International Water Management Course IWMCA Sharing Solutions initiative by Swiss Re Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology International Water Management Course Sept. 28 – Oct. 1 2004, Rüschlikon-Zürich, Switzerland Lecture A framework for stakeholder analysis and stakeholder involvement Hans-Joachim Mosler 1 it is certainly because of the many failures experienced by development aid in the past. explicit importance is being attached to the recognition that this way of proceeding results frequently in rejection of the project or even resistance on the part of affected people and groups. 1995a). projects must place more weight on participation (a form of involvement) and that this should be connected with stakeholders having influence and sharing control over decisions that are made. Participation contributes to chances of aid being effective and sustainable for these reasons: • It is more effective because. on stakeholder participation. for example. The principle is that people should be fully involved in issues concerning themselves. the project organization must be willing to hand over control or to share control. The UK government Department for International Development (DFID) writes that participation is a question of both principle and practice (DFID. This can greatly delay a project or even doom it to failure. 1995a). time. the prospects for appropriate project design and commitment to achieving objectives is likely to be maximized. • Participation has something to do with empowering people. For another. It is also not easy to manage to create a good design for SI. and know-how. Broad participation of the population. It is actually quite accurate to say that participation has become the new paradigm. As the available resources are always limited. It is more sustainable because people are more likely to be committed to carrying on the activity after aid stops. It requires social (and cultural) competency as well as technical planning work. effectiveness and sustainability of projects depend. 2003. personnel. time) and thus costs must be allocated. p. increasing value is being placed on involving stakeholders. ethical considerations have led to the change in views. and more able to do so given that participation itself helps develop skills and confidence (DFID. aid organizations are making local stakeholder involvement a decisive condition for project funding. in drawing on a wide range of interested parties. Why is participation being promoted so strongly? For one. however. social justice. governmental authorities and organizations simply implemented projects without any consideration of the people affected. Also. conflicts can arise if (too) many stakeholders having conflicting interests are involved. of course. every project team has to ask itself what resources it is willing to 2 . In the meantime. in their aid and development work. as shown by the change in strategy of the World Bank (1996. and human rights (Soma. while at the same time. whenever possible. Empowerment is connected with democratization. for it costs resources. SI at all costs cannot be the ideal solution. in part. xi). Stakeholder Involvement (SI) also has disadvantages. good governance.Until still quite recently. for example. p. costs large expenditures. 48). Additional resources (money. Capacities are developed that make people more independent and help them to make decisions on what they must do in order to improve their own life situations. For this reason. The requirement is now that. and practically. In particular. The SI process must be repeatedly evaluated throughout the project cycle and implementation modified. Characteristics of stakeholders’ stance and attitudes towards the project must be defined. those are only very rough criteria. Key stakeholders must be identified. modified. The purposes for which SI processes will be used must be clarified. which must be adapted to the given framework conditions. the present paper will develop initial recommendations for such guidelines. First. what is needed are guidelines for selecting the appropriate form and degree of SI for project realization. 3. The SI process is initiated and implemented through repeated participatory meetings and events. probably little or no investment in SI is needed. 8. then SI is essential. a participatory technique (or method or approach) is selected. 3 . Successful realization of the project must be evaluated according to sustainability criteria. If the project goal is very restricted and achievable without the participation or permission of other persons. the steps required for successful implementation of SI are given in a brief overview (see Figure 1): 1. 9. based on the evaluation results. In the following. The results of SA must be verified and. If the project has wide objectives and the goals can be achieved only with the cooperation of people and organizations that are not involved in the project. The social network and relationships among the stakeholders must be identified. 6. 7. on the basis of an evaluation by the stakeholders (SH) themselves. This question can only be approached starting out from the goals of the project. if necessary. However. 5. 4. 2. Steps 2 to 4 above make up stakeholder analysis (SA).subtract from actual project realization and invest in SI. On the basis of the results of SA. Clarifying the purposes of SI Once agreement has been reached on the goals of the project. Each step is then described in detail. from there the purposes for which SI processes will be used can be defined. The descriptions and explanation are based in part on The World Bank Participation Sourcebook (1996) and the DFID technical and guidance notes on stakeholder participation (1995a-c). 1.Clarifying the Purposes Identifying Stakeholders Understanding Stakeholders’ Characteristics Identifying Patterns of Interaction Summarizing & Verification Selecting the Stakeholder Involvement Technique Continuous & Formative Evaluation Initiating & Implementing the Involvement Process Evaluating According to Sustainability Criteria Figure 1: Steps of the whole stakeholder involvement process. The following are conceivable purposes: 4 . etc. If a plan has already been developed. or other media Verification by other stakeholders Random method: Ask every single person that you encounter (friend. etc. stakeholders are directly involved in realizing the project and make a significant contribution to realization. it is helpful to use a combination of approaches: • • • • • Information by staff of key agencies Information from written records and population data Stakeholder self-selection by announcements at meetings. Key questions: • • • • Who are the potential beneficiaries? Who will be adversely affected? Who has existing rights? Who is likely to be voiceless? 5 . for example. in newspapers. consensus must be reached on the project. Joint implementation: With joint implementation.) as well as those whose activities significantly affect the system. If a project has already been planned and scheduled. so that their ideas can be (but not necessarily) taken into consideration during project planning. • • • • • 2. Consultation: Stakeholders are asked to give their views and responses. information is frequently intended to get stakeholders to agree with the project or to do something specific. waiter. Information: Stakeholders are provided with information about the project in various ways. To reduce the risks of failing to identify important stakeholders. stakeholders are directly involved in decision-making. taxi driver. Group decision-making: Decision-making is shared. Consensus-building: Whenever the various stakeholders affected have different interests. Identifying stakeholders Definition of stakeholders: Stakeholders are all people whose interests are affected by a system (project.• Getting approval/pushing the project through: Various means (pressure. their feedback. barber. or if experts believe that they know the correct solution to a problem. before a project is planned and scheduled.) who they think would be affected by a certain issue or project. This is an attempt at true sharing and control of decision-making. the only thing left to do is to convince the stakeholders. money) are employed to persuade stakeholders to agree to a project. ” The idea here is that stakeholders should be involved in the SA using appropriate methods (such as brainstorming. objectivity). After conducting initial. The willingness of the stakeholders to participate in the stakeholder process must be clarified. semi-structured interviews) in order to gain a realistic picture of their views. it is recommendable to conduct a quantitative. and so on. characteristics. not a one-way information feed ensure parties are sufficiently prepared and briefed to have well-informed opinions and decisions involve stakeholders in defining the terms of engagement allow stakeholders to voice their views without restrictions and fear of penalty include a public disclosure and feedback process In addition. concerns. Key actions to endure good quality dialogue include: • • • • • • • • • • allow stakeholders to assist in the identification of other stakeholders ensure that stakeholders trust the convenor enable dialogue. It will depend on at least four factors: a calculation of the costs and benefits that a person will derive from stakeholder involvement. Methods here are: brainstorming with the stakeholder group. reliability. it is necessary to establish open. mining existing data from reports. semistructured interviews. lively. Understanding stakeholders’ characteristics Understanding the interests. the following can be added: Create incentives for participation Create feeling of belonging through shared vision / objectives Help to give a voice to marginalized and minority persons and groups 3. qualitative interviews. To acquire the desired information. however. 4) for Stakeholder Power Analysis demand “quality multi-stakeholder dialogue. and this is can require a lot of expenditure of resources. It is important to ensure correct methodological procedures in order to fulfill validity criteria of the survey (validity. a person's 6 . standardized survey for estimation of frequency and distribution of SH characteristics among all stakeholders. skills. or key information? Whose behavior has to change for success to be reached? The guidelines of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) (2003. and fruitful dialogue between the parties. and interests. newspapers.• • • • Who is likely to mobilize resistance? Who is responsible for the intended plans? Who has the money. and circumstances of the stakeholders is a key to ensuring their cooperation. p. The representative survey produces a realistic picture of the opinion of the stakeholder group. or potential to affect or be affected by. Power can arise through position in an organization or develop out of personal connections. and social pressure to participate in stakeholder involvement. Assessment of power (influence) and potential to affect or be affected by (importance): It is useful to group the stakeholders by power and influence over the process. Identifying patterns of interactions between stakeholders Identification of interactions: The patterns and contexts of interaction between stakeholders have to be recognized: conflict and cooperation. and Relationships with other groups (IIED.11): • • • • Who is dependent on whom? What stakeholders are organized? Who has control over resources? What problems affect what stakeholders? 5. authority relationships. Summarizing and verification of stakeholder analysis Stakeholder tables may be used to summarize the results of the SA (see Tables 1 and 2). a person's opinion of stakeholder involvement. The potential to affect or be affected by resides in from characteristics specific to context and location. Responsibilities. Key questions for assessing which stakeholders have influence and importance might include (IIED. 9). such as knowledge and rights. the project refers to stakeholders whose problems. Table 1: Stakeholder characterization Main interest Stakeholder A Stakeholder B Stakeholder C Stakeholder D Stakeholder E Stakeholder F Influence Importance Net impact Options / ways forward 7 . 2003. interests. power meaning the extent to which stakeholder are capable of persuading or forcing others to take particular decisions or act in certain ways. historical contexts. religious. and needs are likely to be a priority (important) for the project. Assessment of “The Four Rs”: Rights. and legal institutions. ethnic. 2003. p. Rewards. p. Stakeholders’ potential influence over the final outcome importance. or cultural divisions. 4.capabilities and abilities to participate. and the potential coalition of support for the project. during the stages of the project cycle. 8 . even though they are weak in terms of their influence. In this sense. These findings will inform project negotiations and design (DFID. Importance is distinct from influence. defend against High influence Collaborate with Low influence Involve. and secure interests Monitor or ignore The DFIF (1995b) recommends a strategy for each field in the table above – the appropriate type of participation by different stakeholders – so that the project can be conducted successfully. the SA provides a basis for decisions on who should participate. As the DFID (1995b) points out. there will often be stakeholders. build capacity. especially unorganized primary stakeholders. Positioning stakeholders in relative terms according to the two broad criteria indicates relative risks posed by specific stakeholders. A diagram can be used for a clear representation of the relationships and influences among the stakeholder (see Figure 2). p. 2003.11): Table 2: Strategies for engagement in dependency from stakeholders influence and importance Stakeholder High importance Low importance Mitigate impacts. 1995b).The information about stakeholder influence and importance is combined in a table that characterizes stakeholders in terms of strategies for engagement (see table 2) (IIED. upon which the project places great importance. in what ways. their perceptions of themselves. 6.” Stakeholders are presented the results of the SA and asked to give their opinions on it. by a project or plan. some sort of definition is required. This handling of stakeholders is consciously intended. Selecting the stakeholder involvement technique What is Stakeholder Involvement (SI) actually? As there are no standards rules as to what precisely constitutes involvement. and so on. Involvement is inclusion or noninclusion of stakeholders. and decisions on how stakeholders are to be included in the project can be made by the project team exclusively or in negotiation with the stakeholders. ignoring. control.” Involvement means handling and dealing with various stakeholder groups. because for each stakeholder group we need to decide on the specific form involvement will take. inclusion can vary in degree. monitoring. Verification is not considered completed and successful until consensus has been reached on the characterization of the stakeholders and their relations among each other. the role of individual stakeholders can change during the lifetime of the project. forming of partnerships and alliances. However. in any way. and their relationships with other stakeholders. consultation. 9 . This is then a valid representation of the stakeholders. Forms of stakeholder involvement include: information. A very general definition might be: “Stakeholder involvement means to affect stakeholders. turning over responsibility and decisionmaking power.Stakeholder C Stakeholder D Stakeholder E Stakeholder A Stakeholder B Stakeholder F Finance Cooperate Control Figure 2: Diagram of different influences between the stakeholders. Verification of the SA is carried out using the method of “mirroring. radio. Media campaigns: Campaigns are conducted through various media (newspapers. This can be political pressure or the pure exercise of power. They are described in brief as follows: (A) Influence/Gain approval for project • • • Pressurize: Pressure is put on stakeholders so that they are more or less forced to do something. discounts. (B) identify needs (C) develop visions of the future. the appropriate SI technique is selected. • (B) Identify needs 10 . Incentives: Stakeholders are offered incentives to agree to something or to do something.Based on the SA and the project objectives. and so on. whereby the various SI techniques are not equally well suited for all project objectives. as shown in Table 3 below. holding public talks and public scientific meetings. Give information: Dissemination of information using various means: distributing brochures and scientific reports. Incentives can take the form of money. television. Internet) in order to persuade stakeholders or to move them to perform certain actions. (D) deal with conflicts. Table 3: What stakeholder involvement techniques for what purpose Pressu rize Incenti ves Media campaigns Give information Focus groups Repre sentative survey s Round table groups Scena rio workshop Future workshop Multiagency organi zation Advoc acy planning Conse nsus confer ence Mediation Convincing Giving information Consulting Forming consensus Taking group decision Implementing together ++ ++ + ++ ++ + ++ + ++ + + + ++ + ++ ++ ++ + ++ + “empty”= not suitable “+”= suitable “++”= very suitable The various SI techniques can be grouped in the categories (A) influence/ gain approval for project. or the like. The groups receive advice. and less able to articulate groups within the population are considered in the planning process. mediation through neutral third parties is the attempt to reach mutually agreed upon solutions. it develops action programs. • • (C) Develop visions of the future • Scenario workshop: Using scenarios prepared by experts. The committee is asked by the government or political institution to give advice and make a decision on a specific issue or topic. Multi-agency organization: This is the creation of an organizational structure. Representative surveys: A representative sample of the population is queried on a particular project or issue by means of a structured questionnaire. socially disadvantaged. • • (D) Deal with conflicts • Advocacy planning: Here the goal is to ensure that the interests of non-organized. Round table groups: Round table groups are consultative groups with participation of representatives of all stakeholders affected by a conflict or project. Together. Consensus conference: The goal is to have representatives of the public.• Focus groups: Moderated discussion in small groups. the first steps of implementation can begin. The goal is to consider problems thoroughly and to seek consensus-building and formulate solutions. the group prepares a final document. This technique has three successive phases: critique. Focus groups can contribute towards opinion-forming in the group. realization. brainstorming. Based on discussion results. First. Then there is an attempt to find mutually satisfying ways to resolve the conflict (evaluate options. laypeople. the participants design future scenarios and check the feasibility of their designs. they formulate a plan of action. blocks). the key issues and areas of conflict are stated and clarified (interests. a committee that includes representatives of all affected organizations. 11 • • . aversions. After hearing presentations by experts and studying information. Future workshop: Meant to motivate stakeholders to participate in the planning process. and their interests are represented in the appropriate committees and bodies. independently of their political or economic influence. When a solution is agreed upon. All participants must have equal rights. Based on the committee's visions of the future. stakeholders work on the scenarios in discussion workshops. check for fairness). whereby stakeholders express their opinions and attitudes. assess controversial issues. Mediation: In conflict situations. techniques for dealing with conflict should be implemented. 12 . the technique influence/ gain approval for the project can be used to attempt to win them over. If SA reveals strong conflicts among SH interests. If SA has revealed that SH have not thought at all about future development. The following frameworks are significant: • • • • Political framework: Does the type of stakeholder involvement fit into the existing political system? Legal framework: Does the type of stakeholder involvement conform to the laws? Institutional framework: Does the type of stakeholder involvement follow the given institutional framework? Social framework: Does the type of stakeholder involvement conform to social customs? If it is foreseeable that the selected SI technique will stand in grave contradiction to one of these frameworks. If important stakeholders have no interest in the project. referee Control over process Role: Mediator Role: Inquisitor Frameworks of the Social System Further.The results of the SA can be used when selecting the appropriate SI technique for stakeholders in the following ways: • • • • If there are influential stakeholders who are against the project. a different SI technique must be chosen. it is important to clarify whether and to what extent the selected SI technique accords with or stands in conflict with important frameworks in the social system. or if interests of the so-called “voiceless” are not being represented. What role the project directors can play in the framework of the conflict-laden stakeholder process is dependent upon their control of the process and the decisions. for it may be possible to stimulate their interest in the project via their needs. Table 4 below provides an overview of project directors’ roles under the different conditions: Table 4: Role of the project director in dependency of his control over decisions and process No control over decisions Control over decisions No control over process Role: Initiator (stimulate the process) Role: Arbitrator. it is important to identify their needs. the SI technique develop visions of the future should be used. and what members of the group will articulate their opinions and thus tend to sway the group? What opinion of the project could end up as the typical opinion of the group? What opinions of the project on the part of respected. 1996): • Shared interests: With no shared interests. Legitimization: The corporation of a project must acquire official legitimization in the form of financial resolutions. it is important to clarify also possible group processes based on the SA. and submission of the required communications to the authorities.7. For credibility. residents). or should there also be meetings of sub-groups within the group? Is the frequency of the meetings tolerable to all participants (time burden)? How binding should group decisions be for the individual members of the group? Further points that must be clarified and are indispensable if the project is to succeed are the following (these are based in part on The Worldbank Participation Sourcebook. Initiating and implementing the stakeholder involvement process Group processes: Prior to initiating the SI process. Credibility of the corporation: Projects are usually conducted by a corporation – federal or municipal authorities or a coalition of organizations and persons (NGOs. questions like the following are pertinent: Should the group always meet as a whole. churches. project proponents must be broadly supported and their members must be persons who have proved themselves. an appropriate form that is acceptable to all parties must be found. and who are held in high esteem. For this reason it is necessary to unmask any commonality in stakeholders' underlying interests and to highlight and assure common ground that the stakeholders will recognize as such. who act in an integrative manner. outstanding. cooperation. associations. money. or powerful persons in the group could get through? What minority opinions could get through and how? Is polarization of the entire group to a particular opinion possible? When implementing the SI process. know-how). Resources: It is important to clarify in advance the availability of the resources required for conducting a stakeholder involvement program adequately (time. Here. The following checklist contains questions that should be asked: • • • • • • To what extent will hidden agendas and the previous histories of group members influence their voicing of opinions in the group? What members of the group will tend to remain silent. 13 • • • . there will be no cooperation among stakeholders. 14 . but rather all actors gain additional benefit. These can start with stakeholders being no longer willing to cooperate and can move on to sabotage. • • • • • • • The above points are examined and clarified so that the suitability of SI can be assessed. such as social prestige. It is conceivable that false expectations and disappointments on the part of stakeholders can have consequences of all kinds. and it has to make sense within the specific situation. Motivation of participants: For influential actors. with high resulting costs. the assessment should be conducted by a team. The willingness of influential actors to participate increases if they have the possibility of obtaining other resources. Results for the SH: Before stakeholders commit themselves to participation. it is important to establish consensus regarding basic procedures and constitutive decision rules that will hold for the SI process. and possibly to disapproval and rejection of the project in public opinion. they should be informed as to their role within the SA and as to what they can expect from the results. Institutional integration: Participatory processes need to be “practical in the real world. Turning zero-sum conflicts into positive-sum conflicts: The attempt should be made to change potential conflict situations in such a way that a situation is created in which one actor does not win at the cost of another. which not least of all strive towards the equality of all participants.” meaning that their organization and structure can be integrated into overreaching decision processes and that they take into account participants’ limited resources in time and means. At the start of the SI process. which ultimately impacts the quality of their participation. Competency of participants: If participants are not given sufficient information. open opposition. it is essential to ensure that participants are sufficiently technically informed as soon as possible. Collaborative setting of rules for decision-making and procedures: At the start of the process. is connected with risks and a real loss of power. To arrive at the least distorted interpretation. Of course. and acceptance of their concerns. this is a matter of interpretation. To prevent this. Ongoing public relations efforts are necessary in order to assure the flow of information to the outside. the extent to which participatory results will be binding in the project it should be clarified. participating in SI processes. there is the danger that their decision will be inconsistent and not base on the facts.• Transparency: High transparency and comprehensibility of ongoing decision processes make a significant contribution by giving stakeholders the opportunity to learn about higher-order decision problems and abstract planning issues. Secure expectations: Participatory processes are credible only if they have an influence on the decisions to be made. honor. whether the roles were consistent with what the stakeholders envisioned when they decided to participate. including their decision to participate. The entire SI process must undergo continuous evaluation. and the effectiveness of these roles overall satisfaction of stakeholders with the stakeholder involvement process.): • involvement in the process. and brought together the right people in the process to effectively represent stakeholder interests perceptions as to the organization of the process roles of the stakeholders. Evaluation of the process should be conducted in such a way that (a) after every meeting and (b) otherwise. stakeholders are asked about their satisfaction with the SI process with regard to form. including whether it afforded the stakeholder a real opportunity for input. addressed those issues adequately. course of the process. the results must impact the process. so that transformation processes do not go unnoticed. The following points should be explored with the stakeholders in an interview using a semi-structured interview protocol (taken and adapted from Project XL. For a formative evaluation. For example. every meeting of the SH results in a plan of goals and actions that are accepted and borne by all. so that comparison is possible. including whether the process goals were appropriate and successfully accomplished. It is also important to repeat the assessment of the conditions periodically. Continuous and formative evaluation In the best case. results. and more. and whether the process focused on the right issues. whether the level of involvement and the timeframe of involvement were appropriate. at regular intervals.or at least by two persons. if some participants are dissatisfied with the form of the process. and whether there were any barriers to effective participation perspectives as to what the stakeholder process was trying to accomplish. including their perceptions about the major strengths and weaknesses of the stakeholder involvement process and suggestions for improving the process 15 • • • • • . it should be corrected as quickly as possible. the stage in the decision making process at which stakeholders became involved. 8. including whether the roles were developed by the company alone or in conjunction with other stakeholders. and the results of the evaluation must constantly inform the process. p. how they were invited to participate. 107 f. development. and any involvement in their community or with the facility before this process began perceptions as to whether the stakeholder participation process was well designed and implemented. revising it as needed (formative evaluation). and whether the stakeholder felt that they had an impact on the outcome. summative evaluation of the project. The following presents some initial suggestions for assessment criteria for each dimension: A. self-supporting. political.• • • how technical issues were addressed in the stakeholder process and if this enabled technical information to be understandable to all participants the degree to which differences in interests or perspectives existed between stakeholders and how any differences that did exist were addressed how meetings (if held) were managed. funding secured implementation was as rapid as possible 16 . how satisfied they were with the “Final Project Agreement. social. and organizational structures were reinforced or established B. the use of a facilitator and that person’s effectiveness. Fulfillment of each dimension is assessed according to criteria. ecological. Evaluating completed projects according to sustainability criteria It is necessary to conduct a global.” and what outcomes were most and least satisfying to them and their constituency what had been accomplished since the signing of the Final Project Agreement. including issues of setting the agenda and ground rules. Social sustainability • • • • • • • • • the largest possible percentage of the population has profited from the project as many different groups within the population have profited from the project as possible the needs of several generations have been taken into account the highest possible number of jobs has been created no aggression arose the project promoted broad improvement of the populations’ competencies institutional. Project success should be measured on four dimensions of sustainability: economic. and whether these meetings provided a good opportunity for dialogue the outcomes of the process. The worth and value of the project aimed for is sustainable development of the region in which the project was conducted. how the stakeholders had continued to be involved. Economic sustainability independent of external resources. and technical sustainability (it makes sense to include technical sustainability where technical facilities have been installed). Sustainable development is a guideline for developing a human society that aims to satisfy the needs of all people – current or future generations – and to ensure a good quality of life for all. and the effectiveness of that involvement. • • 9. References and suggested readings Babiuch. Landry. D. Ecological sustainability no damage to nature and environment. 587-602. 19 (4). A Practical Guide (pp. but improved D. Qualitative Methods in Organizational Research. C. 15. Guidance Note on Indicators for measuring and assessing primary stakeholder participation [On-line]. Burgoyne. Available: http://www. 173-193.). In Cassell.. (2004). contexts. (2000). or fulfilled only in part. (1998).euforic. Colorado: National Reneweble Energy Laboratory. (Eds. Available: http://www.org/gb/stake3. D. 17 . B. Agricultural systems. and Trust in Participatory Environmental Planning. Only once the overall evaluation of the project is positive can SA and SI be considered to be completed. 187-207). G. & Wellard. W.Values.• • • • • • • project benefit felt as early as possible C. J. Technical sustainability the installation functions with no technical problems the installation functions for as long as possible the installation can be repaired and maintained with onsite spare parts and know-how If the overall evaluation reveals that some criteria have not been met. 15-32. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. Grimble. Martel. Beierle. & Farhar. Banville.htm Diallo. C. (1997). & Symon. London: Sage. & Thuillier. 22. International Journal of Project Management. Technical note on enhancing stakeholder participation in aid activities [On-line]. Conflict. Guidance note on how to do stakeholder analysis of aid projects and programmes [On-line]. M. Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles.org/gb/stake2.. R. Stakeholder Analysis Methodologies Resource Book. Stakeholder Analysis. M. T. & Boulaire. J. M.euforic.org/gb/stake1.htm Department for International Development (1995b). environmentally friendly increase/no reduction of biodiversity the health and well being of the population was not impaired. Department for International Development (1995a). The success dimensions of international development projects: the perceptions of African project coordinators. & Konisky. Systems research. (1994). 55 (2). C. A stakeholder approach to MCDA. K. 19-31. A. (1994). experiences and opportunities. C. Available: http://www.euforic.htm Department for International Development (1995c). the process should be modified and corrected if it is still possible. gov/projectxl/finalreport.. 27. & Wood. 22 (4). O. 47-58. Stakeholder involvement in water management: necessity or luxury? Water Science and Technology. Available: http://www. (2001). [On-line]. [On-line]. Journal of the american water resources association.. (2003). Agricultural systems. D. Available: Ravnborg. http://www. L. C. Project XL. (2002).International Institute for Environment and Development (2003). Perrin.iied.a country case study in Trinidad and Tobago.gov/projectxl/032599. Morrison. M. 73. Toward a theory stakeholder identification and salience: defining the principle of who and what really counts. 41-56. R. (2003).Understanding interdependencies: stakeholder identification and negociation for collective natural resource management. & Westermann. Smutko.htm 18 . 226249. Soma. How to involve stakeholders in fisheries management . S. J. & Danielson. S. L. Klimek. Agle. Available: http://www. A. Final Report (2000)..org/wbi/sourcebook/sbhome. R. 995-1006. H.worldbank.epa. 43-51. Involving watershed stakeholders: an issue attribute approach to determine willingness and need. K. K. B. Stakeholder Involvment Evaluation. Marine Policy. The academy of management review.pdf. The World Bank Participation Sourcebook [On-line]. 38 (4). (1997).epa.html Mitchell. H. 47. Project XL. The World Bank (1996). Stakeholder Involvment: A guide for project sponsors and stakeholders (1999).org/forestry/tools/stakeholder. K. Stakeholder Power Analysis Part 1 [On-line]. Available: http://www.pdf. E.
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