid. So the “tabot” is a sort of portable altar. 161.. in accordance with Abyssinian artistic techniques. p. 160.. 109. the Cathedral is lavishly decorated with paintings from biblical scenes in the traditional Ethiopian style in which the artist has concentrated on the theme and bright colours rather than on proportion. 167. ATIYA.000 and POLÁÈEK recently reduced the number to 2. the emperors craftily concealed the treasured Ark. 32 31 95 . GERSTER insists 14. 2 Sam. DORESSE. The interior is decorated with wall paintings and the usual icons. ATIYA. Cf. the Virgin and the Infant Jesus. the Cathedral of Aksum is an exception.9:6 and 7. LIPSKY. quoted in: ATIYA. Ethiopian Jews (London. p. During the succession of invasions. or tabot. “a man is chosen for a post a piece of wood is likewise chosen for a “tabot” (käsäw märttow läshumät käinchät märttow lätabot)”. 160. Eric PAYNE. 206. The “tabot” is a model of the Ark of the Covenant of the Old Testament. The number of Ethiopian churches vary from author to author. at an average. 1995). p.33 Though the church itself has been burnt to the ground many times and its present structure dates only from 1854.filled with clouds of incense. also see Deut. dedicated to Our Lady of Zion. the ancient rectangular form of its building has been preserved. St George and the Dragon. some side chapels and a forbidden sanctuary. and later reinstated it. p. 10:5. Erected on a raised platform with an impressive facade. p. It is a flat block of wood. Many Ethiopians still believe that the Church at Aksum contains the real Ark of the Covenant. which is blessed by the Bishop and carried on the head of the priests in important processions wrapped up in coloured clothes. Muslim chroniclers tell us that the hidden treasure in the case of the Cathedral of Aksum is a large white stone inlaid with gold32 whereas in other churches the “tabot” appears to be an icon carved from a convenient timber.000. p. 34 Cf. This rule dates from the time when a former empress is said to have desecrated the building. paintings were made on canvas which was then pasted to the walls. since women are not permitted to set foot on its floor. As a rule. 17 ff.000. three main entrances.000. 160. which might be described as a model of the tables of the Law which Moses placed inside the Ark. p. and a pictorial record of the Nine Saints. p. as confirmed by the famous Ethiopian saying. p. then the number would reach 12. 160. .. and the tabot to give sanctity to the area where Cf. the Head of the Archbishops and Patriarch of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (bicú wä-kiddus abune. The synod is responsible for religious matters and is chaired by a Patriarch (patriyark). An equivalent term Abba or the Amharic word Abbaté has a sense of my spiritual father and is used as a title for priests. the consecration of native Ethiopian bishops since 195936 and the establishment of a local native synod for Ethiopia are modern nationalist trends which the pope of Alexandria and patriarch of the sea of St Mark honoured with all the concessions which left no room for doctrinal aberrations or dogmatic cleavage between the two great native churches of Africa. ATIYA. was held in deep respect at both the national and local level. “our father”. 163.4 Church Hierarchy. 38 PANKHURST. altars (mämbäroch). 40 PANKHURST. Also see BAUR. Priesthood and Administration The departure from the former obedience to a Coptic abun.. Ibid. ri-ise likane papasat wä-patriyark zä etiopia. He is the only authorized churchman to ordain the priests and deacons. lit.. p.000 churches.. It is also used with the name of the patriarch and the archbishop. POLÁÈEK. It comprises the highest Church leaders (archbishops and bishops). Some villages have more than one church. 39.37 The Ethiopian Church enjoyed immense prestige and its hierarchy.40 The Abun can conduct every holy service.38 The Holy synod: the Holy Synod (kiddus sinodos) is the leading body of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (ye etiyopia ortodox täwahdo betekrstiyan). p. who pastors the Church. On this assumption. the archbishops and the bishops who represent the Church in the provinces as well).. The Abun (bishop): is the highest post in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church hierarchy. He is the one who ordains those people who need to be ordained from all over the country. p. 202.. 165.. 6 and 7/93. 39 Cf. 165. His full title is read: His Holiness.35 2.Number of churches and ecclesiastics: the country is estimated to have over 12. 37 Ibid. is a title used before the name of the patriarch. p. He consecrates new churches. which had great influence. p. and each of them must have two ordained priests in addition to numerous däbteras and deacons. The ge’ez term Abuna (Our father) is used as a title before the bishop’s name. abun. 157. the number of ecclesiastics throughout Ethiopia has been estimated at approximately twenty-five per cent of the whole male Christian population. p. cf. 36 35 96 .39 The council of churches is a body responsible for the administration of churches in general. 34. the deacons and all ministers. Cf. and latter of the monks in general. and was “the greatest prelate” after the Abun. p. ATIYA. When officiating. 35. and Aba Basileus was consecrated at Cairo on 28 June 1959 by Pope Cyril (Kirollos) VI. His jurisdiction is over the faithful. cf. an important churchman attached to the palace.43 The tradition of placing a Coptic monk from Egypt at the head of the Ethiopian Church which had started when Frumentius was consecrated for the new diocese.45 41 42 43 44 45 Ibid. 6 and 7/93. Cf. p. ATIYA. 97 .44 After getting autocephalous status the latter post is also held by an Ethiopian bishop Abun. He used to be a member of the State Council and the council of Regency. remained in force as a custom until the agreement of July 1948 liberated the Ethiopians from the bond of an Egyptian abun. PANKHURST. Ordination is of two levels.4l or council of Churches. The Coptic Abun shared power with two principal Ethiopian ecclesiastics: the Aqabé säat. and travelled like the Abun with a great many tents. while the lowest level of ordaination is that of a priest (kés) and deacon (diyakkon). The way he dresses is also dissimilar from that of the bishop. and only the shämä. The Patriarch in turn ordains the bishops and the priests.42 He ranks next to the Abun in the hierarchy and is peculiar to the Ethiopian Church. He also crowned the Emperor on accession until the coronation of the last Ethiopian Monarch in 1930.the tabot dwells. has an embroidered edge of subdued colours. 165 cf. 36-7. The Eèägé: is head of the monastic communities. p. He is the chief Ethiopian ecclesiastic who is appointed from among. or Guardian of the hour – a functionary dating back at least to the fifteenth century reign of Bä’edä Maryam – acted for the Emperor in many matters of state. in the presence of Emperor Haile Selassie. or Metropolitan came from Coptic Church of Egypt. he was to all intents and purposes “a great lord”. According to Alvares. In accordance with long-established custom. ATIYA. Cf. The priest is dressed in white in daily life. PANKHURST. The priests: the priest can perform all the holy services but he is not authorized to ordain. The Aqabé säat. 158. His turbans are also white. The highest level is that of the Abun. thrown over his shoulder. The Abun’s political authority was extensive. patriarch.. the Ethiopian bishop uses a snow-white silk turban decorated with crosses in gold thread. They are consecrated by the patriarch. whereas the Copt wears a mitre or a jewelled crown. pp. he was almost equally important. whose robes are identical with those of their Coptic peers in Egypt. the priests. however. 152. In Alvares’s opinion the “second person” in the kingdom. POLÁÈEK. and installed by the laying on of the hands of two or three bishops. unlike those of bishops. as the first Abyssinian patriarch. which are entirely black. 35. the Abun. highest and lowest. patriarch. and the eèägé (ge’ez for elder) originally the prior of the great monastery of Däbrä Libanons. p. p. one day I stood through an hour-long service with the debteras. Priest.46 Nubräid is an important title offered by the bishop through laying hands on the head of recruits who are supposed to lead the temple of Mary in Aksum and the Church of Addis Alem in Shoa. p. 2. The debteras are a class of non-priests unique to the Ethiopian Church.4. the standard headpiece of debteras and mar- Cf.Abunä késis is an additional title to a priest who is supposed to evaluate the activities of deacons. the church. when with aching feet I wondered aloud why the faithful must remove their shoes before entering an Ethiopian church. 74. and like them. Bishop (regional). The hierarchy is: Patriarch. They are experts in reading and liturgical song and are administrators of the church’s traditional wisdom. Deacon. his turbanlike temtem. particularly in their role as chantors and choristers..47 The deacon or deaconawit (female) whose main task is assisting all church services comes at the bottom of the hierarchy. no service can properly be held without their presence. 47 46 98 .48 Similarly the däbtära look after the administration of the larger churches and their musical and liturgical requirements. Episcopos. Haile Gäbriel DAGNE.1 The däbtära and their unique position in the hierarchy of Ethiopian Church The däbtära occupy in the Ethiopian Church an intermediate position between the clergy and layman. The professional class of däbtära appear to be very much closer to the duties with which the Levites were charged. 48 ULLENDORFF. The latter was founded by Minelik II in 1902 as the “southern” equivalent to the Temple of Aksum.. He claims he is bestowed upon by the holy spirit the right of observing and judging disciplinary matters of the group. pp. 39. sub-Deacon and Debtera. According to Ullendorff the two-fold division of the Israelite priesthood is paralleled in Ethiopia by the categories of Kahen and däbtära. Likä kahnat is the head of all ecclesiastics. and church properties including land. The office of the latter is in most respects comparable to the tasks entrusted to the Levites. cf. Archpriest (Gäbäz) appears between the priest and the bishop in the hierarchy. 6 and 7/93 cf. Though the däbtära are not ordained. See WONDMAGEGNEHU. Gerster Georg tells us his experience about the däbtära: “. I held a sort of crutch clamped under my arm as a support. Once. 91-2 cf. It is their chief duty to chant the psalms and hymns. an elderly debtera with the look of a Biblical patriarch countered with the question. He is more responsible to protect the tabot. Archbishop. Archimandrite. p. and would you tread on the toes of the angels who crowd a church during services?. POLÁÈEK. . HYATT. the däbtära also perform magical rituals. the second holds a hood (kób) and the third will have scapulary with twelve crosses (askema). 99 . and sistram (sänasel). these are the monks known as mänäkuséwoch. Ibid.1 Monastery Hierarchy Besides the Churches. This attitude of superstitious and magical practices which is common among the däbtära puts them somewhere on the margin of Christianity in the hierarchy of the Ethiopian churches.ried priests. p. the monasteries which are governed by the rules derived from St Antony and St Pachomius of Egypt. good to indicate rhythm. pp. The co-conductor of the dancers who stands on the left hand side of the church is known as gra géta and on the right hand side stands the main co-ordinator märí géta. 92.50 They study spiritual subjects longer than priests. ULLENDORFF.51 One of the oldest Ethiopian books the awdänägäst (a book of astrology and medicine) written in Amharic. sacred hymns (kiné). 877.52 serve as a centre for religious life and cultural tradition. p. Cf. the Fetha Nägäst and canon law. DORESSE. and provide amulets and medicines prepared from various herbs to scatter demons and to avert disease. astrological activities. Ritual dances that are conducted by the däbtära at times of important religious ceremonies are accompanied with cultural musical instruments such as the drums of different sizes (käbäro. nägarit). I could not see his eyes well enough to know whether he winked”. songs (zéma). shadowed his face. devoting about 20-30 years of their life time to acquiring religious knowledge. and at least in theory. ATIYA. and his deputy is the afä mämhir. The mägabi is responsible for food distribution and 49 50 51 52 GERSTER. but their attainments in the latter in particular are apt to vary widely. Those who belong to the first group possess a girdle (kinat). 31-2. widowed priests and all who ignored the worldly life. 79. 64-81. The leader of a monastery is the mämhir – teacher. They are open for people who are not engageddeacons.49 They are trained in the study of Amharic and Ge’ez. after combining a pagan substratum with a hastily and belatedly superimposed layer of divine invocations or references to the Virgin Mary and the Saints. They undergo instruction in poetry. ATIYA. These notable survivals of magical practices and prayers in Abyssinian Christianity. which are made of a hollowed-out tree-trunk. are probably derived from the old Cushitic pagan beliefs or from the ancient East where demonology and magic craft were widespread. Out of churches. p. also in the Bible.4. 152. They submit a commitment of three standards. p. p. 2. 158 cf. Another sign of these monks is the T-shaped crutch (mäkkwamya) and a coat made of leather (daba). whose author is still unknown. Cf. is dedicated to such healing practices of the däbtäras. pp. dancing and rhythmical movement (akkwakwam). Syrian. Those monks who did not submit any commitment and live in isolation from the community are called bahtawiyan. cf. 6 and 7/93 cf. penance.for the property of the monastery.57 The administration of the sacraments include baptism. pp. The ardit is the one who is in charge of the monks. 53 54 55 56 57 POLÁÈEK.5 Doctrines of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church The Ethiopian monophysite Church. the Coptic. POLÁÈEK. The Church rather uniquely embodies traits of different Christian areas instead of assuming a single place of origin. like other Eastern Churches. ATIYA. is strictly dedicated to the monophysite doctrine.2 Church practices Like her sister Churches of the Orient the Ethiopian Church also recognizes seven sacraments of the Christian Church. 100 . This dispute is still continuing. Armenian and Indian Churches. the Ethiopian Church piously acknowledges it with deep devotion. resulting in the emergence of two different schools of thought. The controversy continued over the last three centuries. Cf. POLÁÈEK. WONDMAGENGEHU and MOTOVU. holy communion. 31-39. unction of the sick and holy order.5. According to the Ethiopian monophysitic doctrine in the personality of Christ reveals one divine nature (bahriy). confirmation. the Christological doctrines accepted at the council of Chalcedon (451). The reason for the frequent mention of the word täwahido in the title of the Ethiopian Church is to indicate her monophysite belief.56 2.53 2. i.55 In fact the traits of Judaism are predominant in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. 153 cf.5. 6 and 7/93 cf. cf.54 Although. p. which arose due to absolute merging (täwahido) of the natures of God and man. condemn monophysitism as a heresy.e. On the other hand parallels with the Churches in the East are also greatly observable. 2. matrimony. The disciples of the first school known as tsägawoch defended the idea of Christ becoming son of God by the Grace (tsäga) and the followers of the second school (kibattoch) insisted that it became possible by the anointment of the Holy Spirit (kibat). POLÁÈEK.1 Point of later controversy within the Church The subject of polemics within the Ethiopian Church over the last three centuries was the way by which Christ was able to become the son of God. makes it perfect and spiritual like the unity of Christ and his Church. the confessor. after which he makes the sign of the cross as a blessing. Penance (nisha) is the Sacrament in which a Christian receives. they receive Holy Communion 58 59 PANKHURST. forgiveness of sins on repenting and confessing them to the priest. The priest says “I baptize thee in the name of the Father. Cf. It is believed that the bread and wine are changed and remain flesh and blood until they are completely consumed. such as small children and a few devoted adults who are strongly related to church activities. gives him penance and dismisses him. 101 . and makes several signs of the cross over him. On this occasion the child is given a Christian name according to the synaxar. who is also his priest. his body and blood) are prepared by the deacon from dried grapes and water before each service in a separate house called bétä lihäm. The majority of members often fail to keep their confirmation principles. noses and mouths of the penitent. with the cross. Believers go and communicate in the church. pp. This church marriage is also called Communion Marriage because the couple are married by communion. lit.59 Matrimony (teklil) is the holy service through which a man and a woman are united and given the divine grace that sanctifies their union. The bread and wine (siga wä dämu. will pay him a visit at his residence. holding the Gospels in his left hand. without descending to particular sins they had committed. This is done by the marriage procession ceremony known as siratä täklil. Holy Communion (qurban) is received by ritually clean people. Communion is consecrated and given on the same day. and accused themselves in general of being “great sinners and having merited hell”. the priest takes communion to those who are near. prostrate themselves when the Holy Eucharist is in procession. touches. 41-2. Bells ring and believers.58 A male is baptized on the fourtieth day of his birth and female on the eightieth. and of the Son. he or she will also get a God father or mother respective to their gender and a special coloured thread (mahtäb) is tied around the neck to announce that the child is baptized. held in the presence of both partners. which is situated near the church. ears. for those who are far he consecrates communion in a tent. and a cross in his right. in the church. and gives them strength to abide by the contract which mutually binds. PANKHURST. who was seated. and of the Holy Spirit”. Confirmation (kib atä méron) takes place immediately after baptism. The process takes place as persons confessing prostrated themselves at the feet of the priest. In the case of the very sick. It does not demand the regular attendance of believers. 41-2. If a member is too weak to see his confessor (yä-näfs abbat). The process takes place by submerging a person in water three times.Baptism (timkät): is difficult service requiring the presence of several priests and deacons. pp. recites prayers over him. the eyes. After this the priest. through the mediation of the priest. Otherwise it can be interpreted as adultery. because they are held to be impure.15). which is now-a-days less binding. Holy Orders (qdus kehnät) is a sacrament through which an ordinand receives authority to administer the sacraments and conduct other religious services. singers. deaconesses. Conclusion The Ethiopian Orthodox Church. in which Jewish and Christian traditions are blended into one indissoluble whole is one of the most remarkable features of the syncretic Abyssinian civilization. The manner of consecrating this holy oil is contained in the book called “The Book of the Lamp” (Mäshafä Quendil) in which there is written a portion of the Gospel and of the Epistle of the Apostle James. 3. The bride is reminded that wives are subject to their husbands. According to this principle. The ceremony is completed with a nuptial Mass in which both parties receive the sacrament. saying prayers of consecration. The ceremony takes place either in the church or at the person’s home. which is solemnized with a nuptial Mass or wedding Eucharist. religious marriage. anagnosts or masters of ceremony. A bishop is consecrated by the laying on of the hands of three bishops or two. are the ministers. It is a proccess by which sin is cancelled before the person dies. It is a Sacrament through which the priest anoints the body of the sick asking for divine grace to cure both body and soul. 102 . Church marriage generates strong monogamic relations and is known as the “Eighty Bond” with a woman. The bishop by the imposition of hands confers on the fit chosen persons a portion of grace appropriate for the ecclesiastical office to which they are raised. divorce or remarriage is permitted only if one of the partners departs by death. blessing them with the sign of the cross. the kbrä negäst (the honour of kings) which is of purely Abyssin60 ULLENDORFF. Those who consecrate it according to the words of the Gospel and the Apostle James (Epistle 5:14. where as the minor ones include those of subdeacons. The major ones are that of the episcopate. Degrees of the Holy Orders include the major and minor orders. p. Anointing of the Sick (kendil) is a service offered to persons who are on their death bed. Not ordained man cannot celebrate the Eucharist or perform any office of a priest. The oil with which the sick is anointed is consecrated. This tie is binding and should it be broken by divorce excommunication follows automatically. the Church recognizes but one marriage.during the wedding Mass. Besides these. The priest takes the man’s hand and places it in the hand of the woman.60 The Old and New Testaments and a number of apocryphal books unknown to other Christian Churches are used. The healing power is not attributed to the oil but to the prayer. door-keepers and others. Unlike the civil laws which recognizes customary and civil marriage. communion is no longer given to the parties either guilty or not. 135. priesthood and deaconate. have enough results. 103 . 50-51. pp.ian origin and was compiled. in 14th century. The Amharas have never derived these from the Copts of Egypt who eat pork for instance. p. which is based on the ancient Egyptian one.. priestly dances with drums and the concept of clean and unclean meat. p. Never would he eat what a man of a different faith has slaughtered. ATIYA. circumcision of a boy eight days after birth. This has lifted the Church to the position of an example at a regional level bearing the concept of Ethiopianism. Like the Jews of old an Amhara prefers never to eat with any man who is not a Christian and like them he will also fast twice a week. and starts with New Year’s Day in September (as with the Jews and Greeks) and with New Year thought and customs which are Jewish in origin.62 In fact the Church has great merit for resisting both the anti-Christian forces and the colonizing aspect63 of European Christian missions over the last centuries having been able to preserve her identities up to the present time. is also acknowledged as a repository of Ethiopian national and religious feelings. but its appeal to the people is limited because it has been interpreted to them by western missionaries. however. As the result of limitations imposed upon the religious activity 61 62 63 Ibid. and has been for too long subservient to a Muslim Government to do much more than survive. hospitality to strangers. indigenized and more African. is clearly African and free. NIWAGILA. yet ancient and non western in origin. on the other hand. Inspite of a few Jewish similarities she remains quite Christian.61 It is obvious that the Ethiopian Orthodox Church has retained Judaic elements such as the tabot. Inspite all her achievements. ATIYA. It demanded reinterpretation by Africans to give it a deep meaninig. 150-151. 165. The Ethiopian Church. nor any meat which the Old Testament calls unclean. which suggest that such prejudices must be of Jewish origin earlier than the fourth century. The western sort of Christianity itself has conquered much of Africa south of the Sahara Desert. to lend support to the claims and aspirations of the Solomonic dynasty. He will also keep various monthly feasts according to his own calendar. A few Judaic elements cannot prove that the Ethiopian Church is not Christian. the way of reform always becomes inevitable for the Church. even today as in the past. making sure that all the blood is drained away. pp. Habits on one hand and modern institutions that appear around as a contrast on the other has brought both the Ethiopian Church and the Ethiopian society of a bygone era face to face still with the stark realities of a new and changing world. If an Amhara or any orthodox member of the Ethiopiaan Church wishes to eat meat he will almost certainly slaughter it himself. The country’s considerable adherence to religious and secular education as a solution to the problems of progress did not. The Coptic Church in Egypt is more Arab than African. 75. BAUR. p. The communist ideology of the new military government soon resulted in anti-religious pressure exerted on officials and Church leaders: the patriarch and eight bishops were deposed and the extensive lands of the Church nationalized. But analysis of the fragile social. Individual priests suffered harshness and some churches were closed. political. ATIYA. cit. op. though without breaking away from time-honoured tradition. 401. however. Haile Selassie is said to have worked.. 104 . Of all Ethiopian monarchs in history. both Protestant and Roman Catholic or other “Independent” Churches of modern times also had no significant impact on the native Church in the past.63 He was succeeded by the Marxist military regime in 1974. Their very existence within the country. p. 166. to educate his people and to cope with the forward march of modernizing influences.64 After the downfall of the military government in 1991 the Church seems to enjoy relatively more freedom based on pluralistic democracy. economic and cultural issues of the country still raises challenging questions to the oldest Ethiopian Church and its future survival as a repository of Ethiopian national culture as we approach the beginning of the twenty-first century. has aroused the request of young Ethiopians for ecclesiastical reform.of foreign missionaries. religious. cf. 64 Cf.