DOXOLOGY 2011 49Including Children in Eucharistic Celebrations: A Korean Presbyterian Perspective Hwarang Moon Should churches invite children to celebrate the Lord’s Supper? Since the 1971 Conference of Faith and Order Commission of the World Council of Churches, the topic of children at the Lord’s Supper has been a topic of concern in many of the Presbyterian, Methodist, and Lutheran churches, as well as, to a limited extent, in the Roman Catholic Church.1 Especially after the publication of Christian L. Keidel’s article, “Is the Lord’s Supper for Children?” in 1975, many evangelical Reformed communities have expressed concern about this issue.2 Among the Reformed denominations in North America, the Reformed Church in America and the Christian Reformed Church permit age-appropriate participation by children in the Lord’s Supper while emphasizing the role of parents and a church committee in preparing them for the process of communion.3 In the case of the Korean Reformed churches, however, there have been no official arguments regarding infants or children at the Lord’s Table !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 Christian Reformed Synodical Study Committee Report 34, “Committee to Study the Issue of Covenant Children Partaking of the Lord’s Supper,” in Agenda for Synod 1986 (Grand Rapids: Board of Publication of the Christian Reformed Church, 1986), 348. 2 See “Is the Lord’s Supper for Children?” Westminster Theological Journal, 37 (1975): 301341. Tim Gallant assesses, “His article dropped like a bomb into the more conservative and evangelical Reformed community.” See Tim Gallant, Feed My Lambs: Why the Lord’s Table Should Be Restored to Covenant Children (Grand Prairie, Alberta: Pactum Reformanda Publishing, 2002), 18. 3 In the case of the Christian Reformed Church, the Synod in 2006 decided to open the Lord’s Table to all baptized members “on the basis of their full membership in the covenant community,” though that decision was not ratified in 2007. See Christian Reformed Church in North America Synod, Acts of Synod 2006 (Grand Rapids: Board of Publications of the Christian Reformed Church, 2006), 727-731. Presently, the PCUSA allows the practice at the discretion of the local church. Many European churches also have adopted the practice, including the Reformed churches in the Netherlands (GKN), which allows consistories to permit the practice under certain conditions. See Children and Holy Communion: An Ecumenical Consideration amongst Churches in Britain and Ireland (British Council of Churches and Free Church Federal Council, 1989), 36-48. ! 50 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS until now.4 However, current debates about the possibility of infant communion among the Reformed churches in North America who stand within the Calvinistic tradition give some important direction for the Korean Presbyterian Church. The Korean Presbyterian Church has great enthusiasm for the role of God’s Word in Christian worship. Not only in the public worship service, but also daily early morning prayer meetings, the Word plays an important role and receives liturgical emphasis. But, comparatively speaking, there is little concern for the sacraments, for the visible Word.5 Korean Presbyterian Church law permits confirmation for anyone who has received infant baptism, from the age of fourteen up. Until the age of fourteen, children are raised in the Sunday school system, and only people who have received adult baptism or confirmation can participate in the Eucharist.6 Under these circumstances, children have very little opportunity to experience the sacraments in public worship. Many Korean teenagers lose the opportunity to participate in public worship and experience the sacraments, which they should have from an early age.7 In fact, many young persons participate in the Eucharist for the first time only upon entering a university, over the age of twenty. How might Korean Christians encourage hospitality towards children in our public worship and in our sacramental life? Reformed opposition to the participation of children in communion !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4 This article draws on my previous work in Hwarang Moon, "What The Korean Presbyterian Church Can Learn From Contemporary Debates About Infant Communion Among Reformed Christians In North America." Calvin Theological Seminary Th. M. Thesis, 2009. 5 See Seung-Joong Joo and Kyeong Jin Kim, “The Reformed Tradition in Korea,” in The Oxford History of Christian Worship, ed. Geoffrey Wainwright and Karen B. Westerfield Tucker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 484-491. 6 Almost all of the Korean Presbyterian churches set the participation of public worship of children at age fourteen. In the case of the Korean Presbyterian Church in Kosin, see Korean Presbyterian Church, Constitution (Seoul: Kosin Presbyterian Church, 1992), 253. 7 In fact, many high school students do not attend worship on Sunday mornings because they are enrolled in college entrance examination (SAT) preparation programs. ! W. should come to the Table passively. “If they cannot partake worthily without being able duly to discern the sanctity of the Lord's body. having passed the tender period of infancy.xvi. Therefore. Calvin Translation Society.”11 We can summarize these core opinions in two ways.8 This opposition is mainly related to the thought of John Calvin and his exegesis of 1 Corinthians 11. Willard (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. communion of children. they consider that the Eucharist !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8 I do not recommend the use of the term “infant communion. in this article. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Zacharius Ursinus on the Heidelberg Catechism." which has been widely used among scholars. 1845-46). I will use the term "infant communion.30. 1954). The Korean term for infants. prior to studying the possibility of children’s participation in communion. Ursinus says. he emphasizes. who. typically refers to children between four and thirteen years old.DOXOLOGY 2011 51 Traditionally. because they do not possess faith actually. based on their exegesis on 1 Corinthians 11. 425. trans. discussing 1 Corinthians 11:28-29.” First. Henry Beveridge (Edinburgh. But here actual faith is required. First. In contrast.” refers to unweaned children. the Korean term for children. namely infants. and it connotes extreme passivity. 10 Ibid. “younga" or "yua."9 Also. are fit to bear solid food. but only potentially and by inclination. the Korean and English terminology for infants and young children can easily create confusion. “Infants are not capable of coming to the Lord’s Supper. IV. why should we stretch out poison to our young children instead of edifying food?”10 Along the same line. trans. “The Supper is intended for those of riper years. ! . This term connotes children with the capacity for more active engagement. 11 Zacharias Ursinus. Second. The Commentary of Dr. this term suggests that some participants. though it does not yet convey a level of engagement expected of adults. 9 John Calvin. to convey the importance of welcoming young children to active participation at the Table. (“eerinyee”). we should review Calvin’s and the Reformed church’s thoughts on infant communion and their interpretation of the phrase.” John Calvin and the Reformed tradition’s thoughts on the communion of children What do Calvin and the Reformed tradition say about the communion of children? Calvin says. “discerning the body of Christ. G. However. Reformed churches and Presbyterian churches have opposed the participation of children in communion. up to the age of perhaps three. whereas “infant” in English generally refers to a baby less than one year of age. I would therefore call for the use of the term “eerinyee” communion. 210. 14 Institutes. “the Lord is able to furnish them (children) with the knowledge of Himself in any way He pleases. 1979).xvi. IV. against the Anabaptists. 35.” See Institutes. In contrast. IV. “Daddy. see B. there is compelling evidence that !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12 13 Institutes. self-examination. yet the seed of both lies hid in them by the secret operation of the Spirit. rather. these Reformers proposed different criteria in regard to infant baptism. Kumphuis. by which we are again born to be children of God. Second.14 When we review his commentaries on First Corinthians and Matthew.18.30.20.”13 Calvin did not apply the same concept to infant communion: [Baptism] is a kind of entrance. Though are not yet been formed in them. who.xvi. Calvin says. XVII. May I take Communion?” Lux Mundi (September 1995). he insisted that people could not forbid infant baptism.12 Calvin argued. whereas on the contrary the Supper is intended for those of riper years. by which we are ranked among the people of God. 15 See Commentary on the Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. and repentance. Also. having passed the tender period of infancy. see Calvin’s Commentaries.xvi. Institutes. Calvin emphasized that children should receive regeneration by baptism.xvi. Vol. ! . 348-395. we find that his criteria for accepting people to the Lord’s Supper emphasized confession.20. IV. IV. are fit to bear solid food. In addition to this. and as it were initiation into the Church.15 Calvin‘s “antipaedocommunionism” suggests that baptism and the Lord’s Supper are evidently different sorts of sacraments. which were written during the period of the Reformation in the sixteenth century and the early seventeenth century. by reminding us of God’s commandment to circumcise infants. see Belgic Confession art. 9-11. concerning the emphasis of faith in the Lord’s Supper. they believe that children do not possess enough intelligence or cognitive ability to declare faith as adults do. “Infants are baptized for future repentance and faith.52 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS requires the power of discernment. Cornelis Venema summarizes the Reformed Confession’s character as follows: In the classic confessions of the Reformed churches. a sign of our spiritual regeneration. Also. the Reformed tradition has prohibited children’s participation in the Eucharist. ed. 177) state that faith and the ability to examine one’s faith and life are prerequisites for those who receive the Lord’s Supper. the Scottish Confession of Faith of 1560 (Ch. the Belgic Confession of 1561 (Art. (3) Christ is the Savior of the whole Church. Church Dogmatics. The meaning of “recognizing the Body” in I Corinthians 11:29 One reason why people hesitate to include children in communion is based on an inadequate interpretation of I Corinthians 11:29. we need to closely examine the phrase “discerning the body of Christ” in 1 Corinthians 11 to evaluate the validity of infant communion. Musculus. 29:7. So then. including the children. 170-175. 16). 471-73. there is no evangelical creed that decisively supports the participation of infants or children in the Lord’s Supper. “Paedocommunion and the Reformed Confessions” (I) The Outlook. Loci communes theologiae sacrae (Basel: Heruagiana. 583. “It is no exaggeration to say that I Corinthians 11:23-29 is the most extensive and comprehensive New Testament passage on the subject of !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16 Cornelis Venema. 22).35). trans. Cornelis Venema says. John Vriend (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. 17 The only Reformed theologian who supported the validity of infant communion was Musculus.17 The Westminster Confession of Faith and the Larger Catechism (29:1. 2008).16 As Venema points out. Herman Bavinck summarizes his opinion as follows: “(1) Those who possess the thing signified also have a right to the sign. 1567). Therefore.” W. 20. and feeds and refreshes all of its members with his body and blood. and the Second Helvetic Confession of 1566 are all in agreement with that the Lord’s Supper should be administered only to those who are of discernment and who have declared their faith in Christ. 11:26-29) is not intended by the apostle as a universal requirement.DOXOLOGY 2011 53 the Reformed churches believe that the Lord’s Supper ought to be administered only to professing believers. 2006). in Herman Bavinck. Qqs.1 (Jan. vol. from the Reformation era until the middle of the 20th century. IV. ! . John Bolt. (2) Children who can receive the grace of regeneration can also be nurtured in their spiritual lives without their knowledge. The Geneva Confession of 1536 (Art. 56. (4) The demand for self-examination (1 Cor. 19 See Venema. 355. 57. TX: Geneva Divinity School Press. ! . “New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (IV). this passage was used to prove that participation in the Lord’s Supper required the faithful confession of its recipients.’” See Christian Reformed Church. which described the problem in the church in Corinth. 75. 57. See also Gallant. Heron says. ‘apart from remembrance there can be no meaningful participation. Many scholars note the importance of the phrase “in remembrance of me. 42. 22).5 (May 2007): 26.” Alasdair I. Whereas the earlier section.”18 Traditionally. Venema emphasizes. this section shifts to the third person singular.19 Thus. uses primarily the second person plural you (vv 17-20. Pointing out “whoever eats” in verse 27. this phrase contributes to prohibiting the participation of children in the Lord’s Supper. “A sacrament can never be celebrated without at least a clear repetition of the command promise of Christ in the hope of which the church fulfils this ordinance…Calvin approves of Augustine’s statement that the elements only become sacraments when the word is added. “let a person” in verse 28. 20 Venema. Venema. Table and Tradition: Toward an Ecumenical Understanding of the Eucharist (Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Heron. 135. Ronald Wallace says. many scholars consider the context of this passage as a universal teaching about the Lord’s Supper. 1953). and himself adds the comments. “This language clearly shows that Paul’s instructions regarding participation in the sacraments are intended to apply in a general way to all believers whenever they commune with Christ and each other by means of the sacrament. and “for anyone” in verse 29.” Throughout history. as in the Scottish highlands.” 24. “Or again. Report 34. The change in this section to that (27-29) of such third person forms has a significant bearing upon how the instructions of this section are to be !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 18 See Cornelis P. “New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (IV)” The Outlook.3 (March 2007): 24. Word and Sacrament (Tyler. ‘Certainly if a man only brings his eyes and shuts his ears they will differ in no respect from the profane rites of the heathen. the CRC reports. 1983). to mean that only those who are sure of their own worthiness can dare to receive the Eucharistic bread and wine. Also.’” See Ronald Wallace. “ New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (V)” The Outlook. Against this trend.”20 His foundation is as follows: The shift that occurs in this section of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34 is evident from the change in language that Paul uses. “Paul’s warnings about unworthy reception have had the most unfortunate results where they have been misunderstood.54 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS the Lord’s Supper. His opinion is based on his reading of Calvin.DOXOLOGY 2011 55 understood. Against this. 57.” Calvin Theological Seminary Forum (Spring 2007). 323. “The New Testament Evidence Regarding Paedocommunion (VI). but the important thing to determine is to whom these statements and warnings are specifically addressed. 24 Jeffrey A. when I study the literary context of 1 Corinthians 11. Acts 2:21. Weima. Keidel emphasizes. 385. I see that Paul is concerned about divisions in the Corinthian community.” The Outlook. Reading Romans 10:13. 28) or to judge (v. Thus. “Although we cannot know with certainty what led to divisions over the Lord’s Supper at Corinth. he now moves to a series of general instruction that apply to all members of the covenant community. See John Calvin. ! . and 2 Thessalonians 3:10. 1979).”22 That is to say. The language in this transitional verse underscores the seriousness of an unworthy reception of the body and blood of Christ. Romans 3:28. “The crucial thing to understand about 1 Corinthians 11 in regard to infant and child participation in the supper is not the meaning of such words as remembrance (vv. or examine (v. 8. “Children at the Lord’s Supper and the Key Text of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34. he insists. 25). 29). he insists that all people who participate in the Lord’s Supper should be “professing members” of the church who are in good standing.”23 Therefore. Commentary on the Epistles of Paul the Apostle to the Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. and thus function as a general or universal rule about all participation in the Lord’s Supper. he believes these phrases are not universal instruction.”24 The idea that !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21 Venema. D. 23 Ibid. Though the apostle began his treatment of the Lord’s Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 with a description of the inappropriate behavior of some members of the Corinthian church.5 (May 2007): 23-24. “This text cannot be applied universally. Weima says. John 3:16. 24. 22 Keidel. This automatically means that children cannot be permitted to partake in the Lord’s Supper.21 Venema insists that those commands apply to every participant. it is clear that the problem involved social discrimination: the wealthy Christians celebrated the Lord’s Supper in a way that despised and humiliated their poorer fellow believers. isn’t it possible for young children to confess God and have sufficient religious potential? !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25 See C. trans. nor does it remove the need for some form of selfexamination. 223. Koester. “Infant Communion in Light of the New Testament. 1969).” Calvin Theological Seminary Forum (Spring 2007). The First Epistle to the Corinthians. we should attend to the work of the Holy Spirit in forming a person’s faith. If the Holy Spirit is at work.25 In this respect. 237. 1987). 443. 257. Is it an act of God’s grace or of human faith? Secondly. 1968). Therefore. Weima.56 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS the Corinthians thought that partaking of the Supper automatically exempted them from judgment is widely recognized. “Children at the Lord’s Supper and the Key Text of 1 Corinthians 11:17-34.”26 Weima concludes. C. D. ! . Paul stressed the necessity of examining oneself and discerning the body. we should explore the foundation of the Lord’s Supper. Weima concludes that the main intention of the author of Corinthians is not to give universal instruction regarding the Lord’s Supper. K. When children today are excluded from the Lord’s Supper. there is the very real danger of committing the same sin for which Paul criticized the Corinthians: humiliating fellow believers. NICNT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Fee. Gordon D. which had no concern for the poor and weak members in the church. A Commentary on the First Epistle to the Corinthians (New York: Harper & Row. “We do not come to the Lord’s Supper to testify there to our worthiness. Why should children participate in the Eucharist? How can we support children’s participation in the Lord’s Supper? To begin with. Barrett. but to give firsthand instruction to the Corinthian church. Hugo Bekker (Grand Rapids. however. it is somewhat hard to uphold “antipaedocommunion” positions based on 1 Corinthians 11. as Craig Koester says. that children ought to take part fully at the communion table. we can think that “Paul’s reference to ‘discerning the body’ (11:29) is another way of speaking about one’s relationship to Christ and to other people.” G. 220. Eerdmans. The Sacraments.” Lutheran Quarterly 10 (1996). this interpretation does not automatically mean.27 Examining the context of 1 Corinthians 11:23-29. 27 Jeffrey A. but with the acknowledgement that we seek our life in Jesus Christ and that without him we lie in the midst of death. But. 26 Craig R. Berkouwer says. Therefore. 8. Berkouwer. making God’s grace in some way conditional. “Our belonging to Christ is not conditional on our believing and repenting…We believe that we belong…Faith is our response to the gospel. Torrance says. by studying the doctrine of grace. ! . In fact. how can it be unconditional? As Torrance says. “Some Theological Grounds for Admitting Children to the Lord’s Table. and belonging to God is an important factor in having faith. but by His grace.DOXOLOGY 2011 57 God’s grace or believer’s faith? Adult Christians have prohibited the participation of children based on the criteria of discernment and intellectual ability. 30 Ibid. Quoting Michael Polanyi. 200. and to seek that communion for which we were reconciled. He also emphasizes that God calls us not according to our worth. the Reformed tradition’s emphasis on repentance before participating in the Lord’s Supper. Of course. but our response to grace. discernment sufficient to consider the body of Christ is very important. we may find a clue to the possibility of the participation of children in communion. However. 29 Ibid. according to 1 Corinthians 11:29 seems to focus on our worth.” Reformed Review.3 (Spring 1987). means that we are summoned unconditionally to renounce those sins for which Christ died.. our acknowledgement that we are not our own but are bought at a price and bought long before we were born. 40.”29 He emphasizes that faith is God’s gracious gift. Torrance argues.30 Torrance emphasizes that God’s unconditional grace is crucial to our understanding of baptism and the Eucharist. If grace is given to us according to our status of spirituality. On this New Testament and Reformed understanding. The fact that Christ died to take away our sins and restore us to communion with God. but this seems to suggest that the validity of participation depends on a person’s belief. His opinion has great value in !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 28 James B. 201. Torrance. This does cause some debate over the possibility of infants’ and young children’s participation in the Eucharist. “We need to understand the relationship between the ‘nature of the gospel of grace’ and faith of people. faith and repentance are not conditions of grace.”28 In other words. Commentary on the Heidelberg Catechism. Ohio: 1852. See Torrance. He says. we should consider that grace requires a profession of faith. He does not treat us as senseless stock and blocks (Canons of Dort. Mark A. The Way of Life. Though we cannot know whether others receive God’s salvation or not. Torrance also considers the danger of cheap grace. Z. 434. Williard (Columbus. reprint ed.58 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS helping us consider the aspect of grace in the debate on infant communion. Die teure Gnade in Nachfolge (Munchen: C. people come to know how great our received grace is and confirm that our community is a real faith-based community.15. Torrance points out that the requirement of excessive preparation in communion would deny the essence of God’s grace and. That is why the Bible is filled with public professions of faith. it is God who is active—he is the sole subject. Many times did Israel !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31 Regarding “cheap grace. Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co. ed. 33 Torrance. and in the Eucharist. However.). 8. by professing one’s faith. the Dutch theologian Kamphuis develops a relationship between the sacraments and God’s grace with the help of the concept of covenant. would present the possibility of the “danger of legalism. 1987). 202.. it is natural that people who receive salvation should also give a confession of faith. n.” Currents in Theology and Mission. 180-186. 202."31 This is because even though salvation and faith are God’s gracious gifts.” see Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Noll (New York: Paulist Press. David Pearcy says.32 However. which depends upon the work of the Holy Spirit. G. IV. Also see David Pearcy. 1952).d.3 (June 1981): 162. however.”33 However. Institutes. Kaiser. 16). Ursinus. The Western Church has placed such great stress on being worthy before receiving communion that the idea of the sacrament as a free gift has become clouded and occasionally lost. “The New Testament. Even though we acknowledge the priority of God’s grace.” It is on these grounds that Torrance criticizes the Western Church’s stance towards communion: “So our Highland tradition can in practice turn the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper into something like the sacrament of penance.” ! . 32 See Charles Hodge. W. Part III: Reasons for its Restoration. even worse.. III/IV. by demanding evidences of grace as a condition for acceptance at the Table. always speaks of baptism as God’s work. his emphasis also carries the possible danger of turning God’s grace into a kind of "cheap grace. “Infant Communion. trans. Calvin. but as people with full responsibility. too.xv. ! . “Definitive Sanctification” Calvin Theological Journal. But our God does not remain the only One in the history of the covenant.”39 In this sense. 1983). If the sacraments are a means to strengthen faith. How.DOXOLOGY 2011 59 profess its faith.36 While baptism does not create faith. 24:3.37 Therefore.). (September 1992). Calvin’s Doctrine of the Word and Sacrament (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd Ltd. God has fellowship with those who have been baptized. can we express the relationship between our faith and God’s grace? John Murray’s study on “definitive sanctification” and “justification” offers insight into the relationship between baptism and the Eucharist. 39 Ronald Wallace. However.1 (April 1967). God’s grace works in us. “Eating the bread cannot ensure a generating faith. which shows His grace. Also. 5. Overtures (Grand Rapids: Board of Publications of the Christian Reformed Church). 6. 37 Edmund Schlink. it also requires our faithful profession and the discernment of the Spirit. God’s grace and fellowship begin with the baptized child who belongs to the covenant family. 36 John Murray. 211-212.”38 The Lord’s Supper is God’s gift. 38 Christian Reformed Church in North America. 489. 21 24. Joshua 24: 16-18. Acts of Synod 84. but from enthusiasm and pursuit of the purity of the Church. and the baptized passively receive God’s salvific act.. reprint ed. “Infant Baptism and Infant Communion. Neh. Texas: Geneva Divinity School Press. as a CRC report makes clear: “Children need this means of grace. Wallace says. who but children need that strengthening most? Children are most in need of the ‘visual’ to remind them of what Christ has done for them. The Reformers’ emphasis on confession of faith did not come from knowing the character of God’s grace. etc. 421. 35 Ibid. and our status is definitely transformed from sin. the baptized child needs God’s continuous grace and nursing..3. 1982).34 The Lord’s Supper is first and foremost an activity on God’s part. 1953. we cannot permit adult participation without !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34 B. even though the Lord’s Supper is given by God’s self-giving grace. 10. Tyler. In the Lord’s Supper His people give their response.” Lux Mundi..35 Kamphuis emphasizes our response to God. 11. Ökumenische Dogmatik: Grundzüge (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. on crucial moments in history (Ex. then. Kamphuis. 2. The concept of definitive sanctification suggests that by receiving justification. Calvin says that God gave humans a “sense of deity. 1992).42 She has also noted that children from three to six years of age have demonstrated particular sensitivity to the following points. but by God’s opening our eyes to see Him. reflected in the language they use to speak of God. children cannot taint or deteriorate the value of the Eucharist. then we know God not by observing the universe. and the Eucharist. Coulter and Julie M. Patricia M. children themselves have a profound sense of the majesty of God.60 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS confession and baptism. II. I. we can know that God gives religious potential to children. ! . If the formation of faith depends on the work of the Holy Spirit. The Religious Potential of the Child: Experiencing Scripture and Liturgy with Young Children. Institutes. 43 Ibid. However. However. Baptism. we can say that all people have religious minds and potential. God’s grace has been given to the baptized child who belongs to the covenant family. we need to reconsider the participation of baptized children while considering the character of God’s grace.”40 In this respect. Sofia Cavalletti points out that while adults tend to talk down to children and to present God in childish terms. 42 Sofia Cavalletti.1. Coulter (Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications. a child’s participation in the Lord’s Supper can be a beautiful moment for the covenant family in the presence of God. Rather.41 In this dimension. The religious potential of children and the work of the Holy Spirit In his Institutes. trans.43 As a result of leading catechesis classes for three to eleven year old children for 25 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40 41 Institutes. among others: Jesus Christ. Even though we cannot know whether a child has faith or not. 9.” or a “sense of religion.. we believe in and anticipate God’s sovereign grace for that child.4. The participation of children in communion is a symbolic profession of the covenant family’s commitment to feed and rear God’s children with God’s Word and faith. the Good Shepherd.vi. 15. we should keep in mind that real faith comes from the Triune God and is the gift of the Holy Spirit. 171. If we acknowledge the objective character of a sacrament. It can also be proof that the family rests on the work of the Holy Spirit in forming faith. not restricted by the work of human reason and criteria.iii. 1956). ! . that God cannot be known without God: but that this is the express will of the Father. Calvin says. It is for this reason that Calvin defines faith as knowledge. the tree is the same in essence. children cannot understand the meaning of the !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 44 45 Ibid.3. John Westerhoff. both revealed to our minds and sealed upon our hearts through the Holy Spirit.49 The faithful response of humans is the fruit of the Holy Spirit. as time goes by.DOXOLOGY 2011 61 years.ii.”47 “For faith consists in the knowledge of God and Christ” (John 17:3). “The Lord taught us that no man is capable of knowing God. faith is knowing God—the knowledge of God is not general accumulation of knowledge. Irenaeus says. However. III. III. the faith of children and that of adults is the same in essence. unless he be taught of God: that is. 46 Irenaeus. or knowledge about. 21. 47. 48 Institutes. That knowledge which is given through revelation is personal knowledge. That is to say. that God should be known. Intellectually.4. 1980). the knowledge given in revelation is not simply knowledge that.7. but the knowledge which is given by God as a gift. in ANF 1. The Idea of Revelation in Recent Thought (New York: Columbia University Press. III. she came to know at an empirical level that children can gain religious understanding of certain theological concepts. 34. 47 Institutes.44 Although adults have a tendency to see faith only in terms of intellect.vi.. that we must recognize children as religious beings. and the meaning of faith growth by comparing them to the growth of the trees. but knowledge of. 468. but personal knowledge that lies in the relationship to the covenant. Adversus haereses. Bringing up Children in the Christian Faith (Minneapolis: Winston Press. founded upon the truth of the freely given promise in Christ. 49 “In brief. knowledge of God and faith are closely related. and that their religious potential can surpass adult expectations.45 It seems. can children participate in the Lord’s Supper without knowing the meaning of it? The Lord’s Supper has a variety of theological meanings. What is the essence of faith? Faith is a gift of God. John Westerhoff explains the essence of faith.”48 that is to say. For they shall know Him to whomever the Son has revealed Him. In this respect. So then.” J. a tree adds a new annual ring each year.”46 But “knowledge of God” is not primarily knowledge that makes God an object. “We call faith a firm and certain knowledge of God’s benevolence toward us. then. IV. Baillie.ii. 62 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS Lord’s Supper in the way adults can. we see both the possibility and necessity of their participation. But understanding can sometimes transcend human reason. it is better to give children the opportunity to participate in the Lord’s Supper while depending on the work of the Holy Spirit. then. The Spirit works in and through the community’s practices…certainly in this process. exclude us all. What. Louis: Chalice Press. perhaps better than some of their adult associates.51 So then. See Joyce Ann Mercer. takes place in and through community. through the Spirit’s gift of faith and the human process of learning. and the role of the Holy Spirit. 66. One does not understand a mystery. 2005). As James F. one experiences it. To exclude baptized children from the Lord’s Table on the grounds that they do not fully understand it would. Even though the intellectual abilities of a child do not meet the expectations of adults. and rely on the Triune God to open the eyes of children for understanding. Sacraments as God’s Self-Giving (Nashville: Abingdon Press. And children reared in the community of faith can experience it as well as anyone. when we consider the priority of God’s covenant. Rather. if we followed such an argument out. But the way children learn to be Christians. faith is not only a gift. Welcoming Children: A Practical Theology of Childhood (St. ! . The merits of early participation in the Eucharist Up to this point. Joyce Ann Mercer says. the essence of faith.50 Synthesizing the above opinions. we have seen that the participation of children in communion is neither contrary to Scripture nor to our understanding of Christian faith. but also a mystery of the Holy Spirit. who surpasses our intellect. 179. is its benefit? !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 50 51 James White. we can conclude that children have religious potential by the work of the Holy Spirit. God’s Spirit and procession of learning transform individual children…That is unarguable. 1983). White asserts. Liturgy and Learning throughout the Life Cycle (New York: The Seabury Press.” in Growth in Grace and Knowledge: Lectures and Speeches on Practical Theology (Austin: Nortex Press. “Foundation and Transformation. ! . enriched and corrected in congregations. Westerhoff. they also emphasize the importance of participation in worship and various liturgies. the role of community is especially important. children can learn the basics of the Christian faith. believers gain a firmer Christian identity.52 Therefore. Joyce Ann Mercer says. 55-86. one of the serious problems found in the praxis of church education that focuses on instructional teaching is that Christian faith is not transferred to the next generation. through counseling and fellowship with members. The model of “a community of faith-enculturation paradigm. “Because Christian faith is formed. Ellis Nelson says. Westerhoff. 1976). Also. Learning through Liturgy (New York: Seabury Press. Westerhoff. Will our Children Have Faith? (New York: Seabury Press. education must be congregation-centered. people can obtain a special value system and can develop their identity in the realm of the cognitive and emotional. while participating in a faith community’s life and worship. 241. 1978). with its !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52 53 See Mercer. 163. must again be revitalized. John H.” See C. and Gwen K. 1980). III and William Willimon.” which was proposed by John H. However. arguing that the educational function of liturgy.53 According to them. by participation in liturgy and education. supported. would be a good case to examine.54 According to them. III. Westerhoff and Neville emphasize that the aim of Christian education is above all the transfer of the knowledge to help believers to live faithful lives. 1992). through the community. children can learn communal identity by participating in the Eucharist. In the same vein. Westerhoff. Ellis Nelson. 52-54.DOXOLOGY 2011 63 Faith formation by the covenant community One of the merits of age-appropriate participation in communion is that preparing for the Eucharist arouses the church's and the parents' educational duty for the church’s younger generation. Neville. Gwen Kennedy Neville and John H. To ensure a positive outcome from their participation in communion. which disappeared after the Reformation. Welcoming Children. “The identity is learned through participation in the church as a community of practice that seeks to walk in the ways of Jesus and organizes its life and practices around the central symbol of the kingdom of God. 68-78. 54 John H. III. III. Neh. learning can happen in activity. the Bible describes the Israelites as an assembly (Deut. ‘lh'q''’ in Theologisches Handworterbuch zum Alten Testament. and separate from Gentiles. “Without their active participation in the liturgical life of a church. The congregation is a crowd formed by God’s calling. God elected the Israelites and made a covenant. Vol.J. 28:8. 14:2. To !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55 56 See Mercer. 1996). and Community (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Dancing with Disability: Opening the Church to All God’s Children (Eugene. 31:16.P. Nehemiah 8:2). (Gütersloher Verlagshaus Munich. focused on seeking personal blessing and spiritual growth. Family. 83. Also. this is God’s congregation [lh'q'. the Israelites became a covenant people. 57 Linda Cannell. Theologie der Psalmen (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag. Scottie May. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann. 1979). Therefore. 26:19). Brett Webb-Mitchell says. ekklesia kuriou. 617. Also. sunagoge kuriou (Num. 1 Chr. 74:2)].” See Brett Webb-Mitchell. 31-41. the sharing of experiences in which all generations participate has an effective educational outcome. but a special relationship with God (Ex. Beth Posterski. The Old Testament calls Israelites as people (~[. we come to find the necessity of liturgy and rite. Bright. Children Matter: Celebrating Their Place in the Church. 1976). I Kings 8:22. Deut.).” 55 According to Westerhoff and his colleagues. or when Ezra read the book of the law in Jerusalem. Covenant and Promise: The Prophetic Understanding of the Future in Pre-Exilic Israel (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press. ! . Oregon: Wipf & Stock. 19:5. have as much to offer as receive. ‘edah. has been gathered by God as a worshiping community. 27:17. Here people with mental retardation. Muller. Ps. day by day. eds.”57 The church. Welcoming Children. 2. as well as Mercer. H. above all. (Num. 5:22.16:3. 7.” According to her. 2:5). The core of this opinion is not to compare children with the mentally handicapped. and. 23:2. “repetition of exposure to content increases learning. Kraus. has been privatized. 165. 140. and Catherine Stonehouse. there is no chance to witness the reunion of the Christian community with its concept of God and with one another. Mic. 58 See H. when Moses received the Ten Commandments on Sinai. Liturgy is the best place to integrate those who are mentally retarded into the life of faith communities. in this respect. 1984).”58 But the Korean Presbyterian Church. Dt. but to focus on the role and function of liturgy in faith formation. For example. J.56 We may note that the participation of the Christian in public worship and sacrament establishes a sense of community and continues to play a significant role in the creation of a healthy community and person’s faith formation. like anyone else in a congregation or parish. People are not a social name. 163. 13:1. 2005).64 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS reordering of power and its transforming commitment to an alternative way of life. ! . they are extremely difficult to define. reformed and transformed.”61 Therefore. 1999). This type of faith formation by the church community directs us to the importance of ritual knowledge. 6. “Ritual” in Foundations in Ritual Studies. but also conveys meaning. Ritual in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ritual is not only related to performance.”59 However. 2007). Therefore. and needs some discussion. and so on. in Roy Rappaport’s words “ritual” can be defined generally as denoting “the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by the performers. 1989). and more vividly. as Edward Muir says. 62 Mark Searle. the meaning of “one body” would become clearer and more faithfully embodied through children’s participation in that body. According to Paul Connerton.”62 More. Also. all church members can experience the oneness of the body. And. prescribed. In the context of the Korean Church. 44. Therefore. ed. through it people or community can be formed. ritual refers to “rule-governed activity of a symbolic character which draws the attention of its participants to objects of thought and feeling which they hold to be of special significance. 2. By participating in the Eucharist. 63 Muir. Paul Bradshaw and John Melloh (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. 60 Roy A. By participation children will learn what the church is—how they become the body of the church—and what the meaning of being Christian is. “Because rituals conjure emotional responses. How Societies Remember (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. but practically. 2005). we need a more precise definition. Ritual in Early Modern Europe. if we accept these two definitions.”60 But this definition is very terse.DOXOLOGY 2011 65 counter this. the Korean Presbyterian Church should consider the importance of the Eucharist and the merit of intergenerational worship. Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rappaport. not theoretically. The Importance of Ritual in Faith Formation The second benefit of practicing children’s communion in the Korean Church is the faith formation that comes through ritual knowledge. stereotyped. 24. 11. ritual is “repetitive. it can affect a person’s identity and social cohesion. 61 Paul Connerton. the term “ritual” is not familiar.63 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59 Edward Muir. rigid. Praktische Theologische Elementar. “For these habits of affection and behavior are not to be learned by precept. To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 69 Ibid.. 90. How Societies Remember..”65 However.64 According to Jonathan Smith. ! . Connerton emphasizes the importance of habit memory. 36. 70 Ibid. 56. then. the Reformers insisted that ritual communication did not intend to make something present. 1992). 4-5. 68 Connerton. Also see Eberhard Winkler. thoughtless action). but they actually shape those meanings in the process of performance. “A Reformation ritual could be perceived as a matter of surface rather than depth. Ritual in Early Modern Europe. might we understand the characteristics of ritual in relationship to formation? Paul Connerton shows how rituals can have a powerful impact on communal remembrance and on shaping consciousness. 67 Moore-Keish. 3.” Moore-Keish. Reformed liturgical theologian Martha Moore-Keish insists.” “Ritual was to be classed with superstition (shallow. “Our experiences of the present largely depend upon our knowledge of the past. then habit also is related to bodily automatisms. but only by living with people who !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64 See Muir. Moore-Keish also says. 2008). 99. rituals involve action: “rituals relate and create…rituals are about doing in the sense of affecting the world as a whole: presenting models for a different world and even changing social structures. 7-8.”66 According to her. unreasoning action) or with habit (a customary. 100. “Ritual performances do not only point to fixed meanings in the culture. 1997). “rituals both mean and do. Rituals can transform. Connerton also emphasizes that social memory can be sustained by commemorative ceremonies “only insofar as they are performative” because performativity has a deep relationship with habit.”67 How.69 While explaining various sorts of memory. (Neukirchen. repetitive. 65 Jonathan Z.66 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS In general. of outward representation rather than inward transformation. 66 Martha Moore-Keish. and that our images of the past commonly serve to legitimate a present social order. Do this in Remembrance of Me: A Ritual Approach to Reformed Eucharistic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. He says.”68 This denotes the importance of memory in the present.70 He says. Smith. 90. self. Byron Anderson. habit memory is not identical with the cognitive memory of rules and codes. by performing a practice.” See Tom F.”72 The reason why rites are important is that repetition gives continuity with the past and meaning to the people who perform the rites. think about a limestone cave. and symbol are good multimedia tools for memory. posture. and normative for persons and community. Liberating Rites: Understanding the Transformative Power of Ritual (Boulder: Westview Press.DOXOLOGY 2011 67 habitually behave in a certain manner. 45. Ritual is very similar to this dripping water. E. Ritual itself seems very simple. ! . Tom Driver says. A single drop of water is a small particle and cannot penetrate stone.. the most impressive idea is B.75 Connerton emphasizes the merits of bodily practice in memory.” Connerton. 75 There are many merits of rituals. That is to say. it is a good educational tool for helping people more vividly understand Christian truth. For example. This is related to communal ritual. however. 166. people can develop vivid memories and impressions. Such performative doings are particularly effective. 30. our body.73 Along the same lines. How Societies Remember. by participating in communal rituals. According to him. Russell’s: “Memory is a certain special kind of belief. This impacts faith formation. however.”71 According to him. the repeated action determines the shape of faith. 1998). 1921). Worship and Christian Identity (Collegeville: The Liturgical Press. a thousand years’ worth of drops can make a deep hole or break in the rock. “we see ritual practices as simultaneously expressive. 23. This shows the power of habitus to form people’s attitudes and thoughts. Also see. Paul Connerton says. 2003) 68. communal ritual has vivid and multi-sensory impact on the memory of the person and touches part of the human unconsciousness. 74 E.”74 So. 73 Connerton. Ibid. and communal identity. even though real faith can be given only by the work of the Holy Spirit. 166.. 59. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 71 72 Ibid. Driver. B. present substance of one’s body. constitutive. “Ritual is to assist the dynamic of social change through ritual of transformation. Anderson gives a detailed explanation of ritual and ritualism. The Analysis of Mind (London. Kneelers identify the disposition of their body with their disposition of subordination. when we consider faith formation. “To kneel in subordination is to display it through the visible. Gesture. Byron Anderson says. because unequivocal and materially which such sayings are drawn makes possible at once their performative power and their effectiveness as mnemonic system. Even though ritual itself cannot generate faith. Russell. This cave has been formed over several thousand years by the impact of dripping water. by kneeling. this notion is very relative to the “tacit mode” of knowledge discussed by Michael Polanyi.68 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS re-enacts the images of the past and is sedimented in the body. the individual is no longer able to participate knowingly. Tacit knowledge is. second. in a way. Korean church leaders tend to cut more of the church’s liturgical tradition than did the early Reformers.3 (May 1985): 231-243. 59. “Liturgical Participation and the Renewal of the Church” Worship. church. they naturally come to learn the earnest and enthusiastic stance of prayer. which is obedience to God’s will. knowing something but not “knowing” that we know it. Consequently. in light of the history of the Korean Presbyterian Church. 4. members kneel. as a legacy of this bias. and liturgy cease to function as co-workers. two effects are produced: first. In this situation. with a vocal prayer and raising of the hands. The Tacit Dimension (Garden City: Anchor Books.77 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 76 Tacit knowing can be defined thus: “We always know more than we can say or prove.76 For example. Craig Erickson explains this phenomenon: When individual. So. raise their hands high. They consider the term ritual a remnant of Roman Catholicism that came from synthesis with other religions. these physical factors have a great impact on the formation of Korean Presbyterian spirituality. actively. knowing but not being able to explain that we know. 77 Craig Douglas Erickson. 1967). the individual has significant difficulty in appropriating the liturgy as an authentic expression of his or her own faith. many churches request that while praying. and fruitfully…Devotion to God is eclipsed by an expressive devotion to ritual. ! . In this dimension. Many Korean Church leaders have an antipathy toward ritual because of anti–Roman Catholic ideas. So. So. worship becomes ritualistic. and shout a vocal prayer with enthusiasm. in the case of Korean Friday night worship services. members naturally come to know the spirit of prayer. even though we are not conscious of this formation. The reason why the Korean Presbyterian Church has a tendency to refute ritual is that they misunderstand the difference between ritual and ritualism.” Michael Polanyi. but also various rituals: pouring the wine. and is also present. and when it lead people to concentrate on Jesus Christ.. IV.5. hearing. these practices can arouse human memory more vividly by activating the auditory. performing a task (including reading. ed. for example. 234. Institutes. Calvin thought that God did not give us detailed instructions about worship. Craig Erickson says. IV. 108. Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching. Where does this lead us in our consideration of the participation of children in communion? Our eucharistic practice contains not only biblical preaching. devoted in worship. 1969). 15. All of these provide multisensory biblical teaching. leaving us free to shape worship under the guidance of God’s Word according to the necessity of the Church. See Edgar Dale. there is a possibility of falling into ritualism. 3rd.12-13. while eating and drinking together. singing the psalm together. but can be accommodated to the church’s necessity and cultural differences based on the Bible and the illumination of the Holy Spirit. 32. active. To this. and that Roman Catholic practice had laid heavy duties on the people.DOXOLOGY 2011 69 That is to say. ritual itself is not a bad thing for Christianity.”78 While Calvin believed that ritual itself had no value. Also. he did believe ritual had value when it promoted people’s obedience to God rather than obedience to the church and its authorities. hearing the narrative of the Gospel. “All worship is in some sense ritualistic only in that it foreshadows heavenly worship. (New York: Holt. John Calvin. unwittingly. children come !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78 79 Ibid. and visual senses altogether. reciting the Apostle’s Creed or Decalogue all together.x. rather than mere teaching or learning. tactile.79 This is very important in that rituals in worship are not fixed. in which minds all fully attentive upon God. 80 Edgar Dale‘s studies show that people learn most effectively when they are involved in direct. and doing) is the most efficient method in the learning process.v. if we seek to worship routinely without understanding. standing. seeing. Perhaps it is time for the Korean Presbyterian Church to think of the formative value of ritual and the study of ritual tradition to set a new foundation for developing ritual in worship. and purposeful learning experiences. breaking the bread. Rinehart and Winston. 29-30. Christianity has used ritual as a method to proceed to God’s presence. writing. ! . However. That is to say. in Korean churches that perform many rituals in their worship services.80 Also. Second. and what it means to be a member of the body of the Church. First. prayers. while I Corinthians 11 does call for active engagement at the Table. perhaps ages three to seven. In other words. they can be more easily accustomed to the mood of community and public worship. This position rests on the following convictions. Third. age-appropriate participation affirms the point that even young children have cognitive ability and religious potential. When the Lord’s Supper is celebrated. and it challenges the church to teach Christian ! . because young children’s thoughts and expressions are not mature. to consider bringing their children to the Table. according to Reformed tradition and the Reformers’ thoughts. and. In contrast to those who argue that only older children or younger adults should be welcomed after making a formal. the meaning and significance of the Lord’s Supper arises out of the Holy Spirit’s work in and through the participation of the people. as Calvin and the Reformers emphasized. and listen to the faith expressions of these children. Therefore.70 CHILDREN IN EUCHARISTIC CELEBRATIONS to understand what “oneness” means. Third. children’s participation in the Eucharist can be a sort of multisensory teaching. these young children. would be invited to express their faith as participants in the liturgy through the songs. Conclusion and Practical Guidelines Regarding the practice of children’s participation in communion. like all participants. we should not impose upon them adult expectations. I Corinthians 11 specifically calls for the active participation of each participant. public profession of faith. and acclamations of the entire congregation. The church would offer ageappropriate instruction to these young children about the meaning of the Lord’s Supper. even little ones can have faith. talk with the children about their questions. a practice that embeds the memory into not only the brain but also deeply into the body. my own view is that young children of the covenant should be invited to participate in age-appropriate ways. there is no biblical text that mandates a formal public profession of faith. This position rests on the following convictions: first. Second. This could be worked out as follows: the church would invite parents of young children. I would argue that young children should be welcomed after an ageappropriate expression of faith. faith is given by the work of the Holy Spirit. but also the church as a faith community. and benefits not only children’s faith development. and multisensory approaches. However. More could be said about this relationship. centering on Word and Sacrament. but to argue for worship. but also emotional. parents and church will become more involved in children’s faith development. we should note that infant communion cannot be an absolute rule. The vivid experience that contains not only intellectual. Hwarang Moon is a PhD candidate in liturgical studies at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary. In summary. To this point. will be inscribed in the brain and the body. The younger generation that has experienced God’s Word and Sacrament from their early years in public worship grows to be more accustomed to Christian faith. ! . I have argued that the participation of children in the Eucharist is valid. Above all.DOXOLOGY 2011 71 doctrine to children in an accessible way. and especially participation in communion as a necessary component of that education. age-appropriate participation can be a wise approach both for those who emphasize the profession of faith and for early education for children. can provide an alternative for a contemporary church that suffers from generational gaps and cultural differences. My goal here has not been to devalue the importance of Christian education and the Sunday School. It requires dialogue among denominations and church members. visual. This public intergenerational worship. but that would require a series of articles.