American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications, 2009 Corresponding Author: Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 284 Fruit Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, Mir Ajab Khan, Muhammad Aslam Khan, 1 1 2 Mushtaq Ahmad, Muhammad Zafar, Fazal-ur-Rehman and Shazia Sultana 1 1 3 1 Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 1 Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 2 Faculty of Pharmacy Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 3 Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran, Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 10 fruit plant species belonging to 10 genera of 9 families. The plant species are: Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai, Cucumis sativus L., Cydonia oblonga Mill. Ficus carica L., Olea europea L., Phoenix dactylifera L., Punica granatum L., Salvadora persica L., Vitis vinifera L. and Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Complete macro & microscopic detailed morphological features of these species were discussed. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and, Ahadith. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical importance of fruits in the light of Islam. A table comprising, distribution in world, flowering period and chemical constituents, is given. Key words: Ethnomedicinal study %Pakistan %Holy Quran %Ahadith INTRODUCTION Fruits, eaten raw or consumed as fresh juice, are Fruits are one of the oldest forms of food known to the body. The low level of sodium in fruits plays an man. There are many references to fruits in ancient important role for people who would like to avail of a salt- literature. Vedas state that the fruits form the base of the free diet. Dry fruits like apricots, raisins and dates are Food of Gods. According to Qur’an, the fruits like grape, storehouses of calcium and iron, essential for the date, fig, olive and pomegranate are gifts and heavenly strengthening of bones and maintaining good blood, fruits of God. The people in ancient times regarded fruits respectively. Custard apple too is an excellent calcium to be endowed with magic or divine properties. They gave source. If you are unwell, consume fruits in the form of them due reverence and dedicated them to their gods and fresh juice only. One or two fruits a day cleans the goddesses. They also used their designs in decorating digestive tract and aids easy bowel action [2]. temples, vestments or ceremonial garments and sacred Plants are an essential component of the universe. vessels. Fresh and dry fruits are the natural staple food of Human beings have used plants as medicine from the very man. They contain substantial quantities of essential beginning of time. After various observations and nutrients in a rational proportion. They are excellent experimentations medicinal plants were identified as a sources of minerals, vitamins and enzymes. They are source of important medicine, therefore, treatment easily digested and exercise a cleansing effect on the through these medicinal plants, began in the early stages blood and the digestive tract. Persons subsisting on this of human civilization [3]. Approximately 70% of the natural diet will always enjoy good health. Moreover, the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the fresh plants. ailments caused by the intake of unnatural foods can be Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines are prepared successfully treated by fruits. Fresh and dry fruits are from herbs. Pakistan is very rich in plants of medicinal thus not only a good food but also a good medicine [1]. value [4]. excellent ways to retain and balance the moisture level in Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 285 In Islam diseases are cured in two ways, first the cure vegetable, medicinal and industrial products. Data of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments inventory constitutes botanical name, family, Quranic through medicines. The Holy Quran is one of the name, English name, local names, Arabic name, habit and reference books describing the importance of plants used habitat, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited for different ailments in various Surahs. The Holy Quran from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. A table says: And the earth He has put down (laid) for the comprising S. #., botanical name, distribution in world, creatures. Theirin are fruits, date palms producing flowering and fruiting period and chemical constituents, sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates). And also corn, is given at the end. with (its) leaves and stalks for fodder and sweet-scented plants. Then which of the blessings of your lord will you Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai both (jinn and men) deny? [5]. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) frequently commented upon the nature and value of various foods and spices. These comments were noted by his wives and companions (Radiallaho Anhum) and remain available to us today [6]. Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and create awareness about the fruit plant species enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and detailed information about 10 fruit plant species of ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Plants species were arranged in systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Correct botanical names, their families and identification of plants were done by using flora of Pakistan . RESULTS Present findings were confined to 10 fruit plant species belonging to 10 genera of 9 families enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The plant species are: Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis sativus., Cydonia oblonga. Ficus carica Olea europea, Phoenix dactylifera, Punica granatum, Salvadora persica, Vitis vinifera and Zizyphus mauritiana which are used throughout the world for various aspects such as food, English Name: Water Melon Local Name: Tarbooz Arabic Name: Bitteekh Family: Cucurbitaceae Habit & Habitat: Annual climber or trailer, cultivated. Part used: Fruit and seeds. Medicinal uses: Kidney pain clears the urine and stomach, facial beauty, increase immunity, jaundice and have cold effects. References from Ahadith C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (Radiyallahu Anhu): Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe dates with water melon [7]. C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (Radiyallahu Anhu ) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Water melon is diet as well as drink. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the sexual power [8]. C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallahu Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate water melon with fresh dates [8]. Cucumis sativus L. English name: Cucumber Local name: Khira Arabic name: Qissa, Khiarun Family Name: Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer or climber, cultivated herb. Parts used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Cooling, diuretic, tonic and vermifuge, diuretic, purgative. References from Holy Quran C Sûrah 2. Al-Baqarah, Verse. # 61: And (remember) when you said, “O Mûsâ (Moses)! We can not endure one kind of food. So invoke your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the earth grows, its Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 286 herbs, its cucumbers, its Fûm (wheat or garlic), its diseases of the heart and makes the babies lentils and its onions.” [5]. handsome” [8]. References from Ahadith Ficus carica L. C Narrated Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ): I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) eating fresh dates with cucumber [Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmizi, Ibne Maja [9]. C Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ) reported: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) eating cucumber with fresh dates [8]. C Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (Radiyallahu Anha): My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Then I became very fat [9]. Cydonia oblonga Mill. English Name: Quince Local Name: Bahi References from Ahadith Arabic Name: Safarjal C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that Family: Rosaceae Rasullullah (Sallallhu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Eat fig, Habit & Habitat: Small tree (shrub) found in dry rocky for it cures the piles and is useful for rheumatism” [8]. places, foothills and cultivated on C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that the plains. someone presented the Prophet a plate of figs and he Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, diarrhea, said, “Eat figs! If I would say a certain type of fruit endocarditis, pericarditis, dysentery was sent down to us from the heavens I would say References from Ahadith piles and is useful for rheumatism.”[10] C Hazrat Talha bin Ubaid Ullah (R.A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: This Olea europea L. (Quince) makes the heart strengthen, makes the breath pleasant and relieves (removes) the burden of the chest [8]. C Hazrat Jabir bin Abdullah (R.A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Eat the Quince (Safarjal) because it cure the heart attack and relieves(removes) the burden of the chest” [8]. C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (R.A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: the burden of the heart is removed by eating of the Quince [8]. C The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, "Eat quince, for it sweetens the heart. For Allah has sent no prophet as His messenger without feeding him on the quince of Paradise [8]. C Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Feed your pregnant women on quince, for it cures the English Name: Figs Local Name: Anjeer Arabic Name: Teen Family: Moraceae Habit & Habitat: A small tree cultivated in poor soil Part used: Bark, leaves, Milk Medicinal uses: Remove kidney and urinary bladder stone, release intestinal pain, pile, dyspepsia and anorexia. References from Holy Quran C Surrah Teen, Verse. #. 1-4: By the fig and the olive. By mount Sinai. By this city of security (Makkah).Verily,We created man in the best stature(mould) [5]. it’s a fig because it has no seeds. It ends (cures) the English Name: Olive Local Name: Zaitoon Arabic Name: Zaitoon Family: Oleaceae Habit & Habitat: An erect branched cultivated tree. Part used: Fruit and oil Medicinal uses: Strengthen body muscles, slow down aging, clear the blood, remove the measlesspot, piles, tuberculosis, eczema, baldness, kidney pain, pancreas pain, maleness, common cold, stomach and respiratory diseases. References from Holy Quran C Surah 6. Al-An‘âm, Verse. # 99: And out of the date- palm and its spathe come forth clusters of dates hanging low and near and gardens of grapes, olive Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 287 and pomegranates, each similar (in kind) yet different Wasallam) that we should treat the Pleurisy with (in variety and taste). Look at their fruits when they Qust-e-Behri (Qust Sheerin) and olive oil.” [12]. begin to bear and the ripeness thereof. Verily! In these things there are signs for people who believe Phoenix dactylifera L. [5]. C Surah 16. An-Nahl, Verse. # 11: “With it He causes to grow for you the crops, the olives, the date-palms, the grapes and every kind of fruit. Verily! In this isindeed an evident proof and a manifest sign for people who give thought” [5]. C Surah 24. An-Nûr, Verse. # 35: “Lit from a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the east (i.e. neither it gets sun-rays only in the morning*) nor of the west (i.e. it gets sun-rays in the afternoon*), whose oil would almost glow forth (of itself), though no fire touched it.” [5]. *According to Yousa Ali [11], this olive tree is not localized. It is neither of the east nor of the west. It is universal, for such is Allah’s light. C Surrah Teen, Verse. #. 1-4: (see under the reference of Ficus). References from Ahadith C Hazrat Abu huraira (R.A.) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said “Eat the olive oil and massage it over your bodies since it is a holy (mubarak) tree.” [8] C Hazrat Alqama Bin Amir (R.A) narrates that Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “There is olive oil for you, eat it, massage over your body, since it is effective in Heamorrhoids (Piles).” [8]. C Hazrat Aqba Bin Amir (R.A) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated, “You have the olive oil from this Holy (mubarak) tree, treat yourself with this, since it cures the Anal fissure (Basoor).” [7]. C Hazrath Abu Hurairah (R.A) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated, “Eat the olive oil and apply it (locally), since there is cure for seventy diseases in it, one of them is Leprosy.” [8, 12]. C Khalid Bin Saad (R.A.) narrates, “I came to Madinah with Ghalib Bin Al Jabr. Ghalib became ill during the journey. Ibn Abi Ateeq came to see him and told a narration from Hazrat Aisha(R.A.) that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) told about the cure in Kalonji. We crushed a few seeds of Kalonji and mixed it with olive oil and dropped in both nostrils, after which Ghalib became healthy.” [12]. C Hazrat Zaid Bin Arqam (R.A ) narrates, “ We have been directed by the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi English Name: Date palm Local Name: Khajoor Arabic Name: Balah Family: Arecaceae Habit & Habitat: Cultivated tree, may be found self grown. Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, skin diseases, antidote, swelling of kidney, intestinal pain, heart attack, wound healer, diarrhea, labour pain, sexual weakness, stomach pain, piles, physical strengthing, shrill the voice, liver disorders. References from Holy Quran C Surah Al-Bakara, Verse 266: Would any of you wish to have a garden with date-palms and vines [5]. C Surah 16. An-Nahl, Verse. # 11: (see under the references of Olea). C Surah-An-Nahl, Verse 67: And from the fruits of date-palms and grapes, you drive strong drink and goodly provision [5]. C Surah Israa,Verse 91: “ Or you have a garden of date-palms and grapes and cause rivers to gush forth in their midst abundantly.” [5]. C Surah Al-Mumenoon, Verse 19: Then We brought forth for you therewith gardens of date-palms and grapes, wherein much fruit is for you and whereof you eat [5]. C Surah Yaseen, Verse 34: And we have made therein gardens of date-palms and grapes and we have caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5]. C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 99: (see in the references of Olea). C Surah Ar-Ra‘d. Verse. # 4: and date-palms, growing, into two or three from a single stem root, or otherwise (one stem root for every palm), watered with same water [5]. . C Surah 19. Maryam, Verse. # 25: “And shake the trunk of the date-palm towards you, it will let fall fresh ripe-dates upon you.” [5]. C Surah Yaseen. Verse: 34: And We have made therein gardens of date-palms and grapes and We have caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 288 C Surah 55. Ar-Rahmân, Verse. # 11-28: Therein are References from Holy Quran fruits, date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates) [5]. C Surah 80. ‘Abasa, Verses. # 27-29: And We cause therein the grain to grow and grapes and clover plants (i.e.green fodder for the cattle) and olives and date-palms [5]. References From Ahdith C Hazrat Abdullah bin Umar (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrated that The Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, "There is a tree among the trees which is similar to a Muslim (in goodness). Its leaves do not fall. What is that tree? The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself said, “that is the date palm tree.” [8, 12]. C Hazrat S’ad bin AbiWaqas (R.A) narrated that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, "He who eats seven dates of Madina (Ajwa dates) every morning, will not be affected by poison and magic on the day he eats them." [8, 12]. C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbass (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “The ‘Ajwah is from Paradise and it is an antidote against poison. The Kamah (truffles) is a type of Manna and its water (extract) cures the eye [7, 8]. C Abdullah ibn Jaafar radiyallahu anhu says, “I saw Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) eating *Qith’a (cucumbers or snake cucumber) with fresh dates.” [8,13]. C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallah Anha) reports that, “Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) ate watermelon with fresh dates.” [8]. * In Arabic the word “Qitha” is used for both ‘cucumber-khira’ and ‘snake cucumber-kakri’. Punica granatum L. English Name: Pomegranate Local Name: Anar Arabic Name: Rumman Family: Punicaceae Habit & Habitat: Tree, cultivated in the area. Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Stomach cough, hepatitis, muscle pain, heart and liver diseases, piles, eye diseases, dental problems, oral diseases, diarrhea and dysentery. C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 99: (see under references of Olea ) C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. # 141: (see under references of Olea ) C Surah Ar-Rahman Verse. # 68-69: (see under references of Olea ) References from Ahadith C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, "There is not a pomegranate which does not have a pip from one of the pomegranates of the Garden (of Jannah) in it." [8, 12]. C Hazrat Ali bin Abi Talib (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wassallam) said, "Pomegranate and its rind strengthen digestion (stomach)" [12]. Salvadora persica L. Family: Salvadoraceae Quranic Name: Khamt Arabic Name: Shajar-e-Miswak, Al-arak, Khardal English name: Tooth brush tree, Mustard tree Local names: Jhal (Saraiki) Playman (Pashto), Pilu(Urdu). Tibb name(s): Pilun, Jhal Habit and Habitat: Shrub or small tree found in rocky slopes and sandy area. Parts used: Whole plant. Flowering period: March-June. Folkmedicinal uses: Useful in rheumatism and scurvy, antidote to poison. Useful in biliousness, asthma and cough, poultice for tumour and pile. Fruit edible, carminative, diuretic and deobstruent. References from Qur’an C Sura Saba, Verse. # 16: But they turned away (from the obedience of Allah), so we sent against them Sail Al-‘Arim (flood released from the dam) and we converted their two gardens into gardens producing bitter bad fruit and tamarisks and some few lote-trees [5]. References from Ahadith C Hazrat Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Radiyallah Anhu) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 289 Wassallam) said, “The black coloured Kapas (fruit of C Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “You Salvadora) is the best (finest) one” [13, 8]. have resaisins (Munaqqa) which make the colour of C Hazrat Aaisha (Radiyallah Anha) narrates that the face handsome and remove the phlegm” [7, 8]. Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, C Narrated Abdullah bi Abbass (R.A): Raisins were “Miswak purifies the mouth and is a cause of Allah’s soaked for Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam). pleasure” [Bukhari (13,8]. He used to drink this syrup that day, the next day C Hazrat Abu-Hizat-us-Sabahi (Radiyallah Anhus) and sometimes the third day [8]. narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) gave him a twig of Salvadora (Al-Arak) and said, Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. “Use it as miswak” [8]. C Hazrat Abu Zaidul-Ghafqi (Radiyallah Anhus) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Miswak is of three types. If Salvadora is not available then (use) Anum and Batum [8]. Vitis vinifera L. English Name: Grapes Parts used: Fruit, leaves, wood. Local Name: Munaka Folkmedicinal uses: Treatment of abscesses and Arabic Name: Inab wounds, anodyne and tonic, styptic Family: Vitaceae and purifying blood Habit & Habitat: Perennial vine, cultivated for fruit purposes. References from Quran Part used: Fruit juice C Sura Saba, Verse. # 16: ( see under reference Medicinal uses: Common cold, relax body and brain Salvadora). muscles, stomach diseases, cooling C Surah 53. An-Najm, Verses 13, 14: And indeed he effects on body, cough, kidney and (Muhammad Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) saw him [ urinary bladder pain, liver and lung Jibril (Gabriel)] at a second descent (i.e. another time). disorders, dog bite, remove weary, Near Sidrat-ul-Muntaha (a lote-tree of the outmost clear the face and cancer. boundary over the seventh heaven beyond which References from Holy Qur’an When that covered the lote-tree which did cover it C Surah Al-Bakara, Verse 266: (see under the reference [5]. of Phoenix). C Sura Waqiya, Verse. # 27, 28: And those on the Right C Surah-An-Nahl, Verse 67: (see under the reference of hand-how (fortunate) will be those on the Right Phoenix). Hand? (They will be) among thornless lote-tree [5]. C Surah Israa,Verse 91: (see under the reference of Phoenix). References from Ahadith C Surah Abasa, Verses 27, 28: (see under refereces of C Hazrat Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmatullah ALayhi) narrates, Phoenix.) “The first fruit eaten by Hazrat Adam (Alayhi C Surah l-Mumenoon, Verse 19: (see under the Sallam)” after His descent on the earth, was the fruit reference of Phoenix). of the Zizyphus [8, 14]. C Surah Yaseen, Verse 34: (see under the reference of C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas narrates that Rasulullah Phoenix). (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, Wash (pointing C Surah An-Naba, Verses 31,32: Verily, for the towards a person who died at Arafat) him with water Muttaqun, there will be a success (Paradise), Gardens and leaves of sidar [8]. and vineyards (5). Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the References from Ahadith [9]. C Narrated Abu Huraira (R.A): The Prophet said, "Don't Note: There is contradiction about the plant (Cidar) call the grapes Al-Karm, (because) Al-Karm is the mentioned in the Holy Qur’an. According Farooqi [8, heart of the Mumin” [8]. 15] and Chughtai [14] the word ‘Sidar’ does not mean Quranic Name: Sidar Arabic Name: Nabaq, Sidar English Name: Indian jujube Local Name: Ber, Bera. Family: Rhamnaceae Habit and Habitat: Wild and cultivated found in dry area and rocky places. none can pass). Near it is the Paradise of Abode. treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 290 Zizyphus sp. (ber in urdu) but it is used for another what is that? Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alayhi plant Cedrus sp.(Labnani deodar in hindi and urdu). While the commentators of the Quran and Ahadith consider it Zizyphus mauritiana (ber or beri). As there exists difference of opinions, therefore, it needs further investigation. DISCUSSION Fruits have highly beneficial natural effect on the human system. Taking of fruits or fruit juice is the most pleasant way of hydrating the organism. The water absorbed by sick persons in this manner has an added advantage of supplying sugar and minerals at the same time. Clinical observations have shown that potassium, magnesium and sodium contents of the fruit act as a diuretic and dieresis-frequency of urination is considerably increased when fruits and fruit juices are taken. They lower the urine density and thereby accelerate the elimination of nitrogenous waste and has a hypotensive action. A fatty oil in the seed, as well chlorides. Fruits furnish minerals to the body. Dried fruits such as apricots, raisins and dates are rich in calcium and iron. These minerals are essential for strong bones and good blood respectively. The fibrous matter in fruits, cellulose, aids in the smooth passage of the food in the digestive tract and easy bowel action. The sugars and organic acids contained in fruits also increase their laxative effect. Hence, regular use of fruits prevents and cures constipation [2]. Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Salam) and was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) but search and compiling of these medicines is still continued through out the world [16]. The Holy Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of Islam. It cotains signs and verses which have been leading people of different ages and of different academics and intellectual background to believe in Islam. The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” [17]. Imam Ahmed narrated that Usamah bin Shuraik(Radiallaho Anhuma) said: “I was with the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) when the Bedouins came to him and said ‘O messenger of Allah, should we seek medicine?’ He said, ‘Yes, O slaves of Allah seek medicine, for Allah has not created a disease except that he has also created its cure, except for one illness’ they said ‘And Wasallam) said ‘Old age’ [12]. Citrullus lanatus (water melon-bittikh) has many references in Ahadith. Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Water melon is a diet as well as drink. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the sexual power [8]. Sahl bin S’ad Al-S’adi (Radiyallahu Anhu) Narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe date with water melon [Ibne Maja, Tirmizi (Ghaznavi, 1991)]. In Tirmidhi and other narrations, in explaining this, Sayyidina Rasoolullah sallallahu alaihe wasallam also said, “The cold effect of one removes the heat of the other and the heat of one removes the cold effect of the other.” [12, 14]. The seed of Citrullus lanatus (Water melon-battikh) is demulcent, diuretic, pectoral and tonic. It is sometimes used in the treatment of the urinary passages and has been used to treat bed wetting. It is a good vermifuge and as aqueous or alcoholic extracts, paralyze tapeworms and roundworms. The fruit, eaten when fully ripe or even when almost putrid, is used as a febrifuge.It is diuretic, being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal stones. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also found in the skins of tomatoes). This substance has been shown to protect the body from heart attacks. The rind of the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic poisoning and diabetes [18]. Cucumis sativus (Cucumber-qitta') is another plant that has many references in Holy Qur’an and Ahadith. The ripe cucumbers dispel heat and are diuretic. Eating dates with green cucumber is said to cause weight gain [18]. Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (Radiallaho Anha): My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Then I became fat as she desired [9]. The seed is cooling, diuretic, tonic and vermifuge. 25-50 grams of the thoroughly ground seeds (including the seed coat) is a standard dose as a vermifuge and usually needs to be followed by a purgative to expel the worms from the body. A decoction of the root is diuretic [9]. It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under your eyes. This is world-wide treatment which is being used to its maximum extent. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 291 Cydonia oblonga (Quince-safarjal) is said that to eat saturated with oil and covered with emery is used as a quince on an empty stomach is good for the soul. Cold substitute for a hone [18]. . and dry, quince is astringent to the stomach and it checks Olea europea (Olive-zaytun) is another plant that has excessive menstrual flow. A few seeds placed in water many references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Almighty will, after a few minutes, form mucilage which is an Allah has said, "By the Fig and Olive; By Mount Sinai excellent remedy for cough and sore throat, especially in and By this land which is made safe. Surely we created the young. Quince is also excellent for pregnant women, man of the best stature” [17]. In Ahadith it is said that gladdening their hearts. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho “eat the olive oil and applied it on the body, it is cure of Alayhi Wassallam) said, "Eat quince, for it sweetens the seventy diseases”. The saying of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho heart. For Allah has sent no prophet as His messenger Alayhi Wasallam) about medicines are spread over 200 without feeding him on the quince of Paradise. For quince books in the world [9]. increases the strength up to that of forty men." [18]. No doubt , the “Olive” is a very useful tree. Its name The fruit is antivinous, astringent, cardiac, has been mentioned in most of the holy books like carminative, digestive, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, “Tourat” and “Injeel”. This tree is found in Syria and its pectoral, peptic, refrigerant, restorative, stimulant and bordering countries as well as in some parts of the world. tonic. The unripe fruit is very astringent, a syrup made A renowned scholar Shabir Ahmad Usmani states that from it is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and is since the trees of Olive and Fig have many advantages, particularly safe for children. The fruit and its juice, can be they have some thing common with biology of man. So used as a mouthwash or gargle to treat mouth ulcers, gum the creator has mentioned the names of Man, Fig and problems and sore throats. Olive together in the Quran. In this context, the holy The leaves contain tannin and pectin. Tannin can be Prophet (PBUH) has said: “Use the Olive Oil in your meals used as an astringent whilst pectin has a beneficial effect and also use it for massage. For this Oil is obtained from on the circulatory system and helps to reduce blood a tree full of blessings”. It is so remarkable that the Holy pressure [18]. Prophet (PBUH) had stressed the use of Olive Oil and the Ficus carica (Fig-teen) In the first Qur’anic verses in recent medical research has proved that the substitution Sura al Teen, the medicinal advantages of the fig are of saturated fats with unsaturated fats lowers the serum discussed-the Qur’an says: “I swear by the Fig and the cholesterol level, due to the direct cholesterol lowering Olive” (Sura no. 95: verse no. 1). Fig plant is one of the effects of unsaturated fats. Other workers have also noted only five plants mentioned in the Quraan, along with that unsaturated oil (including olive oil) has more olives, grapes, pomegranate and dates. Hadith literature beneficial potential than the saturated vegetable oil and provide us with an event related to the fig: According to butter fat. Furthermore, among the unsaturated edible oils, Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anhu) someone presented figs to olive oil is more beneficial than corn oil as regards the the prophet Muhammed (God's blessing and peace be serum lipid profile. Considerable evidence has led to the upon him) and he began distributing it among his suggestion that a diet high in olive oil is particularly followers. He said: “Eat it as it cures various diseases”. beneficial with regard to increasing high density According to Ibn Seereen, a scholar in the science of lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) levels which is a protective dreams, figs, if seen in dreams, denote wealth and agent against atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease. prosperity. The benefits I have restricted myself to Many workers have proved that increased intake of olive mentioning here is an indication of the compassion, Allah oil icreased HDL level. The function of HDL is to pick up feels for human beings [19]. the cholesterol from periphery and to take it to the liver The fruit is mildly laxative, demulcent, digestive and and to excrete it through bile. Now a days olive oil is pectoral. The unripe green fruits are cooked with other advised by the physicians in cases of stroke, hemiplegia foods as a galactogogue and tonic. The roasted fruit is and paraplegia [17]. The massage of olive oil over the emollient and used as a poultice in the treatment of body tones up the muscles and organs, it relieves gumboils, dental abscesses etc. The fruit is often dried for muscular pains. It relieves the Sciatic and arthritis. It is a later use and this dried fruit is a major item of commerce. good Diuretic, hence is used in Ascites. It also removes Syrup of figs, made from the fruit, is a well-known and the kidney stones. [12]. effective gentle laxative that is also suitable for the young Phoenix dactylifera (Date-Nahal) The date palm is and very old.Wood-pliable but porous and of little value. playing an important role in the history of mankind. Its It is used for hoops, garlands, ornaments etc. When importance and versatility are borne out by the fact that Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 292 this fruit and its blessed palm find mention in the Holy The rind of the pomegranate fruit is greatly Quran more than 20 times. Starting with verse 23, there are three references to it in Sura Maryam alone. Verse 25 and a part of verse 26 of Maryam read as: “And shake towards thyself the trunk of the date palm tree, it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon thee (25). So eat and drink and cool your eyes (26).” This verse has a tremendous scientific significance as dates are reported to yield three times more energy than cereals. [20]. Experiments have also shown that dates contain some stimulants that strengthen the muscles of the uterus in the last months of pregnancy. This helps the dilation of the uterus at the time of delivery on one hand and reduces the bleeding after delivery on the other. Dieticians consider dates as the best food for women in confinement and those who are breast-feeding. This is because dates contain elements that assist in alleviating depression in mothers and enriching the breast-milk with all the elements needed to make the child healthy and resistant to disease. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) has emphasized the importance of dates and their effectiveness in the growth of the fetus. He has also recommended they be given to women [12]. Modern dietary institute now recommends dates to be given to children suffering from a nervous nature or hyperactivity. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) has also recommended dates as a medicine for heart troubles. Modern science has also proved the effectiveness of date, in preventing diseases of the respiratory system. Dates are also important in keeping up the health of eyes. It is quite effective in guarding against night- blindness. In the early years of Islam, dates served as food for Muslim warriors. They used to carry them in special bags hung at their sides. They are the best stimulant for muscles and so the best food for a warrior about to engage in battle [12]. Punica granatum (Pomegranate-rumman) is a good food and a medicine of great value. It is a tonic for heart patients, highly efficacious in the inflammation of the stomach and effective to check heart pain. The juice of the fruit is an excellent cooling beverage and allays thirst. It acts as a good medicine for both diarrhea and dysentery. For many ailments such as colitis, anemia, jaundice, high blood pressure, piles and arthritis, its juice is an effective medicine. When given with honey, it reduces biliousness. Pomegranate fruit is also prescribed in many disorders under the Homeopathic medicine system. responsible for its good keeping quality. The fruit can be kept for up to six months [12]. All parts of the plant contain unusual alkaloids, known as 'pelletierines', which paralyse tapeworms so that they are easily expelled from the body by using a laxative. The fruit is a mild astringent and refrigerant in some fevers and especially in biliousness. It is also cardiac and stomachic. The dried rind of the fruit is used in the treatment of amoebic dysentery, diarrhea etc. It is a specific remedy for tapeworm infestation [18]. Miswak (tooth brush) is one of the products of Salvadora persica as mentioned in its ethnobotanical uses. The use of Miswak is one of the sunnah of the Holy Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam). The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself used it frequently at various occasions such as when entering and leaving the home, reciting the Holy Qur’an, before and after sleeping, on Friday, when Fasting and before every prayer. Abu Hurairah (R) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: 'Was it not for my fear of imposing a difficulty on my Ummah I would have ordered that the Miswaak be used for every Salaat [10]. The dentists and gastro-entrologists agree that oral hygiene helps in the prevention of most of the diseases of oral cavity and gastro-intestinal tract (GIT). According to the report of the research done in Cape Town S. Africa Miswak contains large amount of tannic acid (Tannins). The tannins prevent the adherence of the bacteria to the teeth. It is an established fact that Streptococcus viridans attacking the heart valves and damaging them come from the mouth. So the use of Miswak is a preventive measure against many diseases of the teeth, G.I.T. and heart [17]. The research conducted recently by dentist Almas K. proved that Chlorhexidine gluconate CHX 0.2% and miswak extract 50 % had a similar effect on dentin in the control group. “Bacterial plaque is solely responsible for the initiation and progression of periodontal diseases. There different mechanical and chemical methods available for the maintenance of oral health through plaque control. Tooth brushes and miswak (chewing sticks) are widely used for the mechnical removal of plaque. Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX) is one the best- proven anti plaque agents. It is said that CHX 0.2% and miswak extract 50% had similar effect on dentin in the control group. Miswak extract removed more smear layer as compared to CHX. Further research is needed in vivo to compare the effects of CHX and miswak extract on periodontally involved teeth and teeth with dentinal hypersensitivity” [21]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 293 The dried fruits of grapes (Vitis vinifera) are the 2. Hopkins, S., 2006. Importance Of Fruits In Diet. raisins, sultanas and currants of commerce. Different varieties producing the different types of dried fruit. Grapes are a nourishing and slightly laxative fruit that can support the body through illness, especially of the gastro- intestinal tract and liver. Because the nutrient content of grapes is close to that of blood plasma, grape fasts are recommended for detoxification. The fresh fruit is antilithic, constructive, cooling, diuretic and strengthening. A period of time on a diet based entirely on the fruit is especially recommended in the treatment of torpid liver or sluggish biliary function. The fruit is also helpful in the treatment of varicose veins, haemorrhoids and capillary fragility. The dried fruit is demulcent, cooling, mildly expectorant, laxative and stomachic. [18]. Dried grapes (raisins) were ranked second in scientific tests to identify the most antioxidant rich fruits and vegetables. On this basis, raisins have to be an excellent 'protective-value-for-money' choice. Interestingly, recent tests on the anti-oxidant effectiveness of various commercial fruit put fresh red grapes at number six in anti-oxidant effectiveness against damaging oxidative processes in cells [22]. The fruit of Indian lote tree (Zizyphus mauritiana) is very useful for human beings. It is eaten in fresh and dried form in Pakistan. Muhammad Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmat ullah Alayhi) narrates the following hadith: “The first fruit eaten by Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Sallam) after His descent on the earth, was the fruit of the Zizyphus” [14]. Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radiallahu Anhu) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said, Wash (pointing towards a person who died at Arafat) him with water and leaves of sidar [8]. Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach [9]. The folkmedicinal uses of Zizyphus mauritiana in Pakistan are: the leaves are useful to treat scabies and other skin diseases. Fruits are mucilaginous, pectoral styptic, considered to purify blood and improve digestion. These are cooling, astringent and useful in bilious affections [23]. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being widely used in the world because of better cultural accept ability, least injurious with none or much reduced side effects. REFERENCES 1. Anonymous, 2009. The Importance of Having Fruits in our Diet. Available at: http://www. asianonlinerecipes.com/health-fitness/importance- fruits-diet.php. Accessed January 23, 2009. Available at: http://www.home-remedies-for- you.com/ 3. Malik, H.MA., 2001. Treatment Through Herbs. In: Medicinal Plants of Pakistan, pp: 21. 4. Nasreen, U. and M.A. Khan, 2001. Some Problematical Medicinal Plants of Pakistan, pp: 117. 5. Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A., pp: 13. 6. Anonymous, 2009. Food of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). Dar-ul-Iman healing. Available at: http://chishti. org/foods_of_the_prophet. htm. Accessed March 23, 2009. 7. Ghaznavi, K., 1991. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan, 1: 50, 334. 8. Farooqi, I., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, 9-lower Mall, Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore, pp: 151-152, 168. 9. Ghaznavi, K., 2000. Tib-i-Nabvi and Modern science. Al-Faisal Nashiran Wa Tajiran- i-Kutab. Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan. 2: 276, 321. 10. Al-jozi (Al-Jawzyiyya), Ibn-al-Qayyim. (Tibb-Nabbi Arabic) Almaktaba Al-Saudia (Trans.Urdu by A’zami A.R. and M.M. Ahmad., 1985. Tibb-Nabvi. Kutab Khana Shan-e-Islam. Rahat Market Urdu Bazar Lhore. P. 379. 11. Ali, A.Y., 1989. The Holy Qur‘an: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A. , pp: 1016. 12. Al-Qadr, 2007. Prophetic medicine.Available at: http://www.ummah.com/forum/showthread.php. Accessed March 20, 2009. 13. A’zami, M.Z.B., 1985. Tafheem Al-Bukhari urdu translation of Al-Sahih Al-Bukhari. Dar-ul-Isha’t. Maulavi Musafir Khana, Urdu Bazar Karachi, 1: 426, 869. 14. Chughtai, T.M., 2000. Nabatat-e-Qurani Aur Jadid Science. Dar-ul-Isha’t. Urdu Bazar Karachi, pp: 101, 449. 15. Farooqi, I., 1992. Plants of the Qu’an (Urdu Nabatat- e-Qur’an). Sheikh Muhammad Bashir and Sons. Jalalud Din Hospatal, Urdu Bazar, Lahore, pp: 64-76. 16. Nasr, S.H., 1976. Islamic Science-An illustrated study. Westerham press, Ltd., Westerham, Kent (England), pp: 15. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 294 17. Khan, A.S, M.A. Khan, H.A. Din, H.U. Khan and 25. Vaya, J. and S. Mahmood, 2006. Flavonoid content in M. Tayyab, 1994. Some Scientific Facets of Quran leaf extracts of the fig (Ficus carica L.), carob and Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad, Peace Be (Ceratonia siliqua L.) and pistachio (Pistacia Upon Him) in The Field of Medicine. Pak. J. Health. lentiscus L.) Journal BioFactors. 28(3-4): 169-175. 31(3-40): 7-10. 26. Katzer, G., 2008. Gernot Katzer’s Spice Pages. 18. Plants For a Future, 2008. Edible, medicinal and useful http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Olea_eur.html plants for healthier world. 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Pilipenko, 1986. Lipids of 31. A.K.Singh, A.K., M.B. Pandey and V.P.Singh, 2007. the fruit of mFicus carica. Journal of Chemistry Mauritine-K, A new antifungal cyclopeptide alkaloid of Natural Compounds. Springer New York, from Zizyphus mauritiana. J. Ind. Chemic. Soc., pp: 394-397. 84(8): 781-784 2 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 295 Table 1: Phytogeography and Chemical constituents of Fruits Distribution Flowering Botanical names in world Period Chemical constituents 1.Citrullus lanatus Native of the Kalahari region, Jan-May Fruit contains citrullin, carotene and pectin. Vitamin C, Nacin, Riboflavin, cultivated throughout Tropics Thiamine, minerals also present Juice also contains alenine, arginene, glutamic acid, glycine, leucine and valine. Sucrose is the major sugar present. A honey like syrup is prepared from juice [8]. 2. Cucumis sativus Cultivated throughout Almost Fruit contains enzyme erepsin, proteolytic enzymes, ascorbic acid, oxidase, succinic the tropical and subtropical through and malic dehydrogenases. Odorous constituents also present. Iron, Vit. B1 also countries of the world. out the year present. Seeds contain fatty oil with 40% linoleic acid and 38% oleic acid [8]. 3. Cydonia oblonga S. Europe-Mediterranean. April-May Fruit contains glucoside, malic acid, tartaric acid, uronic acid. Seed kernel contains Ei; Europe; France; Iraq; amgydalin tannin and mucilage, 19% fixed oil containing 42% oleic acid, 40% Jerusalem; Spain; Turkey; Us. linoleic acid. Mucilage is composed of 33% larabinose, uronic acid and xylose [8]. 4. Ficus carica Mediterranean Region and Feb.-Mar. Fruits contains pentose, amino acid, tyrosin, enzyme, cravin, lipase, protease and S.W.Asia.: Afghanistan; sugar. Pakistan and India. Australia; By chromatographic methods, about 30 groups of various lipid compounds Senegal; South Africa; Spain; belonging to the classes of neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids have Turkey; Us; Venezuela been identified from the fruit of the fig tree. The main groups are triacylglycerols, free and esterified sterols, mono-and digalactosyldiglycerides, ceramide oligosides, cerebrosides, esterified sterol glycosides and phosphatidylglycerols. In the fatty acid composition, linoleic, linolenic, oleic and palmitic acids predominated (>90%) [24]. It was found that the major flavonoids in Ficus are quercetin and luteolin [25]. 5. Olea europea Afghanistan, Pakistan April-May In leaves and fruits of the olive tree, a phenolic seco-iridoid called oleuropein is and Kashmir found; it is the hypotensive principle. The mesocarp (of fruit) contains about 55% of oil. Olive oil is composed, like all vegetable oils of fatty acids bound to the alcohol glycerol. Typically, the following fatty acids are found in olive oil: 66% oleic acid, 12% linoleic acid, 9% palmitic acid, 5% eicosenoic acid and 5% palmitoleic acid. Olive oil may contain up to 1.5% of an acyclic triterpene hydrocarbon, squalene. The desired flavour of olive oil is dominated by aldehydes (hexanal and 2- hexenal). Furthermore, higher aldehydes, primary alcohols (mainly C6 compounds like hexanol, 2-hexene-1-ol, 3-hexene-1-ol) and their acetic acid esters contribute to the characteristic olive oil aroma. Lastly, hemiterpenoid volatiles were found (3-methyl butanal, 4-methoxy-2-methyl-butanethiol, ethyl esters of 2-and 3-methyl butyric acid). The flavour components, however, depend on variety and geographic origin of the oil [26]. 6. Phoenix dactylifera N.Africa, India Mar-April Vitamin A, B, C, pectin, sugars in fruit Oxalic acid from seeds (stones) [8]. When (Rajistan, Maharashter), dates are mature, they contain reasonable amounts of vitamins A, B1, B2 and Iraq, S.Arabia, Pakistan. niacin. Dates are a good source of potassium, calcium and iron and also contain chlorine, copper, magnesium, sulphur and phosphorous. The sugar content of ripe dates is about 80%; the remainder consists of protein, fat and mineral products including copper, sulphur, iron, magnesium and fluoric acid. Dates are high in fiber and an excellent source of potassium [27]. 7. Punica granatum S.E. Europe to April-July Sugars, Vit. C and Iron from fruit juice. Tannic acid from rind. Alkaloid E. Asia-Himalayas. pelletierine from bark [8]. (China; Egypt; Ethiopia; The major class of phytochemical present in pomegranate is the polyphenols and Europe; India; Iraq; Israel; includes flavonoids, condensed tannins and hydrolysable tannins. Hydrolysable Java; Malaya; Mexico; tannins are predominant polyphenols found in pomegranate juice and account Kurdistan; Peru; Spain; for 92% of its antioxidant activity. Pomegranate seeds are rich in sugars, Turkey; Us; Venezuela) polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids, vitamins, polysaccharides, polyphenols and minerals and have high antioxidant activity. When crushed and dried, the seeds produce an oil with 80% punicic acid, the 18-carbon fatty acid, along with the isoflavone genistein, the phytoestrogen coumestrol and the sex steroid estrone. The seed coat of the fruit contains delphinidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3,5- diglucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside, pelargonidin-3- glucoside and pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside with delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside being the major anthocyanin in pomegranate juice[28]. 8. Salvadora persica Pakistan, India and Arabia. March-June. Root and twigs contain alkaloid trimethyl amine, inorganic salts. Resin and tannin [8]. They contain salvadorine, chlorides, fluorides in large amount, silica, sulphur, Vit. C and small quantities of tannins, saponins, flavenoids and sterol [29]. 9.Vitis vinifera France, Germany, Spain, May-July Fruits contain oxalic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid and racemic acid. High Pakistan and India percentage of sugar is present in fruits. Vit. B, carotene, Vit. P, also present. Vit. P is responsible for checking the bleeding. Invertase, hexodinase, catalase, ascorbic acid oxidase and peroxidase also reported [8]. 10. Zizyphus mauriiana India, Ceylon, Pakistan, July-Sept. Sugars and vitamins [8].When in blossom, Zizyphus mauritiana, emanates a strong Afghanistan, China, fecal odour. The substances responsible for this scent were analysed, which showed Australia, benzaldehyde as major constituent. Minor benzenoids, aliphatic carboxylic acids, Trop. Africa. aldehydes, hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes were also observed. It was also found that skatole (3-methyl-indole) is responsible for the fecal odour and vanillin for the sweety odour [30]. The cyclopeptide alkaloids,mauritine-K and sativanine-K have been isolated from the root bark of Zizyphus mauritiana and their structures established by spectral and chemical evidences.Mauritine-K is a new cyclopeptide alkaloid and sativanine-K is the first report from Z. mauritiana.Mauritine-K exhibited significant antifungal activity [31]. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 ISSN 1680-5194 © Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2009 1472 Aromatic Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance Sarfaraz Khan Marwat , Muhammad Aslam Khan , Fazal-ur-Rehman and Inayat Ullah Bhatti 1 2 3 3 University Wensam College, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 1 Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 2 Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 3 Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran, Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 15 Aromatic plant species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families. The plant species are: Acorus calamus L., Artemisia maritima L., Boswellia carterii Birdw., Boswellia serrata Birdw., Cinnamomum camphora L., Citrus spp., Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch, Crocus sativus L., Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng., Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. F., Lawsonia inermis L., Majorana hortensis Moench. Ocimum basilicum L., Origanum vulgare L. and Thymus serpyllum L. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name, Arabic name, family, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and Ahadith. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethno medicinal uses and create awareness about the Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. Key words: Ethno medicinal study, Aromatic plants, Holy Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCTION Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances, which occur as essential oil, green exudates, balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts, namely root, wood, stem, leaf, flower and fruit. The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the essence and active constituents of plants (Skaria et al., 2007). An essential oil is the actual aroma which is extracted and it is this aroma which is used in aromatherapy to treat a number of ailments (Falsetto, 2008). The essential oils which impart the distinctive aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents (Simon, 1990). There are about three hundred essential oils in general use today by professional practitioners, but the average household could fulfill all its likely needs MATERIALS AND METHODS with about ten (Belt, 2009a). The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Plants are an essential component of the universe. Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and Human beings have used plants as medicine from the detailed information about 15 Aromatic plant species very beginning of time (Marwat et al., 2009a). An mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected estimated 50,000-70,000 plant species are used in from these sources. Plants species were arranged in traditional and modern medicine throughout the world. systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order These species make an essential contribution to followed by family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English healthcare and along with species used more for their name, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and aromatic properties, in herbal products, references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic pharmaceuticals and fragrances (Medicinal Plant books. Specialist Group, 2007). In Islam diseases are cured in two ways, first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments through medicines (Marwat et al., 2009b). The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan et al., 1994). Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. His recommendations were noted by His Wives (Radiallaho Anhuma) and Companions (Radiallaho Anhum) and remain available to us today (Dar-ul-Iman healing, 2000). Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was conducted to investigate ethnomedicinal uses and create awareness about the Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. RESULTS Present findings were confined to 15 Aromatic plant species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The plant Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1473 species are: Acorus calamus L., Artemisia maritima L., References from Ahadith: Boswellia carterii Birdw., Boswellia serrata Birdw., C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) Cinnamomum camphora L., Citrus spp., Commiphora narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe molmol Engl. ex Tschirch, Crocus sativus L., Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Olibanum (lubban) and Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng., Dryobalanops Sage brush (Karmala, Afsanteen) in your houses” aromatica Gaertn. F., Lawsonia Inermis L., Majorana (Farooqi, 1998). hortensis Moench., Ocimum basilicum L., Origanum C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho) vulgare L. and Thymus serpyllum L. which are used narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe throughout the world in number of perfumery, flavouring Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala, and pharmaceutical compounds. Data inventory Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in constitutes botanical name, family, English name, local your houses” (Farooqi, 1998). names, Arabic name, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. Botanical name : Boswellia carterii Birdw. Botanical name : Acorus calamus L. English name (s) : Olibanum, Indian Frankincense, Family : Acoraceae Arabic Frankincense, Salai English name (s) : Calamus, Sweet flag guggal Local name : Zareera Arabic name : Labban Arabic name (s) : Zareera, Oudulwaj Local name : Lubban Flowering period : May-July Parts used : Dried resin, collected from Parts used : Leaves and rhizome. stems and trunk. Medicinal uses : Rhizome: Emetic, antispasmodic, Medicinal uses : Burseraceae plant family carminative, analgesic, stomachache, insectifuge, nerve members (Boswellia carteri etc.) possess the medicinal tonic. Given in dyspepsia, colic, remittent fever, epilepsy property of being expectorant and therefore particularly bronchial, granular tumours and snake-bite. Useful helpful in treating bronchitis; they are also useful in against moths and lice. Also employed for kidney and healing wounds and ulcers and reducing scar tissue. liver troubles, rheumatism and eczema. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) C Hazrat Aisha (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that I narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe myself applied the perfume of Grass Mytle (Zareera) Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with to the Holy Prophet at the time of wearing and Olibanum (lubaan, labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” removal of Ihram (unstitched, preferably white, (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991). pieces of cloth) during the Farewell Hajj (Farooqi, C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) 1998; Al Qadr, 2007). narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe C One of the Holy Wives (Radhi Allaho Anha) of The Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, Olibanum (lubban) and Sage brush (Karmala, “One day the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Afsanteen)” (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991). Wasallam) came to me and there was pimple on my finger. He asked, have you grass mytle? I told, Botanical name : Boswellia serrata Birdw. yes. He (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, apply it Family : Burseraceae on the pimple (Farooqi, 1998). Engish name (s) : Indian Bedellium, frankicense Botanical name : Artemisia maritima L. Sallaki Family name : Compositae (Asteraceae) Arabic name : Kundar English name (s) : Sage brush, Santonica, Worm Parts used : The most important derivative of seed, ajvain. Boswellia serrata tree is the Local name (s) : Kirmala, Afsanteen Boswellia Gum Resin. Arabic name : Afsanteen Medicinal uses : Diaphoretic, diuretic, astringent, Flowering period : August-September. emmenagogue. Used in nervous diseases, Parts used : Seeds, floral buds and leaves. rheumatism, skin eruption. Chiefly used in incense. Medicinal uses : Artemisia (Karmala, Afsanteen) is Ingredient of ointments. used as antiperiodic, deobstruent, stomachache, tonic and anthelmintic. It is given internally in dyspepsia, References from Ahadith: jaundice, flatulence and worms. It is used externally as C Hazarat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radhi Allaho Anho) antiseptic. narrated that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Family : Burseraceae References from Ahadith: Loal name (s) : Gogle Guggal, Salai Guggal, Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1474 Wasallam) soaked Kundar at night. He mixed Arabic name (s) : Utraj, Turanj brown sugar in it and drank. He said, it is the best Flowering period : Spring season remedy for memory and urine problem (Farooqi, Medicinal uses : Fruits-Nutritive, cardiotonic, 1998). refrigerant, carminative, stomachic, appetizer. Cures C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated, catarrh, urinary calculus. Leaves and peel are highly ‘Some one complained to Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) against his memory. He (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, take kundar (Boswellia serrata) and soak it in water and drink that water early in the morning. It is a useful phytotherapy for memory (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Cinnamomum camphora L. * Family : Lauraceae English name (s) : Camphor Tree, camphor laurel, gum camphor Local name : Kafoor Arabic name : Kafoor Part used : Leaves and branches Medicinal uses : Sedative, anodyne, antiseptic, diaphoretic, anthelmentic, stimulant, carminative. Used as insecticide. Toxic causing headache, nausea, excitement, confusion and delirium. References from Holy Qur’an Surah 76. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr, Verse #. 5: Verily, the Abrar (the pious and righteous), Shall drink of a cup (of wine) mixed with (water from a spring in Paradise called) Kafur (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1996). References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) came to us, when His Daughter (Radhi Allaho Anha) died. He said, give Her a bath three or five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri) leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after that (Farooqi, 1998). Note: Two types of plants of different families have been a source of camphor from ancient time. One of these is a tree of Malaysia (Dryobalanops aromatica) of family Dipterocarpaceae and the other one is a tall tree of China and Japan (Cinnamomum camphora) of family Lauraceae. The camphor of Malaysia is obtained from the bark of Dryobalanops aromatica while that of Chinese camphor is obtained from the wood of Cinnamomum camphora (by freezing the essence of its wood). The substance camphor-Kafoor (said to be used in funeral rites) mentioned in the above and other Ahadith, is actually the name of Itar-e-Hinna (perfume of Lawsonia inermis) and correct pronunciation Kafoor is Qafoor (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Citrus spp. Family : Rutaceae English name (s) : Lemon, Citron Local name (s) : Narangi, lemu, mita lemu etc. medicinal. References from Ahadith: C Lemon has many benefits for you. It strengthens the heart and prevents heart failure (Farooqi, 1998). C Hazrat Abu Musa Ashari (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said: “The example of a mo’min (believer) who reads the Qur’an is like that of ‘Turanj’ which has a pleasant smell and a sweet taste” (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch Family : Burseraceae English name : Myrrh Local name : Murmukey Arabic name : Mur Parts used : Gum of stem Medicinal uses : Germicides, wound healer, old cough, oral fragrance, baldness, swelling of urinary bladder. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with Sage brush (Karmala, Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Crocus sativus L. Family : Iridaceae English name (s) : Saffron, Meadow crocus, Saffron crocus. Local name : Zaffron Arabic name : Zaffron Parts used : Rhizome Medicinal uses : As a medicinal plant, saffron has traditionally been considered an anodyne, aphrodisiac, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant and sedative. The plant has been used as a folk remedy against scarlet fever, smallpox, colds, insomnia, asthma, tumors and cancer. Given to promote eruptions in measles. In over doses, saffron is toxic. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Ibne Umar (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that one person asked Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) what a muhrim should wear? He said (replied), “do not wear clothes (ihram) dyed with waras and saffron” (Farooqi, 1998). Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1475 C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates Wasallam) came to us, when His Daughter (Radhi that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) forbade men to apply saffron (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng Family : Poaceae English name : Camel Grass Local name : Izkhir Arabic name : Izkhir Parts used : Leaves, stems and rhizomes Medicinal uses : Tonic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, intestinal disinfectant, antimalaria and against Guinea worm, antispasmodic, diuretic, to treat the cough of infants and children. Also used as astringent and febrifuge. Oil is used in rheumatism and neuralgia. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abu Huraira (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said about Makkah, “Its thorn must not be plucked. Its trees might not be cut” Some one among the Quraish begged (wanted) permission of cutting Camel grass (izkhar) to use it in their homes and shrines. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) permitted, “yes, yes, except izkhar, except izkhar” (Farooqi, 1998). C Hazrat Khabab (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates, When Hazrat Mus’ab bin ‘Umair (Radhi Allaho Anho) was killed in the battle of Uhud and we found such a sheet for a shroud (coffin) which was too short for his size. When it was drawn to cover the head, the feet would be exposed and when it was drawn to cover the feet, the head would become uncovered. The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said: “Cover his head with the sheet and his feet with the ‘Izkhir’ leaves” (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. F. Synonym : Dryobalanops camphora Colebr. Family : Dipterocarpaceae English name : Borneo camphor, Malayan camphor, Sumatra camphor. Local name : Kafoor Arabic name : Kafoor Medicinal uses : Sedative, anodyne, antiseptic, diaphoretic, anthelmentic, stimulant, carminative. Used as insecticide. Toxic causing headache, nausea, excitement, confusion and delirium. References from Holy Qur’an: Marzanjush; Zatar, Satar (M. Surah 76. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr, Verse #. 5: See under Cinnamomum camphora L.* References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Allaho Anha) died. He said, give Her a bath three or five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri) leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after that (Farooqi, 1998). Note: See Note under Cinnamomum camphora L. Botanical name : Lawsonia inermis L. Family : Lythraceae English name : Egyptian Privet-Henna Local name : Mehandi Arabic name : Henna, Faghia (Kalli) Parts used : Leaves Medicinal uses : Henna has been used for astringent, antihemorrhagic, intestinal antineoplastic, cardio-inhibitory, hypotensive and sedative effects, amoebiasis, headache, jaundice and leprosy. Its extracts show antibacterial, antifungal and ultraviolet light screening activity, antifertility activity in animals and may induce menstruation. References from Ahadith: C Whosoever complained of pain in legs, the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) advised him to apply Henna (on the legs)." (Farooqi, 1998). C Umm Salamah (Radi Allaho Anha) as commenting; "The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayi Wasallam) never suffered from a wound or a thorn without putting Henna on it" (Mutmainaa, 2003). C Jahzma (Radi Allahu Anho), the wife of Bashir Bin Khasasia (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates, "I saw Prophet Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) coming out of the house. He was coming after taking bath; therefore, he was shaking his hairs. The colour of Henna was visible on his head." (Mutmainaa, 2003). C Abdullah bin Burayda (Radi Allahu Anho) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) said, "the lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world and the next is Henna blossom" (Farooqi, 1998). C Hazrat Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) also relates that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) loved sweet- smelling blossoms, especially that of Henna (Mutmainaa, 2003). Botanical name : Majorana hortensis Moench.* Family : Lamiaceae/Labiatae English name : Marjoram Local name (s) : Marva khusa, Marzanjosh Arabic name (s) : Mardaqoush, Mardaqush, syriaca) Parts used : Whole plant Medicinal uses : Whole plant-stimulant, tonic, rubefacient. Given in colic, diarrhea, hysteria, rheumatism, toothache and earache. Useful in gynaecological disorders. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1476 References from Ahadith: that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that “there is Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. It is very Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “there is effective medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi, 1991). Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. It is very effective * Two types of Marzanjosh are found in Egypt and Arabia. medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi, 1991). One is known as Wild Marzanjosh (Origanum vulgare L.) Botanical name : Ocimum basilicum L. hortensis Moench). Both are medicinal herbs containing Family : Lamiaceae pleasant aromatic oil like thyme (Ghaznavi, 1991). English name : Sweet Basil Local name : Rehan, Niazbo Botanical name : Thymus serpyllum L. Arabic name : Rehan Family : Labiatae (Lamiaceae) Parts used : Leaves and seeds English name (s) : Thyme, Wild thyme Medicinal uses : Fever, cough, common cold, Local name (s) : Sattar Ban-ajwain, Jangli Podina eczema, baldness, vaginal swelling, pemples, arthritis, Arabic name (s) : Sa’tar, Za’tar muscles pain, antidote, pain killer, tuber closes, asthma, Part used : Leaves piles, hepatitis, consception, malaria and heart Medicinal uses : The whole plant is anthelmintic, diseases. antioxidant, strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic, References from Holy Quran expectorant, sedative and tonic. Internally, it is taken in Surah Ar- Rahman, Verse #. 12, 13: Therein are fruits, the treatment of bronchitis, catarrh, laryngitis, flatulent date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing indigestion, painful menstruation, colic and hangovers. dates). And also corn, with (its) leaves and stalk for Externally, it is applied to minor injuries, mastitis, mouth, fodder, and sweet-scented plants (Al-Hilali and Khan, throat and gum infections. 1996). Surah Al-Waqi‘a, Verse #. 88, 89: Thus, then, if he be of C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) those Nearest to Allah, (there is for him) rest and narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe satisfaction and a Garden of Delight (Ali, 1989). Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala, References from Ahadith: your houses” (Farooqi, 1998). C Hazrat Abu Usman (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe “Whom Ocimum is offered, might not refuse” Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Olibanum (lubaan, (Farooqi, 1998). labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” C Hazrat Abi Na’m (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that (Farooqi, 1998 and Ghaznavi, 1991). Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “These (Hazrat Hassan and Hazrat Hussain Radi Allaho Anhomaa) are ocimum (fragrance or fragrant flowers) for me in the world” (Farooqi, 1998). Note: Rehan (O. basilicum) is considered to be Tulsi (O. sanctum) by some people, but it is incorrect. Both are different species (Farooqi, 1998). Botanical name : Origanum vulgare L.* Family : Lamiaceae/Labiatae English name : Marjoram Local name : Jungli Marzanjosh Arabic Name : Marzanjosh Parts used : Leaves Medicinal uses : Essential oil from leaves and flowering tops used for toothache, sprains, stiff and paralysis. Seeds and leaves useful as remedy for colic. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates and the other one as Halu Marzanjosh (Majorana carminative, deodorant, diaphoretic, disinfectant, References from Ahadith: Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in DISCUSSION Aromatic plants (having an aroma; fragrant or sweet- smelling) synthesize and preserve a variety of biochemical products, many of which are extractable and useful as chemical feed stock or raw materials for various scientific investigations. Many secondary metabolites of plants are commercially important and find use in number of perfumery, flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. Hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as ‘natural-biochemical-factories’ or ‘chemical goldmines’ (Skaria et al., 2007). The essential oils which impart the distinctive aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents (Simon, 1990). They are nearly all comprised of some combination of alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, oxides, lactones, coumarins and furocoumarins. The result of this means that most essential oils are anti-inflammatory; anti-viral; anti- fungal; detoxifying; circulatory; anti-spasmodic; analgesic and decongestant (Falsetto, 2008). Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1477 As early as 4000 BC the great Sumerian civilization had Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates discovered that most aromatic plants and shrubs have powerful antiseptic properties, making them natural healers for external wounds and skin infections and as infusions for internal ailments (Highet, 1999). A close look at checklist of aromatic plant species tells us that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam), gave the references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through out the world. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) liked perfume (aroma) very much. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “From your world, women and Taib (perfume) were made beloved to me and the comfort of my eye is the prayer” (Al Qadr, 2007). Narrated Hazrat 'Aisha (Radi Allaho Anha): I used to perfume Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) with the best scent available till I saw the shine of the scent on his head and shine beard. Narrated Hazrat 'Azra bin Thabit Al-Ansari (Radi Allaho Anho): When I went to Thumama bin 'Abdullah, he gave me some perfume and said that Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) would not reject the gifts of perfume. Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) said: The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) used not to reject the gifts of perfume (Al Qadr, 2007). Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases (Farooqi, 1998). The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) recommended Acorus calamus (zareera) for the treatment of pimple (Abscess). One of the Wives (Radi Allaho) of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Once the messenger of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) came by when I had a pimple on my finger. He said: “Do you have a Tharirah (arum)’ I said, yes. He said, place it on the pimple. He then said, Say, O Allah who transforms the big to small and small to big, make what I am suffering small” (Farooqi, 1998; Al Qadr, 2007). In addition to its use as perfume the Zareera has numerous medicinal uses as well. It is useful in whooping cough and sciatica. In Arab Zareera was also used as fragrance at the time of Hazrat Musa Alayi Salam (Farooqi, 1998). Artemisia maritima (Karmala, Afsanteen), Boswellia spp. (Olibanum, Frankincense-Luban), Commiphora molmol (Myrrh-murmuki) and Thymus serpyllum (Thyme-Sa’tar) are other aromatic and medicinal plants which have been recommended by the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) for fumigation in the houses. Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala, Afsanteen), Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi, 1998). that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, “Fumigate your houses with Olibanum (lubaan, labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi, 1998; Ghaznavi, 1991). Artemisia maritima (Karmala, Afsanteen), leaves and flowers are antispasmodic, stimulant, cardiac, tonic and anthelmintics. Decoction or infusion of leaves is used in “ague” intermittent and remittent fever. Locally the fresh leaves are soaked in water kept over night and the water is taken as vermifuge (Amhrwo, 2001). The flowering tops are used in indigenous medicine as anthelmintic, deobstruent and stomachic. The drug santonin obtained from the flowering tops is specific for round worms. It is also used for removing thread worms from the small intestine (Zaman and Khan, 1970). Boswellia carterii and B. serrata (Frankincense-luban) belong to family Burseraceae. Plants of this family possess the medicinal property of being expectorant and are, therefore, particularly helpful in treating bronchitis. They are also useful in healing wounds and ulcers and reducing scar tissue (Falsetto, 2009). Frankincense was used by doctors, dentists, chemists and beauticians since as early as 3000 BC and some of the biggest buyers of this highly prized resin were the embalmers (Highet, 1999). Cinnamomum camphora L. has occasionally been used internally in the treatment of hysteria, but in modern day herbalism it is mainly used as the essential oil and internal use is not advised. The wood and leaves are analgesic, antispasmodic, odontalgic, rubefacient, stimulant. An infusion is used as an inhalant in the treatment of colds and diseases of the lungs. The plant is more commonly used in the form of the essential oil which can be obtained by distillation of the chipped branches, trunk and wood of the tree, or from the leaves and twigs. Wood 24-40 years old is normally used. The essential oil is anthelmintic, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, cardiotonic, carminative, diaphoretic, sedative and tonic. It is used externally in liniments for treating joint and muscle pains, balms for chilblains, chapped lips, cold sores, skin diseases etc and as an inhalant for bronchial congestion (Plants For a Future, 2008). Citrus spp. Lemons are just one example of the simple bounties Allah has provided us with. In addition to their nutritional benefits, lemon (its oil) is used in aromatherapy, as a muscle relaxant and a skin and circulation stimulant. Rubbed on the face, lemons open up the pores releasing heat and refreshing the skin. Eaten during pregnancy, lemons help build the developing baby's bones. Lemons also aid in the digestion of heavy meals and in the assimilation of protein, calcium, zinc and vitamins. Lemons also have cholesterol-lowering properties, thus preventing hair loss and even causing hair regeneration. They counteract cases of anxiety and depression; stimulate Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1478 the liver and the gall bladder, causing a release in cleansing the digestive tract of all noxious substances congestion; stimulate the formation of valuable leukocytes in the fight against viral and infectious diseases and stimulate the lymphatic system in cases of cellulite and obesity (Al Qadr, 2007). Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is another aromatic plant mentioned in Ahadith. Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) informed us of the beneficial elements contained in Henna over 1400 years ago. One tradition of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) cited in At-Tirmidhi, records Umm-e-Salamah (Radi Allahu Anho) as commenting; "The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) never suffered from a wound or a thorn without putting Henna on it" Another tradition mentioned in As-Sahih Bukhari and Abu Dawud Sharif says, "Whenever somebody came to Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) with complaints of headache, he directed him to undergo cupping and whosoever complained of pain in legs, was advised to apply Henna." The Perfume made from henna flowers is very sweet and strong. In a well known hadith, cited in As-Suyuti's 'Tibb an-Nabi' it is recorded that Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said, "the lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world and the next is Henna blossom" (Mutmainaa, 2003). The actual Henna plant is sometimes called the "Magic Plant" because it has great healing effects. It contains ingredients to be antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti- hemorrhagic. Henna is useful is healing athlete's foot, fungal skin infections, headaches, burning of the soles and palms and local inflammation. The leaves and seeds act as cooling agents for the head and body (Mutmainaa, 2003). Izkhir (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) leaves, stems or the rhizomes are used in the therapeutic traditional ones, as well of internal use, like tonic, antispasmodic, febrifuge, intestinal disinfectant, as external, like disinfecting funerary, antimalaria and against Guinea worm. In Egyptian this plant has a good reputation to be an antispasmodic and a renal diuretic. It has been established by various authors that the active ingredient responsible for the antispasmodic activity is a sesquiterpenediol, the cryptomeridiol. A recent ethnobotanic study shows that this plant is used in traditional pharmacopoeia in Burkina Faso to treat the cough of infants and children (Yentema et al., 2007). Myrrh (Commiphora molmol is thick, yellow, gummy resin extracted from a shrub. Essential oils like myrrh have considerable medicinal properties as ancient Egyptian physicians surmised. Myrrh was extensively used to embalm the dead (Highet, 1999). The herb is particularly beneficial for treating bronchitis, asthma, cold and catarrh or running nose. It acts against all viral and bacterial infections, all other diseases as well as invigorates the body’s immune (resistance) system. The herb’s action to augment digestion also helps in as well as function as a remedy for common detoxification and anti-inflammation. This quality of myrrh is especially useful in treating arthritis, rheumatism as well as gout (GmbH, 2008). Sweet marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench.) is considered as highly medicinal like other members of the same family such as mint, basil etc. It is considered expectorant, carminative and tonic. It is reported to be useful in asthma, hysteria and paralysis. Its oil is used as an external application for sprains, bruises, stiff and paralytic limb and toothache. It is also used for hot fomentation in acute diarrhea. Leaves and seeds are reported to provide a ready remedy for colic (Indian food, 2009). Ocimum basilicum (Sweet basil-Raihan) acts principally on the digestive and nervous systems, easing flatulence, stomach cramps, colic and indigestion. The leaves and flowering tops are antispasmodic, aromatic, carminative and digestive, galactogogue, stomachic and tonic. The mucilaginous seed is given in infusion in the treatment of gonorrhoea, dysentery and chronic diarrhoea. It is said to remove film and opacity from the eyes. Extracts from the plant are bactericidal (Plants For a Future, 2008). Oregano (Origanum vulgare) has a beneficial effect upon the digestive and respiratory systems and is also used to promote menstruation. The leaves and flowering stems are antispasmodic, carminative, cholagogue, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, stimulant, stomachic and mildly tonic. The plant is taken internally in the treatment of colds, influenza, mild feverish illnesses, indigestion, stomach upsets and painful menstruation. This plant is one of the best natural antiseptics because of its high thymol content (Plants For a Future, 2008). Thyme (Thymus serpyllum) has been used by mankind since pre-recorded times. Ancient Greeks derived its name from one of its many uses: "to fumigate." During the period of the Black Plague, doctors wore "nose gays" and masks that included thyme when visiting sick rooms and clinics. Thyme was used as incense in religious ceremonies and as a funeral herb. The dried flowers are also used to repel moths from clothing (Belt, 2009b). The antiseptic abilities found in the volatile phenolic compounds, thymol and carvacrol, in thyme make it ideal in combating bad breath, gum disease, gastric problems caused by viruses or bacteria, eczema, burns, ringworm, psoriasis, parasitic infections, sore throats and body odour. However, thyme should not be used by pregnant women or by children as it can act as a uterine stimulant and is toxic in high doses (Burns, 2000). REFERENCES Ali, A.Y., 1989. The Holy Qur‘an: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (9): 1472-1479, 2009 1479 Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1996. The Noble Quran: Khan, A.S, M.A. Khan, H.A. Din, H.U. Khan and M. Tayyab, English Translation of the meaning and commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A., pp: 738. Al Qadr, 2007. Prophetic medicine. Available at: http://www.ummah.com/forum/archive/index.php/ Accessed March 13, 2009. Amhrwo, 2001. Artemisia maritima Alpine Medicinal Herbs and Rural Welfar Organization. Available at: http://www.sdpi.org/alpine%20medicianl%20herb s/5.htm. Accessed March 23, 2009. Belt, M., 2009a. Essential oils nature direct 2u 45 Barncroft Court, Leeds LS14 1HT, England. http://www.naturedirect2u.com/Essential%20oils/ essentialoils.htm. Belt, M., 2009b. Mother of Thyme: Thymus serpyllum. nature direct 2u. Available at: http://www. naturedirect2u.com/Medicinal%20herbs/motheroft hymeherb.htm. Accessed March 25, 2009. Burns, K., 2000. Herbs In Hadith, Part Two of Three: Kitchen Herbs http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/ Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1157365863368&page name=Zone-Engl i sh-Heal thSci ence%2FHSE Layout. Dar-ul-Iman Healing, 2000. Food of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). Available at: http://chishti.org/foods_of_the_prophet. Accessed March 13, 2009. Falsetto, S., 2008. The Properties of Essential Oils. Physical and Therapeutic Properties Common to All Aromatherapy Oils. Available at: http://aromatherapy. sui t e101. com/ art i cl e. cf m/ t he_propert i es_of _ essential_oils Accessed on March 13, 2009. Falsetto, S., 2009. Medicinal Properties of Aromatic Plant Families. Therapeutic Properties in the Same Scented Plant Family. Available at: http://medicinal- plants.suite101.com/article.cfm/medicinal_propert ies_of_aromatic_plant_families Accessed on March 13, 2009. Farooqi, I., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, 9-lower Mall, Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore. pp: 151-152, 168. Ghaznavi, K., 1991. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan, 1: 50, 334. GmbH, C.E.R., 2008. Myrrh. Available at: http://www. herbs2000.com/herbs/herbs_myrrh.htm. Accessed March 27, 2009. Highet, J., 1999. The perfumes of Arabia. The Middle East. Available at: http://www.africasia.com/archive/ me/99_01/mems0101.htm#top. Accessed March 9, 2009. Indian Food, 2009. Marjoram. Available at: http://www. indianetzone.com/1/marjoram.htm. Accessed March 31, 2009. 1994. Some Scientific Facets of Quran and Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad, Peace Be Upon Him) in The Field of Medicine. Pak. J. Health, 31: 7-10. Marwat, S.K., M.A., Khan, M.A. Khan, M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, F.U. Rehman and S. Sultana, 2009a. Vegetables Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Studies in Dera Ismail Khan, N.W.F.P., Pakistan. Pak. J. Nutr., 8: 530. Marwat, S.K., M.A., Khan, M.A. Khan, M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, F.U. Rehman and S. Sultana, 2009b. Salvadora persica, Tamarix aphylla and Zizyphus mauritiana- Three Woody Plant Species Mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith and Their Ethnobotanical Uses in North Western Part (D.I. Khan) of Pakistan. Pak. J. Nutr., 8: 545. Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, 2007. International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP). Version 1.0. Bundesamt für Natur-schutz (BfN), MPSG/SSC/IUCN, WWF Germany and TRAFFIC, Bonn, Gland, Frankfurt and Cambridge (BfN- Skripten 195), pp: 5. Available at: http://www. floraweb.de/map-pro/. Accessed on March 13, 2009. Mutmainaa, 2003. The Prince of Dyes-Henna. Avaiable at: http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/food/ henna.html. Accessed March 29, 2009. Plants For a Future, 2008. Edible, medicinal and useful plants for healthier world. Available at: http://www. pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Accessed November 16, 2008. Simon, J.E., 1990. Essential oils and culinary herbs. p. 472-483. In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (Eds.), Advances in new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR. Available at: http://www.hort.purdue.edu/ newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-472.html Accessed March 25, 2009. Skaria, B.P., P.P. Joy, S. Mathew, G. Mathew, A. Joseph and R. Joseph, 2007. Aromatic Plants In: Peter, K.V. and M.S. Swaminathan. Hurticulture Science Series -1. Kerala Agricultural University Aromatic and Medicinal Resaerch Station, Odakki Asmannoor Post Ernakulam District, Kerala, India, pp: 1. Yentema, O., Q. Alioune and S.A. Dorosso, 2007. Chemical composition and physical Characteristics of the Essential Oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L.) Spreng. of Burkina Faso. J. Appl. Sci., 7: 503- 506. Zaman, M.Z. and M.S. Khan, 1970. Hundred Drug Plants of West Pakistan. Medicinal Plant Branch. Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar, pp: 15. American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications, 2009 Corresponding Author: Mushtaq Ahmad, Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan 126 Useful Medicinal Flora Enlisted in Holy Quran and Ahadith Mushtaq Ahmad, Mir Ajab Khan, Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, 1 1 1 Muhammad Zafar, Muhammad Aslam Khan, Tamoor Ul Hassan and Shazia Sultana 1 2 1 1 ¹Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan ²Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University, Dera Ismail, Khan, Pakistan Abstract: The present research work is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holly Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The main aim of this study is to establish how the different parts or aspects of plant based Islamic medicines (Tibb) such as use of medicinal plants, health principle, hygiene, practice, thought and culture when taken together, demonstrate both wholeness as a system and systematic nature of plant based Islamic medicines. In view of the importance of this study comprehensive and detailed data was systematically collected from Holly Quran, Ahadith`s books, Islamic history and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 32 medicinal plants species belonging to 30 genera of 23 families of plant kingdom. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, distribution, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holly Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being used by about 80% of the world population, mainly developing countries for primary health care because of better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with human body and lesser side effects. It is recommended that plant based industries should be developed in the light of Islamic teaching and research. Key words: Medicinal flora %Checklist %Uses %Holly Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCITON Almustaghfri, Zia uddin Almukadasi, Shams uddin Albali, Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always Muhammad Abu Baker Alkaim, Jalal uddin Alseuoti and a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. Islamic Abdul Razzaq Bin Mustafa Altanki did a great work in this medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alaihe Salaam.) and field. The books written in this era “Alnabvi fee Mannafal was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Makalat” by abdul Razzaq Altanki is a good one. The Wasallaam) but search and compiling of these medicine is other book which is best and still available is “Kanzulamal still continued after the death of Holy Prophet Muhammad Fee Sanan Walakwal” also provide us much more (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) through out the world. information about medicines of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Al-Quran is one of the best reference book describing Alaihe Wasallaam) [2]. the importance of plants in different Surahs as in The climax of Islamic medicines started from Abu Bin Al-Momeenoon, Al-Rehman, Al-Bakra and Al-Inaam. Our Zakria Alrazi. He wrote his famous book “Haddi Kabeer” Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) used and while the book “Kamal-ul-Sannat” by Ali Bin Abbas is recommended medicinal plants for various ailments and also a good one [3] These medicinal plants continue to be food [1]. extensively used as major source of drugs for the The history of Islamic medicine started form second treatment of many ailments. There is now growing century of Hijra, Abdul Malik Bin Habib Undlasi compiled awareness to encourage indigenous production and his first book “Tib-e-Nabvi”. In third century of Hijra processing of these plants used in different cultures and Muhammad Bin Abu Bakar Ibne Ulsani and Abu Naeem religious. Present investigation does not mean that the Isphani compiled their books on this topic. In the same era plant and plant parts which are described in Holy Quran other Muslim scholars like Ali bin Mossa Raza and Imam for medicinal purposes but described for other purposes. Kazim Bin Jaffar also worked on Islamic medicines. In the But in this study emphasis was on medicinal uses as used fourth century of Hijra Muslims Scholars like Abi Jaffar in different cultures, traditions and religions. In this Kahal ibne Tarkhan, Muhammad bin Ahmed Zahabi, Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 127 research medicinal uses of these plants are experience of alphabetic order followed by English name, Arabic name, different communities of world. Holy Quran is considered family, habit and distribution, part used, medicinal uses to be the reference for the citation of these plants. Honey and references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and which is the product of different plant species is Islamic books. Correct botanical names, their families and described for medicinal purpose in the Holy Quran. identification of plants were done by using of available Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora literature [4-8]. Correct botanical nomenclature was and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was also confirmed by comparing with already known conducted to prepare checklist, investigate medicinal uses specimens of herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam Univeristy, and create awareness about the medicinal flora enlisted in Islamabad-Pakistan. Holy Quran, Ahadith, Islamic literature and culture for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. RESULTS MATERIALS AND METHODS Present findings were confined to 32 plant species The research work was conducted by reviewing Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. These plants are the most acceptable literature given in Holly Quran, not only used in Islamic countries but also throughout the Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and detailed world for various aspects such as medicinal, food and information about medicinal plants were collected from industrial products. Data inventory constitute botanical these sources. The notation given in the Islamic books name, English name, local names, Arabic name, family, were also cited and confirmed from Holly Quran and habit and distribution; parts used, medicinal uses and Ahadith. Check list and medicinal inventory of plants references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic was arranged in systematic order of botanical names in books. belonging to 30 genera of 23 families enlisted in Holly 1. Acorus calamus L. English Name: Sweet flag Local Name: Zareea Arabic Name: Zareera, Oudulwaj Family: Acoraceae Habit and Habitat: Perennial herb found in marshy places and along riverbanks. Distribution: N. and C. America, Europe, Asia. Part used: Roots Medicinal uses: Eye diseases, stomach pain, liver and intestinal disorder, heart diseases, conception, eczema, paralysis, asthma, hysteria, madness, malaria and arthritis References from Ahadith C Bukhari (Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha Siddiqa) Kitabul-libas [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 2. Agaricus campestris L. English Name: Mushroom Local Name: Khunbii Arabic Name: Esh El-Ghorab Family: Agaricaceae Habit and Habitat: Fleshy fungus found in terrestrial and moist habitat. Distribution: Cosmopolitan Part used: Whole part Medicinal uses: Eye diseases, clear eyes, physical strength, germicide, arthritis, paralysis, parkensis, muscle pain, headache and dizziness Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 128 References from Ahadith C Bukhari (Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid) [9]. C Sahih-Al-Muslim. Ravi: Saeed bin Zaid. Kitabul Ashraba[12]. C Ibne-Majja. Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid [11]. 3. Allium cepa L. English Name: Onion Local Name: Piaz Arabic Name: Basal Family: Alliaceae Habit and Habitat: Cultivated annual herb Distribution: Pakistan, India, China, Russia, America and European countries Part used: Bulb, leaves and seeds. Medicinal uses: Antidote, Stomach diseases, cholera, Diarrhoea, throat infection, common cold, cough, fever, influenza, ear pain, improve sperm production, clear face and skin spots, appetizer, headache, hepatitis, piles, eye diseases, baldness, constipation, menstruation and intestinal diseases. References from Holy Qurn Verse #. 68, Surah Baqra [13] References from Ahadith C Bukhari (Ravi: Jabir bin Abdullah) Kitabut-Tib [9] C Muslim (Ravi: Jabir Bin Abdullah) Chap. Abwab ul Attamah [12]. C Ibne Maja (Ravi: Mahdan Bin Abu Talah) [11] C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10] 4. Allium sativum L. English Name: Garlic Local Name: Lahson Arabic Name: Soom Family: Alliaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated erect herb Distribution: Egypt, Italy, France, Pakistan, China, India and USA Part used: Bulb Medicinal uses: Antidote, wound healer, dog bite, paralysis, digestive problems asthma, parkensis, intestinal pain worms, cough, hysteria, headache, tuberculosis. References from Holy Quran Verse #. 61, Surah Baqra [13]. References from Ahadith C Bukhari (Ravi: Hazrat Anas), Kitab ul Tamaih [9] C Muslim (Ravi: Abu Ayub) [12]. C Ibne Majja (Ravi: Umer bin Alkhitab) [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10] Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 129 5. Beta vulgaris L. English Name: Beet roots Local Name: Choqandar Arabic Name: Silq, banjar Family: Chenopodiaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual or perennial cultivated vegetable. Distribution: India, North Africa, Europe, Ireland and Pakistan Part used: Roots and leaves Medicinal uses: Eczema, baldness, liver infection, muscle weakness, skin disease, hepatitis, arthritis, kidney pain, headache, womb diseases and vaginal pain References from Ahadith C Bukhari. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. Kitabul-Athama [9]. C Ibne Majja. Kitabut-Tib [11]. 6. Boswellia carterii Birdw. English Name: Indian frankincense Local Name: Lobban Arabic Name: Leeban Family: Buseraceae Habit and Habitat: Tree Distribution: Somalia, Ethopia, Oman, Yemen Part used: Gum of stem Medicinal uses: Germicide, stomach pain, wound healer, throat swelling and infection, eczema, cough, tuberculosis, arthritis and insecticide. References from Ahadith C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi [10]. C Baihaqi [14] 7. Boswellia serrata Birdw. Engish Name: Frankincense Loal Name: Gogle Arabic Name: Kundur Family: Burseraceae Habit and Habitat: An armed shrub or tree common on stony grounds and hillocks. Distribution: India and Pakistan Part used: Gum of stem Medicinal uses: Increase memory, clear urine, diarrhea, oral wounds, tongue infection, throat diseases, piles, clear the blood blocking, lungs infections, testes and anus swelling, and baldness. References from Ahadith C Tibe-Nabvi and Jadeed Science(Ravi: Ans Bin Malik (R.A) [2]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi [15]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 130 8. Cassia senna L. English Name: Senna Local Name: Sana, sanamakki Arabic Name: Sanamakki Family: Caesalpiniaceae Habit and Habitat: A perennial herbaceous plant usually found on sandy grounds. Distribution: Pakistan, India, Algeria, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, Eriteria, Somalia Republic, Saudi Arabia, Kenya and Mozambique Part used: Leaves and fruit Medicinal uses: Cold effect on body, intestinal pain, remove the poisonous material from stomach, piles, waist pain, arthritis and eczema. Plant is also used as laxative and stimulant. References from Ahadith C Ibne Majja (Ravi: Abu bin Um-e-Haram) [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 9. Cichorium intybus L. Engish Name: Chicory Loal Name: Kasni Aabic Name: Hind-Baa Family: Asteraceae Habit and Habitat: Cultivated annual herb or may be found as weed in Trifolium field. Distribution: Europe, New Zealand, Pakistan, and India Part used: Leaves, flower, roots and seeds. Medicinal uses: Cough, antidote, cold effect on body, eye diseases, hepatitis, liver diseases, remove the blockage of kidney and urethra, headache, throat disease, kidney stones and diarrhea References from Ahadith C Bukhari. Ravi: Mohd Bin Abu Bakar Al-Kaim [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 10. Cinnamomum camphora L. English Name: Camphor tree Local Name: Kafoor Arabic Name: Kafoor Family: Lauraceae Habit and Habitat: Tree or shrub cultivated for ornamental and commercial purposes. Distribution: India, Sri Lanka, Japan and China Part used: Leaves and branches Medicinal uses: Tetanus, parkensis, hysteria, tuberculoses, headache, liver and kidney pains, oral and teeth swelling, cholera, breast pain, inner wounds, sexual stimulant. Tropical uses of camphor is stimulant and muscle relaxant. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 131 References from Holy Quran Verse 15, 1, Surah Al insane. References from Ahadith C Bukhari, Chapt. Kitab ul Tib [9]. C Muslim (Ravi: Um-e-Atiya) Kitabul-Janayez [12]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 11. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumura: English Name: Water melon Local Name: Tarbooz Arabic Name: Al Bataigh Family: Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer, cultivated for fruit purposes. Distribution: America, China, Africa, India and Pakistan. Part used: Fruit and seeds. Medicinal uses: Kidney pain, clear the urine and stomach, facial beauty, increase immunity, jaundice and have cold effects. References from Ahadith C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. Kitabul-Al Athama [11]. C Trimzi (2 Ed. Chap. Abwab ul Tamiah [14]. nd C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 12. Citrus aurantifolia L. English Name: Lime Local Name: Sangtra or Narangi Arabic Name: Laymun Family: Rutaceae Habit and Habitat: A small fruit tree cultivated in the plains and foothills. Distribution: India, Pakistan, Spain and America Part used: Fruit, juice, bark and seeds Medicinal uses: Antidote, remove spot from skin, piles, common cold, stomach disorder, ant peristalsis, decrease, thrust, hepatitis, heart diseases, cough, liver infection, cholera, diabetes, intestinal pain, pimples, skin depletion and leukoria References from Ahadith Bukhari. Ravi: Abu Mussa Alasharri [9]. 13. Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch: Syn: C. myrrha Nees. English Name: Myrrh Local Name: Murmukey Arabic Name: Murr Family: Burseraceae Habit and Habitat: Perennial plant Distribution: Ethopia, Iran, Thailand and West- Arabia Part used: Gum of stem Medicinal uses: Germicides, wound healer, old cough, oral fragrance, baldness, swellingof urinary bladder Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 132 References from Ahadith Baihaqi Shabalaiman. Ravi: Abdullah bin Jaffer. [14]. 14. Cydonia oblonga Mill. English Name: Quince Local Name: Bahi Arabic Name: Safarjal Family: Rutaceae Habit and Habitat: Wild tree found in foothills and cultivated on the plains. Distribution: Pakistan, Burma, Indo-China, at ±1200 m alt. Part used: Whole plant Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, diarrohea, endocarditis, pericarditis, dysentery References from Ahadith C Ibne Majah. (Ravi: hazrat Talha). Kitabul Athama [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. C Hayat ul Hawan ul Kabri [16]. 15. Ficus carica L. English Name: Figs Local Name: Anjeer Arabic Name: Teen Family: Moraceae Habit and Habitat: A small tree cultivated in poor soil Distribution: Mediterranean Region and S.W.Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Part used: Bark, leaves, Milk Medicinal uses: Remove kidney and urinary bladder stone, release intestinal pain, pile, dyspepsia and anorexia. References from Holy Quran Verse #.1-4, Surrah Teen. [14]. 13 References from Ahadith C Bukhari [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 16. Flemingia grahamiana Wight and Arn. English Name: Memcylon (Tintura) Local Name: Kamaila Arabic Name: Warus Family: Fabaceae Habit and Habitat: Tree Distribution: Sudan, Yemen and Sri Lanka Part used: Leaves extract Medicinal uses: Tuberculosis, throat infection, constipation, eczema, piles, leukoria, swelling, germicides, kidney and urinary bladder stone and hysteria Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 133 References from Ahadith C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Zaid Bin Arkam [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 17. Hordeum vulgare L. English Name: Barley Local Name: Jao Arabic Name: Shair Family: Poaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated herb Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Fever, weakness, increase immunity, heart diseases, kidney pain, intestinal ulcer, maintain cholesterol level, jaundice and have cooling effect. Distribution: India, Pakistan and America References from Ahadith C Trimzi [14] C Bukhari [Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha (Chap; Haiz ul Shahir] [9]. C Bukhari. Ravia: Aisha. Kitabul-Athama [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 18. Lagenaria siceraria Standl. English Name: Squash Local Name: Kaddo Arabic Name: Yakteen, Daba Family: Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual trailer, cultivated for vegetable. Distribution: Found all over the world. Part used: Fruit and leaves Medicinal uses: Arthritis, Maleness, Headache, fever, Madness, Piles, lungs infection, common cold, kidney and liver disorder and heart diseases. References from Holy Quran Verse.# 48, Surah Younis References fromAhadith C Bukhari, Kitab ul Tamamiah [9] C Ibn e Maja, Chap Bab ul Daba [11]. C Ibn e Maja. Ravi: Anas. Kitabul-athama [10]. 19. Lawsonia inermis L. English Name: Hina Local Name: Mehndi Arabic Name: Henna Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 134 Family: Lythraceae Habit and Habitat: Perennial fragrant shrub, widely cultivated. Distribution: Africa and Asia. Part used: Leaves, branches and flowers Medicinal uses: Wound healer, headache, increase memory, cool effect, stimulator, protect the rupture of skin, skin softer, heal the muscle and chicken pox wound, baldness, constipation, vaginal pain, leuckoria References from Ahadith C Trimzi [14] C Tib-e-Nabvi. Ravi: Hazrat Ayesha [2]. C Bukhari, Kitab ul Tib [9]. C Ibne Majja. Ravi: Salma, Kitbu-Tib [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 20. Lens culinaris Medic. English Name: Lentils Local Name: Masoor Arabic Name: Adas Family: Papilionaceae Habit and Habitat: Small, annual herb, cultivated as pulse. Distribution: Native country uncertain, widely cultivated in Europe, Asia etc. Part used: Seeds Medicinal uses: Maleness, measle, paralysis, common cold, parkensis, face clearness, eye infection, digestive diseases. References from Holy Quran Holy Quran, Verse #. 61, Surah Al Baqra [13]. References from Ahadith C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Tibb-e-Nabvi (Urdu Tans. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and Mukhtiar Ahmad Nadvi) [15]. 21. Lepidium sativum L. English Name: Water cress Local Name: Hubbe-Rishad Arabic Name: Habbul Rashad Family: Brassicaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual weed of both cultivated and wild habitat. Distribution: Abyssinia, Afghanistan Part used: Leaves and juice Medicinal uses: Germicide, insecticide, body pain, arthritis, eczema, maleness, anorexia, constipation, menstruation and digestive problems. References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [9]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 135 22. Nigella sativa L. English Name: Black Seed Local Name: Clongy Arabic Name: Hubatul-sudda Family: Ranunculaceae Habit and Habitat: An annual erect herb. Distribution: Turkey, Italy, India and Pakistan. Part used: Seeds Medicinal uses: Hysteria, common cold, asthma, constipation, urine blockage, anorexia, aerophagy, flatulence, dyspepsia, gastric acute, gastro enteritis, dog bites, diabetes, kidney stone, milk production, baldness, gas trouble, brain disorders, pneumonia, cough, maleness, appendicitis, labor pain, facial clearness, pimples, fatness, typhoid, parkensis, piles, swelling, weakness, eczema, diarrhea, malaria, digestive disorders, allergy, wound healer, hearing problems, ear pain and swelling, memory increases, paralysis, heart diseases, antiperistalsis, intestinal worms, liver pain, waist pain, sexual weakness, common fever, ascities, menstruation, ulcerative colitis, crohan`s diseases. References from Ahadith C Bukhri. Ravi: Abu Huraira (Chap. Kitab ul Tib) [9]. C Ibne-Majja. Ravi: Salum Bin Abdullah [11]. C Ibn-e-Maja. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. Kitabu-Tib [11]. C Tirmizi. Ravi: Abu Hurrera [14]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. Zadul Maad [10]. 23. Ocimum basilicum L. English Name: Sweet basil Local Name: Rehan, Niazbo Arabic Name: Rehan Family: Lamiaceae Habit and Habitat: An annual plant cultivated for ornamental purposes Distribution: Grown in India, Malay Archipelago, Australia, W. Asia, Arabia. Part used: Leaves and seeds Medicinal uses: Fever, cough, common cold, eczema, baldness, vaginal swelling, pemples, arthritis, muscles pain, antidote, pain killer, tuber closes, asthma, piles, hepatitis, consception, malaria and heart diseases. References from Holy Quran Verse #. 12, 13, Surah Al Rahman [13]. References from Ahadith C Bukhri. Ravi: Abu Musa Al Asharii [9]. C Trimzi (Bab ul Tib) [14]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 136 24. Olea europea L. English Name: Olive Local Name: Zaiytoon Arabic Name: Zaiytoon Family: Oleaceae Habit and Habitat: An erect branched cultivated tree. Distribution: Found in Central Asian countries Part used: Fruit and oil Medicinal uses: Strengthen body muscles, slow down aging, clear the blood, remove the measlesspot, piles, tuberculosis, eczema, baldness, kidney pain, pancreas pain, maleness, common cold, stomach and respiratory diseases. References from Holy Quran C Verse #.191, Surah Alanam; verse #. 99, Surah Alanam; verse #. 11, Surah Alnahal; verse #. 35, Surah Alnnor; verse #. 1-4, Surah Teen [13]. References from Ahadith C Bukhri, Ravi: Khalid Bin Sahad [9]. C Trimzi, Abwab ul Tamah [14]. C Ibne Majja, Ravi; Zahid Bin Arkum [11]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 25. Phoenix dactylifera L. English Name: Date palm Local Name: Khajoor Arabic Name: Nahal, Balah, Tammar, Rutab, etc. Family: Arecaceae Habit and Habitat: Cultivated tree, may be found self grown. Distribution: N.Africa, India (Rajistan, Maharashter), Iraq, S.Arabia, Pakistan. Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Heart diseases, skin diseases, antidote, swelling of kidney, intestinal pain, heart attack, wound healer, diarrhea, labour pain, sexual weakness, stomach pain, piles, physical strengthing, shrill the voice, liver disorders. References from Holy Quran Verse #.6, Surah Baqra; verse #. 99, Surah Al Anam; verse #. 4, Surah Al Rahad; verse #. 11, 27, Surah Al Nahal; verse #. 91, Surrah Al Israa; verse #.36, Surah Al Kahaf; verse #. 23, 25, Surah Mariam; verse #.148, Surah Shurah; verse #. 71, Surah Taha; verse #. 34, Surah Yaseen; verse #. 60, Surah Al Qamar; verse #. 11-28, Surah Rahman; verse #. 7, surah Al Haqqa; verse #. 39, Surah Abbus [13]. References from Ahadith C Ibne Majja. Ravi-Bussar (R.A) [11]. C Trimzi [14]. C Bukhri. Ravi – Ans Bin Malik [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Ibn-e Umer. Zadul Maad [10] Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 137 26. Punica granatum L. English Name: Pomegranate Local Name: Anar Arabic Name: Rumman Family: Punicaceae Habit and Habitat: Tree, cultivated in the area. Distribution: Chilli, Iran, Afghanistan, India, Pakistan and European countries Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Stomach cough, hepatitis, muscle pain, heart and liver diseases, piles, eye diseases, dental problems, oral diseases, diarrhea and dysentery. References from Holy Quran Verse #. 99, Surah-Al Anam; verse #. 141, Surah Al Anam; verse #. 69, Surah Rehman. References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. 27. Salvadora persica L. English Name: Tooth brush tree Local Name: Peelu Arabic Name: Arak Family: Salvadoraceae Habit and Habitat: Shrub or small tree found in rocky slopes and sandy area. Distribution: Found in desert parts of the world. Part used: Branches and roots Medicinal uses: Dental diseases, arthritis, piles eczema, oral diseases, headache, antidote, diabetes, digestive problems. References from Ahadith C Bukhri. Ravi: Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Chap. Kitab ul Tib) [9] C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10]. 28. Saussurea lappa L. English Name: Costus Local Name: Kuth Arabic Name: Kustul Bahri Family: Asteraceae Habit and Habitat: Annul wild herb Distribution: European countries, In Pakistan (Kashmir and Northern Areas) Part used: Roots Medicinal uses: Phyrngitis, headache, maleness, remove swelling, common cold, good in parkansis, constipation, vaginal pain, strengthen heart, liver, tuberculosis. References from Ahadith Tib e Nabvi and modern Science [2]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 138 29. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. English Name: Fenugreek Local Name: Maithi Arabic Name: Helba Family: Papilionaceae Habit and Habitat: Annual cultivated leafy vegetable Distribution: Pakistan, Kashmir, India, S. Europe, Orient, Arabia, Ethiopia Part used: Seeds and leaves. Medicinal uses: Throat infection, swelling, body pain, cough, stomach pain, piles, dandruff, baldness, breast pain, lungs infection, diabetes, ulcer, diarrhea and gas trouble. Powerful tonic, back pain, seeds in powder form used for diabetes, lactogogue i.e. to stimulate milk production in mammary glands. References from Ahadith Tib-e-Nabvi.[( Ravi: Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman) [2]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Ahmed Zahbi, Zadul Maad [10]. 30. Thymus serpylum L. English Name: Wild thyme Local Name: Sattar Ban - ajwain Arabic Name: Zatar Family: Lamiaceae Habit and Habitat: Wild annual herb Distribution: Iran, Iraq and Afghanistan Part used: Leaves Medicinal uses: Germicides, pain remove of stomach, liver, common cold, kill the insect of belly and cough in strengthen lungs. References from Ahadith C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Mohd Ahmed Zahbi.Tibb-e-Nabvi [16] 31. Vitis vinifera L. English Name: Grapes Local Name: Munaqqa Arabic Name: Inab Family: Vitaceae Habit and Habitat: Perennial vine, cultivated for fruit purposes. Distribution: France, Germany, Spain, Pakistan and India Part used: Fruit juice Medicinal uses: Common cold, relax body and brain muscles, stomach diseases, cooling effects on body, cough, kidney and urinary bladder pain, liver and lung disorders, dog bite, remove weary, clear the face and cancer. References from Holy Quran Verse #. 160, Surah- Al Nahal; verse #. 91, Surah Israa; verse #. 28, Surah-Abasa; verse #. 266 Surah-Al-Bakara; verse #.11, 67, Surah-Al- Nahl; verse #. 32, Surah-Al-Kahf; verse #. 19, Surah-Al-Mumenon; verse #. 34, Surah-Yaseen; verse #. 78, Surah-An-Naba and verse #. 99, Surah-Al-Anaam. [13]. Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 139 References from Ahadith C Bukhari Ravi: Ibne-Abbas [9]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10] 32. Zingiber officinale Roscoe. English Name: Ginger Local Name: Adrak or Sonth Arabic Name: Zanjabil Family: Zingiberaceae Habit and Habitat: Cultivated herb with underground perennial stem. Distribution: Bangladesh, Yaman, Oman, Seralone, India and Pakistan Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Intestinal pain, anorexia, dyspepsia, headache, diarrhea, constipation, intestinal swelling, dog bite, stomach disorders, sexual weakness, digestive stimulant, cooling effect on body, increase urine production. References from Holy Quran Verse #. 68, Surah Al Baqra [13]. References from Ahadith C Bukhari, Ravi-Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R.A) [9]. C Muslim, Ravi Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R.A) [12]. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. DISCUSSION attacks. Up to 1959, the people of Dubai, Qatar, Abu History of Islamic medicine in its true context can and Khubus (bread). In ancient, dates were the major thus be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that source of food for the people of Middle East. In modern was inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic times many products of food have been prepared from history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek dates. In Holy Quran it is said “Your God is that who has sources but to which became added medical knowledge made different kinds of orchids and gardens for you, from, Persia, Syria, India and Byzantine. In Islam diseases those have colorful crops of Phoenix dactylifera, Olea are cured in two ways, first the cure of soul through europea (olive) and Punica granatum (pome grenate). prayers and second the cure of ailments through Their shapes and tastes are similar as well as different medicines [17]. The Holy Quran is one of the reference also. Eat these fruit when ripen but keep the share of poor books describing the importance of plants used for relatives and needy and do not waste them (Holy Quran: different ailments in various Surahs. Our Holy Prophet 141, Surah- Al-Anam). Olea europea (olive) is another used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plant that has many references in Holy Quran and plants for cure of common diseases. He recommended Ahadith. And it is used for skin diseases baldness and Hordeum vulgare (Barley) for heart diseases, constipation pain killer. In Ahadith it is said that “eat the olive oil and and vigorous [18]. apply it on the body, it is cure of seventy diseases” A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tells us (Abu Naeem. Ravi. Hazrat Abu Haraira). The saying of that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Holy Prophet (PBUH) about medicines are spread over Prophet (PBUH), gave the references of such plants that 200 books in the world [19]. are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through Now a days there is much interest in medicinal plants out the world. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light through out the world including developed countries like for the entire world. From this study it is found that China, Germany, France, Japan, USA and UK. Similarly in Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) has highest number of developing countries like Pakistan and India, the benefits references in The Holy Quran. This plant is used for of modern medicines and health care reach only to small digestive problems, piles, sexual diseases and heart percentage of population. These could hardly reach the Dhabi and Saudi Arabia used to have breakfast with dates Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (1): 126-140, 2009 140 large mosses living in the rural areas. Moreover in remote 7 Ali, S.I., 1977. Papilionaceae. In: E.Nasir and S.I.Ali, areas of the world where per capita income of people is Flora of Pakistan, Karachi, pp: 38-320. very low, it becomes more difficult to buy complicated and 8. Nasir, Y.J. and R.A. Rafique, 1995. Wild Flowers of expensive prescriptions. Hence there is a need for the Pakistan. T.J. Roberts. Oxford University Press, inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level, Karachi, pp: 298. since there long standing use is plant drug reasonably 9. Al Bukhari, M.B.I., 1938. Sahi ul Bukhari. Noor guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety [20]. In this Muhammad Maalik Book Dept. Near Jamia Masjid study an effort was also made to review the active Dehli-India. pp:105-107, 204,222, 245-248, 362, 817- constituents of these medicinal plants [21]. 820, 836, 849-57. The necessity for exploration for such useful data 10. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim, Zadul Maad, from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books has long Nafees Academy, Karachi, pp: 314-585 been felt with the increasing need of drugs, medicines 11. Ibn-e-Maja, Abdullah Muhammad bin Yazid, and other useful products. In this way present approach Kitabul Athama,Mehtab Co., Tajiran Kutab, Lahore. of this study can be adopted to record the medicinal 3: 99, 118, 150, 151, 157, 445. uses of plants for welfare of human beings. This study 12. Alhajaj, M.B., Sahih Muslim, Kitabul Ashraba, is the logical and applicable step in directions towards Babul- Adab-u-Thaam, Maktaba Rehmania, Lahore, the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based Pakistan, 5:183, 281, 326. industry in the light of Islamic history through out the 13. Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble world for prosperity and safety of the human beings. Quran: English Translation of the meaning and ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Holy Quran. Madinah, KSA. Special gratitude is expressed to Khawaja Hafiz Peer Nabatat, Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers, Muhammad Abdul Haq, Darya Sharif District Attock- 9-lower Mall, Aqab Mian Market, Urdu Bazar Lahore, Pakistan for their moral support in Islamic studies. pp: 39-230. Authors are also grateful to Hafiz Qari Azhar Mehmood 15. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya), Ibn-ul Qayyim.Tibb-e-Nabvi and Muhammad Shakeel, Islamic Institute of Bangai (Urdu Tans. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and District Attock-Pakistan for fruitful suggestion and Mukhtiar Ahmad Nadvi) Kutab Khana Shan-e-Islam, references during this research work. Urdu Bazar Lahore, pp: 488-489. REFERENCES Jadidah. Mohaqiqah. Al Baroot, Lubnan. pp: 349. 1. Nasr, S.H., 1976. Islamic Science-An illustrated Publishers, Lahore, Pakistan, pp: 9-15. study. Westerham press, Ltd, Westerham, Kent 18. Ghaznavi, K., 1996. Holy Prophet as Psychologist. (England), pp: 15. Alfaisal Printing Press Lahore, Pakistan, pp: 3. 2. Ghaznavi, K., 1987. Tib-i-Nabvi and modern science. 19. Ghaznavi, K., 2001. Ilaj-i-Nabvi and Jadid Science, Al Faisal, Lahore, Pakistan, 1(2): 1-14. Pait ke Beemarian. 13 Ed. Alfaisal Publishers, 3. Qureshi, J.A., 2004. Kitab-e-Sahat. Mukhdoom Lahore, Pakistan, 3: 39-385. Printing Press, Lahore, Pakistan, 1(1): 15-20. 20. Ahmad, M., M.A. Khan, M. Arshad and M. Zafar, 4. Jafri, S.M.H., 1966. The Flora of Karachi. The Book 2004. Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the Corporation, Karachi, pp: 9. treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of 5. Qurashi, M.A. and S.A. Khan, 1972. Flora of District Attock (Pakistan). Ethnobotanical Leaflets. Peshawar District and Khyber Agency. Volme II http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto.htm Part I (A). Pak. J. For. Pakistan Forest Institute, 21. Baquar, S.R., 1999. Medicinal and poisonous plants Peshawar, 22(2): 153-220. of Pakistan. Karachi Pakistan, 1(1): 10-489. 6. Stewart, R.R., 1972. An Annotated Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir”. In: Flora of West Pakistan, Karachi, pp: 383-425. commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of 14. Farooqi, M.I.A., 1998. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor 16. Musa, M.B., 1999. Hayat Ul Hawan. 2 Ed. Tibatul nd 17. Waiz, L.D., 2000. Tib-i-Nabvi. Azeem Sons th Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 ISSN 1680-5194 © Asian Network for Scientific Information, 2009 530 Vegetables Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Studies in Dera Ismail Khan, N.W.F.P., Pakistan Sarfaraz Khan Marwat , Mir Ajab Khan , Muhammad Aslam Khan , Mushtaq Ahmad , 1 1 2 1 Muhammad Zafar , Fazal-ur-Rehman and Shazia Sultana 1 3 1 Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan 1 Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 2 Faculty of Pharmacy, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 3 Abstract: The present research work is based on nine herbaceous plant species: Agaricus campestris L., Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Beta vulgaris L. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai, Cucumis sativus L., Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley, Trigonella foenum-graecum L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe. mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith. These plants were collected from Dera Ismail Khan District, NWFP, Pakistan, during 2007. This is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical importance of vegetables in the light of Islam. In view of the importance of this study related comprehensive and detailed data was collected. Complete macro and microscopic detailed morphological features of these species were discussed. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names, family followed by Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, Local/vernicular name, habit and habitat, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and Ahadith. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being widely used in the world because of better cultural acceptability, least injurious with none or much reduced side effects. Key words: Ethnomedicinal study, Pakistan, Holy Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCTION Vegetables are those herbaceous plants whose part or parts are eaten as supporting food or main dishes and they may be aromatic, bitter or tasteless. The nutrient contents of different types of vegetables vary considerably and they are not major source of carbohydrates compared to starchy foods which form the bulk of food eaten, but contain vitamins, essential amino acids as well as minerals and antioxidants. Vegetables are included in meals mainly for their nutritional values; however some are reserved for sick and convalescence because of their medicinal properties (Mensah et al., 2008). Pakistan is among those countries where traditional unani medicine is popularly practiced among a large fragment of its population. Traditional unani medicine originated in Greece, founded by ancient Greek philosophers and was used/documented by Muslims during the glorious period of Islamic civilization. It was brought to the Indo-Pak Subcontinent by Muslim scholars and practiced here for centuries (Hassan, 2001). Life and diseases go together where there is life, diseases are bound to exist. Dependency and sustainability of man and animal life has been revolving around plants through their uses as food, fibers and shelter, but also plants have been used to control and ease diseases, therefore, the use of plants as medicines is an ancient and reliable practice (Arshad and Rao, 2001). Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (A.S.) and was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) but search and compiling of these medicines is still continued through out the world (Nasr, 1976). The Holy Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of Islam. It contains signs and verses which have been leading people of different ages and of different academics and intellectual background to believe in Islam. The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan, et al., 1994). History of Islamic medicine in its true context can thus be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that was inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek sources but to which became added medical knowledge from, Persia, Syria, India and Byzantine. Ahadith [the sayings of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)] have also described the importance of many plant species. Farooqi (1998) in his book “Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat, Adwiyah Aur Ghizaen” in English “Plants, Medicines and Food Mentioned in Ahadith” has reported about 70 plants and plant products. Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 531 Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal C Sa'id bin Zaid (R.A.) reported: I heard Allah's Apostle flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and create awareness about the plant species enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and detailed information about 9 herbaceous vegetable plants of ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Plants species were arranged in systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Correct botanical names, their families and identification of plants were done by using flora of Pakistan . RESULTS Present findings were confined to 9 herbaceous vegetable plant species belonging to 8 genera of 7 families enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. These plants are Agaricus campestris L., Allium cepa L., Allium sativum L., Beta vulgaris L. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. and Nakai, Cucumis sativus L., Lagenaria siceraria, Trigonella foenum- graecum L. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe. which are used throughout Pakistan for various aspects such as vegetable, medicinal and industrial products. Data inventory constitutes botanical name, family, Quranic name, English name, local names, Arabic name, habit and habitat, distribution; parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. Agaricus campestris L. English Name : Mushroom Local Name : Khumbi Arabic Name : Esh El-Ghorab Family : Agaricaceae Habit and Habitat : Fleshy fungus, terrestrial and moist places Part used : Whole part Medicinal uses : Eye diseases, clear eyes, physical strength, germicide, arthritis, paralysis, parknesis, muscle pain, headache and Dizziness References from Ahadith: C Saeed bin Zaid (R.A.) narrates that I heard the Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) saying, "Truffles are like Manna (i.e. they grow naturally without man's care) and their water heals eye diseases."(Farooqi, 1998) (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' and their juice is a medicine for the eyes C Sa'id bin Zaid (R.A.) reported Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' which Allah the Glorious and Exalted, sent down upon the people of Israil, and its juice is a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998) Hazrat Suhaib (R.A.) reported Rasulallah (may peace be upon Him) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' which Allah sent down upon Bani Israil and their juice is a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998). Abu Huraira (R.A.) narrates: one day the companions of Rasulullah (SAW) said to Him (SAW), “Truffles are the small pox of the earth”. Upon this Rasulullah (SAW) said, “Truffles are 'Manna' and their juice is the medicine for the eyes (Farooqi, 1998). Allium cepa L. English Name : Onion Local Name : Piaz Arabic Name : Basal Family : Alliaceae Habit and Habitat : Herbacous, cultivated in the field Part used : Rhizome, leaves and seeds Medicinal uses: Antidote, Stomach diseases, cholera, Diarrhoea, throat infection, common cold, cough, fever, influenza, ear pain, improve sperm production, clear face and skin spots, appetizer, headache, hepatitis, piles, eye diseases, baldness, constipation, menstruation and intestinal diseases. References from Holy Qurn (Verse #. 61, Chapter #.1- Surah Al Baqarah): And (remember) when you said, “O Mûsâ (Musa)! we cannot endure one kind of food. So invoke your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the earth grows, its herbs, its cucumbers, its Fûm (wheat or garlic), its lentils and its onions.” He said, “Would you exchange that which is better for that which is lower? (Al- Hilali and Khan, 1985). References from Ahadith C Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: (R.A.) the Prophet said, "Whoever has eaten garlic or onion should keep away from us or should keep away from our mosque (Farooqi, 1998) C Narrated Mu'awiyah ibn Qurrah (R.A.): the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) forbade these two plants (i.e. garlic and onions) and he said: He who eats them should not come near our mosque. If it is necessary to eat them, make them dead by cooking, that is, onions and garlic (Ahmad, 1988) Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 532 C Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): Khalid References from Ahadith: (R.A.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R.A.) asked Aisha (R.A.) about onions. She replied: The last food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) ate was some which contained onions (Ahmad, 1988) C Mahdan Bin Abu Talah narrates: Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, those who eat onion and garlic should eat them in cooked form (Khan, 2001) Note: He who eats onion should make its odour die by cooking it well. Allium sativum L. English Name : Garlic Local Name : Lahson Arabic Name : Soom Family : Alliaceae Habit and Habitat : Annual cultivated erect herb Part used : Rhizome Medicinal uses : Antidote, wound healer, dog bite, paralysis, digestive problems, asthma, parkensis, intestinal pain worms, cough, histerea, headache, tuber closes References from Holy Quran (Verse #. 61, Chapter # 1 - Surah Al Baqarah): “And when you said O’ Moses We will not have patience or We will not endure on food (of) one (kind) so you pray for us (to) your Lord he brings out for us whatever sprouts or germinates (in) the earth of its vegetables or herbs and its cucumbers and its garlic and its lentils and its onions” (Rafai, 1990). References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (R.A.) narrated: the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, "Whoever has eaten garlic should not come to our mosque (Farooqi, 1998) Khalid (R.A.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R.A.) asked Aisha (R.A.) about onions. She replied: The last food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) ate was some which contained onions (Ahmad, 1988). Beta vulgaris L. English Name : Beet roots Local Name : Chakandar Arabic Name : Banjar Family : Chenopodiaceae Habit and Habitat : Cultivated vegetable, Terrestrial Part used : Roots and leaves Medicinal uses: Eczema, baldness, liver infection, muscle weakness, skin disease, hepatitis, arthritis, kidney pain, headache, womb diseases and vaginal pain C Narrated Sahl bin Sad (R.A.): there was a woman amongst us who had a farm and she used to sow Silq (a kind of vegetable) on the edges of streams in her farm. On Fridays she used to pull out the Silq from its roots and put the roots in a utensil. Then she would put a handful of powdered barley over it and cook it. The roots of the Silq were a substitute for meat. After finishing the Jumua prayer we used to greet her and she would give us that food which we would eat with our hands and because of that meal, we used to look forward to Friday (Abdullah, 2005) C Narrated Umm al-Mundhar bint Qays al-Ansariyyah: the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) came to visit me, accompanied by Ali who was convalescing. We had some ripe dates hung up. The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) got up and began to eat from them. Ali also got up to eat, but the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said repeatedly to Ali: Stop, Ali, for you are convalescing and Ali stopped. She said: I then prepared some barley and beet-root and brought it. The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) then said: Take some of this, Ali, for it will be more beneficial for you (Ahmad, 1988) Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumura English Name : Water melon Local Name : Tarbooz Arabic Name : Al Bataigh Family : Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat : Shrub, Terrestrial Part used : Fruit and seeds Medicinal uses : Kidney pain clears the urine and stomach, facial beauty, increase immunity, jaundice and have cold effects References from Ahadith: C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (R.A.): Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat ripe date with water melon (Ghaznavi, 1991) C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (R.A.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “Water melon is diet as well as drink. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the sexual power (Farooqi, 1998) C Hazrat Aisha (R.A.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat water melon with fresh dates (Farooqi, 1998) Cucumis sativus L. English name : Cucumber Local name : Khira Arabic name : Qissa, Khiarun Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 533 Family Name : Cucurbitaceae C Narrated Anas (R.A.): I was a young boy when I once Habit and Habitat : Trailing annual, terrestrial herb Distribution : Cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical counties of the world Parts used : Fruit Medicinal uses : Cooling, diuretic, tonic and vermifuge, diuretic, purgative References from Ahadith: C Narrated 'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Ja'far bin Abi Talib (R.A.): I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) eating fresh dates with cucumber (Abdullah, 2005) 'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Ja'far reported: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) eating cucumber with fresh dates (Farooqi, 1998). Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): my mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Then I became very fat (Ghaznavi, 2000). Lagenaria siceraria L. English Name : Squash Local Name : Kaddo Arabic Name : Yakteen, Daba Family : Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat : Prostrate with tendrils herb Part used : Fruit and leaves Medicinal uses : Arthritis, Maleness, Headache, fever, Madness, Piles, lungs infection, common cold, kidney and liver disorder and heart diseases References from Holy Quran: (As-Saaffat, Chapter # 37, Verse # 146): And We caused a plant of gourd to grow over him (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1985) References from Ahadith: C Narrated Ishaq bin 'Abdullah (R.A.) bin Abu Talha (R.A.): I heard Anas bin Malik (R.A.) saying, "A tailor invited Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared.” Anas bin Malik (R.A.) said, "I accompanied Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam0 to that meal. He served the Prophet with bread and soup made with gourd and dried meat. I saw the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) taking the pieces of gourd from the dish." Anas (R.A.) added, "Since that day I have continued to like gourd" (Abdullah, 2005) was walking with Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). Allah's Apostle entered the house of his slave tailor and the latter brought a dish filled with food covered with pieces of gourd. Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) started picking and eating the gourd. When I saw that, I started collecting and placing the gourd before him. Then the slave returned to his work. Anas (R.A.) added: I have kept on loving gourd since I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) doing what he was doing (Abdullah, 2005) C Narrated Anas bin Malik (R.A.): a tailor invited the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared and I went along with the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). The tailor presented barley bread and soup containing gourd and cured meat. I saw the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) picking the pieces of gourd from around the dish and since then I have kept on liking gourd (Ghaznavi, 2000) C Anas bin Malik (R.A.) reported: a tailor invited Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared. Anas bin Malik (R.A.) said: I went along with Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to that feast. He presented to Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) barley bread and soup containing pumpkin and sliced pieces of meat. Anas (R.A.) said: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) going after the pumpkin round the dish, so I have always liked the pumpkin since that day (A’zami and Nadvi, 1985) Trigonella foenum-graecum L. English Name : Fenugreek Local Name : Maithi Arabic Name : Helba Family : Papilionaceae Habit : Cultivated leafy vegetable Part used : Seeds and leaves Medicinal uses : Throat infection, swelling, body pain, cough, stomach pain, piles, dandruff, baldness, breast pain, lungs infection, diabetes, ulcer, diarrhea and gas trouble. Powerful tonic, back pain, seeds in powder form used for diabetes, lactogogue i.e., to stimulate milk production in mammary glands References from Ahadith: C Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R.A.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “Seek cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi, 1991) Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 534 C In another hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi through medicines. The Holy Quran is one of the Wassallam) said, “If my followers (Ummat) knew reference books describing the importance of plants the importance of the fenugreek then they will buy it used for different ailments in various Surahs. Our Holy by gold of equal weight” (Ghaznavi, 1991). Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain Zingiber officinale Roscoe herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for English Name : Ginger cure of common diseases. He recommended Agaricus Local Name : Adrak or onth campestris L (Mushroom-truffle) for eye diseases. Arabic Name : Zangbeal Saeed bin Zaid (R.A.) Narrates that I heard the Prophet Family : Zingiberaceae (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) saying, "Truffles are like Habit : Cultivated herb with underground Manna (i.e., they grow naturally without man's care) and perennial stem their water heals eye diseases "(Farooqi, 1998). Hazrat Habitat and Abu Huraira (R.A.) collected the water of 3, 5 or 7 distribution : Terrestial and Bangladesh, Yaman, mushrooms and put it in a small bottle. He then gave it Oman, Seralone, India and Pakistan to a bleared eye maid servant (laundi) to use it for the Part used : Fruit said eye disease. She cured after using the water of Medicinal uses : Intestinal pain, anorexia, dyspepsia, mushrooms (Chughtai, 2005). Allium cepa although headache, diarrhea, constipation, rarely used specifically as a medicinal herb, the onion intestinal swelling, dog bite, has a wide range of beneficial actions on the body and stomach disorders, sexual when eaten (especially raw) on a regular basis will weakness, digestive stimulant, promote the general health of the body. It is extensively cooling effect on body, increase used as spice, condiment and vegetable in kitchen. The urine production bulbs are stimulant, digestive expectorant and References from Quran: (Surah Ad-Dahr Chapter # 76, remove pus from sores. Fresh onion juice is a very Verse # 17): “And they will be given to drink there of a useful first aid treatment for bee and wasp stings, bites, cup (of wine) mixed with Zanjabil (ginger)” (Al-Hilali and grazes (Shahidullah, 2000). When warmed the juice can Khan, 1985). be dropped into the ear to treat earache. The bulb are References from Ahadith: modic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, febrifuge, C Abu Saeed Khudri (R.A.) narrated: The rular of hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, lithontriptic, stomachic and Rome presented a basket of gingers in the honour tonic. When used regularly in the diet it offsets of Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) as a tendencies towards angina, arteriosclerosis and heart gift. He gave every one a piece of ginger. He also attack. It is also useful in preventing oral infection and gave one piece of it to me (Farooqi, 1998) tooth decay (Plants for a Future, 2008). DISCUSSION Vegetables are important protective food and highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and prevention of disease. They contain valuable food ingredients which are essential for the proper functioning of the body. Vegetables contain various medicinal and therapeutic agents and are valued mainly for their high vitamin and mineral content. Faulty cooking and prolonged careless storage can however destroy these valuable elements. To drive maximum benefits of their nutrients, vegetables should be consumed fresh as far as possible. Most vegetables are best consumed in their natural raw state in the form of salads (Husain, 2002). From time immemorial humans have used plants to alleviate their sufferings from diseases. Approximately 70% of the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the fresh plants. Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines are prepared from herbs. Pakistan is very rich in plants of medicinal value (Nasreen and Khan, 2001). In Islam diseases are cured in 2 ways, first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments aphrodisiac. Baked onions can be used as a poultice to anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antispas- Allium sativum L. has been held in high esteem for its health building qualities for centuries. It contains high percentage of minerals and vitamins. It also contains traces of iodine, sulphur and chlorine. It is regarded as a rejuvenator. It is found to remove toxins and revitalize blood. The ethers in garlic juice is so potent and penetrating that they help to dissolve accumulated mucous in the sinus cavities, in bronchial tubes and lungs. It has been found effective in Asthma. It has an antiseptic effect (Husain, 2002). Its bulbs are used as flavouring agent, spice, carminative, aromatic and condiment. It is effective in heart diseases and blood pressure. It dissolve fats. It is used in folklore and veterinary medicines locally. Its juice is mixed with milk to cure T.B., asthma and whooping cough (Shahidullah, 2000). Garlic contains a wealth of sulfur compounds; most important for the taste is allicin (diallyl disulphide oxide), which is produced enzymatically from alliin (S-2- propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) if cells are damaged; its biological function is to repel herbivorous animals. Allicin is deactivated to diallyl disulphide; therefore, Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 535 Table 1: Phytogeography and Key to the Identification of vegetables Botanical Names Distribution in world Distribution in Pakistan Flowering period Diagonstic characters Agaricus Widely distributed and Found in all the provinces Season: June-Oct., Growing alone or gregariously in fields, campestris L. common in North America of Pakistan occasionally in spring. meadows, lawns and grassy areas. Cap: 3-11 cm; convex occasionally nearly flat; whitish; smooth and glossy to fibrous to nearly wooly or scaly. Gills: Free from the stem (stipe); deep pink becoming brown and then dark chocolate brown in maturity. Stipe: 2-6 x1-2.5 cm thick; more or less equal. Taste: Pleasant. Spore: Dark chocolate brown. Allium cepa L., Native country probably Commonly cultivated Summer months Bulbs clustered, cylindrical to ovoid or almost Persia etc.; cultivated in Pakistan rounded; coats papery, white or brownish everywhere in the world as or reddish. Scape up to 1 m tall, stout, fistular. in Brazile, Chile, China, Leaves cylindrical, fistular. Umbels spherical, Cuba, Egypt France, densely flowered. Flowers stellate. Pedicels Germany Ghana; Guatemala; 3-4 times as long as the tepals. perianth India; Iraq; Kurdistan; Malaya leaves (tepals) greenish-white 4-5 mm long. Mexico Pakistan; Peru; Russia; Filaments exerted. Salvador; Spain; Turkey; US; Allium sativum L. At present garlic is grown Commonly cultivated Summer months Bulbs ovoid with 6-10 bulblets; scale white. all over the world from the in Pakistan. Scapes up to 1 m tall; spathe long-beaked. equator to latitudes of 50 Leaves linear, flattened. Umbels with bulbils o in both hemispheres. and flowers. Perianth leaves white, lanceolate, acuminate. Filaments shorter than the perianth leaves Beta vulgaris L. Europe; N.Africa; Asia; Widely cultivated in March-May Annual or perennial, erect, branched and leafy, widely cultivated (beet). vegetable gardens. green to purplish-violaceous; roots slender to tuberous with sugar storage. Cauline leaves rhombic-oblong to linear-lanceolate. Stem glabrous, glaucous, reddish-green. Flowers in dense, spicate clusters sessile. Perianth segments ovate-oblong, green. Stigmas 2. Citrullus Native of the Kalahari region, Attock district; Rawalpindi January-May Annual, trailer. Tendrils 2-3 fid. Leaves ovate, lanatus L. cultivated throughout Tropics district; Laiha; Sibi district; deeply 3-5-lobed. Male flowers on c.20(-40) Nawab Shah; Hyderabad; mm long pedicel. Female flowers on c. 6cm Karachi district. long pedicel. Fruit large, subspherical, c. 30 cm or more in diameter, green mottled with longitudinal stripes; mesocarp fleshy; indehiscent. Seeds ovate in outline c. 10x5 mm, black or rarely red, smooth. Cucumis Cultivated throughout the Cultivated throughout Almost through Annual, trailing or climbing herb. Stem angular sativus L. tropical and subtropical Pakistan. out the year with hairs. Tendrils simple. Leaves 12-18 countries of the world. cm long, 3-8 lobed . Sepals spreading. Corolla yellow. Anther 3-4 mm long. Fruit oblong and obscurely trigonous or Cylindric; when young sparsely tuberculated otherwise smooth and glabrous. Lagenaria A pantropical species of Cultivated throughout Almost through Annual climber or trailer. Tendril 2-fid. Stem siceraria Asian and African origin. Pakistan and Kashmir. out the year densely hairy. Leaves broadly ovate or (Molina) reniformor sub-orbicular, obscurely 3-5 lobed. Standley Both male and female flowers solitary. Corolla white. Anther oblong; thecae triplicate. Ovary void, villous. Fruit of variable shapes: long, round or bottle-shaped. Trigonella Of doubtful origin, widely Cultivated in all provinces April Erect, annual, 10-50 cm tall herb. Leaf foenum- cultivated. Southern Europe; of Pakistan and Kashmir pinnately trifoliate, leaflets obovate to graecum L. Orient; Arabia; Ethiopia; oblanceolate, dentate or incised. Flowers Pakistan; Kashmir ; India. 1-2 in leaf axils. Corolla yellowish white, sometimes tinged with lilac. Fruit 5-11 mm long, 3-5 mm broad, 10-20 seeded. Zingiber Widely cultivated in Widely cultivated in A biennial herb with root stock bearing many officinale tropical Asia the plains of Pakistan sessile tubers; leafy stem 90 – 120 cm. high; Roscoe leaves 15-32x1.5 cm.; Spike oblong cylindric; bracts pointed; corolla segments greenish, lip small purplish black, mid-lobe not notched; stamens dark purple Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 536 minced garlic changes its aroma if not used Ummul Mu'minin (R.A.): My mother intended to make me immediately. In the essential oil from steam distillation, fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah diallyl disulphide (60%) is found besides diallyl (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). But nothing which she trisulphide (20%), diallyl sulfide, ajoene and minor desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with amounts of other di- and polysulphides. Sulfur fresh dates to eat. Then I became fat as she desired compounds of this kind are typical for the onion family (Ghaznavi, 2000). The seed is cooling, diuretic, tonic and (Katzer, 2008). Beta vulgaris (Beet Root) Beet root is a vermifuge. A 25-50 g of the thoroughly ground seeds very useful vegetable. Beet juice is considered as one of (including the seed coat) is a standard dose as a the best vegetable juice. It contains phosphorus, vermifuge and usually needs to be followed by a calcium, iron, Vitamin B and C. Beet root possesses purgative to expel the worms from the body. anti-cancer properties and is thus useful in the A decoction of the root is diuretic (Plants for a Future, prevention of cancer (Chughtai, 2005). 2008). It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing Roots contain leucine, tryptophane, valine, alanine, swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under phenylalanine, tyrosine, glutamine, glutamic acid, your eyes. This is world-wide treatment which is being ornithine, 5 other amino acide, 0.01% essential oil with used to its maximum extent. farnesol. Leaves contain quercitin glucoside, a vitexin A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tell us that combination with glucose, xylose and 3-hydroxytyramine, these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy $-sitosterol and a suite of organic acids, oxalic-, Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam), gave the tricarballyl-, aconitic-, ferulic-. Roots, herbage and seeds references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab contain raphanol and coniferin (C H O ), Vit. A, B and C countries but exist through out the world. This shows 16 22 8 and betaine. Roots contain a crude oil with palmitic, that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. oleic, erucic and gamma-aminobutyric acids, free and Lagenaria siceraria (gourd) was liked very much by The bound invertase and pectolytic enzymes (James, 1983). Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). Due to its high iron content it regenerates and Narrated Anas bin Malik (R.A.): a tailor invited the reactivates Red Blood Cells (RBC) and supplies fresh Prophet to a meal which he had prepared and I went oxygen to the body. Hence extremely useful in the along with the Prophet. The tailor presented barley bread treatment of Anaemia Beet gets rid of dandruff. By boiling and soup containing gourd and cured meat. I saw the the top and root of the beet in water and later the water Prophet picking the pieces of gourd from around the used on your head. After half an hour the head is dish and since then I have kept on liking gourd (Saboor, washed with simple water. This process is practiced 1999). twice a week (Kevin, 2007). This is very useful Narrated Aisha (R.A.): rasullulah (Sallallaho Alayhi phytotherapy for removal dandruff. Wassallam) said to me, “O Aishah when you are going To fight appendicitis one should use the combination of to cooke (prepare) a meal from cure meat add to it beet and cucumber juice 100 ml, mixed with 300 ml of gourd, because the gourd strengthens the sad hearts” carrot juice. If this is consumed twice daily, it may just do (Chughtai, 2005). the needful (Kevin, 2007). The gourd has special importance according to Ahadith. Citrullus lanatus, the seed is demulcent, diuretic, It is eaten eagerly. The experienced hakims have been pectoral and tonic. It is sometimes used in the treatment advising the use of gourd oil (Roghan-e-Kaddu) for the of the urinary passages and has been used to treat bed treatment of diseases of brain and blood pressure for wetting. It is a good vermifuge and has a hypotensive years. action. A fatty oil in the seed, as well as aqueous or The pulp around the seed is purgative. A poultice of the alcoholic extracts, paralyze tapeworms and crushed leaves has been applied to the head to treat roundworms. The fruit, eaten when fully ripe or even headaches. The flowers are an antidote to poison. The when almost putrid, is used as a febrifuge. It is diuretic, stem bark and the rind of the fruit are diuretic. The fruit is being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal antilithic, diuretic, emetic and refrigerant. stones. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also The seed is vermifuge. A poultice of the boiled seeds found in the skins of tomatoes). This substance has has been used in the treatment of boils. Taken with been shown to protect the body from heart attacks and, Achyranthes spp the seed is used to treat aching teeth in the case of the tomato at least, is more effective when and gums, boils etc. Extracts of the plant have shown it is cooked. antibiotic activity. In many parts of China 3 grams per day The rind of the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic of this species (the report does not say what part of the poisoning and diabetes. plant) has been used as a single treatment for diabetes The root is purgative and in large dose is said to be a mellitus (Plants for a Future, 2008). certain emetic (Plants for a Future, 2008). Cucumis Trigonella foenum-graecum has got great importance in sativus (Cucumber) is another plant that has many Ahadith. Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R.A.) narrates that references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Narrated Aisha, Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “Seek Pak. J. Nutr., 8 (5): 530-538, 2009 537 cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi, 1991). In another of plants for welfare of human beings. This study is the hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said, “If logical and applicable step in directions towards the my followers (Ummat) know the importance of the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based fenugreek then they will buy it by gold of equal weight” industry in the light of Islamic history through out the (Ghaznavi, 1991). world for prosperity and safety of the human beings. Fenugreek is much used in herbal medicine. It has a wide range of medicinal applications. It is a powerful tonic. It is useful for Back pain (backache). Seeds in powder form are used for diabetes (Ahmad, 2004). Use of one teaspoonful of the powder of its seeds daily is recommended locally for the treatment of gout and diabetes. A paste of seeds and leaves is applied to reduce swellings and inflammation. Seeds are soaked in water to get mucilage, which is locally used to keep the skin soft (Shah, 2007). The powder of seeds can be used externally as a poultice for abscesses, boils, burns etc. Compounds extracted from the plant have shown cardiotonic, hypoglycaemic, diuretic, antiphlogistic and hypotensive activity. One of its constituent alkaloids, called 'trigonelline', has shown potential for use in cancer therapy. The seed contains the saponin diosgenin, an important substance in the synthesis of oral contraceptives and sex hormones, whilst saponins in the plant have been extracted for use in various other pharmaceutical products (Plants for a Future, 2008). Note: The seeds should not be prescribed medicinally for pregnant women since they can induce uterine contractions (Plants for a Future, 2008). Zingiber officinale Rosc. It is another herbaceous plant which has a reference in Holy Qura’n. “And they will be given to drink there of a cup mixed with Zanjabil”. Verse: 17, Surah Ad-Dahr. According to Yousaf Ali the word Zanjabil literally means Ginger. In eastern medicine ginger is administered to give warmth to the body and zest to the taste. Now a days there is much interest in medicinal plants through out the world including developed countries like China, Germany, France, Japan, USA and UK. Similarly in developing countries like Pakistan and India, the benefits of modern medicines and health care reach only to small percentage of population. These could hardly reach the large mosses living in the rural areas. Moreover in remote areas of the world where per capita income of people is very low, it becomes more difficult to buy complicated and expensive prescriptions. Hence there is a need for the inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level, since there long standing use is plant drug reasonably guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety (Ahmad et al., 2004). The necessity for exploration for such useful data from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books has long been felt with the increasing need of drugs, medicines and other useful products. In this way present approach of this study can be adopted to record the medicinal uses REFERENCES Abdullah, M.M., 2005. Urdu Translayion of Al-Sahih Al- Bukhari. Idara-e-Islamiyat, Lahore, 3: 119, 203, 205, 233, 236. Ahmad, M., M.A. Khan, M. Arshad and M. Zafar, 2004. Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of District Attock Pakistan). Ethnobotanical Leaflets. http://www.siu. edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto.htm. Ahmad, M.M., 1988. Urdu Translation of Sunan-e-Abu Daud. Almisbah, Lahore, 4: 904. Al-Hilali, M.T. and M.M. Khan, 1985. The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Madinah, K.S.A., pp: 13. A’zami, H.A.R. and and M.A. Nadvi, 1985. Tib-i-Nabvi urdu translation Dar-ul-Isha’t. 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J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003; 33:44–45 COMMUNICATIONS HUMAN GENETICS IN THE HOLY QUR’AN AND SUNNA A.M. Adam, Department of Medicine, University of Nairobi, Kenya Islam is fundamentally rooted in the Holy Qur’an, which has been in existence for more than 14 centuries, and the Sunna, a collection of sayings and practices of Prophet Muhammad. In recent times, Islamic scientists have once more turned to these primary sources in a quest for an alternative view of certain scientific principles and to look for new ideas from this fountain of knowledge. This paper traces various fundamental principles of human genetics within the Holy Qur’an and Sunna and compares these with the source of the same knowledge in Western science. SEX DETERMINATION AT FERTILISATION When Spallanzani discovered the process of fertilisation in 1775 by studying frogs, he did not know at what point the sex in the frog embryo was determined in this process. 1 X and Y chromosomes were discovered in the beetle by N.M. Stevens in 1905 but he doubted that these chromosomes were sex determinants in the zygote, and thought that they were simply part of the genetic make-up and were associated with secondary sexual characteristics. 2 In 1919, Morgan and Bridges, while studying the Drosophila fly, found that the X and Y chromosomes pl ay an i mportant rol e i n sex determination. 3 However, the knowledge of sex determination in mammals had to wait until 1959 for Jacobs et al. studying humans, and for Welshons and Russell in their study of the mouse in the same year, to show that mammals resemble the plant Melandrium in that the Y chromosome is male-determining. This paved the way for the concept that spermatozoa determine the eventual sex of the baby by containing either the X or the Y chromosome. 4 The Holy Qur’an describes fertilisation in some detail and has done this in nine stages; 5 it has gone even further to show at what point in human embryology sex is determined. Allah says that ‘He did create the pairs, male and female. From a sperm drop when lodged’. 6 This verse clearly states that the sex of the offspring is determined soon after a sperm drop is lodged. This is repeated for emphasis in another verse, which states: ‘and He out of semen made both sexes, male and female’. 7 PROPERTIES OF CHROMOSOMES The carriage of characteristics from the parents to the offspring is also described in several places in the Holy Qur’an. Allah says: From [part of] a sperm drop He hath created him, and then immediately programmed him [his future]. 8 And Allah did create you from dust; then from [part of] a sperm drop; then made you pairs [after the stage of the sperm drop]. And no female conceives, or lays down [her load] but with His knowledge. 9 These two verses refer indirectly to two very important properties of nuclear chromosomes: the first refers to semen carrying the characteristics of the individual and the second suggests the pairing of genetic characteristics. In a tradition related to the Prophet: Um Sulaim came to Allah’s messenger [peace be upon him] and said, ‘Is it necessary for a woman to take a bath after she has a wet dream [nocturnal discharge]?’ The Prophet replied, ‘Yes, if she notices a discharge’. Um Salamah then covered her face [shyly] and asked, ‘O Allah’s messenger! Does a woman get a discharge [fertile fluid]?’ He replied, ‘Yes and that is why the child also resembles the mother’. 10 This passage shows that a woman participates equally in the process of fertilisation and that her characteristics and traits are also passed on to the child through ‘substances’ (which are now identified as chromosomes) that are contained in her ‘fertile fluid’, a fact that was not so obvious to Hamm and Leeuwenhoek who, after seeing spermatozoa for the first time, misinterpreted their role and thought that spermatozoa contained small fully formed babies (see Figure 1). 1 EXISTENCE OF RECESSIVE GENES Abu-Huraira narrated: A man came to Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon him], and said: ‘O Allah’s prophet, a black child has been born for me!’ The Prophet asked him, ‘Do you have camels?’ The man replied, ‘Yes’. The prophet asked him, ‘What colour are they?’ The man replied, ‘Red’. The Prophet said, ‘Is there a grey one among them?’ The man replied, ‘Yes’. The Prophet said, ‘Whence comes that?’ He said, ‘maybe it [the colour] was pulled out by a hidden trait’. The Prophet said, ‘maybe your son’s [colour] was pulled out [by a trait]’. 11 The Holy Qur’an exhibits here both wisdom and the 44 J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003; 33:44–45 COMMUNICATIONS 45 highest degree of justice. More than ten centuries before Gregor Mendel was born, history took shape in a monastery garden! No adverse judgement was passed and no sanction applied on this man’s wife, and the colour of her offspring was explained as some concealed trait from the family background. The existence of a dominance of certain hereditable traits needs no explanation, as it is obvious that a red camel would bear a red offspring. GENE PENETRANCE In a tradition narrated by Anas, Prophet Muhammad said, ‘And if a man’s discharge preceded that of the woman, then the child resembles the father, and if the woman’s discharge preceded that of the man, then the child resembles the mother.’ 13 The implication behind this is that if spermatozoa are lodged long before ovulation then the activation of the male genes will be at a more advanced stage than those in the ovum, and therefore they will play a greater role in showing the characteristics gained from the father – especially if these genes follow codominance (with variable penetrance) or have complex inheritance characteristics. It may be of some importance to recall that when the Holy Qur’an was written, women’s rights were non- existent and many a female baby was buried alive to avoid the shame of a family bearing a female child, her mother ostracised for bringing shame to the family. The above two verses state clearly that if there is anybody responsible for the sex of the baby it is the father. This statement also has an important bearing on the di spensi ng of j usti ce: a woman beari ng a dark- complexioned child when both she and her husband are of a lighter complexion is certainly and naturally possible. This applies to those communities in which individuals vary in their skin colouring. This also prevents the use of hearsay evidence to convict and condemn an innocent woman for adultery on the basis that a child is not to the satisfaction of the father. One of the greatest trusts given to a man is when somebody’s daughter or sister is given to him to hold her as his lawfully wedded wife. Therefore, he should not burden his wife with false accusations and abuse. REFERENCES 1 Moore KL. The Developing Human: Clinically Orientated Embryology. Third Edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1982; 8–10. 2 Stevens NM. Studies in spermatogenesis with a special reference to the ‘accessory chromosome’. Carn Inst Wash Publ 1905; 36:33. 3 Morgan TH, Bridges CB. The origin of gynandromorphs. Carn Inst Wash Publ 1919; 278:1–22. 4 Sturtevant AH. A History of Genetics. New York: Harper and Row Publishers; 1965; 83. 5 Adam AM. The many processes of fertility science in the Holy Qur’an. JIMA 1998; 30:74–7. 6 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 53, Verse 45–6. 7 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 75, Verse 39. 8 Moore, op. cit. ref. 1, 34a. 9 Glorious Qur’an. Chapter 35, Verse 11. 10 Khan MM. Sahih al-Bukhari. New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri; 1984; 1–97. 11 Moore KL. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embr yol ogy, wi th Isl ami c Addi ti ons. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1982; 140b. 12 Soper R Biological Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1990; 838. 13 Ibid., 6–8. FIGURE 1 A line drawing depicting spermatozoa containing a small fully formed baby. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. 8(1), January 1995, p.51-62 STUDIES ON THE ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY DILNAWAZ SHEIKH, SHAMS-UZ-ZAMAN, S. BAQIR NAQVI, M. RAFI SHEIKH* AND GHULAM ALI** Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Microbiology University of Karachi, Karachi-75270 **Department of F. Medicine, Sindh Medical College, Karachi ABSTRACT Ten samples of crude and processed honey were used to determine antimicrobial activity against twenty five species of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria, commonly encountered in human infections. The antifungal activity was checked against ten parasitic and saprophytic fungi. Most of the samples of honey used in the study showed broad spectrum antibacterial and promising antifungal activity. Introduction The Holy Quran, the heritage of Islamic Sciences, has time and again emphasized the medicinal virtue of honey. The last scripture enlists honey as a miraculous food in a separate surah, "AI-Nahl (The Bee)". 1l And they Lord commands the bee, saying: "Make thee houses in the mountains and in the trees and in what they (people) build-up, then eat of all the fruits and walk thou the ways of thy Lord made easy. He produces from her inside a drink of various hues, in which there is healing for mankind. Most surely in this there is a sign for people who think". Honey is the most primitive nourishing and healing agent. It is a thick, syrupy, translucent, pale yellow or yellowish brown liquid deposited in the honey comb by the bee, Apis mellifera Linn. (Family: Apidae). It has a characteristics odour and a sweet, faintly acidic taste. It contains: invert sugar (62-83%), sucrose (0-8%), dextrin (0.26-7%) together with water and traces of other nutrients. 7 Honey is levorotatory and is acidic to litmus paper. 5 It is a unique mixture having fat soluble as well as water soluble vitamins. 8 Antimicrobial activity of honey 52 During the 16th and 17th centuries it was recommended as a cure for almost every thing. 2 It is a simple, effective and inexpensive healer of wounds. It has been used in the treatment of infected wounds in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre with excellent results. 1 Honey also serves as a substitute for glucose in oral rehydration solutions containing electrolytes. The correct dilution of honey and the presence of electrolytes in the oral solution must be maintained. 9 In Soviet Union, honey is commonly used as a base for ointments and has very successfully been applied in surgical dressings for open wounds and burns to avoid septic infections. It is also used for many minor ailments of animals. 10 In the pharmaceutical preparations it is used as a sweetening, flavouring and demulcent agent. It is used as an excepient for preparing pills and masses and as a flavouring agent in gargles, linctuses, and cough mixtures. 18 Materials and Methods 10 samples of locally manufactured, imported and crude samples of honey were procured from the market and from the hives (Table 1) in order to determine their an- timicrobial activities. In the present study 25 species of common pathogenic and non- pathogenic bacteria and 10 species of fungi were used. Eleven bacteria were Gram positive and four-teen were Gram negative (Tables 2, 3). Among the fungi, nine species were pathogenic and only one specie was saprophytic and non-pathogenic (Table 6). A comparative study of antimicrobial activity has been carried out by the procedure described by Bhakuni et a1. 3 and Baqir et al. 2 . The sample exhibiting maximum antimicrobial activity was fractionated into partly purified alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal portions, in order to find which portion contained antimicrobial constituents. Preparation of Test Samples: 10 mg of honey samples were taken in 50 ml sterile volumetric flask. The volume was made up with sterile distilled water for a dilution of 20% w/v. Separation of Alkaloidal and Non-Alkaloidal Fractions of Honey: Crude honey sample (F) which indicated promising antimicrobial activity, w fractionated into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions by chemical method so as to determine which portion possessed maximum antimicrobial activity. Sheikh et al. 53 20 mg of honey (sample F) was extracted with ethanol (EtOH) three times. The EtOH extracts was acidified with 10% HCI and extracted with CHCI3 to remove the non- alkaloidal portion. The acidic aqueous fraction was then basil - led with NH 3 and extracted thoroughly with CHCl 3 . The mass when examined on TLC plate showed several spots indicating several constituents which gave coloured reactions with Dragendroff reagent. Antimicrobial Assay: The tests were run in triplicate. Petri plates were prepared with trypticase soy gar. 1 ml of the diluted culture was poured on each plate. Wells of 5 mm diameter (ap- proximately) were cut with sterile cork borer in the inoculated agar. The wells were filled with test samples with the help of sterile droppers. Similarly in control plates wells were filled with sterile distilled water. The plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37°C. At the end of incubation period the inhibition zones were measured. The results were tabulated in Tables 2, 3, 4, 5. Antifungal Assay: The tests were run in triplicate. 2 gm of honey was mixed with 8 ml sterile molten Sabouraud dextrose agar and was poured into sterile petri plates. 1 ml of 10 -2 dilution in strile 0.9% NaCl of the two-day fungal cultures were spotted on dried Sabouraud agar plates. The plates were incubated at 25°C for 5 days. The results were noted as heavy growth (H), scanty growth (S) and no growth (N). In ontrol plates no honey was incorporated in Sabouraud dextrose agar. The results were tabulated in Tables 6, 7. Results and Discussion The Holy Quran intimates honey as the healing for all kinds of diseases. Honey is a divine drug quoted in all the scriptures. The therapeutic value of honey was under-scored in various literatures. It occupied a prominent place in traditional medicine. It is used in all the systems of medicine for the treatment of a number of human ailments such as wound infection, diarrhoea, dehydration, paralysis particularly facial paralysis, amenorrhoea, dropsy, chest infection, jaudice, tuberculosis, urinary tract infections, carcinoma of vulva, deafening ear, fever, tetanus, boils, skin strains and skin infections. The antimicrobial effect of honey has been reported by a number of workers (1, 5, 9, 10, 18, 25) but most of these reports are conflicting and are not substantiated by enough scientific proof. The present study was carried out so as to determine the antimicrobial effects of honey using prescribed scientific procedures. Antimicrobial activity of honey 54 The important conclusions which can be drawn from the present study can be summarized as such. Firstly, honey has broad spectrum antimicrobial and prominent antifungal activity as indicated by Tables 2-7. In our study seven species of Gram posi- tive cocci and four species of Gram positive bacilli were used. With the exception of Streptococcus faecalis, all the Gram positive organisms were inhibited by samples A and B (Langanese and crude honey). However this specie was inhibited by samples E, F, G, H, I and J. Thus the present study is in confi r mation with previous reports of Cavanaugh et a1, 5 Warnecke et al. 24 and Obaseiki et al. 13 The control plates did not show any inhibition. Secondly, studies on species of Corynebacterium (C. dipfheriae, C. hoffmani, C. xerosis) have not previously been reported. The present study reveals that all the three species were inhibited by honey samples A, B, F, H and J. Honey samples C and D (Marhaba, Hamdard) showed no activity against these organisms. In fact these two samples exhibited activity only against four Gram positive cocci i.e. M. lysodeikticus, S. aureus, S. laths and S. pyogenes (Table 2). Similar results are reported with Gram negative bacteria (Table 3). Samples A, B, E, F, G and H very effectively inhibited the growth of nearly all Gram negative organisms used in the study with the exception of E. coil 97 which was resistant to most of the honey samples. As far as the Gram negative organisms are concerned the present reports conforms the findings of Obaseiki et al. 13 and Ibrahim. 12 Thirdly, the present study seems to be fast report in literature with respect to Vibrio cholerae. As indicated in Table 3, all the samples of honey produced large zones of inhibition against this organism. This importance of this finding lies in the fact that honey can be used in oral rehydration solution for treating cholera patients. As far as fungi are concerned, only two reports could be traced (13, 14). These reports indicated that honey had promising activity against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Present study seems to be the first report indicating activity against dermatophytes (M. ferrogenium, T. longfeuseus, T. mentagrophyte, T. semmie, T. ton- surance) and parasitic fungi (Allescheria boydii) and saprophytic (Mucor mucaralis). Including two species of Aspergillus i.e. A. flavus, A. niger and C. albicans, ten species of fungi were used. Honey seems to be much less effective on fungi than bacteria (table 6). The finding which is most interesting is that as compared to other honeys, Capilano honey (I) from Australia seems to be most effective against most of the species of fungi used in the study. This sample did not show promising activity against bacteria. Sheikh et al. 55 Among the different samples of honey used in the study sample F, the crude honey procured from a bee-hive of Karachi University, showed maximum activity. An attempt was made to fractionate this sample of honey into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions by chemical method. Both the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions of honey exhibited similar activity indicating the antimicrobial system was present in both the fractions of honey (Tables 4, 5, 7). It has been suggested that three major system are responsible for the antimicrobial activity of honey i.e. inhibine, high osmotic pressure and acidity. 10 Inhibine The initial report on inhibine, an antibacterial substance in honey was presented by Cavanagh et al. 5 who stated that inhibine content of honey was reduced by sunlight. Thereafter several workers reported various physical and chemical properties of the substance, the exact constitution of which is still unknown. 13,17,19 High osmotic pressure Honey is basically a supersaturated solution of carbohydrates, the osmotic pressure of honey creates a very effective antimicrobial system. 4,5,6,10 Acidity The general range of honey pH is 3.2-4.5. This high degree of acidity prevents the growth of many bactrial forms. 10,22,25 From the results of the present study the most important conclusion which can be drawn is that the antimicrobial activity is maximum in the crude honey. The three samples of fresh crude honey used in the study showed much better activity than the processed honeys. It can be suggested that during the processing the active components were partially inactivated. And above all this humble study scientifically proves what ever is indicated in Surah "AI-Nahl". "He produces from her inside a drink of various hues, in which there is healing for mankind. Most surely in this there is a sign for a people who think". 11 Antimicrobial activity of honey 56 Sheikh et al. 57 Antimicrobial activity of honey 58 Sheikh et al. 59 Antimicrobial activity of honey 60 Sheikh et al. 61 References 1. Armon P.J. (1981). Honey: a cheap antibiotic. World Health Forum. 2: 363. 2. Baqir S.N.S., Dilnawaz S. and Rah S. (1985). Screening of Pakistani plants for an- tibacterial activity. Pak J. Sci. Ind Res. 28(4): 269-275. 3. Bhakuni D.S., Bittner M., Marticarena C., Silva M. and Weldt E. (1974). Screening of Chilean plants for antibacterial activity. Lloydia 37: 621-632. 4. Bose B. (1992). Honey or sugar in treatment of infected wounds. The Lancet 1: 963. 5. Cavanagh D., Beaziey J. and Ostapowicz F. (1968). Radical operation for carcinoma of the vulva: a new approach to wound healing. Journal of Obstestritics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth. 77: 1037-1040. 6. Chirilie (1982). The Lancet, March 6, p.560. Antimicrobial activity of honey 62 7. Ewart A.W. and Werner L. (1985). Pharmaceutical Necessities. In: Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences, ed., Alfanso R. Genarro, Pennsylvania, pp.1320, 1502. 8. Ghaznavi K. (1991). Tib-e-Nabwi and Jadid Science. Lahore, pp.146-197. 9. Haffeejee I.E. and Moosa A. (1985). Honey in the treatment of infantile gastroenteritis. British Medical Journal. 290: 1866-1867. 10. Hamid S. and Saeed MA. (1991). Bee keeping. Hamdard Medicus. 34(3): 94-95. 11. Holy (Duran, Chapter 16, 68-69. Translated by Al-Raj Ghulam Sarwar, National Book Foundation, 1973. 12. Ibrahim A.S. (1981). Antibacterial action of honey. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Islamic Medicine, Kuwait, January 1981. Bulletin of Islamic Medicine, 2nd edition, Vol.1. Kuwait: Ministry of Health 1981: 563-365. 13. Obaseiki-Ebror E.E., Afonya T.C.A. and Onekweli A.O. (1983). Preliminary report on the antimicrobial activity of honey distillate. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 35: 748-749. 14. Obaseiki-Ebror E.E. and Afonya T.C.A. (1984). In vitro evaluation of the antican- didiasis activity of honey distillate (Hy-1) compared with that of some antimycotic agents. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 36: 283-284. 15. Oscol-Farrar (1955). The Dispensatory of the United States of America. Philadelphia, pp.653-654. 16. Placky Z.E. (1944). Bacteria Parasitenk, abt. 11: 109, 401. 17. Prica M. (1938). Uber die bactericide Wirkung des Naturbonigs. Z. Hyg. Infek- tionskrankh. 120: 437. 18. Reynold E.F. (1989). Martindale - the Extract Pharmacopoeia. London, p.1266. 19. Shade T.E., Marsh G.L. and Eckerct J.E. (1948). Food Research. 23: 446. 20. Schuler R. and Vogel R. (1958). Arzneimitlel-Forsch. 6: 194. 21. Silverti A. (1981). Medical Post. Sept 22. 22. Stenson E.E., Subers M.H., Petty J. and White J.W. (1960). J. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 89: 6. 23. Stomfay S.S., Kominirs S.D. and Lebenson Z. (1960). Forsch. 113: 304. 24. Warnecke B., Duisberg H. and Lebenson Z. (1958). Untersuch Forsch. 107: 340. 25. White J.W. Jr., Suers M.H. and Schepartz A.I. (1963). The identification of inhibine, an antibacterial factor in honey, as hydrogen peroxide and its origin in a honey glucose oxidase system. Biochem. et Biophys. Acta. 73: 57. Review The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth Marios Loukas a, ⁎, Yousuf Saad a , R. Shane Tubbs b , Mohamadali M. Shoja c a Department of Anatomical Sciences, St. George's University, School of Medicine, Grenada, West Indies b Pediatric Neurosurgery, Birmingham, AL, USA c Clarian Neuroscience Institute, Indianapolis Neurosurgical Group, Indiana University Department of Neurosurgery-Indianapolis, IN, USA a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 7 May 2009 Accepted 12 May 2009 Available online xxxx Keywords: Cardiovascular system History of cardiology History of medicine Cardiovascular system and religion Descriptions of the human anatomy derived from religious texts are often omitted from the medical literature. The present review aims to discuss the comments and commentaries made regarding the heart and cardiovascular system as found in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. Based on this review, it is clear that these early sources both had a good comprehension of these parts of the body. © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. 1. Introduction Progress within the 20th century alone has produced an immense amount of literature and understanding in anatomy, medicinal health, and the correlation between the two. Our comprehension of the two, however, would not be possible without the important discoveries and critical observations of our predecessors such as the “Father of Medicine” Hippocrates (463–370 BC), the “Father of Modern Anat- omy” Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), and Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna) [1] and [2]. While the contributions of Galen and Hippocrates are well known, contributions to medicine by numerous religious texts including the Hindu Vedas, Judeo–Christian Bible and Talmud, and the Islamic Qur'an and Hadeeth (prophetic sayings of Mohammad) are often omitted from the literature. Found within the Qur'an and Hadeeth are accurate descriptions of anatomical structures, surgical procedures, physiological character- istics, and medical remedies. In particular, prophylaxis of general diseases is emphasized by encouraging physical activity, herbal and organic remedies, and spiritual revitalization. Notably, within these two texts, is the emphasis on the heart and blood as both a vehicle for life and as an organ central to affecting emotion and attitude. Furthermore, the lifestyle prescribed by these Islamic traditions promotes longevity of life, prevention of cardiovascular diseases, and discourages risk factors associated with such diseases. Therefore, it is evident that the authors of the texts had a good understanding of both the etiology and pathology of many diseases of the heart and cardiovascular system. Althoughthere is a considerable amount of informationinthe Qur'an and Hadeeth about general medicine and anatomy, there is a lack of reliable and critical research. Hence, the purpose of this review is to accurately present the anatomical and medical contributions of the Qur'an and Hadeeth, with specific focus on the cardiovascular system. 2. History of the Qur'an and Hadeeth The entire Qur'an is believed to be the direct word of God according to Muslims, revealed to the Prophet Mohammad through the Angel Gabriel over a span of 23 years (610–632 AD). Though revealed during these years, the transmission of the verses was conducted orally until it was compiled and canonized the year after Mohammad's death. The exegesis of the Qur'an was carried out by scholars in later centuries, the most popular being made by Ibn Kathir in the 14th century. The Hadeeth are the sayings, rulings, advices, actions and habits of the Prophet Mohammed which are distinct from the direct words of God and were also transmitted orally until they were organized into a comprehensive permanent record in the 9th century. Scholars of the time were meticulous in their work and employed stringent rules as to which sayings of Mohammad would be included in the compilation to ensure accuracy and authenticity. Only the sayings that had a strong, credible line of transmission were collected and written. Both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth were used when creating the Islamic law Shariah, “Path.” 3. General views about medicine in Qur'an and Hadeeth History has shown an antagonistic relationship between religion and science, as the authority and power exerted by the Christian Church during the Middle Ages and Renaissance stifled open scientific International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1473 444 4175x2005; fax: +1473 444 2887. E-mail addresses:
[email protected],
[email protected] (M. Loukas). IJCA-12055; No of Pages 5 0167-5273/$ – see front matter © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.05.011 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Cardiology j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er. com/ l ocat e/ i j car d ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j. ijcard.2009.05.011 inquiries into natural phenomena, even if such empirical observations were substantiated by rational thought and calculations. This inharmonious relationship significantly slowed the progress of scientific discoveries and advancements, compelling scientists to work in secret out of fear of the. During the same period, the vast Islamic empire was the epicenter of all academia, as major cities consisted of large libraries containing the world's knowledge translated from most languages into Arabic. Unlike the Christian Church, Islamic teachings strongly encouraged and supported scien- tific research which led to many advancements and discoveries [3]. In fact, the Qur'an and Hadeeth recognize the pursuit of knowledge as being an act of worship to God. This supportive attitude towards scientific observation and opinion has resulted in numerous scientific achievements and the adoption of a tolerant attitude toward the expression and discussion of scientific observation and opinion. The Qur'an and Hadeeth even include some of the discoveries made during the time of its creation. According to the Qur'an and Hadeeth, God created disease and God also created a treatment for every disease. There is a prophetic tradition where Mohammad has been reported to have said that for every disease there is a remedy, and when the remedy is made apparent, the disease is cured by the permission of God [4]. Therefore, people are encouraged to pray, but also seek out treatments. Anything that harms the body, mind and soul must be treated. It is for this reason that physicians were highly valued members of the community and Mohammad called upon them to treat illnesses. This demonstrates that Islam was compatible with medicine; the need for medical treatment was accepted and required. In the Qur'an and Hadeeth, two different forms of treatment can be found—spiritual healing and physical healing. There are at least six verses which discuss divine healing. The medium through which this healing occurs is via the teachings and revelation of the Qur'an, a scripture that has been revealed as a “mercy and healing to those who think” [5]. This form of healing treats, specifically, the heart, as God removes “rage form their hearts” [6]. The Qur'an mentions “hidden” ailments meaning doubt, impurity, hypocrisy, disbelief, and falsehood, attributed as diseases of the heart. Proverbs and stories in the Qur'an discuss faith and loyalty to the divine and state that they who sincerely trust will “cure” thenwhen they are ill [7]. Although spiritual healing is most mentioned in the Qur'an, it would be erroneous to claim that the practice of medicine was meant only for the divine. While the scripture and remembrance of God is supposed to heal the hidden ailments of people, many Muslim physicians found treatment options in the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. Physical ailments and their treatments are discussed in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, leprosy, and mental illness. Moham- mad is reported to have said that healing is in three things: a gulp of honey, cupping, and cauterizing, but that cauterization should be a last resort [8]. Honey was offered as treatment for many illnesses, such as abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Honey contains the therapeutic contents sugars, vitamins, anti-microbials, among other things. Black cumin was also a source of treatment [9], as was At-Talbina (a porridge prepared from milk, honey, and white flour [10], Indian incense for throat trouble and pleurisy, eating dates protected against poison [11], breastfeeding [12], ablution and forgiveness. Furthermore, the well of Zam Zam, a miraculously generated source of water in Mecca was believed to be a treatment for fevers [13]. Thus, the Qur'an and Ha- deeth offer treatments for numerous illnesses common in Arabia during that time, establishing the important concept that Islamic tradition recognizes treatments for the illnesses and the treatments must be sought out and provided to patients. Both preventative and therapeutic medicines are discussed in the Qur'an and Hadeeth; however, it is prevention of human sins, illnesses and diseases that is most emphasized. In the Islamic doctrine, human illness was prevented through compulsory hygienic practices. The importance of cleanliness was emphasized in prophetic traditions. For instance, Mohammad states that while praising God is half of faith, cleanliness is the other half [14]. In another tradition, Mohammad is reported to have said that surgical circumcision, clipping or shaving the pubes, cutting the nails, plucking or shaving the hair under the armpits and clipping (or shaving) the moustache are all acts that benefit the body and thus bring one closer to God [15]. In addition, the transmission of certain diseases that were communicable by touch and air was known, which is why the idea of quarantining the sick was encouraged and practiced. Narrations exist where Mohammad admonishes healthy individuals to “…flee from a lepers as you flee froma lion” [16] and the narration also warns those who are healthy to keep away from those who are sick. Furthermore, the Qur'an forbids foods to be eaten that can easily transmit food-borne diseases such as Trichinella, Taeniasis and Neurocysticercosis, as can be seen in the following verse; “Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than God; that which hath been killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by being gored to death; that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild animal; unless ye are able to slaughter it (in due form); that which is sacrificed on stone (altars); (forbidden) also is the division (of meat) by raffling with arrows: that is impiety” [17]. Noise pollution is also mentioned in the Hadeeth, where Mohammad encourages his followers not to speak in a loud voice or to engage in any act that consisted of loud sound, which is why drumming, blowing of a horn, and ringing bells were all turned down by Mohammad when it came to deciding how to deliver the call for prayer. Alcohol is also forbidden in Islam, as is made clear by the Qur'anic injunction. Therefore, it is apparent that the Qur'an discouraged actions that might adversely affect the body such as extremely loud noise and unsanitary food. Indeed, these Qur'anic verses motivated health consciousness. Verses from the Qur'an and many prophetic sayings deal with public and individual health, both resources heavily emphasizing the cardiovascular system. The importance of the heart to the human being as an organ for survival in Islam, as well as the organ of the human psyche is a critical to understanding Islamic teachings. Hence, this rest of this review will focus in on Qur'anic understanding of the cardiovascular system. 4. The cardiovascular system Various aspects of the cardiovascular system are mentioned in both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. The Qur'an and the Hadeeth discuss the importance of the heart, blood and its circulation and howthey are vital to the maintenance of life. 4.1. Blood and circulation Blood is mentioned in several passages of the Qur'an and Hadeeth. In general, blood is mentioned in relation to lineage and identity, menstruation, slaughtering of animals for consumption, and embryology. The relationship between God and man is illustrated in the following verse; “We created man—We know what his soul whispers to him: We are closer to him than his jugular vein” [18]. The Qur'an establishes the intimate relationship with God and humans by asserting that God, in fact, is even more intimate with His creation than this vital blood vessel. By noting the importance of the internal jugular vein and its connection with the heart, the authors of the Qur'an were well aware of the vitality of blood and the heart to the maintenance of life. It was also known that blood circulation reached all parts of the body and is an important element to life [19]. Another great vessel mentioned in the Qur'an is the Al-Aatín or aorta “We would certainly have seized his right hand and cut off his Al-Watín,” [20]. Al-Watín has been translated into different, yet similar words, including “aorta” [21], “life-artery” [20] and [21], and simply “artery” [21]. This verse is taken to mean that if the Prophet 2 M. Loukas et al. / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j. ijcard.2009.05.011 Mohammed was lying about the teachings of God, then God would have grabbed the Prophet Mohammad's arm and cut a vital artery, certainly killing Mohammad. This verse confirms that 1. Blood was indeed viewed as a vehicle for life and 2. The artery directly leading from the heart is vital to survival. By analyzing the different translations and exegesis of Al-Watín, it can be safely assumed that it is the aorta that the author of the Qur'an is referring to in this verse. Blood is also mentioned numerous times in verses discussing food. For instance, the intake of blood is completely forbidden, and all of the blood of a slaughtered animal must be drained at the time of the slaughter as the carotid arteries and jugular veins are severed. There seems to be an acknowledgement in the Qur'an that some blood is impure and can contain and transmit pathogens leading to disease. In addition, during menstruation, women are to abstain from sexual intercourse and the ritual prayer because menstrual blood is considered impure. However, not all blood is impure, as Mohammad distinguishes between menses and blood “…from a blood vessel;” if a woman's uterine vessels are to rupture causing bleeding, the restrictions placed on a female during menstruation does not apply [22]. Blood is also used when the Qur'an describes the early stages of the embryo as “congealed blood” or “blood clot” (to be discussed later in the paper). Thus, we find several comments of blood in the Qur'an as an impurity, as spreading disease, a sign of lineage, and in relation to women's health. 4.2. Heart The heart is mentioned numerous times in both the Qur'an and Hadeeth and is used in many different contexts, such as “in the heart” or “from the heart.” The repetitive use of the concept of the heart illustrates its centrality to the core of every individual. Firstly, the importance of the heart is demonstrated in the fact that we find different states of the heart in the three groups of people that the Qur'an describes; the mu'minun (Believers) have hearts that are alive, the kafirun (the rejecters of faith) have hearts that are dead, and the munafiqun (the hypocrites) have hearts that are diseased. The two general types of heart that are described are the extensively described spiritual heart and the physical heart. In general, religious scholars discuss two types of (spiritual) heart diseases: shubahat which relate to one's level of understanding and trust, and shahawat which are desires of the self and become diseases when they grow out of proportion. Emotions, attitudes, knowledge, diseases, desires, truthfulness, actions and intentions are all rooted in the heart. As such, the heart is the core of every human being, as it is directly involved in the relationship between the individual and God, it governs all actions, and it is the possessor of all emotional faculties. Thus, the role the heart plays in Islam is given much more importance and emphasis than the physiological function and purpose ascribed to the heart in traditional science. The Qur'an shares with the Hadeeth a metaphorical description of the heart as a possessor of emotional faculties, thus giving the heart many characteristics that modern science attributes to the brain. As is popularly stated in Islamic culture, every action is dependent upon intentions [23], and “…what counts is [to God] the intention of your hearts…” [24]. These actions, whether “good” or “bad” determine the health of the heart, namely if it is a sound or diseased heart. A diseased heart is one filled with qualities such as doubt [25], hypocrisy [26], and ignorance [27] among many others. Possessors of such qualities have a “hardened,” diseased heart [28]. Other malaise qualities contributing to a diseased heart includes blasphemy, rejection of truth, deviation, sin, corruption, aggressiveness, negligence, fear, anger, and jealousy, among others. Considering the physical, social, and emotional impact these characteristics can have on a person, the author of the Qur'an asserts “…there hath come to you a direction fromyour Lord and a healing for (for the diseases) in your hearts” [29]. This is so because “…neither money nor children will benefit [on the Day of Resurrection] except whoever meets God with a sound heart” (emphasis added) [30]. It is important to note the link between knowledge and the heart; the “perverse” heart and the heart filled with knowledge, faith, belief and wisdomare antagonistic in nature, and it is the latter that is favored by the author of the Qur'an [31]. Although there are multiple Qur'anic verses and prophetic traditions regarding the spiritual heart, a fewbut important references have certainly been made about the anatomy and physiology of the physical heart as a vulnerable organ vital to the human being. We first see the heart referred to as a muscle and not in a metaphorical sense in a prophetic tradition, where it is stated, “Beware! There is a piece of flesh in the body if it remains healthy the whole body becomes healthy, and if it is diseased, the whole body becomes diseased. Beware, it is the heart” [32]. This tradition holds true if taken either literally or spiritually. Furthermore, there is a prophetic tradition that discusses heart surgery, extraction of a blood clot, and treatment of the heart as follows: the Angel Gabriel came to Mohammad as a child while he was playing with playmates, “…lay him prostrate on the ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and then extracted a blood-clot out of it and said, ‘That was the part of Satan in thee.’ And then he washed it with the water of Zam Zam in a golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place” [33]. Thus, although rudimentary and perhaps even metaphorical, the surgery described required knowledge of the anatomical and physiological importance of the heart to the healthy functioning of the body and the detrimental effects of a thrombus. 4.3. Cardiovascular disease Although not outwardly mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, the lifestyle that the authors of the Qur'an encourage drastically decreases the chances of individuals developing such cardiovascular diseases such as heart diseases, blood clots, atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis via the following ways: engaging in spiritual activities, moderate eating, physical labor, reducing anger and jealousy, eliminating greediness, and abstention of forbidden foods and drinks. The Islamic prayer is performed at least five times a day and consists of a series of movements entailing standing, prostrating, and sitting. When performing prayer, the author of the Qur'an discourages lazily performing prayer as performed by the Hypocrites [34]; thus, a lethargic and carelessness approach to prayer neither obtains any spiritual nor physical benefit to the state of health. Also, the amount of prostrations, and thus physical movement, during a prayer varies from one prayer to the next. We find that increased number of prostrations in a prayer (i.e. physical movement) correlates with the time of day whenone usually eats, possibly to help digest food and, in the long run, reduce the chances of thrombus formation. In addition, the author of the Qur'an states, “Truly it is in the remembrance of God that the hearts find peace” [35]. It is said that Mohammad advised people not to go to sleepimmediatelyafter meals, for that wouldleadtoa hardeningof the heart [36]. It was also advised not to engage in strenuous physical activity after eating. The physical movements during prayer also help prevent deep vein thrombi. Repetitive standing–sitting actions throughout the day activate the muscle pump in leg muscles (such as the gastrocnemius and soleus), which increase the venous return to the heart upon standing and displaces blood from peripheral to central veins, thus preventing edema and decreasing the probability of forming thrombi. Furthermore, Mohammad encouraged the consumption of foods such as white meat of fish that are low in fat and help decrease serum cholesterol levels. He also encouraged the consumptionof whole-grain brain for higher fiber intake. The author of the Qur'an and Mohammad have discouraged the consumption of pig meat, probably due to the diseases which they transmit (i.e. Trichinella, Teniasis, etc) and because of its high content in fat and calories. Finally, the consumption of alcohol is also forbidden 3 M. Loukas et al. / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j. ijcard.2009.05.011 [37]; although the author of the Qur'an acknowledges the benefits of alcohol, He also states that more harm than benefit exists in its consumption [38]. Alcoholism affects virtually all organs of the body including the liver, stomach, intestines, pancreas, heart and brain and can cause numerous problems including liver cirrhosis, pancreatic insufficiency, cancer, hypertension and heart disease. Thus, the likelihood of obtaining various cardiovascular diseases is significantly decreased through the lifestyle encouraged by the Qur'an and Hadeeth. 5. Contributions to medicine Experimental embryology is a fairly recent discovery, its roots beginning with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Even so, the idea that the human being developed in stages to form the fetus rather than in a miniature human form present in a gamete developed much later in history as more accurate stages in embryological development were described with the introduction of technologically advanced equipment. The Qur'an and the Hadeeth provide detailed, accurate descriptions of the major events that occur during embryological development. The terminology used by the author of the Qur'an is “…characterized by descriptiveness, accuracy, ease of comprehension, and integration between description of appearance and main internal processes” and the “timing of sexual development, fetal development and the acquisition of a human appearance” are also discussed [39]. Although many verses in the Qur'an and prophetic traditions discuss the development of the embryo, only two will be described below. It is remarkable to note that the descriptions presented in these 7th century texts closely resemble the various stages of the embryo. “We [God] created man froma quintessence of clay. We then placed himas a nutfah (drop) in a place of settlement, firmly fixed, then We made the drop into an ‘alaqah (leech-like structure), and then We changed the ’alaqah into a mudhah (chewed-like substance, somite stage), then We clothed the bones with lahm (muscles, flesh), then We causedhimto growandcome into being and attainthe definitive (human) form. So, blessed be God, the best to create” [40]. “When forty-two nights have passed over the conceptus, God sends an angel to it, who shapes it (into human form), makes its hearing, sight, skin, muscles and bones…” [41]. Shortly after the death of Mohammad, not only did his followers vastly expand the Islamic empire, but they also became scientific and medical innovators and educators. The Islamic empire, for more than 1000 years, remained the most advanced and civilized empire in the world, and the inspiration of all the scientific and medical discoveries and practices stemmed from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Ha- deeth, teachings that strongly encouraged and supported the drive to seek knowledge and to make scientific achievements and discoveries. For instance, a fewcenturies after the death of Mohammad, the medical education that developed closely resembled what we have today. The curriculum consisted of training in the basic sciences, which included anatomy being taught by dissecting apes, skeletal studies, and didactics, and clinical training, where therapeutics, pathology, surgery, and orthopedics were taught [42]. Licensing examinations and boards were first established and required within the Islamic empire beginning 931 A.D. The transmission of various diseases was well known around this time, which led to the creation of different wards at hospitals which treated different illnesses. Also, this was the first time in history where leprosy and mental illnesses were not viewed as demonological events but as treatable, physical diseases [43]. This era was also the first time where patient records were written and stored. There were numerous other contributions made by a number of Muslim physicians in various fields of medicine, including medical education, hospitals, bacteriology (Al-Razi), anesthesia (first oral anesthetics by Avicenna), psychotherapy (Najab ud din Mohammad), surgery (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Al-Zahrawi), ophthalmology (Ibn al-Haytham), pharmacology (Masail Hunayn), cancer treatment (Avicenna), physiology (Al-Ash'ath) and anatomy (Ibn Nafis) [44]. Most notable of these to cardiovascular anatomy was the findings of Ibn al-Nafis, a 13th century Syrian physician, who boldly rejected Galen's assertion that there was a direct (but invisible) passage through the interventricular septum between the right and left ventricles. Ibn al-Nafis, who wrote medical, theological and philoso- phical works, made his greatest contribution in Sharh tashrih ibn Sina (“Explanation of the Dissection of Avicenna”), as he asserted that there was no direct interventricular opening and outlined, for the first time in history, the pulmonary circulation: “The blood, after it has been refined in this cavity [i.e., the right ventricle], must be transmitted to the left cavity where the [vital] spirit is generated. But there is no passage between these two cavities; for the substance of the heart is solid in this region and has neither a visible passage, as was thought by some persons, nor an invisible one which could have permitted the transmission of blood, as was alleged by Galen. The pores of the heart there are closed and its substance is thick. Therefore, the blood after having been refined, must rise in the arterious vein [i.e., pulmonary artery] to the lung in order to expand in its volume and to be mixed with air so that its finest part may be clarified and may reach the venous artery [i.e., pulmonary vein] in which it is transmitted to the left cavity of the heart. This, after having been mixed with the air and having attained the aptitude to generate the [vital] spirit. That part of the blood which is less refined is used by the lung for its nutrition” [45]. Ibnal-Nafis is oneof numerous examples of themoderncontribution of the teachings of the Qur'an andHadeeth to modern medicine. Muchof the scientific discoveries and advancements during the Renaissance were largely influenced by the works of various Islamic physicians and scientists. 6. Conclusions The Qur'an and prophetic traditions and sayings of Mohammad were religious, spiritual, and scientific and influenced medical and anatomical texts. In particular, specific emphasis is given to the components of the cardiovascular system. The heart is extensively described as both an organ of psyche, intelligence, and emotion, as well as an important body of the organ that can be harmed such as exhibiting thrombi. An in-depth analysis of the contribution of Islamic medicine in anatomy, physiology, and health is severely lacking in the West and, if conducted, would uncover that discoveries made by European scientists were actually made centuries prior, within the vast Islamic empire. Perhaps European scientists during the Middle Ages and beyond failed to benefit from the discoveries of the neighboring Islamic empire for multiple reasons, including poor translations [46] and the unreadiness of the medical establishment to give prominence to observation and study over the word of ancient authority [47]. As newadvances in technology and medicine continue to grow at an exponential rate today, there is time to reflect and appreciate the Islamic contribution to medicine. It is for this reason that the discoveries and medical revelations in Qur'an should not be ignored or forgotten. Acknowledgement The authors of this manuscript have certified that they comply with the Principles of Ethical Publishing in the International Journal of Cardiology [48]. 4 M. 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Loukas et al. / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j. ijcard.2009.05.011 2 JISHIM 2006, 5 I. Al-Jami` al-Sahih (Sahih al-Bukhari) of Imam Bukhari Al-Jami` al-Sahih, known as Sahih al-Bukhari, is a recognized collection of hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) (1). It was compiled by Muhammad b. Isma`il al-Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870). The hadiths were ar- ranged in 97 books (kutub, the plural of kitab) with 3,450 chapters (abwab, its singular is bab). They we- re classified according to subject matters on Fiqh. In addition, the other subjects such as theology, ethics and medicine are found as a separated kitab in Sahih al-Bukhari. The Sahih al-Bukhari is recognized by the overwhelming majority of the Muslim scholars to be one of the most authentic collections of the hadith or Sunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w) (2). Imam Bukhari spent sixteen years compiling the hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w), and ended up with 2,602 hadiths (9,082 with repetition). Sahih al-Bu- kahri has been commented by many scholars. Among them are al-`Alam al-Sunan fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari by al-Kirmani (717-786/1318-1385); `Umdah al-Qa- ri by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762-855/1361-1452); Fath al-Bari by Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773 – 852/1372- 1449); and Irshad al-Sari li Sharh Sahih Bukhari by al-Qastalani (851- 923/1148-1518). Al-Bukhari’s criteria for acceptance of hadiths in- to his collection were amongst the accepted criteria of Muslim scholars of hadith. Each report in his col- lection was checked for compatibility with the Qur’an, and the veracity of the chain of reporters had to be painstakingly established. It is not merely its authenticity that makes this particular collection ari- sing interested by Muslim scholars, but also the vital role it played in developing the concept of health, Health And Medicine In The Islamic Tradition Based On The Book Of Medicine (Kitab Al-Tibb) Of Sahih Al-Bukhari Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH* * Senior Lecturer Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail:
[email protected] This article attempts to study the book of medicine (kitab al-tibb) in Sahih al-Bukhari. The book of medicine appears in the bo- ok 76 which consists of 58 chapters with 105 traditions (hadiths). The titles of each chapter in the book of medicine reflect the con- tent of traditions regarding the medicine and what is related to it. The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) gives primarily idea on the conditions of Muslims in the time of Prophet (s.a.w), how did they prevent and treat the disease. It is found that most of al-tibb al- nabawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji), and has been practiced in the ti- me of the Prophet (s.a.w) and even after. Key words: Islamic Medicine; Medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi); Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih al-Bukahri; Imam Bukhari (194- 256/ 810-870). Summary * This article is part of my “Health and Medicine in the Light of the Book of Medicine (Kitab al-Tibb) in Sahih Bukhari”. It was pre- pared while I was a Visiting Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (OCIS). I would like to express my deepest thank to the Director of OCIS, Dr. F.ANizami for giving me the golden opportunity to conduct my research at the Centre as well as for the funding that I received from the Centre. Currently, the author is a Senior lecturer at the Department of Government and Civilizati- on Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail:
[email protected] medicine, prevention and treatment of disease rele- vance to this age (3). II. Views on al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Medicine of the Prophet) The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) of Sahih al- Bukhari reflects Imam Bukhari’s view on the scope of medicine in Islam. The scope of medicine has be- en explained in the very well known commentaries of Sahih al-Bukhari namely Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari of Ahmad b. Ali Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 852/1449) and Umdat al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukha- ri of Abu Muhammad Mahmud Ahmad al-`Ayni (d. 855/1452), both were living in the era when medical literature over flows with all sorts of medical discip- lines, on the meaning of medicine. It was probably in consequence of reading those literatures that they we- re in preference to hold that medicine of the Prophet as other medical sciences is so broad, meaning that, it does not only refer to what had been said and practi- ced in the time of Prophet but it reaches and includes as it does into every field of human medical research, activity and thought at all time. To do so, one should know the problem and cause of certain cases, then, he should try to solve it by consulting hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) relating to medicine as well as anci- ent and contemporary medical books (4). So, it was at the time when medical systems were introduced and practiced widely by Muslims, Ibn Ha- jar and Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni were very concerned in giving the scope of medicine of the Prophet in broad sense especially when they found that Imam Bukhari was in favor to name one of his chapters (kutub, its singular is kitab) as kitab al-tibb (the book of medi- cine) rather than kitab al-tibb al-nabawi (the book of the medicine of the Prophet). Having this in mind, they clarified the word al-tibb in the linguistic and medical perspectives. Ibn Hajar, for example, held that the word “tibb” in Arabic language was used to denote al-hadhaq bi al-shai` (perfect knowledge of thing and skill in doing it). Those who possess the skill of treatment and healing are called Tabib (5). It also carries other meanings such as to amend, resto- re, adjust, improve, correct, as well as kindness, ex- pertise, judiciousness, skillfulness, resourcefulness, competence, maturity, habit, regular practice, perspi- cacity, intelligence, sophistication, cleverness, effici- ency, ability to negotiate, mastering with consumma- te skills, finesses, along with aspiration and glad ti- dings. After understanding this, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni underlined that medicine is the knowledge of the sta- tes of human body (Ahwal Badn al-Insan) in health and decline in health (disease); its purpose is preser- ving health and adopting suitable measures for resto- ring health whenever lost (al-tibb huwa `ilm yu`raf bihi ahwal al-badn al-insan min jihhat ma yasihhu wa yazul `anhu al-sihhat li tahfizu al-sihhah hasiluhu wa tastariddu raza`iluhu) (6). According to the above, the restoration of lost he- alth is the second aim of Islamic medicine. Basically, the restoration of health in Islamic traditional system consists of a number of different therapies or treat- ments, notably using a gulp of honey, cupping and cauterization. Later on, medicaments, psycho-spiritu- al healing, and surgical intervention were introduced when many Muslims had learnt from other civilizati- on. As in Greek medicine, Islamic medicine gives very clear distinction between mufradah (simple) and murakkabah (compound) drugs. In this regard, physi- cians are advised, if possible, to avoid treating dise- ases with compound drugs if it effects the weakening of the body. This was an extremely attractive theory which actually provided valuable prevention of dise- ases because the compound medicines are likely to have more side effects. Those people whose foods are, for the most part, simple have very few ailments, and their treatment also consists of simple medicines. But for city dwellers that are used to compound foods need compound medicine as well (7). However, there are people who define medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi) as medical treat- ments, prescriptions of diseases, prevention, health promotion and spiritual aspects that were recommen- ded by Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to his compani- ons, and what does not come from the Prophet (s.a.w) is, therefore, not considered as medicine of the Prop- het. It is because of this understanding and attitude that practicing al-Tibb al-Nabawi, according to this school of thought, is part of following the sunnah of Prophet (s.a.w) and those who follow other methods of healing are, therefore, not truly following the sun- nah of Prophet and probably Islamic teaching too. It Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 3 JISHIM 2006, 5 seems that this narrow interpretation of the scope of medicine of the Prophet seemingly does not hold true meaning of the concept of health and medicine in Is- lamic tradition. III. Division of Medicine In the introduction of his commentary of Sahih Bukhari of Kitab al-Tibb, Ibn Hajar divides the scien- ce of medicine into two types namely Tibb Jasad (physical medicine) and Tibb Qalb (spiritual medici- ne). Ibn Hajar praises the value and usefulness of me- dicine, and stresses the primary importance of Tibb al-Jasad and Tibb al-Qalb because they are associ- ated (8). There is a symbiotic relationship between the two kinds of medical knowledge, as one would find it impossible to achieve one form of medical sci- ence without the other. This implies that Muslims should be fully aware of spiritual and physical medi- cine because, in Islam, the breath and the body, the soul and matter, the faith and the world have been ac- corded equal importance. If this is so, the, Ibn Hajar’s division of medicine, implies that one is able to obta- in the happiness in this world and in the hereafter as long as he is physically and spiritually healthy, and it can be achieved by the art of medicine, which preser- ves and restores the health (9). In trying to reconstruct an aspect of the Greek me- dicine, we found another division of medicine given by Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni, in his introduction to `Um- dah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. It is interesting that after giving a clear definition of the science of medicine, as mentioned before, he divided the scien- ce of medicine into two main parts namely the the- oretical (al-`ilm) and the practical science (al-`amal). The former, according to him, is the true knowledge of the intended subject in the mind of mankind by which it can administer and put into practice (ma`ri- fah haqiqah al-maqsud wahuwa maudu` fi al-fikr al- ladhi yakunu bihi al-tadbir) and the latter is the ex- ternal part of the subject in human’s mind by which man is able to put into practice directly either through the sense or hand (surgery) (khuruj dhalik al-maudu fi al-fikr ila al-mubashirah bi al-hiss wa al-amal bi al-yadd) (10). To give further explanation, Ibn al-`Ayni asserted that the theoretical medicine comprised of three ma- jor branches. First, al-`ilm bi al-umur al-tabiah (the science of natural affairs), that concerned with the functioning of structures, organs, and parts of the hu- man body viewed as a living organism. It also inclu- ded the science of anatomy. Second is al-ilm bi al- umur al-lati laysat bi tabiah (the science of non natu- ral affairs) (11). This idea, which was originally in- troduced by Greek medical doctors, most notably Hi- pocrates and Galen, was known in Greaco Islamic system as al-darurah al-sitta and later known as sex res non naturals in Latin. Non-natural affairs referred to the necessary elements for survival and yet they were not natural or to the extent that they can be in some sense manipulated by humans in order to pre- vent and treat diseases. These six necessary factors for the preservation of health were air, movement and rest, food and drink, sleeping and waking, retention and excretion, which include bathing, defecation, uri- nation and coitus. The third type of theoretical medicine is known as al-ilm bi al-umur al-kharijah an al-amr al-tabiah (things outside nature) (12). It is rather unfortunate that we know so little about this because Ibn al-Ayni did not explain what he means by al-ilmu bi al-umur al-karijah an al-amr al-tabi`ah. However, it would be easy to interprete it correctly, if we refer to the ha- dith of Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) who said: “Truly, in the body there is a morsel of flesh, and when it is corrupt the body is corrupt, and when it is sound the body is sound. Truly, it is the qalb (heart) (13). The hadith implies that when there is equilibrium in the nature of the body with the nature of heart, the body stays healthy. When equilibrium is lost, things beco- me contra-natural and disease is produced. The above as has been mentioned is theoretical as- pect of medicine. Having known theory alone would not permit physician to interpret medical science cor- rectly. Thus, we see that Ibn al-`Ayni emphasized that a physician should master the second kind of medici- ne that is known as al-`amal (practical science). This is related to practical medicine that comprised of two braches namely preventive medicine (hifz al-Sihhah) and therapeutic (ilm al-ilaj) medicine. The former, hifz al-sihhah), is preventing and preserving the state of the body in its nature, the state in which human be- ings function normally and in sound and perfect con- Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 4 JISHIM 2006, 5 dition: in healthy body, mind and spirit. It is generally acknowledged that hifz al-sihhah is the most impor- tant branch of Islamic medicine since it is primarily concerned with the prevention and preservation of health rather than with cure. In truth, perfect health is a wish that humans crave for because it is one of the Creator’s greatest blessings after faith. In order to show the importance of prevention and preservation of health amongst his followers, the Prophet (s.a.w) said: “There are two gifts of which many men are cheated: health (al-sihhah) and leisure (al-faragh)” (14). By linking al-sihhah (health) and al-faragh (le- isure) together has its significant. It stresses the fact that Muslims should take good care of their health and always strive to remain in a healthy state because if he is in a healthy state, he would be able to fulfill his duty towards God during leisure (al-faragh) by acquiring both spiritual and physical knowledge, so that his soul will reach the ultimate goal namely the appreciation of God. While he was discussing practical medicine, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni asserted that the purpose of ilm al-ilaj (therapeutic medicine) is above all to support the na- tural striving of the body to return to its natural, he- althy state. Looking to the nature of the practical me- dicine, many Muslim scholars both religious and me- dical authorities, considered practical medicine both hifz al-sihhah (preventive medicine) and therapeutics (ilm al-ilaj), as the noblest science in Islam because its subject matter is human body who is the noblest being of God (15). In line with this, Abu Bakr Rabi’ b. Ah- mad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari, who lived in the tenth century, in his Hidayat al-Muta‘allim (Guide for Stu- dent) articulated that wise men have once said that it is incumbent upon every person to learn the basic of Islamic law, because when a person knows its Law, he is immune from going astray. Next, a Muslim must study some basic medicine in order to preserve health, so that quack doctors will not be able to dispense the- ir mistreatments. In addition, he must learn some skill to earn his livelihood by lawful means (16). IV. Hadiths on Prevention of Illness and Preservation of Health Imam Bukhari is well aware that the task of medi- cine, which is unanimously agreed, is concerned three major fields namely: promotion of health, pre- vention of illness and restoration of health. In regard to the former, Imam Bukhari deals with the promoti- on of health and preventive measures against disease. As we know, most of early Islamic medical tradition is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (tibb al-`ilaji), which is no do- ubt considered as an advanced concept given the le- vel of scientific knowledge at that time. Even Imam Bukhari does not provide specific chapter on preven- tion of disease, however, he mentions numerous pre- ventive measures against disease scattered in several books of his Sahih Bukhari such as cleanliness, use of tooth stick (siwak), food, bath and exercise. Other preventive measures in Sahih Bukhari include: qua- rantine for epidemics, precaution against al-judham (leprosy); precaution against disease that may occur as a result of falling a fly in the liquid; forbidding drinking al-khamr, forbidding suicide, precautions of fire in the house, etc. Preservation of health should be the primary ob- ject of medicine in which a physician has to give, and not the ‘disease’. Throughout Islamic civilization, the primary goal of the medical system is to maintain he- alth rather than to cure the disease or restore it whe- never lost. This is in harmony with the objective of Islamic law that keeping health is better than the tre- atment of disease. In other words, the real purpose of medical is to save human life and to improve the suf- ferings of living beings (17). Precaution against lep- rosy was commonly known in the time of the Prophet (s.a.w). The Prophet (s.a.w) advised people to run away from the leper as one would run away from a li- on (farra min al-judham kama tafarra min al-asad) (18). This strong command is an effective method of preventing the spreading of leprosy from one to anot- her. It was believed that leprous’s breath intensifies until he gave the disease to another person who came into contact with him. Similarly, if a woman sleeps with a leper, he transmits the disease to her. She may become leprous. In Arabic medical literature, leprosy (al-Judham) is known as “the lion’s disease.” This clearly reveals that the disease makes the sufferer’s skin and face very harsh and gives the appearance of a lion. In the early development of Islam, peoples be- lieved that leprosy caused the patient to carry out des- truction on whoever approaches or comes near him, Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 5 JISHIM 2006, 5 as a lion would. As we know, leprosy, mainly affects the skin, the peripheral nerves and also the eyes, apart from some other structures. Leprosy has plagued mankind since the very beginning of recorded his- tory. Many civilizations were affected such as China, Egypt, India and Islam. Yet, there was not much sci- entific treatment of leprosy during that time (19). Imam Bukhari mentioned interesting examples of preventive measures taken by the Prophet (s.a.w) when a fly falls into the liquid. According to the Prophet (s.a.w.), a fly carries poison and antidote. In the last chapter of kitab al-tibb of Sahih Bukhari, Bab ’idha waqa‘ al-dhubab fi al-’ina’, which contains only one tradition of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w), Imam Bukhari reported that the Propeht (s.a.w) said: “If a fly falls in the vessel of any one of you, let him dip the whole of it (into the vessel) and then throw it away, for on one of its wings there is a disease and on the other is healing” (20). According to Abu Tayyib al-Tabari as quoted by Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372- 1449), the hadith does not stress on cleanliness (al- taharah) and impurity (al-najasah) matter. Rather, it stresses on how to prevent the disease as a result of a fly falling into the vessel of liquid (bayan al-tadawi min darar al-dhubab) (21). In other words, the hadith inspire us about the medical aspect of fly, which pro- vide the necessary means and religious justification for the preservation of health. The Prophet (s.a.w) en- couraged the ummah to preserve her health by asking her to dip the fly into the vessel completely, if, unfor- tunately, it falls into the vessel of food or drink. This is because, when a fly touches a liquid food, it infects the liquid with its pathogens, therefore the fly must be dipped in order to release the antidote counter ba- lancing the pathogens (22). In his Fath al-Bari, Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372- 1449) supports the stand that a fly carries some pat- hogens on parts of its body, including the antidote for those pathogenic organisms. He further asserts that Thumama (r.a) and other companions were with Anas when a fly fell into a vessel. Anas motioned with his hand and immersed it (faghamasahu) three times, then recited: “Bismillah” and he said that truly, this was what had been done by the Messenger of Allah” (23). Immediately after mentioning the event, Ibn Hajar comments: “I found nothing among the vari- ants to identify the wing that carries the antidote but one of the Ulama` said he observed that the fly pro- tects itself instinctively. Naturally, the left wing has been protected by the right one. In other words, one side is poison and the other the antidote (24). Ibn Ha- jar (773–852/1372-1449) also discusses another in- terpretation of the statement “fa inna fi ihda janahay- hi (for on one of its wings).” It carries an abstract meaning as the words of God “wakhfid lahuma janah al-dhull (and out of kindness, lower to them the wing of humanity) (surah al-Isra (17): 24).” This implies that the poison may be understood the pride (takab- bur) occurring in one’s soul causing him to disdain eating that food or avoid and discard it altogether, while the antidote takes places by suppressing the so- ul and forcing it to be humble (25). It is no wondered that al-Khatabi, although chal- lenged by the people in his time, was asserting in an affirmative way that, the poison of a fly is in the front wings while the remedy is in the back wings. Ibn Ha- jar (773–852/1372-1449) related the story by al-Kha- tabi that some people commented the hadith and siad: How can it be possible that both illness and healing are present in the front wings and the cure in the back wings? He replied: this was questioned that a fool would ask. This is because many of God’s creations possess opposite characteristics i.e., hot and cold, and wet and dry. These temperaments are opposites of each others. If Allah (s.w.t) has been able to create thousands of combinations of them, then surely it cannot be denied that He can also placed both poison and its cure in some creatures such as a fly. Al-Kha- tabi added that it is a great wisdom to create a fly with poison and antidote. This is because the fly would al- ways keep its “antidote wing” so that it may be able to fly away. This behavior is divinely-inspired ins- tinct similar to that of the bees and the ants (26). We may safely assume that the diseases caused by flies i.e., malaria, typhoid, cholera, eye disease and others, occurred in Prophet’s time because flies infec- ted the food, sat on the eyelids of sleeping children and spread diseases of eye. We have no evidence that there was a particular disease that was caused by fly and the specific drug for that disease during the time of Prophet (s.a.w). Nevertheless, one fact is clear was that the Prophet (s.a.w) reminded his Ummah that if Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 6 JISHIM 2006, 5 a fly falls into the vessel of any one of them, they we- re to dip the whole of fly into the vessel and then throw. This was to prevent them from the disease that may occur because of fly. Furthermore, we also learn from the hadith about the purity of fly and on the wa- ter and liquid where fly may also be found dead. The consensus among Muslim Jurists is that the fly is pu- re (al-dhubab tahir) and does not spoil a liquid even if its quantity is small and even if fly dies in it except according Imam al-Shafi`i, if one of the aspects of the liquid is affected i.e., changing smell, color, taste) (27). On the other hand, based on Prophet’s com- mand “liyanzi`uhu’ (throw it way), some Shafi’s ju- rist concluded that a liquid becomes impure while Abu Hanifah said it is not impure (annaha la tanjis) (28). V. Hadiths on Healing of Diseases Imam Bukhari also mentioned hadiths relating to the methods of treatment of disease which was prac- ticed in the time of Prophet (s.a.w). It is found that the method of treatment of disease in the time of the Prophet (s.a.w) was considered advance method gi- ven the level of scientific knowledge at the time. In this regard, medicine of Prophet is not only history but it is history as well as medicine. So, if general history is an instrument of life, the medical history is an instrument of medical life. Though it seems that the modern way of treatment of disease is better than in Prophetic method of treatment of disease partly be- cause the Prophetic medicine is not based on medical experiments but rather on inspiration, experience from the previous culture and tradition. In many ob- vious cases, many companions of Prophet (s.a.w) co- uld treat a patient suffering from certain diseases du- ring that time successfully without any knowledge of medicine as practiced today but they merely followed the instruction of the Prophet (s.a.w) relating to the treatment of disease i.e., a gulp of honey, cupping (hi- jamah), and cauterization (kayy: to burn a wound with hot metal or a chemical to stop the blood or stop it becoming infected). Hadiths on healing in three things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha) were reported by Imam Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870), in his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine), Bab al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha (chapter on healing is in three things). Two of them were narrated by Ibn `Ab- bas and another was by Jabir b. Abd Allah. First: “Healing is in three things: a gulp of honey, cupping, and branding with fire (cauterizing), however, I for- bid my followers to use branding with fire (cauteriza- tion) (al-Shifa’ fi thalatha: sharbat `asal, wa shartah mihjam, wa kayyah nar, wa anha ummati `an al- kayy).” Second: “Healing is in three things: cupping, a drink of honey and cauterization (branding with fi- re) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (al- Shifa’ fi Thalatha: fi Shartati Mihjam, aw Sharbat Asal, aw Kayy bi Nar, wa Anha Ummati an al- Kayy).” In another version, it was narrated by Jabir bin Abdullah that he heard the Prophet said: “If there is any healing in your medicines, then it is in cup- ping, a drink of honey or branding with fire (cauteri- zation) that suits the ailment, but I don’t like to be (cauterized) branded with fire” (29). In his interpretation of the above hadiths, Ibn Ha- jar (773–852/1372-1449) reminded us that the treat- ment of disease does not predestine only three met- hods of healing namely a gulp of honey, cupping, and branding with fire (cauterizing). In trying to answer the question, why did the Prophet (s.a.w) mention only three methods of healing?, Ibn Hajar clarified that the Prophet (s.a.w) mentioned only three met- hods of healing mainly because they were usul al- `ilaj, the principle of treatment of disease. In additi- on, it was widely known among the Arab in that time. It is possible that this belief was the result of Mus- lim’s discoveries during that time that the cause of di- sease was mainly blood (damawi) or yellow bile (saf- rawi) or black bile (sawdawi) or phlegm (balghi) (30). This implies that the Arab in that time viewed the nature of disease in terms of philosophy and loo- ked upon it as a disturbance in the equilibrium of the body’s blood, yellow bile (safrawi), black bile (saw- dawi) and phlegm (balghi) (30). Thus, the disease, which is caused by one of them should be treated eit- her by hijamah (taking the impure blood from the body) or honey. If we failed to treat a disease by the mentioned method, then, it must be treated by caute- rization or surgery as in our time. The latter could not be more than a last option to which physicians had to consider when a gulp of honey, cupping and pharma- ceutical treatments failed. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 7 JISHIM 2006, 5 When we pondering this method of treatment of disease, one finds that the treatment of disease, in the time of Prophet (s.a.w), was basically according to the nature of disease and to know its treatment, they were advised to know its cause and symptom (ma`ri- fatuhu bitahqiq al-sabab wa al-alamah). That is why before commenting the method of healing as high- lighted in the hadith, Ibn Hajar had to clarify two types of diseases namely material disease (mard ma- diyyah) and non material disease (mard ghayra ma- diyyah). The former is referred to the disease caused by hotness (al-hararah), coldness (al-baridah). The latter is divided into wet (rutbah), dry (yabisah) and compound (murakkabah). The non material disease, according to Ibn Hajar, is treated by what has been said in the hadith ‘fever is from the heat of Hell, so abate fever with water’ (31). In the light of this evidence, we feel much more confidence to say that the body and the soul of man- kind have the possibility to be healthy or sick, balan- ced or imbalanced. Imbalance of the body is like fe- ver, headache and other physical illness, while that of the soul is like anger, anxiety, sadness and similar symptoms. The former diseases should be treated through the medical methods involving the use of ho- ney, cupping and cauterization, while the latter sho- uld be treated by spiritual method of treatments. In certain cases, one was encouraged to use the spiritu- al treatment rather than physical treatment for many reasons. First, in seeking to be healed from the dise- ase of the body, the patients bear the bitterness of me- dications, the suffering of cauterization as well as spending large sums of money for medical treatment and care. On the other hand, the care and refinement of the soul which is far more important, is more plea- sant and rewarding and less costly to treat and resto- re (32). Secondly, if the disease was caused by the Jinn and evils, therefore, the ordinary medical thera- pies were insufficient. Instead, it has to be cured by giving the effort that may help to end the evil spirit’s influence i.e., by strengthening faith in God. This is because, if a persons’ soul was fortified with strong faith, the evil spirits could not easily influence a Muslim. In other words, the spiritual disease is appe- ared as a result of the lack of faith and misery of the soul. In this case, the spiritual disease has to be cured by spiritual treatment. A. Honey: Healing for Men (Shifa’ li al-Nas) In Islamic medical system, as in most other medi- cal systems, honey is considered as healthy drink. We are not surprising Imam Bukhari entitled chapter fo- ur of his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine) as “al-Da- wa’ bi al-Asal wa Qawlihi Ta`ala ‘Fihi Shifa li al-Nas (treatment with honey and the statement of Allah: where is healing for men).” At this place, Imam al- Bukhari mentioned three ahadith on honey together with its value which is emphasized in many verses of the Quran. In Surah al-Nahl verses: 68-69, Allah (s.w.t) describes honey as Shifa’ li al-Nas: “And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on tre- es, and in (men’s) habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spaci- ous paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colors, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a sign for those who give thought.” In view of this benefit, it is worth to menti- on one of the most well known hadith, in regard to the medical benefits of honey, that has been menti- oned by Imam Bukhari in his Sahih Bukhari in Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine), Bab al-Dawa bi al-`Asal waqawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas (chapter on treatment with honey and the statement of Allah: where is healing for men). Accordingly, the Prophet (s.a.w) said: “A man came to the Prophet and said: “My brother has some abdominal trouble.” The Prop- het (s.a.w) replied to him “let him drink honey.” The man came for the second time and the Prophet repli- ed to him, ‘let him drink honey.” He came for the third time and the Prophet replied, “let him drink ho- ney.” He returned again and said, “I have done that”. The Prophet (s.a.w) then said, “Allah has said the truth, but your brother’s abdomen has told a lie (sa- daqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika). Let him drink honey. So he made him drink honey and he was cu- red” (33). From the above hadith, the treatment of disease was very simple. May be because the Prophet (s.a.w) knew what made the patient sick because he was aware of the well-known method of treatment of di- arrhea (34). In that time, diarrhea was treated by ma- king the patient vomit or by giving him laxative me- dicine to increase the flow by taking honey. In relati- Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 8 JISHIM 2006, 5 on to this, the hadith is concerned about a man who came to the Prophet (s.a.w) and said that his brother was suffering from dysentery (istatlaqa batn) (35). To cure this disease, the Prophet (s.a.w) recommen- ded honey. He came back and reported honey had do- ne no good to his brother. The Prophet (s.a.w) was again advised to take honey. He came back the third and also the fourth time and said he had seen no im- provement. The Prophet (s.a.w) said: “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika)” (36). Apparently, the brother’s patient claimed that he had followed the instruction of Prophet (s.a.w), but it was no consequences. Thus, we cannot conclude the discussion on this hadith without giving a few words about the meaning of the saying of Prophet (s.a.w): “The statement of God is true and the stomach of yo- ur brother lies (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhi- ka)” (37). It is important to understand the hadith especially the Prophet’s statement, “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies.” Before we give the correct interpretation of this statement, there are two major remarks, which derive from the hadith, that we have to put into consideration. First, the Prop- het (s.a.w) was aware of the disease and the cure that was suitable for the patient since he was surely beli- ef of the benefit of honey for patient. It is the nature of honey to expel whatever is left of whatever has collected in the stomach and the intestines. Secondly, the Prophet (s.a.w) instructed the patient to take ho- ney for many times to make sure it may cure positi- vely the disease. The patient should not lose patience for his suffering of illness because, sometime, certa- in diseases take many years to cure and in natural way can take at least months (38). Now, after giving remarks on the above hadith, it is worth to give the view of commentators in regard to the saying of Prophet: “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies.” Some of them, i.e., Ibn Mas`ud, Ibn Abbas, al-Hasan and al- Qadi `Ayyad, viewed that honey is not only the fac- tor of healing because all are connected with God who is a Healer (huwa al-shafi). This mean that, in any medical treatments, doctors are only attempting to cure, it is Allah who cures, Allah huwa al shafi. This interpretation is a reminder that men should not be arrogant by attributing cure to themselves and not Allah (s.w.t). Thus, if we relate this idea with the sta- tement,” the statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies,” we may conclude that someti- mes the measures that humans take to cure a disease may not be sufficient on their own to alleviate and ea- se the condition; it is Allah’s divine intervention and mercy that brings about the complete cure (39). Of course, there is no sharp different between the above view with the following. It is equally obvious that the commentators of hadith seem to agree that the hadith referred to a particular kinds of stomach disease namely diarrhea. It is mostly occurred when mucus (a liquid produced in parts of body such as in nose) clings to the bowels and interferes with the pro- cess of absorption. With this illness, it is honey that expels the excess moisture. Because, the moisture is driven out and expelled downwards when honey is eaten. In Umdah al-Qari, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni expres- sed and recognized that drinking honey may open up the obstructions of the blood vessels, dissolve the ex- cessive food by evacuating the stomach and intesti- nes and clear the chest and liver (40). Furthermore, al-Baghdadi was of the opinion that honey, which contains a variety of sugar and mineral, is good to pu- rify what in the veins and stomach. Consequently, it is a potential to make the blood to circulate better and provide more air to areas of the body such as the bra- in (41). It is clear from the above discussion that we can- not understand the Prophet’s prescription of honey as the way for treatment of disease unless we know what disease he was fighting. The Prophet (s.a.w) was well aware that diarrhea was caused by indiges- tion (tukhma) resulting from overeating. Thus, he ga- ve the correct treatment by asking the patient to drink honey. The reason why the Prophet (s.a.w) had said the patient’s stomach lied was that he knew that the dosage had not been sufficient, because it had not sta- unched the diarrhea and the Prophet (s.a.w) wanted to stress that honey was the correct cure but in this case it had to administer several times. While it seems quite certain that honey is the most suitable prescription for the patient, as mentioned in the hadith, now, if someone are facing similar prob- Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 9 JISHIM 2006, 5 lem, can honey be used effectively? This needs the clarification and understanding the other part of ha- dith, “fihi shifa li al-Nas (in it (honey) is healing for men).” This is because some people believe that ho- ney is beneficial for all kinds of diseases and for all people. To answer this claim, Ibn Hajar clarified that the statement, “fihi shifa li al-Nas”, did not means that honey is suitable to use for all people because the words “li al-Nas” designated that honey was only sui- table for “some people” and not for “all people”. This means that honey is possibly harmful for some peop- le who live in hot region (42). In other words, honey cannot be cured for all kinds of disease. B. Cupping (al-Hijamah) In a number of medical systems, from Greek to Malay traditional medicine, illness believed to be caused by harmful and dirty blood must be treated by taken out the dirty blood. Under this influence, peop- le believed that wherever part of the body, from head to toe, become ill, hijamah can be used as the right measure for treatment. Therefore, if we wish to know the history of treatment of disease in the light of al- Tibb al-Nabawi, we must study hijamah because it was widely practiced by the Prophet (s.a.w) and his companions and this method of healing is still alive in many Muslim countries. We were told that the Prophet (s.a.w) and his com- panions always had practiced al-hijamah in several occasions from the time he was at home to the time that he was in the state of Ihram. It is very regrettab- le that we do not have very clear rational explanation why cupping was so popular in the time of Prophet, but one fact is nevertheless clear that hijamah is very easy to practice, just using a jar or a similar material. A jar is attached to the skin surface, so that the dirty blood, air, toxic and other harmful substance flow to the surface of the skin. Then, harmful substance may remove from the body. Secondly, it is because the dwellers of the Arabian peninsular and countries of hot climate are the most suitable people to be cupped. This is because the blood of people who dwell in that region is thinner (raqiq) and is drawn closer to the surface of the skin (tamil ila zahir al-abdan) (43). As we expected, many ahadith would be recorded in Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih Bukhari. They were recorded from chapter eleven to chapter fifteen of kitab al-tibb. One of these five chapters is Bab al-Hijamah min al- Da’ (cupping as a treatment for disease). In this chap- ter, Imam Bukhari mentioned that Jabir bin ‘Abdullah narrated that he visited al-Muqanna while he was ill- ness. Jabir said, “I will not leave till he gets cupped, for I heard Allah’s Apostle saying, “There is healing in cupping.” Secondlt, Imam Bukhari reported that Al- lah’s Apostle was cupped on the middle of his head at Lahy Jamal on his way to Mecca while he was in a sta- te of Ihram. Thirdly, Imam Bukhari reported that: “Al- lah’s Apostle was cupped on his head. Lastly, al-Buk- hari reported that the Prophet commanded the cupping to be used and said: “There are no remedies comparab- le to cupping and blood letting” (44). While interpreting the above ahadith, there are two general remarks that we may draw. First, there is no specific time to practice cupping because the Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped at day and night and so- metime during Ihram. However, we have to keep in mind that if blood cupping is done in the wrong pla- ce and times or when it is not needed, then it weakens the faculties and it remove both healthy humors as well as harmful ones. That is why medical doctors advise, for safety purpose, that cupping should be avoided by those who is suffering from enteritis, by whoever is on the road to recovery, by whoever is very old, weak liver or stomach, who suffers from palsy of the face or feet and by women who are preg- nant or who have just given birth or who are menstru- ating. Secondly, it seems quite certain that the Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped on his head. That is why Imam Bukhari entitled one of the chapters of his kitab al- tibb as al-hijamah ala al-ra`s (cupping on the head). In truth, the view that headache was caused by dirty blood in the head was widely spread among the anci- ent people, and sucking of harmful blood was there- fore a chief method of treatment. We are not surpri- sing to hear that the Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped on his head to treat headache and similarly when a man who complained to the Prophet (s.a.w) about a pain in the head, the Prophet (s.a.w) recommended him to get cupped (45). With advance of method of treatment, people ha- ve observed that the use of leech, as a means of suc- Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 10 JISHIM 2006, 5 king blood from the affected parts of human body, was similar to cupping (hijamah). In other words, the use of leech and other modern methods of healing can be regarded as a substitute for cupping. In Gra- eco-Arab medicine, leech-therapy occupied an im- portant place. Ibn Sina and al-Baghdadi, for examp- le, wrote specific section to leech in their al-Qanun fi al-Tibb and al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb respectively. Ac- cording to Ibn Sina, the application of leech is more useful than cupping in letting off the blood from dee- per parts of the body. Treatment by the use of leech is desirable in skin disease. For al-Baghdadi, the use of leech was the best way for skin disease, wet and chro- nic ulcers. Leech is also used for reducing the weight of fatty and fleshy people. They can be used repea- tedly, but one should be aware of the risk of cross-in- fections. Leech may also be used as a means of clea- ning the tissues especially after micro-surgical opera- tions. Since there is possibly risk over using leech, al- Baghdadi and other Muslim physicians suggested that the leech was needed to be cleansed. The dirt or dust clinging to a leech should be wiped off before application. When leech has sucked out the blood and tend to drop down, salt should be sprinkled on the af- fected part of the human body. The following is al- Baghdadi’s words: When they are to be used, they should be kept away for a day and then applied. If a leech does not stick, fresh blood should be poured or thoroughly smas- hed and pounded clay sprinkled over the affected part and if the affected part is free of any wound, the part should be rubbed till it becomes red (46). C. al-Kayy: Branding with Fire (Cauterization) Al-Kayy is another method of treatment of disease in the time of Prophet (s.a.w) and even after (47). In the time of Prophet, al-kayy or hot metal was used as a way to burn a wound to stop the blood or stop it be- coming infected (48). The question now arises, is for- bidden (haram) to use al-kayy for medical purpose? If not, why did the Prophet discourage his Ummah to use cauterization even though he had known that it might give many medical benefits. While commen- ting the ahadith on al-kayy, some commentators of Sahih Bukhari like Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni and al-Qastalani had attempted to give the reasons behind the wisdom of the Prophet (s.a.w)’s words “I forbid my followers to use (cauterization) branding with fire (‘wa `anha `an ummati an al- kayy’)” as recorded in the following ahadith: The Prophet (s.a.w) said, “If there is any healing in your medicines then it is a cupping operation, or branding (cauterization), but I do not like to be (cauterized) branded” (49). In another version, Imam Bukhari re- ported that the Prophet (s.a.w) said, “Healing is in three things: cupping, a gulp of honey or cauterizati- on, (branding with fire) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (branding with fire)” (50). Though some commentators of hadith understood that the Prophet (s.a.w) prohibited his followers to use cauterization, however, Ibn Hajar did not inter- pret the words “wa anha an ummati an kayy (I forbid my followers to use cauterization)” as prohibition (al-nahy) but abhorrent or undesirable (makruh). He argued that it is undesirable to use cauterization if it may cause the pain and menace to a patient (51). It is quite reasonable to accept this reason because by na- ture cauterization (al-kayy) may cause the patient in pain, menace and produce the side effect. This is the reason why the Prophet (s.a.w) did not like al-kayy (cauterization) as the right method of healing. In order to give further evidence that cauterization is not prohibited in Islam, Ibn Hajar quoted the hadith which was reported that the Prophet (s.a.w) had him- self cauterized the wound of Sa`d b. Mu`ad (52) and also the wound of As`ad b. Zararh in order to stop the bleeding (anna al-nabiy (s.a.w) kawa As`ad b. Za- rarh min syawkihi) (53). Also, Ibn Hajar mentioned that Ibn Umar (r.a) used to use cautery for treating fa- cial palsy. This is according to the report of Abu Zu- bayr who said: “I saw Ibn Umar one day, and he was branding the forehead of a man who had a slight fa- cial palsy.” From all these evidences, Ibn Hajar conc- luded that the prohibition against utilizing cautery applies for as long as completed trust in Allah (s.w.t) is lacking. During Prophet’s time, there were people who they think that it is the cauterization itself which cures the affliction. In other words, they believed that if cautery had not been used, then the patient would Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 11 JISHIM 2006, 5 have perished. This kind of cauterization practiced, according to Ibn Hajar, is prohibited. On the other hand, cautery is permitted when it is perceived as be- ing the appropriate means to affect a cure, but not the essential cause of the cure because Allah (s.w.t) alo- ne cures and grants good health and not cauterization. This means that humans try, but it is Allah who cures, Allah huwa al Shafi. Humans should not be arrogant by attributing cure to themselves and not Allah (s.w.t). Of course, human cannot refuse to take me- asure to cure disease claiming that Allah (s.w.t) will take care of it. This is because, it is true that Allah cu- res but in some cases that cure operates through the agency of humans. Sometimes the measures that hu- mans take to cure a disease may not be sufficient on their own to alleviate the condition. It is Allah’s divi- ne intervention and mercy that brings about the complete cure (54). Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni viewed the hadith, i.e., hea- ling is in three things: cupping, a gulp of honey or ca- uterization, (branding with fire) but I forbid my fol- lowers to use cauterization (branding with fire), as preference from one thing over another. This means that as long as medicine conceived disease in terms of philosophy and looked upon it as a disturbance in the equilibrium of body’s humors, cauterization co- uld not be more than a last resort to which physicians had to recourse when the treatment by honey and cupping failed. In this case, the Prophet (s.a.w) pre- ferred honey, blood letting over cauterization and it does not means that cauterization is prohibited (ha- ram) in medical treatment (55). Although al-Qastalani was aware that Ibn Hajar and al-Ayni’s interpretation of the hadith are har- mony with the Islamic law, he, in his Irshad al-Sari li Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, did not hesitate to add that al-kayy was not as other ways of treatment as far as side effect is concerned. In case of cauterization (al- kayy), it might give medical benefits and harmful as in the case of al-khamr (intoxicating drink) which ac- cording to the Qur’an, it might give both beneficial and harmful for mankind, but harmful is more (56). Al-Dhahabi took a similar attitude to the tradition concerning the prohibition of cauterization. He cla- imed that the cautery of bleeding wounds was per- missible especially when it was knows to be the best possible cure for a particular illness but it was forbid- den as a preventive measure. For those who said that cauterization is forbidden in medical purpose are mainly based on the hadith re- lated by Ibn Abbas that the Prophet (s.a.w) said: “If the cure ultimately depends on either scarification, or drinking honey or cauterization with fire, then I abso- lutely forbid cauterization.” It is regrettable that this school of thought does not give further explanation and justification of the hadith. From the above analysis, it would be a great mis- take to prohibit the cauterization today. If it is forbid- den in Islam, the surgery should be also forbidden. Therefore, it is right to conclude that it is perfectly correct to recommend al-kayy (cauterization) as the method of treatment of disease when all other reme- dies i.e., a gulp of honey and cupping have failed. In other words, it is fully permitted when there is no ot- her alternative or no other remedy has proved suc- cessfully. In this case, there can be no objection to use cauterization so long as it is done cautiously and we remain aware of its negative effects. Conclusion The previous studies have revealed to us of the importance of Kitab al-Tibb in Sahih Bukahri. It gi- ves primarily idea on the conditions of Muslims in the time of Prophet (s.a.w), how did they prevent and treat the disease. It is found that most of al-tibb al-na- bawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji). Its met- hod of prevention was considered advance, given the level of scientific knowledge that existed at the time. As far as the treatment of disease is concerned, the hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) in Kitab al-Tibb of Sa- hih Bukahri gives us the idea throws on how did the Muslim had been treated, if he was sick. It is found that the treatment of disease was mainly based on the cause of disease. These remarks lead to the conclusi- on that we should not use al-tibb al-nabawi (medici- ne of the Prophet) without empirical research because of changes in medicinal plants and environment as well as the meaning of linguistic terms. Thus the con- ditions for which these remedies were prescribed in the first century of hijrah may not be exactly the sa- me as the conditions we are dealing with today. The- Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 12 JISHIM 2006, 5 refore, if we wish to have a complete account of Prophetic medicine, we shall not be satisfied by re- ferring to the writing of traditionalist scholars in the past without referring to new discoveries made by the researchers after the demise of Prophet (s.a.w). REFERENCES 1. Hadith (its plural is ahadith) is the sayings (aqwal), the ac- tions (af`al) and the tacit approval (taqrir) of the Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w). In other words, the ahadith of the Prop- het are divided into three parts: al-qawliyah, the traditions which are statements and sayings of the prophet; the second is al-fi‘liyah that is the traditions that is derived from the de- eds of the holy prophet, and third, al-taqririyah (the traditi- ons of the tacit approval), is taken from the Prophet’s silen- ce or tacit approval regarding deeds which had occurred with his knowledge. The collections of ahadith were offici- ally began with Umayyad Caliph ‘Umar Ibn Abdul ‘Aziz (d. 101/720)’s instruction, for the first time to Abu Bakr b. Muhammad b. Amr b. Hazm, al-Zuhri and others to collect ahadith of Prophet (s.a.w). al-Zuhri was the first who recor- ded them. Later, in the third century of Hijrah, scholars of ^adIth devoted their life and energy in shifting the hadith examining the narrators and ensuring their authenticity for preserving the ahadith of Prophet (s.a.w). From the middle until the end of third century, there was a serious collection of ahadith. These collections were well-known with the successful compiled six textual collections of the ahadith namely of Imam Bukhari (d. 256/ 870), Imam Muslim (d. 261/875), Abu Dawud (d. 275/888), al-Tarmidhi (d. 279/892), al-Nasa’i (d. 303/915), Ibn Majah (d. 273/886) etc. (For details, see M.M. Azami, Studies in Early Hadith Literature (Indiana: American Trust Publications, 1978); M. Hamidullah, Early Compilation of Hadith, Islamic Review, May, 1949). 2. To give an accurate explanation and interpretation of aha- dith in Sahih Bukhari, the author will consult many impor- tant commentaries of Sahih Bukhari most notably Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762- 855/1361-1452), 25 vols. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al- `Arabi, n.d); Fath al-Bari fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449), 13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989). 3. Unfortunately, there has been a lack of effort to study the medical aspect of Sahih Bukhari. Because, most of Muslim scholars have been repeated attempts at writing common aspects of Sahih Bukhari such as the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), tafsir al-quran (exegesis), ilm al-kalam (theology), ethics or manner (akhlaq), sirah al-nabawiyyah (history of Prophet), and al-Isnad wa al-Matan (narration and text of hadith). 4. Huasin F. Nagamia, “Islamic Medicine History and Current Practice”, in Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 4 October 2003, 19-30. 5. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sahrh Sahih al-Bukhari, 13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989), 10: 165; Al-Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 25 vols. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-`Arabi, n.d), 21: 229. 6. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 25 vols. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al-`Arabi, n.d); 21: 229. 7. Ibn al-Qayyim, al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Beirut: Mu’assasah al- Risalah, 1985), 146. 8. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari, 10: 165. 9. It is extremely important to mention here that Abu Zayd al- Balkhi (d. 322/934), in his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul) and al-Kindi’s Risalah fI al-HIlah li Daf` al-Ahzan (Epistle on Expedients to Relief Sufferings and Sorrows), reminded us that since man’s construction is from both his soul and his body, therefore, human existence cannot be healthy without this ishtibak. For this reason, al-Balkhi criticizes medical doctors who only concentrate on physical illness but neglect psychologi- cal aspects or mental illness of the patients. This is because, according to al-Balkhi, if the body gets sick the nafs loses much of its cognitive and comprehensive ability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of the life. If nafs gets sick, the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually deve- lop a physical illness. Hence, the psychological condition is considered as one of the main factors for physical health. Subsequently, when a man’s psyche becomes strong, the bodily nature is also strengthened, because the two coope- rate in repelling and overcoming diseases. (See, Al-Balkhi, Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul), 270-3. 10. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229. 11. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229. 12. Al-`Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 21: 229. 13. Sahih al-Bukari, Kitab al-Iman, Bab Fadl man Istabra’ li di- nihi. 14. Sahih al-Bukari, Kitab al-Riqaq, Bab al-Sihhah wa al-Fa- ragh wala `aysh illa `aysh al-Akhirah. 15. Ibn Hindu, Miftah al-Tibb wa Minhaj al-Tullab, ed. Mahdi Mohaghegh and M.T. Daneshpajuh (Tehran: Tehran Uni- versity, 1989), 25-29. 16. Abu Bakr Rabi’ b. Ahmad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari, Hidayat al-Muta‘allim (Meshed: Meshed University Press, 1965), 14. Cf. al-Ruhawi, Adab al-Tabib, ed. Marizan `Asiri (Ri- yadh: Markaz al-Malik Faysal li al-Buhuth wa al-Dirasat al- Islamiyyah, 1992), 208; Fazlur Rahman, Health and Medi- cine in the Islamic Tradition (New York: Rossroad Publis- hing Company, 1989; repr. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul Maje- ed & Co, 1993), 39 (page reference is to the reprint edition). 17. It would be interesting to mention in relation to this discus- sion that Ibn Jazlah (d. 493/1100) drew a parallel between the strength or health of the body and the supplies of the tra- veler. The wise person must prepare his supplies for trave- ling according to the distance intended, for if the supplies end before the destination is reached, the traveler perishes. However, if the supplies are sufficient for the entire journey, he is safe. This is parallel to the health of human being. If the body has sufficient strength, it will be able to overcome Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 13 JISHIM 2006, 5 an illness, however, if strength is not sufficient and the body weakens before the end of the illness, the person is in dan- ger and requires treatment together with the care of a physi- cian. See, Joseph Salvatore, Tabulated Compendium in the Eleventh Century as Represented in the Works of Ibn Jaz- lah, 55. 18. Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Jud- ham. 19. For details on infectious disease such as leprosy, cholera, thyphus in the Muslim world, see Aysegul Demirhan Erde- mir and Oztan Oncel, “Development of the Foundations of Quarantine in Turkey in the Nineteenth Century and its Pla- ce in the Public Health”, in Journal of the International So- ciety for the History of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 4 Oc- tober 2003, 42-44. 20. Other version of hadiths was mentioned by Ahmad b. Han- bal in his al-Musnad, al-Nasa’i in his Sunan and Ibn Majah. It was reported that: “Sa`id b. Khalid said: I went in to see Abu Salama. He brought us some butter and date pastry. A fly fell into the dish. Abu Salama began to submerge it (yamquluhu) with his finger. I said: “Uncle! what are you doing?” He said: “Truly, Abu Said al-Khudri (r.a) told me that the Messenger of Allah said: “In one of the fly’s tow wings there is poison and in another, its antidote. If it falls into food, submerge it in it; for it sends the poison first and keeps the cure last.” 21. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. 22. Possibilities for use of bacteriophages in disease control are discussed in the article “Smaller Fleas... Ad infinitum: The- rapeutic Bacteriophage Redux” in Proceedings of the Nati- onal Academy of Sciences of the United States of America [PNAS] Vol. 93 No. 8 (April 16, 1996), 3167-8. 23. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 307. 24. Malik Badri, The Aids Crisis: an Islamic Socio-Cultural Perspective (KL: ISTAC, 1998), 224. 25. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. 26. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. 27. Al-Qastalani, Irshad al-Sari, 5: 304-5. 28. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. 29. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab Shifa’ fi thalatha. 30. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449), Fath al-Bari fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari,13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`il- miyyah, 1989), 10: 170. 31. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171. 32. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21: 231. 33. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa bi al-Asal wa- qawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas. 34. It is described as frequent and excessive discharging of the bowels producing abnormally thin watery stools, usually as a symptom of gastro-intestinal upset or infection. 35. The disease of the lower intestine caused by infection with bacteria, protozoa or parasites and marked by severe diarr- hea, inflammation and passage of blood and mucus. 36. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal. 37. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal. 38. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 232. 39. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 233. 40. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 232. 41. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172. 42. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172. 43. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 186. 44. Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Hijamah min al-Da’. 45. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 187-8. 46. Al-Baghdadi, Kitab al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb, 1: 299. 47. In relation to this, it is worth to mention that the process of destroying tissue by heating or freezing it is known at the present as electrocautery. It is done by using a small tool which has an electric current running through it. So that it is able to cauterize or burn the tissue. Normally, this method of treatment, electrocautery, is a safe procedure and is routi- nely used in surgery to burn unwanted or harmful tissue. Sometime, a small electrode is applied to the skin near the surgery site. This is used to collect the electricity from the body and safely discharge it back to the machine. A groun- ding pad is placed on the person’s body (usually the thigh) before the surgery starts to protect the patient. Of course, it causes a patient in painful and menace compared to a gulp of honey and cupping. 48. In relation to this, al-Suyuti was of the opinion that the verb hasama (cut off, terminate) is the synonym of kawa (caute- rize). From this point of view, he explained that hasama al- damm anhu bi al-kayy means qata`a al-damm anhu bi al- kayy that is to stop blood from bleeding by cautery. (Ibn Ha- jar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170-1). 49. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab man iktawa aw kawa ghyrihi wa fadl man lam yaktawi. 50. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, bab al-shifa fi thalatha. 51. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170. 52. Ibid, 10: 170. 53. Ibid, 10: 170, Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sa- hih Bukhari, 21: 231. 54. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171; . 55. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21: 233. 56. Al-Qastalain, Irshad al-Sari, 12: 413, Ibn Hajar al-`Asqala- ni, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 14 JISHIM 2006, 5 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 1 Statistical Profile of Holy Quran and Symmetry of Makki and Madni Surras Muhammad Khyzer Bin Dost (Corresponding author) Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr. Munir Ahmad Rector, National College of Business Administration & Economics, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract In this paper, probabilistic approach has been made in the study of Makki, Madani and Mixed Suras of the Holy Quran. Using the word-size and word-length of Ayats, these Suras are categorized by word-length and a frequency distribution is obtained. The paper highlights the constructional characteristics of the two types of Suras in the Holy Quran. We have also discussed the dispersion and shapes of word-size and word-length of Makki and Madni Surras at other compositions of Surras as introduced by Quran Mufassirs and scientists. Keywords: Quran, Statistical profile, Frequency distribution of Ayats. 1. Introduction Muslims and non-Muslims have done tremendous work on various aspects of the Holy Quran in respect of its detailed Tafseers, its indexing counting of words, letters vowels number of occurrences of certain words, numerical wonders of Quranic texts including miracles. The Quran provides laws and regulations of living in a society, educating Muslims on relations with relatives, neighbors, friends and foes, working relations with others, management of jobs etc. It guides people on almost every human activity. It is full of knowledge. Quran is such a Holy book which has numerous purposes and objectives for different people. One may study the Holy book with specific questions in mind and will find answers during its reading. It has been noted by many Mufassirs that the Ayats and Suras are not arranged in chronological order but are placed at appropriate locations by the will of God and as such the chronological order is not important for the present study as compared to the placement of Ayats and Sura in the Quran. Al-Dargazelli (2004) had identified numerical pattern of the Holy Quran based on verses, he has only used basic descriptive statistics and computed frequency tables of verses. He has given number of verses for each Sura and identified the Suras by Makki and Madani. Al-Dargazelli. (2004) has also worked on Muntasir Mir groupings. In this paper, we have made an attempt to study various Suras, Manzils and Groups of Holy Quran statistically on the basis of lengths of words. The purpose is to find underlying statistical structures of Suras. The similarities and differences among Makki, Madani and other groupings of Suras in Quran are highlighted. It needs to point out that numerical study of Quran does not display the beauty of Quran. The beauty of Quran lies in the Ayat structure and their meanings. The beauty of Quran given in the Quran lies in the construction of Ayats and Surras. No earthly human being can produce a single Ayat or Surra even with the help of Jins. However it is possible for any one to induct any number of word(s) in to any document in any language of same size. For example letter “is” can be written in a couple of hundred times that are divisible by any other number say 7 or 9. One may count all “is” and if it is not divisible by 7 then some sentences can be added with letter “is” so it is divisible by 7. As such beauty of Surras does not lie in numbers but its beauty is in the Ayat and Surras meanings. We have also attempted to look at the symmetry of Makki and Madni surras by studying the Skewness and Kurtosis. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 2 Authors numerical miracle pointed out are given bellow. Table 1: Pair of Words in Quran Sr. # Pair of Words with Frequency 1. Muhammad (saw) 4 Sharee’ah 2. Eblees 11 Seek refuge from Eblees 3. Miss lead people 17 Dead people 4. Speaking publicly 18 Publicizing 5. Men 24 Women 6. Tongue 25 Sermon 7. Zakat 32 Barakah 8. Muslimeen 41 Jihad 9. Mind 49 Noor 10. Benefit 50 Corrupt 11. People 50 Messenger 12. Magic 60 Fitnah 13. Spending 73 Satisfaction 14. Museebah 75 Thanks 15. Al-Mala’ikah 88 Al-Shayateen 16. Hardship 114 Patience 17. Al-Dunya 115 Al-Akhira 18. Al-Hayat 145 Al-Mout (See Al-Suwaidan 2006). 2. Some Basic Statistics of Suras and Verses The Holy Quran is divided in to 30 Chapters (Paras) and each chapter is subdivided in to sections (Rukus) and each section is further divided into Ayats (Verses). There are a total of 114 Suras in Holy Quran. The Sura is identified as Makki and Madani Sura. The Suras, chapters and sections are sometimes overlapped. Sura and sections can be continued (run) over chapters, but Suras are complete units. Suras are subdivided into Ayats. The Suras and Ayats and their placements in the Quran are ordained by God. From these 114 Suras of Quran, 89 are Makki Suras and 25 are Madani Suras. Similarly there are 6236 Ayats of which 4725 Ayats are Makki and 1511 are Madani Ayats. The mean number of Ayats per Sura is calculated to be 51.72, whereas Makki Suras have a calculated mean of 41.87 and Madani Suras have the mean 82.56 showing that Madani Suras are larger than Makki Suras with respect to lengths of Ayats. The range of Madani Sura, Ayats size is also larger than Makki Suras which mean that the variation in Madani Suras are more than the Makki Suras (See Al- Dargazelli 2004). This fact has also been noted by many Mufassirs. The total number of letters in Holy Quran is 322,564 and total words are 86,872 showing the mean number of letters per word is 3.71. In Madani Suras the total number of letters is 124755 and the total number of words is 33,247 showing the mean number of letters per word is 3.75. In Makki Suras, the total number of letters is 197,809 and the number of words is 53,625 showing the mean is 3.69. Details are given in the Tables at Appendix A 2.1 Analysis of Verses Al-Dargezelli (2004) has discussed the basic statistics of verses, but he has made some unintentional mistakes in applications of the methods. In this section, various aspects of the verses are presented. This study shall hereafter refer verses as Ayats. The Ayat-size by words and Ayat-size by letters is calculated. This gives a comprehensive insight into the structure of Ayats. The Table 1 below exhibits the number of Ayats, words, letters and words per Ayat, letters per Ayat and letter per word. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 3 Table 2: Numbers of Ayats, words , letters and Ayat-size by word, Ayat-size by letters and word-size by letters of Makki and Madani Sura Suras No Ayats No. letters No words Ayat-size by letters Ayat-size by words Word-size words Makki 4725 197,809 53,625 41.87 11.34 3.69 Madani 1511 124,755 33,247 82.57 22.00 3.75 Total 6236 322,564 86,872 51.73 13.93 3.71 It is noted by all early authors that Madani Ayats are longer than the Makki Ayats. It is evident this characteristic by Ayat-sizes by letters and by words from the Table 1. Madani Ayats are almost twice as much as Makki Ayats both by letters and by the words. Similarly the Madani word size is also larger than Makki word. In fact the Madani Ayat size is larger than all Ayats in the Holy book. If we further examine the distribution of Suras over Ayat sizes by words, we find some interesting aspect of the Suras as shown in Table 2 below. We note that 58 of 89 Makki Suras have smaller Ayats of size 1 to 10 Ayats per Sura whereas 23 of 25 Madani Suras have larger Ayats of size 15 and above. This confirms early authors work that Madani Suras have longer Ayats than Makki Suras. One thing is different that the word sizes by letters are almost similar. Further, we may note that of 32 Suras of Ayat size 1to 5. Thirty one (31) Suras are Makki and only one Sura is Madani. On the other side of the Ayat size of 20 and above, of 17 Suras, 15 Suras are Madani and only 2 are Makki Suras. Table 3: Distribution of Suras by Ayat-size by words Ayat Size Makki Madani Total 1-5 31 1 32 5-10 27 27 10-15 11 1 12 15-20 18 8 26 20-25 2 12 14 25-30 - 3 3 31 and above Total 89 25 114 4. One-letter and Two-letter Words In this section a study of the words with one letters and two letters per word is conducted. In the Holy Quran, there are 9,398 words with one letter per word and 14,646 words with two letters per word. It shows that there are 10.82% of words with one letter and 16.96% words with two letters per word, showing that there are 27.78% words with two- and one - letters word. It may be noted that there are more than one fourth of words that have 1 and 2 letter- words in the Holy Quran. The distribution of 1and 2 letter -words of Makki and Madani Suras may be seen in the Table 3 below: Table 4: Word size by type of Suras Word size All Suras Makki Suras Madani Suras One 9,398 (10.82%) 5,558 (6.40%) 3840 (4.42%) Two 14,646 (16.96%) 9,286 (10.69%) 5,360 (6.27%) One & Two 24,044 (27.78%) 14,844 (17.09%) 9,200 (10.69%) Similarly, we may study the largest word sizes. Words containing 9 or 10 letters are the largest words. There are 23 words in all Suras that have 10 letters each, whereas there are 129 words with 9 letters each in the Holy Quran. Of all Suras, 46 Suras have 9 letter -words and 14 Suras have 10 letter -words. Of Makki Suras, 31 Suras have 9 letter- words and similarly of Madani Suras, only 15 Suras have 9 letter words and of Makki Suras, only 8 Suras have 10 letter-words and of Madani Suras only 6 Suras have 10 letter -words. The following Table 4 summarizes the information: Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 4 Table 5: Word sizes by Makki and Madani Suras Word Size Makki Madani Total Nine 31 15 46 Ten 8 6 14 Nine & Ten 39 21 60 It is important to see that Makki Suras have more number of 9 and 10 letter-words in the Holy Quran. If we look at the number of words with 9 or 10 letters, we note that there are 152 such words of which 129 words have 9 letters and 23 words have 10 letters. Of 9 letter-words, there are 76 words in Makki Suras and 53 in Madani Suras. Makki Suras have more number of 9 letter-words as compared to Madani Suras. Similarly, of 23 words of 10 letters, there are 13 in Makki Suras and 10 words are Madani. In 10 letters -words, Makki Suras have more 10 letter-words than Madani Suras. This may be seen from the Table 6: Table 6: Letter sizes by Makki and Madani Suras Letter Size Makki Madani Total Nine 76 53 129 Ten 13 10 23 Nine & Ten 89 63 152 Statistical tools can be used to understand the numerical beauty of the Holy Quran. This study has provided a basis for conducting further analysis of the Holy book on similar lines. The present study is still under progress and it is anticipated that further relationships will be identified from the data collected for the research. 5. Symmetry of Makki and Madni Surras. In order to study the Skewness and kurtosis of Makki and Madni Surras, we have constructed bivariate table of 1 and 2 -3 in tables 1 and 2 below. It is seen that Makki Surras are closer to symmetrical functional from than Madni Surras. There are 41/89 Makki Surras whose 1 and 2 lie between (-1 to +10 and (+2 to +4) respectively whereas 7/25 Madni Surras 1 and 2 lie in (-1 to +1) and (+2 to +4) respectively. Almost half of Makkii Surras have 1 (-1 to +1) and a little more than 50% Surras have 2 -3 in (-1 to +1) interval. For Madni Surras, only 8 Surras out of 25 have 1 in the interval (-1 to +1) and 10 out of 25 have 2 -3 in the interval (-1 to +10. Graphical representation of ( 1 , 2 -3) are given in Fig (1) and (2). Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 5 Table 7: Bivariate Table of Makki Surras B2 B1 -2 , - 1 -1 , - 0 0 , 1 1 , 2 2 , 3 3 , 4 4 , 5 5 , 6 6 , 7 Total (-4 to -3) 1 1 (-3 to -2) 1 1 (-2 to -1) 2 2 (-1 to -0) 3 19 22 (0 to 1) 2 1 17 3 23 (1 to 2) 1 2 8 11 (2 to 3) 6 6 (3 to 4) 1 6 7 (4 to 5) 2 2 (5 to 6) 2 1 3 (6 to 7) 1 2 3 (7 to 8) 1 1 (8 to 9) 1 1 (9 to 10) 1 1 (10 to 11) 2 2 (19 to 20) 1 1 (24 to 25) 1 1 (50 to 51) 1 1 Total 2 9 39 29 7 1 1 - 1 89 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 6 Table 8: Bivatiate Table of Madni Surras B2 B1 (-1 to -0) (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (2 to 3) Total (-4 to -3) (-3 to -2) (-2 to -1) 1 1 2 (-1 to -0) 1 3 4 (0 to 1) 1 2 1 4 (1 to 2) 1 4 5 (2 to 3) 1 1 (3 to 4) 3 3 (4 to 5) 2 1 3 (5 to 6) 1 1 (6 to 7) (10 to 11) 1 2 (11 to 12) 1 1 Total 3 7 11 3 25 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 7 Fig (1) Graphical representation of ( 1 , 2 -3) of Makki Surras Fig (2) Graphical representation of ( 1 , 2 -3) of Madni Surras Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 8 References 1. Al-Dargazelli,S. (2004). A Statistical Studies of Holy Quran. [Online] Available: http//www.quranicstudies.com/printout104.html 2. Al-Shalabi,R.G.,Kanaan,J.M., Jaam, A. H. and Hilat, E. ( 2004).Stop-word removal algorithm for Arabic language. Proceedings of 1 st International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies from theory to applications.( Damascus, Syria April, 2004) IEEE, France, 545-550 . 3. Al-Suwaindan, T. (2006). The numerical miracles in the Holy Quran. [Online] Available: http//islamicweb.com/beliefs/science/numbers.html. 4. Mir, M. (1999). Is the Quran a shapeless book. Renaissance, August, 1999. Naik A. Z. (2004). The Quran and the modern science: compatible or incompatible. Islamic Research Foundation. [Online] Available: www.Alya.org 5. Naji, A., Kanaan, M., Ghassan , N, K. Bani, M. and Basal, I. M. Statistical Classifier of the Holy QuranVerses ( Fateha and Yaseen chapters) Journal of Applied Science,15(3),580-583. 6. Rosty, Stefan (2007). A statistical analysis of the Holy Quran. [Online] Available: .http//pressthat.wordpress.com/2007/05/06/62truthbook. 7. Dost and Ahmed, (2007). A short note on the statistical analysis of Surra Baqra and Surra proceedings of 3 rd National conference on statistical sciences, Lahore, Pakistan. 8. Dost, Ahmed and Ahmed (2007). A Short note on the frequency distribution of Quran word length, proceedings of 9 th Islamic Countries Conference on Statistical Sciences, Kula Lumpur Malaysia. Appendix A1 Table A1: Some Basic Statistics on Holy Quran No of Sura No of Ayat No of Words No of Letters Mean letter per Word Mean word per Ayat S.D C.V 1 7 27 117 4.33 3.86 1.73 39.97 2 286 6860 25637 3.74 23.99 1.70 45.39 3 200 3934 14642 3.72 19.67 1.73 46.59 4 176 4228 15971 3.78 24.02 1.75 46.32 5 120 3163 11894 3.76 26.36 1.70 45.29 6 165 3440 12458 3.62 20.85 1.71 47.08 7 206 3694 14071 3.81 17.93 1.74 45.64 8 75 1436 5337 3.72 19.15 1.79 48.05 9 129 2846 10865 3.82 22.06 1.84 48.19 10 109 2018 7406 3.67 18.51 1.67 45.60 11 123 2127 7615 3.58 17.29 1.59 44.38 12 111 1956 7140 3.65 17.62 1.60 43.79 13 43 974 3461 3.55 22.65 1.63 45.87 14 52 929 3446 3.71 17.87 1.70 45.88 15 99 727 2809 3.86 7.34 1.85 47.87 16 128 2079 7655 3.68 16.24 1.74 47.20 17 111 1747 6491 3.72 15.74 1.70 45.73 18 110 1735 6407 3.69 15.77 1.60 43.39 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 9 19 98 1081 3828 3.54 11.03 1.58 44.55 20 135 1481 5292 3.57 10.97 1.56 43.67 21 112 1310 4904 3.74 11.70 1.76 47.02 22 78 1434 5161 3.60 18.38 1.64 45.64 23 118 1166 4372 3.75 9.88 1.74 46.44 24 64 1478 5596 3.79 23.09 1.76 46.46 25 77 1016 3721 3.66 13.19 1.66 45.41 26 227 1457 5498 3.77 6.42 1.82 48.16 27 93 1282 4683 3.65 13.78 1.68 45.89 28 88 1582 5802 3.67 17.98 1.66 45.21 29 69 1118 4188 3.75 16.20 1.78 47.52 30 60 918 3377 3.68 15.30 1.71 46.49 31 34 616 2118 3.44 18.12 1.55 45.02 32 30 409 1522 3.72 13.63 1.64 44.17 33 73 1501 5619 3.74 20.56 1.83 48.99 34 54 995 3512 3.53 18.43 1.65 46.87 35 45 872 3159 3.62 19.38 1.61 44.43 36 83 805 3002 3.73 9.70 1.72 46.01 37 182 954 3780 3.96 5.24 1.90 47.98 38 88 818 2993 3.65 9.30 1.69 46.36 39 75 1269 4731 3.73 16.92 1.64 43.94 40 85 1342 4986 3.72 15.79 1.64 44.05 41 54 896 3288 3.67 16.59 1.71 46.61 42 53 980 3422 3.40 18.49 1.44 42.22 43 89 941 3518 3.74 10.57 1.74 46.49 44 59 380 1437 3.78 6.44 1.70 44.86 45 37 552 1998 3.62 14.92 1.67 46.19 46 35 717 2610 3.64 20.49 1.66 45.74 47 38 615 2376 3.86 16.18 1.78 46.11 48 29 638 2463 3.86 22.00 1.81 46.93 49 18 386 1492 3.87 21.44 1.80 46.49 50 45 423 1475 3.49 9.40 1.56 44.84 51 60 395 1500 3.80 6.58 1.73 45.65 52 49 341 1290 3.78 6.96 1.74 45.96 53 62 407 1402 3.44 6.56 1.66 48.27 54 55 383 1442 3.77 6.96 1.62 43.08 55 78 383 1569 4.10 4.91 1.63 39.84 56 96 430 1696 3.94 4.48 1.90 48.23 57 29 670 2472 3.69 23.10 1.73 46.97 58 22 526 1993 3.79 23.91 1.69 44.55 59 24 499 1921 3.85 20.79 1.82 47.22 60 13 393 1531 3.90 30.23 1.86 47.86 61 14 244 942 3.86 17.43 1.74 45.00 62 11 194 743 3.83 17.64 1.66 43.24 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 10 63 11 201 782 3.89 18.27 1.85 47.52 64 18 287 1067 3.72 15.94 1.76 47.29 65 12 316 1173 3.71 26.33 1.58 42.52 66 12 283 1068 3.77 23.58 1.64 43.43 67 30 364 1315 3.61 12.13 1.52 42.17 68 52 327 1262 3.86 6.29 1.80 46.62 69 52 285 1114 3.91 5.48 1.73 44.20 70 44 240 943 3.93 5.45 1.74 44.29 71 28 264 950 3.60 9.43 1.73 48.02 72 28 320 1091 3.41 11.43 1.49 43.74 73 20 227 841 3.70 11.35 1.65 44.53 74 56 290 1012 3.49 5.18 1.62 46.55 75 40 180 665 3.69 4.50 1.58 42.64 76 31 278 1069 3.85 8.97 1.70 44.09 77 50 198 818 4.13 3.96 1.89 45.78 78 40 201 771 3.84 5.03 1.75 45.59 79 46 197 749 3.80 4.38 1.62 42.73 80 42 151 551 3.65 3.60 1.60 43.87 81 29 122 424 3.48 4.21 1.61 46.38 82 19 89 323 3.63 4.68 1.70 46.88 83 36 179 737 4.12 4.97 1.85 44.80 84 25 123 436 3.54 4.92 1.51 42.62 85 22 124 455 3.67 5.64 1.78 48.49 86 17 70 240 3.43 4.12 1.59 46.47 87 19 82 291 3.55 4.32 1.54 43.42 88 26 102 386 3.78 3.92 1.52 40.16 89 30 154 569 3.69 5.13 1.68 45.41 90 20 92 334 3.63 4.60 1.71 47.22 91 15 69 234 3.39 4.60 1.71 50.37 92 21 89 310 3.48 4.24 1.84 52.85 93 11 50 167 3.34 4.55 1.48 44.29 94 8 29 101 3.48 3.63 1.21 34.85 95 8 37 151 4.08 4.63 1.52 37.15 96 19 76 284 3.74 4.00 1.53 40.85 97 5 32 110 3.44 6.40 1.39 40.43 98 8 103 392 3.81 12.88 1.65 43.23 99 8 38 157 4.13 4.75 1.70 41.03 100 11 44 164 3.73 4.00 1.74 46.78 101 11 38 156 4.11 3.45 1.97 47.98 102 8 28 92 4.29 3.50 1.72 40.09 103 3 18 59 3.83 6.00 1.98 51.60 104 9 35 134 3.83 3.89 1.52 39.81 105 5 24 96 4.00 4.80 1.44 36.12 106 4 18 71 4.00 4.50 1.71 42.87 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 11 107 7 27 112 4.15 3.86 1.79 43.18 108 3 11 42 3.82 3.67 1.78 46.58 109 6 30 96 3.20 5.00 1.61 50.19 110 3 22 79 3.59 7.33 1.59 44.37 111 5 27 81 3.00 5.40 1.21 40.30 112 4 17 48 2.82 4.25 1.13 40.06 113 5 26 70 2.69 5.20 1.19 44.28 114 6 21 76 3.62 3.50 1.47 40.49 6236 86872 322564 3.71 13.94 Appendix A2 Table A2: Number of Ayats, Words, Letters Means and Standard deviations of Makki Surras No of Sura No of Ayat No of Words No of words per Ayat (mean) No of Letters Mean Letter per word S.D C.V 1 7 27 3.857 117 4.33 1.7321 39.97040325 6 165 3440 20.848 12458 3.62 1.7052 47.08437743 7 206 3694 17.932 14071 3.81 1.7386 45.64172519 10 109 2018 18.514 7406 3.67 1.6734 45.59734397 11 123 2127 17.293 7615 3.58 1.5890 44.38390941 12 111 1956 17.622 7140 3.65 1.5984 43.78816401 14 52 929 17.865 3446 3.71 1.7018 45.87784334 15 99 727 7.343 2809 3.86 1.8495 47.86830694 16 128 2079 16.242 7655 3.68 1.7380 47.20163901 17 111 1747 15.739 6491 3.72 1.6989 45.72541167 18 110 1735 15.773 6407 3.69 1.6022 43.38720631 19 98 1081 11.031 3828 3.54 1.5777 44.55436875 20 135 1481 10.970 5292 3.57 1.5606 43.67318853 21 112 1310 11.696 4904 3.74 1.7586 47.02479789 23 118 1166 9.881 4372 3.75 1.7414 46.44292425 25 77 1016 13.195 3721 3.66 1.6625 45.40723076 26 227 1457 6.419 5498 3.77 1.8174 48.16295654 27 93 1282 13.785 4683 3.65 1.6761 45.89477858 28 88 1582 17.977 5802 3.67 1.6582 45.21298016 29 69 1118 16.203 4188 3.75 1.7802 47.52273163 30 60 918 15.300 3377 3.68 1.7103 46.49140331 31 34 616 18.118 2118 3.44 1.5480 45.02101002 32 30 409 13.633 1522 3.72 1.6436 44.16860578 34 54 995 18.426 3512 3.53 1.6542 46.86513625 35 45 872 19.378 3159 3.62 1.6097 44.43355825 36 83 805 9.699 3002 3.73 1.7158 46.0100804 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 12 37 182 954 5.242 3780 3.96 1.9012 47.98241912 38 88 818 9.295 2993 3.65 1.6918 46.3605376 39 75 1269 16.920 4731 3.73 1.6383 43.94334833 40 85 1342 15.788 4986 3.72 1.6365 44.04630744 41 54 896 16.593 3288 3.67 1.7104 46.60873084 42 53 980 18.491 3422 3.40 1.4355 42.22003309 43 89 941 10.573 3518 3.74 1.7381 46.49061636 44 59 380 6.441 1437 3.78 1.6966 44.86358062 45 37 552 14.919 1998 3.62 1.6719 46.18952338 46 35 717 20.486 2610 3.64 1.6629 45.73548519 50 45 423 9.400 1475 3.49 1.5636 44.83986629 51 60 395 6.583 1500 3.80 1.7334 45.64533818 52 49 341 6.959 1290 3.78 1.7388 45.96310698 53 62 407 6.565 1402 3.44 1.6628 48.27004925 54 55 383 6.964 1442 3.77 1.6219 43.07771954 55 78 383 4.910 1569 4.10 1.6320 39.8378119 56 96 430 4.479 1696 3.94 1.9024 48.23388116 67 30 364 12.133 1315 3.61 1.5234 42.16739998 68 52 327 6.288 1262 3.86 1.7994 46.6245543 69 52 285 5.481 1114 3.91 1.7276 44.19805565 70 44 240 5.455 943 3.93 1.7402 44.29030162 71 28 264 9.429 950 3.60 1.7281 48.02405051 72 28 320 11.429 1091 3.41 1.4912 43.73880053 73 20 227 11.350 841 3.70 1.6499 44.53408284 74 56 290 5.179 1012 3.49 1.6243 46.54570897 75 40 180 4.500 665 3.69 1.5753 42.63938239 76 31 278 8.968 1069 3.85 1.6956 44.09393973 77 50 198 3.960 818 4.13 1.8912 45.77683209 78 40 201 5.025 771 3.84 1.7487 45.58836962 79 46 197 4.378 749 3.80 1.6246 42.72862086 80 42 151 3.595 551 3.65 1.6008 43.87023007 81 29 122 4.207 424 3.48 1.6120 46.38319629 82 19 89 4.684 323 3.63 1.7015 46.88298079 83 36 179 4.972 737 4.12 1.8471 44.80091771 84 25 123 4.920 436 3.54 1.5109 42.62402679 85 22 124 5.636 455 3.67 1.7794 48.49310465 86 17 70 4.118 240 3.43 1.5932 46.46848013 87 19 82 4.316 291 3.55 1.5408 43.41836891 88 26 102 3.923 386 3.78 1.5197 40.15758339 89 30 154 5.133 569 3.69 1.6777 45.40753346 90 20 92 4.600 334 3.63 1.7143 47.22039437 91 15 69 4.600 234 3.39 1.7083 50.37182395 92 21 89 4.238 310 3.48 1.8409 52.85167988 93 11 50 4.545 167 3.34 1.4792 44.28874711 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 13 94 8 29 3.625 101 3.48 1.2136 34.84690403 95 8 37 4.625 151 4.08 1.5162 37.15140627 96 19 76 4.000 284 3.74 1.5264 40.8466893 97 5 32 6.400 110 3.44 1.3898 40.42957811 100 11 44 4.000 164 3.73 1.7436 46.77972895 101 11 38 3.455 156 4.11 1.9699 47.98478119 102 8 28 3.500 92 4.29 1.7182 40.09248567 103 3 18 6.000 59 3.83 1.9778 51.59525656 104 9 35 3.889 134 3.83 1.5240 39.80693912 105 5 24 4.800 96 4.00 1.4446 36.11575593 106 4 18 4.500 71 4.00 1.7150 42.87464629 107 7 27 3.857 112 4.15 1.7911 43.17788631 108 3 11 3.667 42 3.82 1.7787 46.58398896 109 6 30 5.000 96 3.20 1.6060 50.18822331 110 3 22 7.333 79 3.59 1.5934 44.37349207 111 5 27 5.400 81 3.00 1.2089 40.29803499 112 4 17 4.250 48 2.82 1.1311 40.06017609 113 5 26 5.200 70 2.69 1.1923 44.28479262 114 6 21 3.500 76 3.62 1.4655 40.49340769 Total 4725 53625 11.34 197809 3.69 Appendix A3 Table A3: Numbers of Ayats, word, letters and Means and Standard deviations of Madani Suras No of Sura No of Ayat Average No of words No of Words No of Letters Mean Letter per word S.D C.V 2 286 23.99 6860 25637 3.74 1.6984 45.388402 3 200 19.67 3934 14642 3.72 1.7342 46.593296 4 176 24.02 4228 15971 3.78 1.7498 46.321240 5 120 26.36 3163 11894 3.76 1.7030 45.288010 8 75 19.15 1436 5337 3.72 1.7857 48.046026 9 129 22.06 2846 10865 3.82 1.8396 48.188129 13 43 22.65 974 3461 3.55 1.6299 45.867810 22 78 18.38 1434 5161 3.60 1.6426 45.640223 24 64 23.09 1478 5596 3.79 1.7591 46.460663 33 73 20.56 1501 5619 3.74 1.8338 48.986261 47 38 16.18 615 2376 3.86 1.7814 46.110272 48 29 22.00 638 2463 3.86 1.8116 46.926744 49 18 21.44 386 1492 3.87 1.7968 46.486064 57 29 23.10 670 2472 3.69 1.7331 46.973116 58 22 23.91 526 1993 3.79 1.6878 44.545418 59 24 20.79 499 1921 3.85 1.8179 47.221248 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 14 60 13 30.23 393 1531 3.90 1.8645 47.860591 61 14 17.43 244 942 3.86 1.7371 44.995125 62 11 17.64 194 743 3.83 1.6562 43.243489 63 11 18.27 201 782 3.89 1.8488 47.519603 64 18 15.94 287 1067 3.72 1.7582 47.292778 65 12 26.33 316 1173 3.71 1.5784 42.521807 66 12 23.58 283 1068 3.77 1.6390 43.429971 98 8 12.88 103 392 3.81 1.6453 43.231196 99 8 4.75 38 157 4.13 1.6953 41.033230 Total 1511 22.00 33247 124755 3.75 Appendix A4 Table A4: Words per Ayat, Standard deviations, coefficient of variation, 1 and 2 of Makki Suras Surra Nu Mean S.D C.V 1 2 1 3.8571 1.3452 34.8752 0.3521 -0.3025 6 20.8485 10.0745 48.3224 1.1287 0.9412 7 17.9320 10.2088 56.9305 1.1022 0.8326 10 18.5138 8.7174 47.0860 1.1311 1.6758 11 17.2927 7.2697 42.0390 0.8681 0.9757 12 17.6216 8.5089 48.2866 1.1200 1.6606 14 17.8654 9.0338 50.5658 1.2986 1.9168 15 7.3434 2.9903 40.7211 1.2047 2.0264 16 16.2422 6.6649 41.0346 0.6599 0.0853 17 15.7387 5.4784 34.8084 0.7691 0.2582 18 15.7727 8.2946 52.5885 1.1344 1.0126 19 11.0306 4.8065 43.5739 1.6976 6.3581 20 10.9704 6.4112 58.4411 1.1033 1.6856 21 11.6964 4.2614 36.4331 0.8014 0.1119 23 9.8814 5.3576 54.2192 2.0102 5.4461 25 13.1948 4.8802 36.9861 0.8215 0.7136 26 6.4185 2.8959 45.1174 2.0730 8.2165 27 13.7957 5.9720 43.2886 1.5954 4.3431 28 17.9773 7.0335 39.1246 0.4098 0.4132 29 16.2029 6.9379 42.8190 0.5075 0.1911 30 15.3000 7.0140 45.8433 0.5617 0.4573 31 18.1176 9.0110 49.7360 0.1307 -0.6546 32 13.6333 5.5490 40.7021 0.0624 0.2823 34 18.4259 8.0578 43.7309 0.9510 0.2347 35 19.3778 9.3597 48.3012 0.3109 -0.5623 36 9.6988 3.9346 40.5683 0.6578 1.7916 37 5.2418 2.4420 46.5873 3.7596 24.3203 38 9.2955 5.4734 58.8821 2.7161 10.5436 39 16.9200 8.5531 50.5503 0.9494 0.2602 40 15.7882 7.6222 48.2775 1.1191 1.5642 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 15 41 16.5926 7.7155 46.4997 0.5530 0.3464 42 18.4906 8.7346 47.2381 0.6613 1.0348 43 10.5730 4.5524 43.0571 1.0765 1.6419 44 6.4407 2.5139 39.0316 0.3284 -0.0663 45 14.9189 5.9971 40.1981 0.0392 -0.0108 46 20.4857 9.7268 47.4808 1.1082 3.1948 50 9.4000 3.3056 35.1664 0.5940 -0.0068 51 6.5833 2.5465 38.6804 0.1992 -0.3076 52 6.9592 3.2975 47.3830 1.9857 7.9494 53 6.5645 5.8467 89.0657 2.9370 9.0645 54 6.9636 1.9623 28.1788 0.2357 -0.6898 55 4.9103 2.4345 49.5804 2.4349 10.2465 56 4.4792 1.9028 42.4809 1.4652 3.5912 67 12.1333 3.3086 27.2690 0.1682 -0.3965 68 6.2885 3.1644 50.3202 0.8752 -0.0781 69 5.4808 2.7260 49.7373 1.7100 5.2672 70 5.4545 2.3373 42.8506 0.8387 0.1044 71 9.4286 5.0216 53.2599 0.8140 -0.5563 72 11.4286 2.8078 24.5680 0.5084 0.7915 73 11.3500 18.8882 166.4163 4.3614 19.3145 74 5.1786 8.7430 168.8306 6.9975 50.8998 75 4.5000 1.0622 23.6038 0.4730 -0.0615 76 8.9677 2.3019 25.6691 0.4977 1.9482 77 3.9600 1.5513 39.1742 1.2309 1.1386 78 5.0250 3.1743 63.1705 2.4366 6.2089 79 4.2826 1.7469 40.7908 1.4012 3.6262 80 3.5952 0.9642 26.8195 0.2306 -0.2447 81 4.2069 1.3464 32.0047 1.5754 4.9456 82 4.6842 1.7655 37.6903 1.4189 3.5451 83 4.9722 1.8281 36.7669 -0.1349 -0.8902 84 4.9200 1.7059 34.6722 1.2844 2.0737 85 5.6364 3.9345 69.8062 1.8212 2.2384 86 4.1176 1.2690 30.8179 0.7931 0.5957 87 4.3158 1.7014 39.4225 2.3959 6.7502 88 3.9231 1.2304 31.3627 0.7153 0.2905 89 5.1333 2.4738 48.1903 1.4910 2.2507 90 4.6000 1.9574 42.5531 1.8919 5.3072 91 4.6000 1.3522 29.3967 1.4559 2.1770 92 4.2381 1.8413 43.4470 0.8346 -0.1709 93 4.5455 1.1282 24.8193 -0.9033 1.6575 94 3.6250 0.5175 14.2772 -0.6441 -2.2400 95 4.6250 2.4458 52.8831 1.7514 3.6586 96 4.0000 1.3333 33.3333 0.4715 -0.1355 97 6.4000 2.0736 32.4007 1.9178 3.8778 100 4.0000 1.5492 38.7298 0.3945 -0.3472 101 3.4545 1.4397 41.6754 -0.5037 -1.2992 102 3.5000 1.1952 34.1494 0.0000 -1.4560 103 6.0000 5.2915 88.1917 1.4579 0.0000 104 3.8889 0.7817 20.1018 0.2160 -1.0413 105 4.8000 1.4832 30.9008 0.5516 0.8678 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 16 106 4.5000 2.5166 55.9247 1.1293 2.2271 107 3.8571 1.3452 34.8752 0.3521 -0.3025 108 3.6667 0.5774 15.7459 -1.7321 0.0000 109 5.0000 1.2649 25.2982 -0.8894 -0.7813 110 7.3333 1.1547 15.7459 -1.7321 0.0000 111 5.4000 1.5166 28.0847 1.7488 3.7240 112 4.2500 1.7078 40.1841 -0.7528 0.3429 113 5.2000 1.0954 21.0663 -0.6086 -3.3333 114 3.5000 1.2247 34.9927 -0.4899 -1.4667 Appendix A5 Table A5: Words per Ayat, Standard deviations, coefficient of variation, 1 and 2 of Madni Suras Surra Nu Mean S.D C.V 1 2 2 23.9860 15.8920 66.2551 2.5585 11.6524 3 19.6700 10.4252 53.0004 1.5947 4.9094 4 24.0227 13.9644 58.1301 1.8183 4.4431 5 26.3583 14.4768 54.9229 1.5203 2.1470 8 19.1467 8.9980 46.9953 1.5551 3.8307 9 22.0620 8.6112 39.0317 1.3919 3.0790 13 22.6512 11.0602 48.8284 0.9821 0.8574 22 18.3846 11.0445 60.0744 2.6115 10.2816 24 23.0938 15.2114 65.8682 2.1938 5.6098 33 20.5616 13.1667 64.0350 2.2272 6.2748 47 16.1842 9.9807 61.6692 1.7010 3.3044 48 22.0000 12.2066 55.4843 1.0646 1.7415 49 21.4444 9.7873 45.6402 0.6688 -0.3351 57 23.1034 10.7349 46.4647 0.9906 0.0858 58 23.9091 12.8356 53.6851 1.2881 1.3909 59 20.7917 9.9301 47.7600 1.3347 1.0169 60 30.2308 18.0100 59.5750 0.9731 -0.8729 61 17.4286 8.6799 49.8027 1.1684 0.4961 62 17.6364 5.8185 32.9913 0.0074 -1.6668 63 18.2727 4.6710 25.5627 -0.3331 -1.1517 64 15.9444 5.5357 34.7186 0.6584 1.2152 65 26.3333 10.7478 40.8144 0.1544 -0.5745 66 23.5833 10.3261 43.7857 1.0770 1.6588 98 12.8750 6.5995 51.2584 -0.0800 -0.9937 99 4.7500 1.1650 24.5256 -0.0904 -1.6133 Teachings and Reflections of Qur'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management ABDUL RASHID SHAIKH * ABSTRACT This paper discusses some of the teachings and reflections from Qur'an and Sunnah about science, engineering, technology, and management. Qur'an and Sunnah provide complete guidance about every thing, and invite mankind for observation, thinking, understanding the creation, and acquiring the knowledge. Some Ayat and Ahadith which mention some basic tools and techniques and some related to modern theories and trends are also quoted. As a result of new spirit of inquiry and struggle, the Muslim scientists developed the method of controlled experiment and other techniques which form the basis of modern science, engineering and technology. They also wrote a good number of highly valuable books. That knowledge was transferred to Europe, where it was advanced further, but without guidance of Qur'an and Sunnah. This resulted in certain material benefits but gave rise to adverse effects related to belief and moral aspects. In order to safeguard these aspects, an important aspect of Tawheed is presented which explains the reality of cause and effect phenomena. All science rests on the idea that similar events occur in similar circumstances. The scientific facts are verifiable, reproducible and communicable. A scientist is basically interested to study the natural systems and phenomena in order to know certain aspects about the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta 'aia about His creation. The engineering and technology mainly deal with designing, manufacturing/ constructing, using/operating and maintaining machines, systems, structures, processes etc. for the benefit of mankind. This is accomplished by applying scientific and empirical knowledge and techniques to the materials and forces created by Allah subhanahu wa [a 'a/a. Management deals with planning, execution and control in order to achieve desired objectives. Qur 'an is a Book for the guidance of all mankind in every walk of life, including as to how the man should seek empirical knowledge, what method must he use and what procedure he should follow. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala says "For you we have revealed the Book which manifests the facts about all things, a guide, a blessing and a good news to those who submit to Allah" [Surah 16:89]. The Sunnah is the explanation and implementation of Qur'an by Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam. Qur'an emphasizes to follow sunnah by saying "And whatsoever the Prophet gives you, take it; And whatsoever he forbids, abstain (from it)" [Surah 59:7]. 2. IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY IN THE LIGHT OF QUR'AN AND SUNNAH Qur'an has mentioned various aspects of natural systems and phenomena. They include animals, birds, plants, crops, Earth, Sun, Moon, stars, minerals, day & night, raining etc. The Qur'an has also given indications about many technologies directly. These include, iron, armour, metallurgy, mi ni ng, woodworking, ship bui ldi ng, transportation, communication, wind power, glass, agriculture, grain storage, textile, lighting system, aerial and space travel, etc. In one Hadith it is said "Try to get your earnings from the hidden treasures of the Earth ", an indication to advance and develop agriculture, mineralogy, mining and other related fields. *Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE, 2000 1. INTRODUCTION Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management It is evident from the history that the progressive attitude was adopted and encouraged by the Prophet sallaltaho alaihe wasallum [1,2,3]. For the first time the Arabs saw a deep trench in Ghazwah Ah 'zab. Hazrat Salman Farsee gave the suggestion and the trench was demarcated, designed and dug under the direct guidance of the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum. For learning and importing the technology of armoured cars and mobile weapons called Manjnek, Dababa and Zaboor, the Prophet sallallaho allaihe wasallum sent Sahabah to Syria. That technology, perhaps the latest at that time, was used in Ghazwah Ta'if'[1,2,3]. It may be noted that Syria was not Muslim state at that time. Therefore technology could be transferred from any suitable country. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala orders the Muslims in Qur'an "Against them make your strength ready to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike tenor into (the hearts of) the enemies of Allah, your own enemies and others whom ye may not know, but whom Allah doth know" [Surah 8:60]. In one Hadith, it is said "And equip your selves against them (the enemies) with as much force as you can. Behold! power lies in hitting the target, Behold! power lies in hitting the target, Behold! power lies in hitting the target". [Al-Hadith: Muslim]. In the above verse and the Hadith we are strictly ordered to develop a well defined level of military power, specially the systems capable to destroy the enemy targets. Such development surely needs appropriate advancement in many fields including science, engineering, technology and management. It means Qur'an and Sunnah teach us to make advancement in these fields. 3, DEVLOPMENTOFSPmrrABOUTOBSERVAnON, THINKING, UNDERSTANDING CREATION, AND ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE There are over 500 references in the Holy Qur'an that invite man to Tanadhur (observation), Tadahbur (deliberation), Tazakkur (recollection), Tafakkur (consideration, thinking), Tabassur (understanding, reflection) and Ta'aqqul (rationalization) on the natural phenomena and creation [4]. One of the constant prayers of the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum was "My Lord, show me the nature of things as they are". The observable aspect of reality is emphasized by Qur'an in several verses throughout the book [5 - 8], One of the verses is as follows: " Assuredly in the creation of Heavens and the Earth; and in the alteration of night and day; and in the ships which pass through the sea for the profit of mankind; and in the rain which Allah sends down from the skies, giving life to the Earth after its death, and scattering over it all kinds of cattle; and in the change of the winds and in the clouds that are made to do service between the heavens and the Earth, are signs for those who understand" [Surah2:164]. At other places Qur'an says: "Do you not see, that Allah has subjugated everything in the Heaven and in the Earth to you " [Surah 31:20]; "// is He, Who has created for you all things that are in the Earth " [Surah 2:29]; "Travel on Earth and see how He originated creation" [Surah 29:20]. The very first Qur'anic verses revealed to the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam contained the information about "reading and writing" [Surah 96:1,4]. Qur'an andSunnah emphasize on acquiring knowledge and teach us the prayer "My lord! Grant me increase in knowledge" [Surah 20:114], In Hadith it is said "The word of wisdom is the lost property of the believer; so wherever he finds it, he has a better claim on it" [Tirmidhi ]. In one Hadith it is said that query is the solution to ignorance [Sunan Abu Dawud ]. 4. GUIDANCE ABOUT BASIC CONSIDERATIONS, TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES Qur'an says that weights and meaures be kept in perfect condition (well calibrated)[Surah 17:35] and measurements be made correctly [Surah 55:9]. Emphasis on considerations for timings is also laid. At one place Qur'an says " They are but signs to mark fixed periods of time or mankind" [Surah 2:89]. At another place Qur'an says "Prayers are enjoined on believers at stated timings 1L [Surah 4:103]. Qur'an also gives importance and orders for documentation by saying " O ye who believe ! when ye deal with each other, in transanction involvingfuture obligations in a fixed period of lime, reduce them to writing " [Surah 2:282]. Overall importance of written and physical standards is also indicated [Surah 57:25]. Qur'an stresses on careful observation and research by saying "Then turn your eyes again and again" [Surah 67:4]. Qur'an also exhorts to verify the news (information) when reported by dissolute person [Surah 49:6]. At one place Qur'an suggests to use "Analogy" and study the related situation by saying "So learn a lesson (through Analogy), O ye with eyes (to s e e ) " [Surah 59:2], Determination for direction of Ka'ba and calculations of Inheritance and of Zakat require certain depth of mathematics. At another place Qur'an says "Man should QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY, VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE, 2000 not follow that whereof he has no knowledge" [Surah 17:36]. In one Hadith, it is said "Jffe seek refuge from that knowledge which carries no utility " [Sunnan Ibne Ma/ah]. Economy is very much stressed and unnecessary expenditure and wastage is prohibited. Qur'an says " Eat and drink, but waste not by excess " [Surah 7:31].Taking care of safety and security measures, doing jobs in a nice and preferred way, and giving importance to aesthetic aspects are also included in the teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah. Allah ^ubhanahu wa ta 'ala says "On no soul does Allah place a burden greater than it can hear [Surah 2:286].This Ayah guides us for, assigning the jobs appropriately(both in quantity and quality) to employees according to their capabilities(physical,mental etc. ), and also loading other things (animals, machines, structures etc.) as per their specifications/capabilities.These are important considerations for modern engineering design and manufacturing. The long travel and performance of Haj, need sufficient planning, discipline, team-work spirit. The Holy Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum said "Any one who treats a patient without being in possession of the experience would be responsible for the loss suffered by the patients" [Abudaud and Nasai]. Qur'an says: O you who believe! Fulfil your undertakings ( and promises) [Surah 5:1]. To conduct affairs by mutual consultations; to be on safe side and be away from doubtful acts; are taught in Qur'an and Sunnah. Qur'an also indicates two main aspects to be assessed in the candidate for staffing/ recruitment: "-Potential for t he rel at ed job" and "Trustworthiness" [Surah 28:26]. Much emphasis is laid on taking proper care of subordinates; making payments to labour in time; and also for contributing to human welfare in general and taking care of subordinates and labour in particular. Also a believer is supposed neither to deceive others nor get deceived from others. These considerations along with few more quoted above are very much needed for the purpose of management. In a Hadith it said that pl anni ng and management is the highest level of intelligence. 5. TEACHINGS ABOUT HEALTH CARE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Islam has laid great stress on personal hygiene, frequent bathing, brushing the teeth, ablution before the prayers five times a day, also clean clothes an* hair and even use of perfumes. Circumcision as part of personal hygiene is compulsory for the Muslims [9]. Considering the precautionary measures regarding health, Qur'an allows the postponement of compulsory fasting of Ramadhan for those who are ill or on journey [Surah 2:185]. A physician after staying for six months in Madina reported to the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam that during the period of his stay, no patient visited him. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam told him, "We are the people who eat when we are hungry and we withdraw when we still have some appetite ". The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam said "For every ailment, there is a treatment" [Bukhari and Muslim], Once the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam instructed the Sahabah to consult two physicians for a patient, thus recommended a medical board [2]. In Madina, some lady physicians also treated the lady patients [9]. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum advised the Muslims not to visit a country where a pestilence is raging, but also, not to flee from it if they find themselves there [Bukhari and Muslim]. In Islam, pork, intoxicants, adultery are strictly prohibited and smoking is also disliked. This is all in agreement with modem medical theories also. In one Hadith, it is said that "By Allah, in whose Hand is my life, the bondman (of Allah) does not become a believer unless he likes far his brother what he likes for himself [Bukhari and Muslim]. In another Hadith, it is said that removing a hurdle from the path, is one of the branches of faith. In one Hadith, a place with smoke has been given analogy with bad society. Tree plantation, pollution free water, cleanliness of public places etc. have also been stressed upon in Sunnah. Such teachings educate for setting up an ideal society including solutions to environmental issues. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE, 2000 Abdul Rashid Shaikh Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management 6. SOME EXAMPLES OF CORRELATION BETWEEN AYATAND AHADITH RELATED TO MODERN THEORIES, FINDINGS AND TRENDS Qur' an says " Soon we will show them signs in the (furthest) regions (of the Earth), and in their own souls, until it becomes manifested to them that this is the fact." [Surah 41:53]. In this verse it is told that from time to time, right up to the last day, novel signs and blessings of Allah subhanahu wata'ala, will continue to appear [3]. In one paper, references are given to 1274 Ayat (verses) concerning various branches of science, engineering and technology [10]. Dr. Haluk Nurbaki in his book, Verses from the Holy Qur'an and the Facts of Science, has discussed 50 major topics mainly related to contemporary sciences [11]. Under one of the topics he has quoted the verse "O Believers, guard yourselves and your families from afire whose fuel is men and stones" [Surah 66:6]. Then he has pointed out that in modern coal fired power stations the stone is generally burnt along with fuel. Qur'an says "You should not commit adultery, for it is shameful (deed) and an evil, opening the way (to other evils)" [Surah 17:32].The physician will interpret this Ayah from the point of prvention of many sexual diseases such as AIDS. But from socialogy point of view, it will be looked as a form of low morality leadindtothe collapse of society. Qur'an says "He maketh their breast close and constricted as if they rad to climb up to skies "[Surah 6:125J. In this Ayah there is indirect mentioning that low oxygen and decrease of atmospheric pressure in high altitudes causes breath problem [ 10 ]. At another place Qur'an says "Those who reject our signs, we shall soon cast into the fire: As often as their skins are roasted through, we shall change them for fresh skins, that they may taste the penalty [Surah 4:56]. It may be noted that if skin is roasted, it becomes insensitive to temperature. On the basis of a research work done at an observatory in USA, one author [ 12] has written about a recent discovery of comets of ice descending to Earth from the Heavens, which is in accordance with the Quranic Verses [Surah 2:22, 24:43], The truthfulness of Quranic Verses [Surah 76:2; 22:5; 23:13,14] which mention the various human embryo development stages have been observed by various eminent embryologists of the present age [13]. Qur'an says "Then Allah sent a raven (crow), who scratched the ground to show him how to hide the dead body of his brother " [Surah 5:31], This shows that one can learn something useful from the study of birds and animals (Zoology). In Surah Yusuf, a method is mentioned for preservation of grain [Surah 12:47]. This method was tested in an Agriculture University and has been reported to be quite successful even today [14]. Some Ayat of Qur'an do mention IF THEN statements, similar to those of modern expert systems. For example, Qur'an says: IF his shirt is torn from the back, THEN she is the liar [Surah 12:47]. The Qur'an says "And (He has created) horses, mules and donkeys, for you to ride and use for show, and has created other things of which ye have no knowledge" [Surah 16:8]. In this sentence Qur'an has foretold all types of transportation-means upto last day [3]. Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam also taught complicated phenomena with the help of graphical models drawn by him. 7. CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS TO SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY It has been found that the followers of Islam devoted themselves whole-heartedly to the acquisition of knowledge. Soon after the advent of Islam, the Muslims achieved leadership of the civilized world as much in learning and scholarship as in the political and military powers. On the basis of internal and direct evidence, Dr. Muhammad Raziuddin Siddiqui, has established the fact that the Method of Controlled Experiment was evolved by some Muslim scientists [5]. This method is the essence of modern scientific investigation and discovery. In support of his claim he has mentioned the scientific works of many Musl i m schol ars related In t he fi el ds of Mathematics, Astronomy. Chemistry. Ri ol ot i y and Medi ci ne. The intellectual world can not forget the unique contribution to sci ent i fi c creativity of s uch l oweri ng personalities like Jabir Ibn Hayyan, Zakariya Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Haitham, Al-Bairuni, IbnSina, Al-Kindi, Al-Khawarzmi, Al-Jazari, Al-Farabi and many others. Western historians also recognize now the Islamic origin of scientific methods. Robert Briffault in his book, Making of Humanity, Sir Oliver Lodge in his book, Pioneers of Science, and George Sarton in his encyclopedic work, Introduction to the History of Science, give ample testimony to this fact [5]. Donald R. Hill in his recent book, Islamic Science and Engineering, has written a complete chapter titled as, Transmission of Islamic Knowledge to Europe [15]. An English Professorof History of Technology writes: "Europe began to import inventions, directly from Arab nations at those points in Spain and Italy where Europe and the Islamic world met. Many familiar mathematical and geometrical terms algebra, algorithm, zero, nadir, etc. are Arabic in origin" [16]. .* QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1, NO, 1, JANUARY-JUNE 2000 Two American authors of a book, write: "New Universities arose in Basra, Kufa, Cairo, Toledo and Cordoba. The Library of Cordoba ( Kurtaba of Muslim Spain ) in 900 (A.D) contained no less than 600,000 books, its catalog was published in 44 volumes. This is astonishing in view of the fact that the library of French king in 1300 (A.D) consisted of slightly more than 400 titles. Really there is nothing astonishing about it at all. Western Europe was barbarous. Islam and the Eastern Roman empire constituted all that was civilized' 1 [17]. 8. IMPORTANT POINT OF TAWHEED TO EXPLAIN CAUSE AND EFFECT PHENOMENA Quran says ""Listen carefully, for Him in to create and to command" [Surah 7:54]. At anotherplace Quran says "And if Allah willed, He could take away, their faculty of hearing and seeing" [Surah 2:20]. Here the actual desired effects are being related directly to the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. Although apparent causes mentioned for these effects are also the thunder and the lightning but the real cause is the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. Qur'an also indicates that Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and every thing in a particular form and has also provided guidance to it [Surah 20:50]. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala says "Hast thou not turned thy vision to thy Lord? How He dofh prolong shadow!" Surah 25:45]. Here variation in the length of shadow is being related directly to Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala, although apperant cause of this phenomenon is the Sun and the rotation of Earth. This is because Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala has created the form and guidance of everything including Sun and Earth. Once Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum told a physician "You are simply a friend and Allah is the physician (in fact) ", In one Hadith it is said that one person inquired from Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum if he should tie his camel with rope or rely on Allah. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam replied that he should tie his camel and also rely on Allah. In this case, Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala is the Absolute and Sole provider of security which is the ultimate needed effect. Although the capability for security has been empirically correlated with the strength of rope. In fact it is the will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala which acts as the real cause of all apparent causes, which are otherwise supposed to be effective in themselves. At another place Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala gives an example "It is He, who has made the ships subject to you, that they may sail through the sea by His command" [Surah 14:32]. Islamic way to teach science calls for an important modification in the present trend. As an example we may say "Look at the wonderful Wisdom of Allah (Sunnatullah} discovered by Archimedes" instead of simply saying "•Archimedes' Principle". In this regard, some scholars have given quite suitable suggestions [4,18,19], 9. SCOPE OF SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY IN SHARI'AH The actions which have been prescribed by the Shari'ah as Farz,Vajib, Mustahib, Haram and Makrooh, can not be altered, whereas those actions which are declared as Mu 'bah by the Shari 'ah, are left optional [3]. Practically the former actions are relatively small in number as compared to the latter which are Mu 'bah. In Islam, the novelty has not been the basis for rejection of progressive actions. On the contrary the progressive attitude has been encouraged, provided the objectives and the related working procedure are not against Islamic shari'ah [3]. Allama Justice Muhammad Taqee Usmani has mentioned three points which a Muslim has to bear in mind while carrying out SE&T work [3]. These points may be summarized as follows: (i) Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala is the Absolute and Sole Creator of every effect at every instant and every thing is under His commandment. So a Musl i m believes "Glory to Him, who has subjugated these to us (for our use), and we were not capable (of subjugating them by ourselves) " [Surah 43:13]. (ii) Subjugation of the creation or the controlling of the natural forces is not the ultimate goal and basic purpose of creation of mankind. Allah subhanahu wa (a 'ala says "/ created the Jinn and Mankind, only to worship Me" [Surah 51:56]; (iii) The various inventions and control over natural forces are to be utilized as per teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah Islam has potential and steering power to provide both spirit as well as guidance for the advancement of science, engineering and technology in such a way that its adverse impacts on belief and moral aspects, as experienced by the West, could be safely avoided. This is because the Creator says "The religion before Allah is Islam" [Surah 3:19]. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE ^TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE. 2000 - Abdul Rashid Shaikh Teachings and Reflections ofQur 'an and Sunnah About Science, Engineering, Technology and Management 10. CONCLUSIONS (1) This is a preliminary study and needs more collective effort, appropriate arrangement and additions. (2) Qur' an and Sunnah basically guide us for achieving real success in both worlds. They provide guidance or every thing, including science, engineering, technology and management. (3) Qur'an and Sunnah provide spirit and teach us to make advancement in the fields of modern science, engineering, technology and management. (4) It is the miracle of Qur'an that its teachings are applicable for all times up to the last day. Majority of verses quoted here, could also be applied to other fields and aspects. (5) Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and every thing in a particular form and has also provided guidance to it. In fact it is the will of Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala which is the real cause of all apparent causes. These points need to be taught to the students and general public in a well planned manner. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is grateful to the authorities of Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro, for providing facilities. . REFERENCES [1] Shaikh, A. R., "Developing S&T Facilities for the Defence Needs of the Ummah", COMSTECH International Conference, pp.574-594, Islamabad, March 1995,. [2] Kattanee, Allama A. H., "Al-Tarateebul Idariyah", (Urdu Translation) Idaratul Qur'an wal Uloomul Islamiyah, Karachi, 1991. [3] Usmani, Allama Justice M. T., "Islam Aur Jiddat Passandi", (Urdu), Maktaba Darul Uloom, Karachi, 1993. [4] Kazi, M.A., "Conceptual Framework of Islamic Educational System", Islamic Thought & Scientific Creativity, Islamabad, Vol. 3, No.2, pp. 7-24, 1992, [5] Siddiqui, M. R., "Islamic Sci ent i fic Thought and Contributions of Muslims", ibid, Vol.2, No.4, pp. 27-44,1991. [6] Qureshi, M.M., "A Basis For the Integration of Modern Scientific Studies With Islamic Thought", ibid, Vol.1, pp. 19-36, January-March, 1990. |7J Kazi, M.A., "The Pursuit of Scientific Knowledge in Islam", ibid, Vol.1, No.l, pp. 5-18, January-March, 1990. [8] Nadvi, Allama M. S., "Qur'an, Science Aur Musal'maan", (Urdu), Majlis Nashriyate Islam, Karachi, 1989. [9] Rauf, A., "State of the Art in the Field of Science During the Days of the ProphefMohammed (SAW)", S&T in the Islamic World, Vol.8, No.l, pp,41- 58, January-March, 1990. [10] Jamil, M,, et. al., "Scientific Themes in the Holy Qur'an", COMSTECH Conference, Islamabad, pp. 135-150, March 1995. [11 Nurbaki, H., "Verses From the Holy Kuran and the Facts of Science", (English Translation), Indus Pub. Corp., Karachi, 1992. [12] Syed, I. B., "Comets of Ice Descending to Earth From the Heavens, As Confirmed by Science", S & T in Islamic World, Vol.8, No.2, pp. 115-119 Islamabad, April-June, 1990. [13] Si ddi qui , H.R., "The Development of Human Embryo Scientific Findings and Quranic Revelations", ibid, 6(3), pp. 139-150, July-September, 1988. [14] Shah, F.II., et. al., "Quranic Method of Storage of Wheat", Islamic Thought and Scientific Creativity, Vol. 2 No,2, pp,23- 28, June, 1991. [15] Hi l l , D. R., "Islamic Science and Engineering", Edingurgh University Press, 1st Hdition, 1993. [ 16] Carclwell, D., "The Fontana History of Technology", Fonlana Press, pp.30, 31, London, 1994. [17] Harold, V. A., Bowen, 0., and Kettering, C. F., "A Short History of Technology", The Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, Inc., New Jersey (I..C. Cat Card No. 54-7059), pp.29, 1954. [18] Afandi. Allama H., "Science Aur Islam", (Urdu translation of AI-Risalah Hamccdiyyah), Idara Islamiyal, Lahore, 1984. [19] M. M. Qurashi, "Charact er-Bui l di ng As An Integral Component of Curri cul um", S&T in Isl amic World, Islamabad, Vol. 13 No. 2, pp. 109-123, April-June 1995. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING, SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1, NO. 1, JANUARY-JUNE, 2000 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayat Surahsofwhichthenumberofayat Surahsofwhichthenumberofayat Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaregreater saregreater saregreater saregreater thansequencenumber thansequencenumber thansequencenumber thansequencenumber Ifthereappearsapositivevalueotherthanzerowhenwe subtract the sequence number from the number of ayats of a surah, then it means the number of ayats is greater than the sequencenumberinsuchsurah. Example: Difference Difference Difference Difference=numberofayats–sequencenumber Difference Difference Difference Difference=7─1=6 If the difference is a negative figure, then this means the numberoftheayatsissmallerthanthesequencenumber. The surahs of whichtheirnumber of ayats isgreaterthan the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list below: No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 1 Al-FātiКa 7 6 2 Al-Baqarah 286 284 3 Āl‘Imrān 200 197 4 Al-Nisā 176 172 5 Al-Māidah 120 115 6 Al-En‘ām 165 159 1 Al- FātiКa 7 Thenumber ofayats Thesequence number Thenameof thesurah Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaregreaterthansequencenumber 61 7 Al-A‘rāf 206 199 8 Al-Anfāl 75 67 9 Al-Tawbah 129 120 10 Yūnus 109 99 11 Hūd 123 112 12 Yūsuf 111 99 13 Al-Ra‘d 43 30 14 Ibrāhīm 52 38 15 Al-Йijr 99 84 16 Al-NaКl 128 112 17 Al-’Isrā 111 94 18 Al-Kahf 110 92 19 Maryam 98 79 20 ѡāhā 135 115 21 Al-Anbiyā 112 91 22 Al-Йajj 78 56 23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 95 24 Al-Nūr 64 40 25 Al-Furqān 77 52 26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 201 27 Al-Naml 93 66 28 Al-Qaјaј 88 60 29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 40 30 Al-Rūm 60 30 31 Luqmān 34 3 33 Al-AКzāb 73 40 34 Saba 54 20 35 FāѢir 45 10 36 Yāsīn 83 47 37 Al-їaffāt 182 145 38 їād 88 50 39 Al-Zumar 75 36 40 Al-Mu’min 85 45 41 Fuјјilat 54 13 42 Al-Shūrā 53 11 43 Al-Zukhruf 89 46 44 Al-Dukhān 59 15 51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 9 BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 62 53 Al-Najm 62 9 54 Al-Qamar 55 1 55 Al-RaКmān 78 23 56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 40 List-16 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis48. Nowlet’slookatsurahswhichhaveoddandevennumber of differences (number of ayats - sequence number), out of such 48surahs. Thesurahsofwh Thesurahsofwh Thesurahsofwh Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater ichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater ichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater ichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber difference difference difference difference No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 3 Āl‘Imrān 200 197 5 Al-Māidah 120 115 6 Al-En‘ām 165 159 7 Al-A‘rāf 206 199 8 Al-Anfāl 75 67 10 Yūnus 109 99 12 Yūsuf 111 99 19 Maryam 98 79 20 ѡāhā 135 115 21 Al-Anbiyā 112 91 23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 95 26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 201 31 Luqmān 34 3 36 Yāsīn 83 47 37 Al-їaffāt 182 145 40 Al-Mu’min 85 45 41 Fuјјilat 54 13 42 Al-Shūrā 53 11 44 Al-Dukhān 59 15 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaregreaterthansequencenumber 63 51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 9 53 Al-Najm 62 9 54 Al-Qamar 55 1 55 Al-RaКmān 78 23 List-17 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis23 23 23 23. Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsisgreater thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasaneven even even evennum num num number ber ber ber difference difference difference difference No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 1 Al-FātiКa 7 6 2 Al-Baqarah 286 284 4 Al-Nisā 176 172 9 Al-Tawbah 129 120 11 Hūd 123 112 13 Al-Ra‘d 43 30 14 Ibrāhīm 52 38 15 Al-Йijr 99 84 16 Al-NaКl 128 112 17 Al-’Isrā 111 94 18 Al-Kahf 110 92 22 Al-Йajj 78 56 24 Al-Nūr 64 40 25 Al-Furqān 77 52 27 Al-Naml 93 66 28 Al-Qaјaј 88 60 29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 40 30 Al-Rūm 60 30 33 Al-AКzāb 73 40 34 Saba 54 20 35 FāѢir 45 10 38 їād 88 50 39 Al-Zumar 75 36 BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 64 43 Al-Zukhruf 89 46 56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 40 List-18 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis25 25 25 25. Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of whichtheirnumberofayatsisgreaterthanthesequencenumbers: Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsi Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsi Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsi Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsisgreater sgreater sgreater sgreater thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers XX No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat 1 Al-FātiКa 7 27 Al-Naml 93 3 Āl‘Imrān 200 29 Al-‘Ankabūt 69 5 Al-Māidah 120 31 Luqmān 34 7 Al-A‘rāf 206 33 Al-AКzāb 73 9 Al-Tawbah 129 35 FāѢir 45 11 Hūd 123 37 Al-їaffāt 182 13 Al-Ra‘d 43 39 Al-Zumar 75 15 Al-Йijr 99 41 Fuјјilat 54 17 Al-’Isrā 111 43 Al-Zukhruf 89 19 Maryam 98 51 Al-Dhāriyāt 60 21 Al-Anbiyā 112 53 Al-Najm 62 23 Al-Mu’minūn 118 55 Al-RaКmān 78 25 Al-Furqān 77 List-19 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis25 25 25 25. Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaregreaterthansequencenumber 65 Thesurahsof Thesurahsof Thesurahsof Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsisgreater whichtheirnumberofayatsisgreater whichtheirnumberofayatsisgreater whichtheirnumberofayatsisgreater thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveeven even even even sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers XX No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat 2 Al-Baqarah 286 26 Al-Shu‘arā 227 4 Al-Nisā 176 28 Al-Qaјaј 88 6 Al-En‘ām 165 30 Al-Rūm 60 8 Al-Anfāl 75 34 Saba 54 10 Yūnus 109 36 Yāsīn 83 12 Yūsuf 111 38 їād 88 14 Ibrāhīm 52 40 Al-Mu’min 85 16 Al-NaКl 128 42 Al-Shūrā 53 18 Al-Kahf 110 44 Al-Dukhān 59 20 ѡāhā 135 54 Al-Qamar 55 22 Al-Йajj 78 56 Al-Wāqi‘ah 96 24 Al-Nūr 64 List-20 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis23 23 23 23. Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 25 25 25 25. On the other hand, the number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayats- sequence number) is also 25 25 25 25. The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the sequence number and which have even sequence number is 23 23 23 23. On the other hand, the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayats- sequence number) is also 23 23 23 23. Let’sseetheresultswhichoutcomecollectively: BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 66 1 A l - F ā t i ḥ a 7 2 A l - B a q a r a h 286 3 Ā l ‘ I m r ā n 200 4 A l - N i s ā 176 5 A l - M ā i d a h 120 6 A l - E n ‘ ā m 165 7 A l - A ‘ r ā f 206 8 A l - A n f ā l 75 9 A l - T a w b a h 129 10 Y ū n u s 109 11 H ū d 123 12 Y ū s u f 111 13 A l - R a ‘ d 43 14 I b r ā h ī m 52 15 A l - Ḥ i j r 99 16 A l - N a ḥ l 128 17 A l - ’ I s r ā 111 18 A l - K a h f 110 19 M a r y a m 98 20 Ṭ ā h ā 135 21 A l - A n b i y ā 112 22 A l - Ḥ a j j 78 23 A l - M u ’ m i n ū n 118 24 A l - N ū r 64 25 A l - F u r q ā n 77 26 A l - S h u ‘ a r ā 227 27 A l - N a m l 93 28 A l - Q a ṣ a ṣ 88 29 A l - ‘ A n k a b ū t 69 30 A l - R ū m 60 31 L u q m ā n 34 32 A l - S a j d a h 30 33 A l - A ḥ z ā b 73 34 S a b a 54 35 F ā ṭ i r 45 36 Y ā s ī n 83 37 A l - Ṣ a f f ā t 182 38 Ṣ ā d 88 39 A l - Z u m a r 75 40 A l - M u ’ m i n 85 41 F u ṣ ṣ i l a t 54 42 A l - S h ū r ā 53 43 A l - Z u k h r u f 89 44 A l - D u k h ā n 59 45 A l - J ā t h i y a h 37 46 A l - A ḥ q ā f 35 47 M u ḥ a m m a d 38 48 A l - F a t ḥ 29 49 A l - Ḥ u j u r ā t 18 50 Q ā f 45 51 A l - D h ā r i y ā t 60 52 A l - Ṭ ū r 49 53 A l - N a j m 62 54 A l - Q a m a r 55 55 A l - R a ḥ m ā n 78 56 A l - W ā q i ‘ a h 96 57 A l - Ḥ a d ī d 29 58 A l - M u j ā d a l a h 22 59 A l - Ḥ a s h r 24 60 A l - M u m t a ḥ i n a h 13 61 A l - Ṣ a f f 14 62 A l - J u m u ‘ a h 11 63 A l - M u n ā f i q ū n 11 64 A l - T a g h ā b u n 18 65 A l - Ṭ a l ā q 12 66 A l - T a ḥ r ī m 12 67 A l - M u l k 30 68 A l - Q a l a m 52 69 A l - Ḥ ā q q a h 52 70 A l - M a ‘ ā r i j 44 71 N ū ḥ 28 72 A l - J i n n 28 73 A l - M u z z a m m i l 20 74 A l - M u d d a t h t h i r 56 75 A l - Q i y ā m a h 40 76 A l - I n s ā n 31 77 A l - M u r s a l ā t 50 78 A l - N a b a’ 40 79 A l - N ā z i ‘ ā t 46 80 ‘A b a s a 42 81 A l - T a k w ī r 29 82 A l - I n f i ṭ ā r 19 83 A l - M u ṭ a f f i f ī n 36 84 A l - I n s h i q ā q 25 85 A l - B u r ū j 22 86 A l - Ṭ ā r i q 17 87 A l - A ‘ l ā 19 88 A l - G h ā s h i y a h 26 89 A l - F a j r 30 90 A l - B a l a d 20 91 A l - S h a m s 15 92 A l - L a y l 21 93 A l - Ḍ u ḥ a 11 94 A l - I n s h i r ā ḥ 8 95 A l - T ī n 8 96 A l - ‘ A l a q 19 97 A l - Q a d r 5 98 A l - B a y y i n a h 8 99 A l - Z i l z ā l 8 100 A l - ‘ Ā d i y ā t 11 101 A l - Q ā r i ‘a h 11 102 A l - T a k ā t h u r 8 103 A l - ‘A s r 3 104 A l - H u m a z a 9 105 Al-Fīl 5 106 Q u r a y s h 4 107 A l - M ā ‘ ū n 7 108 A l - K a w t h a r 3 109 A l - K ā f i r ū n 6 110 A l - N a ṣ r 3 111 T a b b a t 5 112 A l - I k h l ā ṣ 4 113 A l - F a l a q 5 114 A l - N ā s 6 number of ayats > sequence number number of ayats > sequence number NO. SURAH AYAT (number of ayats─sequence number) ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE (number of ayats─sequence number) EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE ODD sequence number EVEN sequence number I n t h e f i g u r e , s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e s u r a h s o f w h i c h t h e i r n u m b e r o f t h e a y a t s i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s e q u e n c e n u m b e r s i s s h o w n . X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X a x i s o f s y m m e t r y 23 25 25 23 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsare Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsare Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsare Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaresmaller smaller smaller smaller thansequencenumber thansequencenumber thansequencenumber thansequencenumber Now let’s perform the same analysis which we have made for the surahs that have the number of their ayats greater than theirsequencenumberforthesurahsofwhichhasthenumberof surahssmallerthanthesequencenumber. Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsissmallerthan the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list below: No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 32 Al-Sajdah 30 -2 45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 -8 46 Al-AКqāf 35 -11 47 MuКammad 38 -9 48 Al-FatК 29 -19 49 Al-Йujurāt 18 -31 50 Qāf 45 -5 52 Al-ѡūr 49 -3 57 Al-Йadīd 29 -28 58 Al-Mujādalah 22 -36 59 Al-Йashr 24 -35 60 Al-MumtaКinah 13 -47 61 Al-їaff 14 -47 62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 -51 63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 -52 64 Al-Taghābun 18 -46 65 Al-ѡalāq 12 -53 66 Al-TaКrīm 12 -54 67 Al-Mulk 30 -37 68 Al-Qalam 52 -16 69 Al-Йāqqah 52 -17 70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 -26 BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 68 71 NūК 28 -43 72 Al-Jinn 28 -44 73 Al-Muzzammil 20 -53 74 Al-Muddaththir 56 -18 75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 -35 76 Al-Insān 31 -45 77 Al-Mursalāt 50 -27 78 Al-Naba’ 40 -38 79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 -33 80 ‘Abasa 42 -38 81 Al-Takwīr 29 -52 82 Al-InfiѢār 19 -63 83 Al-MuѢaffifīn 36 -47 84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 -59 85 Al-Burūj 22 -63 86 Al-ѡāriq 17 -69 87 Al-A‘lā 19 -68 88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 -62 89 Al-Fajr 30 -59 90 Al-Balad 20 -70 91 Al-Shams 15 -76 92 Al-Layl 21 -71 93 Al-ЁuКa 11 -82 94 Al-InshirāК 8 -86 95 Al-Tīn 8 -87 96 Al-‘Alaq 19 -77 97 Al-Qadr 5 -92 98 Al-Bayyinah 8 -90 99 Al-Zilzāl 8 -91 100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 -89 101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11 -90 102 Al-Takāthur 8 -94 103 Al-‘Asr 3 -100 104 Al-Humaza 9 -95 105 Al-Fīl 5 -100 106 Quraysh 4 -102 107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 -100 108 Al-Kawthar 3 -105 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaresmallerthansequencenumber 69 109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 -103 110 Al-Naјr 3 -107 111 Tabbat 5 -106 112 Al-Ikhlāј 4 -108 113 Al-Falaq 5 -108 114 Al-Nās 6 -108 List-21 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis66 66 66 66. Nowlet’slookatsurahswhichhaveoddandevennumber of differences (number of ayats - sequence number), out of such 66surahs. Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsissmaller smaller smaller smaller thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber thanthesequencenumbersandhasanoddnumber differ differ differ difference ence ence ence No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 46 Al-AКqāf 35 -11 47 MuКammad 38 -9 48 Al-FatК 29 -19 49 Al-Йujurāt 18 -31 50 Qāf 45 -5 52 Al-ѡūr 49 -3 59 Al-Йashr 24 -35 60 Al-MumtaКinah 13 -47 61 Al-їaff 14 -47 62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 -51 65 Al-ѡalāq 12 -53 67 Al-Mulk 30 -37 69 Al-Йāqqah 52 -17 71 NūК 28 -43 73 Al-Muzzammil 20 -53 75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 -35 76 Al-Insān 31 -45 BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 70 77 Al-Mursalāt 50 -27 79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 -33 82 Al-InfiѢār 19 -63 83 Al-MuѢaffifīn 36 -47 84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 -59 85 Al-Burūj 22 -63 86 Al-ѡāriq 17 -69 89 Al-Fajr 30 -59 92 Al-Layl 21 -71 95 Al-Tīn 8 -87 96 Al-‘Alaq 19 -77 99 Al-Zilzāl 8 -91 100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 -89 104 Al-Humaza 9 -95 108 Al-Kawthar 3 -105 109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 -103 110 Al-Naјr 3 -107 List-22 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis34 34 34 34. Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberoftheayatsissmaller smaller smaller smaller thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasan thanthesequencenumbersandhasaneven even even evennumber number number number difference difference difference difference No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat Difference Difference Difference Difference 32 Al-Sajdah 30 -2 45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 -8 57 Al-Йadīd 29 -28 58 Al-Mujādalah 22 -36 63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 -52 64 Al-Taghābun 18 -46 66 Al-TaКrīm 12 -54 68 Al-Qalam 52 -16 70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 -26 72 Al-Jinn 28 -44 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaresmallerthansequencenumber 71 74 Al-Muddaththir 56 -18 78 Al-Naba’ 40 -38 80 ‘Abasa 42 -38 81 Al-Takwīr 29 -52 87 Al-A‘lā 19 -68 88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 -62 90 Al-Balad 20 -70 91 Al-Shams 15 -76 93 Al-ЁuКa 11 -82 94 Al-InshirāК 8 -86 97 Al-Qadr 5 -92 98 Al-Bayyinah 8 -90 101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11 -90 102 Al-Takāthur 8 -94 103 Al-‘Asr 3 -100 105 Al-Fīl 5 -100 106 Quraysh 4 -102 107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 -100 111 Tabbat 5 -106 112 Al-Ikhlāј 4 -108 113 Al-Falaq 5 -108 114 Al-Nās 6 -108 List-23 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis32 32 32 32. Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of whichtheirnumberofayatsissmallerthanthesequencenumbers: Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsissmaller smaller smaller smaller thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveodd sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat 45 Al-Jāthiyah 37 83 Al-MuѢaffifīn 36 47 MuКammad 38 85 Al-Burūj 22 BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 72 49 Al-Йujurāt 18 87 Al-A‘lā 19 57 Al-Йadīd 29 89 Al-Fajr 30 59 Al-Йashr 24 91 Al-Shams 15 61 Al-їaff 14 93 Al-ЁuКa 11 63 Al-Munāfiqūn 11 95 Al-Tīn 8 65 Al-ѡalāq 12 97 Al-Qadr 5 67 Al-Mulk 30 99 Al-Zilzāl 8 69 Al-Йāqqah 52 101 Al-Qāri‘ah 11 71 NūК 28 103 Al-‘Asr 3 73 Al-Muzzammil 20 105 Al-Fīl 5 75 Al-Qiyāmah 40 107 Al-Mā‘ūn 7 77 Al-Mursalāt 50 109 Al-Kāfirūn 6 79 Al-Nāzi‘āt 46 111 Tabbat 5 81 Al-Takwīr 29 113 Al-Falaq 5 List-24 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis32 32 32 32. Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsis Thesurahsofwhichtheirnumberofayatsissmaller smaller smaller smaller thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhave thanthesequencenumberandwhichhaveeven even even even sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers sequencenumbers XX No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat No. No. No. No. Surah Surah Surah Surah Ayat Ayat Ayat Ayat 32 Al-Sajdah 30 82 Al-InfiѢār 19 46 Al-AКqāf 35 84 Al-Inshiqāq 25 48 Al-FatК 29 86 Al-ѡāriq 17 50 Qāf 45 88 Al-Ghāshiyah 26 52 Al-ѡūr 49 90 Al-Balad 20 58 Al-Mujādalah 22 92 Al-Layl 21 60 Al-MumtaКinah 13 94 Al-InshirāК 8 62 Al-Jumu‘ah 11 96 Al-‘Alaq 19 64 Al-Taghābun 18 98 Al-Bayyinah 8 66 Al-TaКrīm 12 100 Al-‘Ādiyāt 11 68 Al-Qalam 52 102 Al-Takāthur 8 70 Al-Ma‘ārij 44 104 Al-Humaza 9 Surahsofwhichthenumberofayatsaresmallerthansequencenumber 73 72 Al-Jinn 28 106 Quraysh 4 74 Al-Muddaththir 56 108 Al-Kawthar 3 76 Al-Insān 31 110 Al-Naјr 3 78 Al-Naba’ 40 112 Al-Ikhlāј 4 80 ‘Abasa 42 114 Al-Nās 6 List-25 As it can be seen inthelist hereinabove the total number ofsuchsurahsis34 34 34 34. Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 32 32 32 32. On the other hand, the number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayats- sequence number) is also 32 32 32 32. The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have even sequence number is 34 34 34 34. On the other hand, the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayats- sequence number) is also 34 34 34 34. Let’sseetheresultswhichoutcomecollectively: < ¸,cğא ..,±.א, ., ¸,cğא ..,±.א, ., ¸,cğא ..,±.א, ., ¸,cğא ..,±.א, ., “Yāsīn.BytheHakīmQur’ān” “Yāsīn.BytheHakīmQur’ān” “Yāsīn.BytheHakīmQur’ān” “Yāsīn.BytheHakīmQur’ān” (Yās (Yās (Yās (Yāsīn īn īn īn/ // /1 11 1- -- -2 22 2) )) ) BinarySymmetricBook d dr r. .e en ng g. .h ha al li is sa ay yd de em mi ir r www.symmetricbook.com 74 1 A l - F ā t i ḥ a 7 2 A l - B a q a r a h 286 3 Ā l ‘ I m r ā n 200 4 A l - N i s ā 176 5 A l - M ā i d a h 120 6 A l - E n ‘ ā m 165 7 A l - A ‘ r ā f 206 8 A l - A n f ā l 75 9 A l - T a w b a h 129 10 Y ū n u s 109 11 H ū d 123 12 Y ū s u f 111 13 A l - R a ‘ d 43 14 I b r ā h ī m 52 15 A l - Ḥ i j r 99 16 A l - N a ḥ l 128 17 A l - ’ I s r ā 111 18 A l - K a h f 110 19 M a r y a m 98 20 Ṭ ā h ā 135 21 A l - A n b i y ā 112 22 A l - Ḥ a j j 78 23 A l - M u ’ m i n ū n 118 24 A l - N ū r 64 25 A l - F u r q ā n 77 26 A l - S h u ‘ a r ā 227 27 A l - N a m l 93 28 A l - Q a ṣ a ṣ 88 29 A l - ‘ A n k a b ū t 69 30 A l - R ū m 60 31 L u q m ā n 34 32 A l - S a j d a h 30 33 A l - A ḥ z ā b 73 34 S a b a 54 35 F ā ṭ i r 45 36 Y ā s ī n 83 37 A l - Ṣ a f f ā t 182 38 Ṣ ā d 88 39 A l - Z u m a r 75 40 A l - M u ’ m i n 85 41 F u ṣ ṣ i l a t 54 42 A l - S h ū r ā 53 43 A l - Z u k h r u f 89 44 A l - D u k h ā n 59 45 A l - J ā t h i y a h 37 46 A l - A ḥ q ā f 35 47 M u ḥ a m m a d 38 48 A l - F a t ḥ 29 49 A l - Ḥ u j u r ā t 18 50 Q ā f 45 51 A l - D h ā r i y ā t 60 52 A l - Ṭ ū r 49 53 A l - N a j m 62 54 A l - Q a m a r 55 55 A l - R a ḥ m ā n 78 56 A l - W ā q i ‘ a h 96 57 A l - Ḥ a d ī d 29 58 A l - M u j ā d a l a h 22 59 A l - Ḥ a s h r 24 60 A l - M u m t a ḥ i n a h 13 61 A l - Ṣ a f f 14 62 A l - J u m u ‘ a h 11 63 A l - M u n ā f i q ū n 11 64 A l - T a g h ā b u n 18 65 A l - Ṭ a l ā q 12 66 A l - T a ḥ r ī m 12 67 A l - M u l k 30 68 A l - Q a l a m 52 69 A l - Ḥ ā q q a h 52 70 A l - M a ‘ ā r i j 44 71 N ū ḥ 28 72 A l - J i n n 28 73 A l - M u z z a m m i l 20 74 A l - M u d d a t h t h i r 56 75 A l - Q i y ā m a h 40 76 A l - I n s ā n 31 77 A l - M u r s a l ā t 50 78 A l - N a b a’ 40 79 A l - N ā z i ‘ ā t 46 80 ‘A b a s a 42 81 A l - T a k w ī r 29 82 A l - I n f i ṭ ā r 19 83 A l - M u ṭ a f f i f ī n 36 84 A l - I n s h i q ā q 25 85 A l - B u r ū j 22 86 A l - Ṭ ā r i q 17 87 A l - A ‘ l ā 19 88 A l - G h ā s h i y a h 26 89 A l - F a j r 30 90 A l - B a l a d 20 91 A l - S h a m s 15 92 A l - L a y l 21 93 A l - Ḍ u ḥ a 11 94 A l - I n s h i r ā ḥ 8 95 A l - T ī n 8 96 A l - ‘ A l a q 19 97 A l - Q a d r 5 98 A l - B a y y i n a h 8 99 A l - Z i l z ā l 8 100 A l - ‘ Ā d i y ā t 11 101 A l - Q ā r i ‘a h 11 102 A l - T a k ā t h u r 8 103 A l - ‘A s r 3 104 A l - H u m a z a 9 105 Al-Fīl 5 106 Q u r a y s h 4 107 A l - M ā ‘ ū n 7 108 A l - K a w t h a r 3 109 A l - K ā f i r ū n 6 110 A l - N a ṣ r 3 111 T a b b a t 5 112 A l - I k h l ā ṣ 4 113 A l - F a l a q 5 114 A l - N ā s 6 number of ayats < sequence number number of ayats < sequence number NO. SURAH AYAT (number of ayats─sequence number) ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE (number of ayats─sequence number) EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE ODD sequence number EVEN sequence number X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X I n t h e f i g u r e , s y m m e t r i c d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e s u r a h s o f w h i c h t h e i r n u m b e r o f t h e a y a t s i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e s e q u e n c e n u m b e r s i s s h o w n . a x i s o f s y m m e t r y 34 32 32 34 International Seminar on Islamic Science and Technology (InSIST’08): Reviving The Supremacy of Islamic Science, Putra World Trade Centre, Kuala Lumpur, 18-19 March 2008. THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF THE SEVEN-YEAR-CULTIVATION RULE OF THUMB (7-Y-C RoT) IN FARMING MANAGEMENT by Abdul Hamid b. Hj. Mar Iman, Ph.D. Centre for Real Estate Studies, Faculty of Engineering & Geoinformation Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM, Skuai, Johor Darul Ta’azim. e-mail:
[email protected] academic portal: http://ac.utm.my/web/hamidiman Abstract Underlying the verses describing a prophetic interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream about “seven lean cows devouring seven fat ones and seven dry ears of corn withering around seven green ones” are some principles that remain to be further uncovered in farming research. The relevance of the principles probably lies in the science and economics of farming management. Firstly, seven-year- cultivation period is a basis for many crop production systems, especially in terms of efficiency and major production decisions. Secondly, seven-year-cultivation period is also a basis for analyzing the cyclical nature of many agricultural crops. This paper discusses some examples of agricultural crop systems that demonstrate such characteristics. It is found that the agronomic and economic aspects of crop production are logically tied to the concept of seven-year time horizon and, therefore, it makes sense to strategize farming management on a seven-year cycle basis. Key words: Seven-year-cultivation rule of thumb (7-Y-C RoT), farming management. 1.0 INTRODUCTION The prophetic rule of thumb about seven-year-cultivation period (7-Y-C RoT) in farming based on Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream has set some important scientific and economic principles in the agricultural sector since the old times. The principles laid down in the 7-Y-C RoT is recorded in the al-Quran, surah Yusof: verses 43-49 as follows (adapted from Yusof ‘Ali): 43. And the King (of Egypt) said: "Verily, I saw (in a dream) seven fat cows whom seven lean ones were devouring - and of seven green ears of grain and (seven) others dry. O notables! Explain to me my dream, if it be that you can interpret dreams."… 47. [(Yusof] said: "For seven years you shall devote yourself assiduously or steadily * to raising crop as usual and that (the harvest) which you reap you shall leave in ears, (all) - except a little of it which you may eat. 48. "Then will come after that, seven hard (years), which will devour what you have laid by in advance for them, (all) except a little of that which you have guarded (stored). 49. "Then thereafter will come a year in which people will have abundant rain and in which they will press (wine and oil)." * Notes: The word َ بَ أَ د means persevere in, persist in, devote oneself assiduously or steadily to, apply oneself eagerly to; to work hard, be diligent; to keep doing, keep on, continue to do, do persistently or regularly. In brief, the above interpretation of dream is as follows: Farmers will sow for seven years diligently whereby there will be seven years of bumper harvest in the country. From the harvests, it is better to store and preserve the required quantity of grain in clusters because, next, there will be a famine lasting for another seven years during which the preserved stores of grain shall be utilized for feeding the famine-struck people and little quantity shall be used for cultivation. Afterwards, there will be a year in which the people shall have heavy rains and bumper crops. They shall press grapes. 2 These verses underline a number of major scientific principles and/or aspects in farming management. The verses clearly stipulate that the harvest should be stored and preserved for consumption and growing materials. These have set the general principles in farm production and food system management. Farm production involves, among other things, the major aspects related to rotational farming (applicable to animal production as well); seeds storage/breeding stock; crop and animal breeding while food management involves, among things, the major aspects related to alleviating the effects of agricultural cycle (including buffer stock); production planning; and consumption. There could a question: what is the wisdom of “seven-year” cultivation strategy? The prophetic 7-Y-C RoT is by no means a decree. It was, in the first place, a “ta`bur” by a prophet who has been divinely inspired by Allah but, then, it was a management strategy that has a great wisdom in it. It sets some general principles on aspects of farming management, especially with regards to crop and animal production, for ensuring a well-managed economy. The main concern of any farming management is to minimize the impacts of environmental uncertainties on the economic and social well-being of a particular country. Thus, the only strategy for minimizing such impacts is proper management of the farming system. The next section discusses a brief background on ancient Egyptian farming system. This is followed by the background to the quranic interpretation of the verses on the King’s dream. Theoretical and empirical discussions on the scientific principles of 7-Y-C RoT are given in the ensuing sections. The last section concludes this paper. 2.0 A BRIEF ACCOUNT ON ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FARMING SYSTEM Like its modern version, the ancient Egyptian agriculture was largely dependent upon the Nile river system. Throughout the history, the main water source for farming was the Nile. Rainfall was almost non-existent in Egypt, and the Nile has always been the source of water for raising crops and animals (Harris, 2001).The agriculture along the Nile was based on growing winter crops after the annual floods had subsided (Cowen, 2008). However, crops were also grown in other seasons. The principal crops of ancient Egypt included emmer (a type of wheat), barley, and flax (Robinson, 1961; Mellersh, 1962; James, 1979; Romano, 1990). Wheat and barley were the staple food of which bread and beer were made, respectively. Other popular fruits and vegetables in the Egyptian ancient times were dates, figs, grapes peas, beans, and cucumbers. The people of Egypt have always been working closely with the seasons and understanding their change. Crops used to be harvested three times a year (). This means, many ancient Egyptian farmers used to grow either short-term or mixed crops. Due to the seasonality of groundwater from the Nile river system, the ancient Egyptian farmers have devised a sophisticated irrigation system since 4,000 years ago (Gadalla, 2005; Cowen, 2008). However, no man’s power can overcome Allah Almighty’s power. Famine was a critical problem of national importance to the ancient Egyptian farming system whereby the first terrible drought that lasted for seven years nicknamed as Famine Stela was said to have taken place during the reign of Djoser, the Pharoah’s third dynasty king (Lichtheim, 1980; Haiying, 1998; Wilkinson, 1999). The place of calamity was believed to be Sehel Island, Aswan, in the southern Egypt. During this time, the Nile was said to have not flooded the nearby lands for years. Because of their obstinence and rejection of Allah as the only God to be worshipped, Allah sent various disasters upon Pharaoh and his subjects. The abovementioned period of extreme drought in Egypt was one of these. This occurred as a lesson to Pharaoh and his subjects as mentioned in the al-Quran: “We seized Pharaoh's people with years of drought and scarcity of fruits so that hopefully they would pay heed” (al-‘Araaf: 130). 3 It was recorded in the Egyptian history that the 7-year good harvest and 7-year famine did really occurred long before Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream. The water level of the Nile fell tremendously and the country was hit by a severe drought. Since water was terribly crucial for the Egyptians, the drought directly threatening their very livelihood. Agricultural products diminished in availability and famine ensued. However, there were no reliable records as to how many times draught has struck the ancient Egypt. Some accounts mentioned that a severe famine struck the ancient Egypt again during the King’s rule at a time before Prophet Yusof’s was born. At the Prophet Yusof’s adulthood time, however, by Allah’s leave and due to Prophet Yusof’s divine foresight and planning, the calamity did not take place. The country did not face a shortage of food. During the first seven years of famine he supplied grain to the people according to their minimum needs and stored the rest in the newly-built granaries. By the time the seven good years were over, the granaries were full. With the Prophet’s Yusof’s wisdom, the years of famine have been salvaged through a well-managed system of farming (including seed storage) and food consumption management. Prophet Yusuf was then made a minister in charge of, among other things, finance and agriculture. One of his agricultural and food management strategies was to make a brief tour of Egypt to assess the best locations where intensive cultivation could be carried out. He allocated extra money to the farmers in the most fertile areas of the Nile so that they would be able to grow the maximum amount of grain. He also ordered the construction of huge storehouses (granaries), capable of storing several hundred tons of the surplus grain. 3.0 BACKGROUND TO THE QURANIC INTERPRETATION OF VERSES Although there are slight differences in the use of terminologies in interpreting surah Yusof verses 43- 49 among the scholars, their ijmaali interpretation does not deviate very much from each other. For example al-Tabari and al-Ghurnathi give the following interpretations. Table 1: Comparative interpretations of verses Interpreter Quranic key words Interpretation Al-Tabari (d. 310 H) يﺮﺒﻄﻟا ﺮﻘﺒﻟا ﻦﻣ نﺎﻤﺴﻟا (Fat cows) نﺎﻤﺴﻟا (The fat) فﺎﺠِ ﻌﻟا ﻊﺒﺴﻟا (Seven lean) فﺎﺠﻌﻟا تاﺮﻘﺒﻟا (Lean cows) ﺮﻀﺨـﻟا (The green) تﺎﺴﺑﺎﻴـﻟا (Dry out) ﺔﺒﺼﺨﻤـﻟا نﻮﻨﺴﻟا (Years of fertility) ﺐﻴﺻﺎﺨﻤـﻟا (The fertile) ﺖﺒﻨﺗ ﻻ ﺔﺑﺪﺠـﻣ نﻮﻨﺳ ً ﺎﺌﻴﺷ (Years of infertility no crop at all) نﻮﻨﺴﻟا بوُ ﺪُ ﺠـﻟا لﻮُ ﺤـُ ﻤـﻟا (Years of draught and infertility) ﺐﻴﺻﺎﺨﻤـﻟا نﻮﻨﺴﻟا (The fertile years) لﻮﺤـﻤـﻟا بوُ ﺪُ ﺠـﻟا (The infertile, the draught) Jazii al-Ghurnaathi (d. 741 H) ﻲﻃﺎﻧﺮﻐﻟا يﺰﺟ تاﺮﻘﺑ نﺎﻤﺳ “Fat cows” فﺎﺠِﻌﻟا تاﺮﻘﺒﻟا “Lean cows” ٌ ﺔَ ﺒِ ﺼْ ﺨُ ﻣ (Fertile, fruitful, productive) ٌ ﺔَ ﺑِ ﺪْ ﺠُ ﻣ (Infertile, fruitless, unproductive) ﺳ ﻊﺒ تاﺮﻘﺑ (Seven years) Based on the interpretation of Jazii al-Ghurnaathai (d. 741 H), the words “seven fat cows” mean cows that became fat for seven years and “seven lean cows” mean cows that became thin for seven years. Based on some clues in verse 46, scholars have concluded that the “fat” and “lean” conditions of these cows occurred at different time periods. This means, the verses refer to different time periods of 4 fertility (or productivity) and infertility (or unproductivity). For example, Jazii al-Ghurnaathii mentioned (Jazii): ﺔﺑﺪﺠﻤﻟا ﻦﻴﻨﺴﻟا ﻰﻟإ ﺔﺒﺼﺨﻤﻟا ﻦﻴﻨﺴﻟا ﻦﻣ ﺎﻬﺑ ﻰﻘﺒﻳ ﺔﻠﻴﺣ ﻢﻬﻤﻠﻌﻓ (So, he taught them a strategy whereby they survive during years of fertility as well as years of infertility) Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream points to at least two main phenomena of the physical world: cyclic nature of the environment (and, thus, agricultural production) and strategies to alleviate the impact of the changing environment in terms of good farming and food system management. 4.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF 7-Y-C RoT IN FARMING The keywords seven years may not necessarily mean exactly seven years. It can mean “within” or “in the region” or “plus-minus” seven years. It may also mean a “medium-term” period during which some important farming strategies and decisions should be made. These approximations could be true perhaps in light of the Egyptian farming of the time at which Prophet Yusof passed his divine recommendations to the King. Nevertheless, the “seven-year” mythical principles can be broadly applied to the modern farming management in many ways. Discussion follows. 4.1 Agronomic Aspects In general, agricultural crops can be divided into short-term (e.g. arable) and long-term (perennial) crops. Irrespective of their life structure, one important goal of agronomic practices is to protect soil resources (e.g. maintaining soil’s biological quality) and improving production potential (e.g. best crop combination and cultivation system). For short-term crops, seven-year rotation system is a common practice in many parts of the world. However, this depends, among other things, on the nature agricultural system practiced and the climate of the country. Table 2 shows an example of crop systems practised in some countries. Table 2: Example of Seven-Year Arable Crop Systems Country Type of farming Example of general crop rotation system 1. Former Soviet Union in general [1] Arable System 1 (5-year): W-W-B-O-F System 2 (6-year): Option 1 W-W-W-B-B-F Option 2 W-W-W-B-O-F Option 3 W-W-W-O-O-F System 3 (7-year): W-W-W-W-B-O-F 2. Ukraine [2] Arable System 1 (6-year): F-W-W-S-B-C 3. United States Arable Various systems (5-7 years) United Kingdom (Pfiffner et al., 1993) Arable System 1 (7-year): Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt Notes: B = barley; Bt = beetroot; C = corn; F = fallow; O = oat; S = sunflower; W = wheat In the case of organic farming, successful organic production begins with crop rotation to break up cycles of weeds, pests and diseases. Fairly simple rotation guidelines can be followed, for example, by selecting three crop rotation elements over a seven-year period without using the same element consecutively (Goforth, 2008). This means, there are fallows in between the years. The right combination of rotation systems can be part of farming success (Pfiffner et al., 1993; Bowman, 2002). For example, a farmer with 25 years of farming experience in the U.S. used a typical 5 seven-year rotation in planting an over-wintering rye cover crop followed by soybeans; a fall-planted small grain; a legume/grass mix “frost-seeded” into the grain in late winter; several years of hay or pasture; corn; another rye cover-soybeans sequence; cereal grain frost-seeded with a legume/grass mix; finishing with a fallow year when the forage mix growth is clipped but left to replenish soil organic matter. The seventh year’s “crop” was found to be an enrichment and regeneration of soil biological life. The soil benefits which improved and protect succeeding crops easily offset the opportunity cost plus clipping and $20 per acre in taxes. A late seeding of buckwheat for grain in the seventh summer and then a fall seeding of rye to restart the rotation combine to provide a needed break in the legume cycle that has prevented a buildup of soil disease organisms. In Russia, cultivation of 7 types of a seven-year crop rotation system of fodder crops produced the highest yield (average of 10.92 t/ha) and the best humus balance (+2.31 t/ha) when using crop rotations of pea, barley, and grasses; lucerne and grasses; winter rye and sorghum, and maize (Stupakov et al., 2001). Yield response needs sufficient time to show even in short-term cash crops. Although there is no hard-and-fast rule for assessing crop performance, a seven-year period is commonly perceived to be a reasonably sufficient duration for observing yield response to manuring and other treatments. For example, wheat grain yield responds to nitrogen rates in the first five while to potassium rates in the first two years of seven years of growth. Grain nitrogen content can be affected in six of seven years of growth (Girma et al., 2006). The effect of organic farming on the production of crops under a mixed organic system, a stockless all arable farming system, and a horticultural enterprise was assessed over the first seven-year experiment with a potential for a further experiment over the second seven- year phase (Leake, 1999; CWS Farms Group, 2002). In some farming research such as the livestock production, a period of five to seven years is considered sufficiently long enough to produce reliable field results on breeding and/or feeding (Dwayne Rohweder and Ken Albrecht). Yield reduction due to soil compaction can reach a substantial proportion in a period of seven years. For example, in Ohio, reductions in crop yields are 25% in maize, 20% in soybeans, and 30% in oats over a seven-year period (Lal, 1996). Remedial agronomic practices are needed after such a period to prevent further loss of crop output. In another context, a complete nutrient recycling in arable crops occurs in seven year and with rotational cropping, this cycle may be somewhat modified. Some aspects of farm husbandry such as pest and disease control take just enough time make an impact. In the case of citrus farming, for example canker takes a farmer a seven-year trip before he can start making money again. It includes two years' worth of quarantine on the land and five years before the farmer can start getting any real production off those trees. So, there are about seven years' worth of no cash income at all. [3] 4.2 Farm Economics Crop production optimisation strategy normally necessitates calculation of short-term or medium-term profit from a particular enterprise. For instance, whether one could recoup capital investments within the seven-year period needed to depreciate them (Thompson, 1997). In agricultural property valuation, the concept of seven-year profit capitalisation has been accepted by the court as a basis for estimating the value of rubber plantation. Such a principle may have some economic basis since long- term investments such as those in perennial crop and livestock have some components of medium- term income and profit profiles, during which important production decisions need to be known. For instance, some long-term crops such as oil palm and rubber have a span of productive age of about 20 years, which is divided into three production stages whereby the outputs follow the law of diminishing returns (Figure 1). Stage I is an irrational stage at which there tends to be under- employment of input. Stage II, at which there is full employment of inputs, is a rational stage. Stage III is again an irrational stage for a different reason, i.e. over-employment of input. On average, the length of each stage is about seven years. Figure 1: Principles of production efficiency (Notes: Figures at the bottom are based on the study case – Bukit Lawiang oil plam plantation) These stages also reflect three important production events. The terminal point of Stage I is characterized by maximum profit is at A; the point of maximum revenue at B; while the point of terminal productive cycle at C. Each stage can have a time-span of around 7 years. Study Case To illustrate the above three events, a study case was chosen, namely the Tabung Haji oil palm plantation at Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor. A summary of production area is shown in Table 3 while the basic production profile is shown in Table 4. Table 3: Production area of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation, Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor Block Planted year Area (ha.) PM 82A PM 83B PM 84A PM 84B PM 84C PM 84D PM 85A PM 85B Building/office/quarters Hilly forest/vacant land 1982 1993 1984 1984 1984 1984 1985 1985 219 356 334 282 269 296 105 128 12 13 Total 2,014 6 Using the data in columns 2 and 4 of Table 4, a production prediction curve was estimated as FFB = 6.205 + 2.0548*year - 0.0622*year 2 where year represents the age of oil palm trees from field transplanting. Based on output mean differential adjustment technique (Hamid, 2000) the equation was used to further predict the FFB production for years 16 through 28. It was then multiplied by price of FFB per ton to obtain total revenue curve. Two essential production functions were then estimated as follows: 7 Table 4: Production data of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation, Bukit Lawiang, Kluang, Johor Year Age (Year) Total output (ton FFB) FFB/ha (ton) FFB price (RM/ton) Production cost (RM/ton) 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 33,593.22 36,057.28 40,956.37 45,142.11 38,142.00 40,207.59 45,581.18 43,334.00 41,900.00 46,000.00 42,000.00 16.89 18.13 20.59 22.70 19.18 20.21 22.92 21.79 21.07 23.13 21.12 120.49 157.01 184.07 170.77 270.77 286.41 234.24 210.00 210.00 210.00 210.00 77.72 85.00 82.62 80.26 105.3 107.54 113.95 95.00 93.00 90.00 92.00 Note: FFB = fresh fruit bunch. TREV = 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR 2 (1) TCOS = 250*YEAR (2) where TREV = total revenue and TCOS = total cost. Using equations (1) and (2) above, three fundamental aspects of production decisions in oil palm cultivation can be analysed (see Figure 2). Firstly, the point at which profit is the highest, i.e. the point is when MR = MC, i.e. at point A. Secondly, age of maximum yield is achieved when MR = d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0, i.e. at point B. With the production function given, this point can be ascertained by mathematical differentiation of the function. Thirdly, age at which replanting is needed is when profit is equals zero, i.e. at point C. (a) Age of highest profit MR = d(TREV)/d(YEAR) = 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR. MC = d(TCOS)/d(YEAR) = 250 At point A, MR = MC. Thus, 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR = 250 ∴YEAR = (798.035 – 250)/43.68 = 12.55 (b) Age of maximum revenue TREV = 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR 2 d(TREV)/d(Year) = 798.035 - 43.68*YEAR At point B, MR = d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0. Thus, ∴YEAR = 798.035/43.68 = 18.27 (c ) Age of replanting π = TREV - TCOS = 0 = 0.771785 + 798.035*YEAR - 21.84*YEAR 2 - 250*YEAR = 0 = (548.035 - 21.84*YEAR)*YEAR = -0.771785 The logical solution is 548.035 - 21.84*YEAR = -0.771785 ∴YEAR = 548.806786/21.84 = 25 The summary of the above calculation is shown in Table 5. Table 5: Three important production events in oil plam Production stage Criteria Remarks Point of maximum profit When MR = MC (where MC = 250) Calculation: Year = 12.6 Achieved after about 9 years from first production (3.5 years of age) Point of maximum revenue When MR = 0 Calculation: Year = 18.3 Achieved about 6 years after age of maximum profit Point of terminal production When TREV - TCOS = 0 Calculation: Year = 25 Achieved about 7 years after age of maximum revenue From Table 5, it can be said that the 7-Y-C RoT is useful in the production planning of long-term crop. For such a crop, the manager should embark on an efficient approach to produce the highest profit within seven years after the first year of FFB production. From this point, he knows that production rate is going to decline whereby the rate will reduce to zero when the production reaches the maximum level of revenue over the next seven years. The final seven years is a period that prepares the manager for a replanting scheme. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF “SEVEN-YEAR” PERIOD IN FOOD MANAGEMENT UNDERSTANDING CYCLES One important aspect of 7-Y-C RoT is related to seasonal fluctuation in agricultural production and output price or simply called agricultural cycle. This cycle is reflected in the successions of good period and abundant yields or favourable prices (period 1); followed by dry period, bad growth, bad harvest, famine, and unfavourable product prices (period 2); and finally rainy period, good growth, good harvest, abundant yields, and favourable product prices again (period 1). This cycle is illustrated in Figure 2. Figure 2: The concept of cycle Agricultural cycle can last for a few, say five to seven years. Examples of such a phenomenon were 5- year production cycle starting in 2000 in China (China Daily, 7/3/2008); seven-year downward trend in wheat production starting in 1998 in the U.S. (USDA, 2004a, 2004b). The El Niño that affects agricultural production can develop every 4 to 7 years (Strock and Everett, 2002). Output price cycles in some crops such oil palm and soya bean have an average cycle length of seven years (Figure 3). 8 Figure 3: Price fluctuation in crude palm oil (CPO) and soya bean oil (source: PT SMART Tbk, 2006) One of the challenges as a result of agricultural cycles is to stabilize production and/or price. As shown in Figure 3, both oil palm and soya ben faced a tremendous pressure to increase their market prices during the periods of 1989-1990, 1994-1996, 1999-2001, and 2003-2005. Therefore, it is crucial to understand such changes and to put up farming strategy during such periods. Indeed, this is a difficult task. One widely adopted agricultural risk stabilizing strategy is agricultural contract scheme. In this context, seven-year contract schemes in agricultural subsidies have become the common ground in many countries, especially to alleviate the impacts of production and price risks since producers normally rely totally on the marketplace. USDA’s Risk Management Agency, for instance, has an agricultural support scheme whereby producers receive fixed payments over a seven-year period, on a declining basis (Kintzle, 2005). FOOD SUSTAINABILITY Food production has the fundamental function of providing necessary nutrition to the society permanently. In order to achieve this goal, agricultural sustainability is a must. This needs a well- managed farming system. Among other things, the key food sustainability strategy is well-managed food production, consumption, and stock systems. This, in turn, requires a thorough understanding of life cycle stages of the food system. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analytical method used to evaluate the resource consumption and environmental burdens associated with a product, process, or activity. In agriculture, food LCA uses indicators that address economic, social, and environmental aspects of each life cycle stage: origin of (genetic) resource, agricultural growing and production, food processing, packaging and distribution, preparation and consumption, and end of life (Heller and Keoleian, 2000). The basic principle of this has been laid down by Prophet Yusof himself. Firstly, he recommended continuous food production through seven good years or cultivation. Secondly, he recommended grain storage for seeds propagation. Thirdly, he allocated the budget for agricultural production and building storage and processing facilities. Fourthly, during the following seven famine years, he allocated the amount of stored grains to the Egyptian people according to per capita minimum requirement. This way, he managed to avoid starvation and control the prices of grains. Prophet Yusof’s approach to providing grain storage has set the principle in the use of buffer stock for many commodities in the modern world’s economies as a strategy of facing production and economic 9 10 cycles. Rubber, cocoa, etc. are examples of such commodities. The concept was then broadened to include processed foodstuff. For example, as a result of shortage of supply and rising prices Malaysia has made a move by creating buffer stock for controlled consumer food items such as sugar, cooking oil, and flour in 2008. It has done so for rice in the 1960s. One very crucial aspect of food sustainability, as taught by Prophet Yusof, is food production planning. The main objective is to ensure food sufficiency through farm production. We may have wondered how he has planned crop cultivation for a 14-year period to ensure food security. The principle lies in the sustainability mentioned above. A simple example of cultivation planning is as follows: Od = Cd x Sf x Dt x Pt [where P o (1 + g) n ] (3) Rr = Od/[Fd x (1 – Fl)] (4) Ac = Rr/Og (5) where Od = minimum annual dry-weight-equivalent dietary (ADWED) needs of the population; Cd = minimum daily per capita per serving dietary needs of a particular type of grain crop; Sf = frequency of daily intake of that grain food; Dt = number of days of annual consumption of that grain type; Pt = population size in a particular year; Po = population size in the base year; g = population’s annual net growth (%);n = number of years of growth; Rr = minimum required annual fresh-weight grain (AFWeG) production (metric ton); Fd = dry food content conversion factor (per tonnage basis); Fl = processing & marketing inefficiency factor (per tonnage basis); Ac = total minimum annual area of cultivation (AAoC) needed (ha.); and Og = potential grain production (metric ton/ha.). Let say Po = 100,000; g = 2%; t = 7; Cd = 0.2 kg; Sf = 2; Dt = 365; Og = 35 metric tons/ha.; Fd = 0.45; and Fl = 0.15. The solutions for the above models are tabulated as follows: Table 6: Hypothetical example of grain production functions Year Population Minimum ADWED needs (metric ton) Minimum AFWeG production (metric ton) Total minimum AAoC needed (ha.) 0 100,000 14,600.00 38,169.93 1,090.57 1 102,000 14,892.00 38,933.33 1,112.38 2 104,040 15,189.84 39,712.00 1,134.63 3 106,121 15,493.64 40,506.24 1,157.32 4 108,243 15,803.51 41,316.36 1,180.47 5 110,408 16,119.58 42,142.69 1,204.08 6 112,616 16,441.97 42,985.55 1,228.16 Total 108,540.54 283,766.11 8,107.60 Average 106,204 27,135.13 70,941.53 2,026.90 Table 7: Hypothetical example of grain production planning Year Minimum AFWeG production (metric ton) Total minimum AAoC needed (ha.) Current Future Current Future 0 38,169.93 - 1,090.57 - 1 38,933.33 - 1,112.38 - 2 39,712.00 - 1,134.63 - 3 40,506.24 - 1,157.32 - 4 41,316.36 - 1,180.47 2,702.53 5 42,142.69 141,883.06 1,204.08 2,702.53 6 42,985.55 141,883.06 1,228.16 2,702.53 11 Since the first “good” seven years should be planned to provide a buffer stock for the next “bad” seven years, the minimum AFWeG production at the end of the first seven years should be twice the total AFWeG figure (row 9, column 4) in Table 6. In the same way, the total minimum AAoC needed at the end of the first seven years should be twice the total AAoC figure (row 9, column 5) in Table 6. In general, the total area of cultivated land should be doubled beginning from the fifth of the first seven years while crop output should be doubled beginning from the sixth and seventh years. IMPLICATIONS OF THE 7-Y-C ROT A question that perhaps worth pondering is: do we need to change our farming management strategy from a five-year to a seven-year basis? This paper does not provide the answer for the question since it did not carry out a comparative analysis of farming management in that way. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that resource use and production optimality may be best achieved over a seven- year period. Therefore, there can be an opportunity to strategize the management of agricultural sector on a seven-year basis to achieve such optimality. Russia has ever done this a long time before (Rutland, 1985). Korea has also done this whereby together with its First Six-Year Plan (1971-76), the Second Seven-Year Plan (1978-84) and Third Seven-Year Plan (1985-1992) have, among other things, aimed at the improvement of rural living conditions and rural infrastructure; expansion of food grain production to achieve self-sufficiency; development of land and water resources to protect farmers from unfavorable climatic conditions; accelerated farm mechanization so as to free farm workers from heavy manual labor (1998; 1999). CONCLUSION The 7-Y-C RoT was a prophetic interpretation of a dream that took a place thousands of years ago. It was then repeated in the al-Qur’an through a story in surah Yusof. Since al-Qur’an is a miracle, there must be a great wisdom behind the event. This paper has discussed the basic principles underlying 7- Y-C RoT in farming management. Although the discussion is far from conclusive, there is some reason to believe that 7-Y-C RoT has some scientific rationales for farming practices. Among other things, there is evidence to believe that various aspects in farming changes crucially over a seven- year period. In other words, seven-year period can be said to be a crucial period during which agricultural phenomena change. REFERENCES [1] http://www.altafsir.com/Tafasir.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=1&tSoraNo=12&tAyahNo=45&tDisplay=yes&Page=3 &Size=1 [2] http://www.fas.usda.gov/pecad/highlights/2004/12/Ukraine%20Ag%20Overview/index.htm [3] http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/Story.aspx?guid={5E1ED83A-F5D9-4232-BC35- 796E7580FC82}&siteId=mktw Al-Tabari (d. 304). Tafseer Jami’ fi Tafseer al-Qur’an/Al-Tabari musonnaf wa mudakkaq. Bowman, G. (2002). Steel in the Field: A Farmer’s Guide to Weed Management Tools. Handbook Series Book 2. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program of CSREES, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 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USDA’s Foreign Agricultural Service: http://www.fas.usda.gov/ Genral internet materials on fafseer of al-qur’aan: http://www.altafsir.com/ American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications, 2009 Fruit Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance 1 Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, 1Mir Ajab Khan, 2Muhammad Aslam Khan, Mushtaq Ahmad, 1Muhammad Zafar, 3Fazal-ur-Rehman and 1Shazia Sultana 1 1 2 Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad Department of Arabic, Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan 3 Faculty of Pharmacy Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran, Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Present findings confined to 10 fruit plant species belonging to 10 genera of 9 families. The plant species are: Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai, Cucumis sativus L., Cydonia oblonga Mill. Ficus carica L., Olea europea L., Phoenix dactylifera L., Punica granatum L., Salvadora persica L., Vitis vinifera L. and Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Complete macro & microscopic detailed morphological features of these species were discussed. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name, Arabic name, family, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and, Ahadith. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical importance of fruits in the light of Islam. A table comprising, distribution in world, flowering period and chemical constituents, is given. Key words: Ethnomedicinal study % Pakistan % Holy Quran % Ahadith INTRODUCTION Fruits are one of the oldest forms of food known to man. There are many references to fruits in ancient literature. Vedas state that the fruits form the base of the Food of Gods. According to Qur’an, the fruits like grape, date, fig, olive and pomegranate are gifts and heavenly fruits of God. The people in ancient times regarded fruits to be endowed with magic or divine properties. They gave them due reverence and dedicated them to their gods and goddesses. They also used their designs in decorating temples, vestments or ceremonial garments and sacred vessels. Fresh and dry fruits are the natural staple food of man. They contain substantial quantities of essential nutrients in a rational proportion. They are excellent sources of minerals, vitamins and enzymes. They are easily digested and exercise a cleansing effect on the blood and the digestive tract. Persons subsisting on this natural diet will always enjoy good health. Moreover, the ailments caused by the intake of unnatural foods can be successfully treated by fruits. Fresh and dry fruits are thus not only a good food but also a good medicine [1]. Fruits, eaten raw or consumed as fresh juice, are excellent ways to retain and balance the moisture level in the body. The low level of sodium in fruits plays an important role for people who would like to avail of a saltfree diet. Dry fruits like apricots, raisins and dates are storehouses of calcium and iron, essential for the strengthening of bones and maintaining good blood, respectively. Custard apple too is an excellent calcium source. If you are unwell, consume fruits in the form of fresh juice only. One or two fruits a day cleans the digestive tract and aids easy bowel action [2]. Plants are an essential component of the universe. Human beings have used plants as medicine from the very beginning of time. After various observations and experimentations medicinal plants were identified as a source of important medicine, therefore, treatment through these medicinal plants, began in the early stages of human civilization [3]. Approximately 70% of the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the fresh plants. Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines are prepared from herbs. Pakistan is very rich in plants of medicinal value [4]. Corresponding Author: Sarfaraz Khan Marwat, Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad 284 Am-Euras. J. Agric. & Environ. Sci., 5 (2): 284-295, 2009 In Islam diseases are cured in two ways, first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments through medicines. The Holy Quran is one of the reference books describing the importance of plants used for different ailments in various Surahs. The Holy Quran says: And the earth He has put down (laid) for the creatures. Theirin are fruits, date palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates). And also corn, with (its) leaves and stalks for fodder and sweet-scented plants. Then which of the blessings of your lord will you both (jinn and men) deny? [5]. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) frequently commented upon the nature and value of various foods and spices. These comments were noted by his wives and companions (Radiallaho Anhum) and remain available to us today [6]. Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam, research work was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and create awareness about the fruit plant species enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Comprehensive and detailed information about 10 fruit plant species of ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Plants species were arranged in systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by family, Quranic name, Arabic name, English name, habit and habitat, part used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic books. Correct botanical names, their families and identification of plants were done by using flora of Pakistan. RESULTS Present findings were confined to 10 fruit plant species belonging to 10 genera of 9 families enlisted in Holy Quran, Ahadith and Islamic literature. The plant species are: Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis sativus., Cydonia oblonga. Ficus carica Olea europea, Phoenix dactylifera, Punica granatum, Salvadora persica, Vitis vinifera and Zizyphus mauritiana which are used throughout the world for various aspects such as food, vegetable, medicinal and industrial products. Data inventory constitutes botanical name, family, Quranic name, English name, local names, Arabic name, habit and habitat, parts used, medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. A table comprising S. #., botanical name, distribution in world, flowering and fruiting period and chemical constituents, is given at the end. Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mats. & Nakai English Name: Water Melon Local Name: Tarbooz Arabic Name: Bitteekh Family: Cucurbitaceae Habit & Habitat: Annual climber or trailer, cultivated. Part used: Fruit and seeds. Medicinal uses: Kidney pain clears the urine and stomach, facial beauty, increase immunity, jaundice and have cold effects. References from Ahadith C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (Radiyallahu Anhu): Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe dates with water melon [7]. C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (Radiyallahu Anhu ) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said, “Water melon is diet as well as drink. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. It increases the sexual power [8]. C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallahu Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate water melon with fresh dates [8]. Cucumis sativus L. English name: Local name: Arabic name: Family Name: Habit and Habitat: Parts used: Medicinal uses: Cucumber Khira Qissa, Khiarun Cucurbitaceae Annual trailer or climber, cultivated herb. Fruit Cooling, diuretic, tonic and vermifuge, diuretic, purgative. References from Holy Quran C Sûrah 2. Al-Baqarah, Verse. # 61: And (remember) when you said, “O Mûsâ (Moses)! We can not endure one kind of food. So invoke your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the earth grows, its 285 Am-Euras. Agric. maleness.Verily. remove the measlesspot. dyspepsia and anorexia. common cold. It ends (cures) the piles and is useful for rheumatism. leaves. kidney pain. endocarditis. For Allah has sent no prophet as His messenger without feeding him on the quince of Paradise [8]. Sci.. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit & Habitat: Part used: Medicinal uses: Olive Zaitoon Zaitoon Oleaceae An erect branched cultivated tree. “Feed your pregnant women on quince. baldness. 2009 herbs. # 99: And out of the datepalm and its spathe come forth clusters of dates hanging low and near and gardens of grapes. C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that someone presented the Prophet a plate of figs and he said. Fruit and oil Strengthen body muscles. “Eat fig. Ficus carica L. for it sweetens the heart.” [5]. its Fûm (wheat or garlic).A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: the burden of the heart is removed by eating of the Quince [8]. C Narrated Aisha.We created man in the best stature(mould) [5]. Tirmizi. pericarditis. “Eat the Quince (Safarjal) because it cure the heart attack and relieves(removes) the burden of the chest” [8]. Then I became very fat [9]. Verse. Al-An‘âm. C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (R. Muslim. for it cures the piles and is useful for rheumatism” [8]. stomach and respiratory diseases. Ibne Maja [9]. Cydonia oblonga Mill. Ummul Mu'minin (Radiyallahu Anha): My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). 1-4: By the fig and the olive. diarrhea. C The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. English Name: Quince Local Name: Bahi Arabic Name: Safarjal Family: Rosaceae Habit & Habitat: Small tree (shrub) found in dry rocky places. References from Holy Quran C Surah 6. Verse. for it cures the 286 diseases of the heart and makes the babies handsome” [8]. slow down aging. “Eat figs! If I would say a certain type of fruit was sent down to us from the heavens I would say it’s a fig because it has no seeds. References from Ahadith C Hazrat Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anho) narrates that Rasullullah (Sallallhu Alayhi Wasallam) said. C Hazrat Jabir bin Abdullah (R. piles.A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. References from Holy Quran C Surrah Teen. #. dysentery References from Ahadith C Hazrat Talha bin Ubaid Ullah (R. J. Milk Remove kidney and urinary bladder stone. tuberculosis. "Eat quince.A) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said: This (Quince) makes the heart strengthen. foothills and cultivated on the plains. By this city of security (Makkah). olive . C Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ) reported: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) eating cucumber with fresh dates [8]. makes the breath pleasant and relieves (removes) the burden of the chest [8]. By mount Sinai. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit & Habitat: Part used: Medicinal uses: Figs Anjeer Teen Moraceae A small tree cultivated in poor soil Bark. But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. clear the blood. C Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. pancreas pain. release intestinal pain. its lentils and its onions. & Environ. Medicinal uses: Heart diseases. References from Ahadith C Narrated Abdullah bin Ja'far (Radiyallahu Anhu ): I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) eating fresh dates with cucumber [Bukhari. 5 (2): 284-295. eczema.”[10] Olea europea L. its cucumbers. pile. watered with same water [5]. & Environ. skin diseases. C Surah Ar-Ra‘d.” [8] C Hazrat Alqama Bin Amir (R. since there is cure for seventy diseases in it. Verse. References from Holy Quran C Surah Al-Bakara. wherein much fruit is for you and whereof you eat [5]. C Hazrat Zaid Bin Arqam (R. Maryam. #. An-Nahl.A) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated. may be found self grown.e. C Hazrath Abu Hurairah (R. C Surah Al-Mumenoon.A. Surrah Teen. “ We have been directed by the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi .Am-Euras. C Surah Yaseen. massage over your body. “I came to Madinah with Ghalib Bin Al Jabr. An-Nahl. or otherwise (one stem root for every palm). growing. treat yourself with this. this olive tree is not localized. eat it. Look at their fruits when they begin to bear and the ripeness thereof. though no fire touched it. “There is olive oil for you.A) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) stated. # 99: (see in the references of Olea).A ) narrates. C Surah 19. into two or three from a single stem root. it gets sun-rays in the afternoon*). Verse 34: And we have made therein gardens of date-palms and grapes and we have caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5]. sexual weakness. Wasallam) that we should treat the Pleurisy with Qust-e-Behri (Qust Sheerin) and olive oil. Verse. 287 References from Ahadith C Hazrat Abu huraira (R. the date-palms. an olive.) narrates. each similar (in kind) yet different (in variety and taste). piles. Verse 266: Would any of you wish to have a garden with date-palms and vines [5]. for such is Allah’s light. C Surah 16. neither it gets sun-rays only in the morning*) nor of the west (i. Phoenix dactylifera L. diarrhea. swelling of kidney.A) narrates that Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. antidote. Surah 16. C Hazrat Aqba Bin Amir (R. Ibn Abi Ateeq came to see him and told a narration from Hazrat Aisha(R. Verse 19: Then We brought forth for you therewith gardens of date-palms and grapes. Verse. # 25: “And shake the trunk of the date-palm towards you.) narrated that Rasullullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said “Eat the olive oil and massage it over your bodies since it is a holy (mubarak) tree. C Surah-An-Nahl. liver disorders. Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Heart diseases. Ghalib became ill during the journey. 12]. heart attack.” [8]. you drive strong drink and goodly provision [5]. C Khalid Bin Saad (R. Verse 67: And from the fruits of date-palms and grapes. stomach pain. 1-4: (see under the reference of Ficus). # 4: and date-palms. the olives. it will let fall fresh ripe-dates upon you. C Surah Yaseen. Agric. since it cures the Anal fissure (Basoor). C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. Verily! In these things there are signs for people who believe [5]. the grapes and every kind of fruit. Sci.” [8. intestinal pain. We crushed a few seeds of Kalonji and mixed it with olive oil and dropped in both nostrils. It is universal. English Name: Date palm Local Name: Khajoor Arabic Name: Balah Family: Arecaceae Habit & Habitat: Cultivated tree.. physical strengthing.Verse 91: “ Or you have a garden of date-palms and grapes and cause rivers to gush forth in their midst abundantly.” [12]. Verse. # 11: “With it He causes to grow for you the crops.” [5].e. wound healer. Verily! In this isindeed an evident proof and a manifest sign for people who give thought” [5].A. It is neither of the east nor of the west. labour pain. since it is effective in Heamorrhoids (Piles). # 35: “Lit from a blessed tree. “You have the olive oil from this Holy (mubarak) tree. whose oil would almost glow forth (of itself). Verse: 34: And We have made therein gardens of date-palms and grapes and We have caused springs of water to gush forth therein [5].” [5]. C Surah Israa. An-Nûr. after which Ghalib became healthy.” [5]. one of them is Leprosy. “Eat the olive oil and apply it (locally). 5 (2): 284-295.” [12]. Verse. Surah 24. J. . neither of the east (i. Verse.A.) that the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) told about the cure in Kalonji. # 11: (see under the references of Olea).” [7]. *According to Yousa Ali [11]. shrill the voice. 2009 C C C and pomegranates. Pilu(Urdu). Surah 80.Am-Euras. eye diseases. hepatitis. 5 (2): 284-295. dental problems. carminative. Verse. English Name: Pomegranate Local Name: Anar Arabic Name: Rumman Family: Punicaceae Habit & Habitat: Tree. antidote to poison." [8. * In Arabic the word “Qitha” is used for both ‘cucumber-khira’ and ‘snake cucumber-kakri’. ‘Abasa. muscle pain. Flowering period: March-June.” [8. Folkmedicinal uses: Useful in rheumatism and scurvy. References from Qur’an C Sura Saba. Sci. heart and liver diseases.e. The Kamah (truffles) is a type of Manna and its water (extract) cures the eye [7. poultice for tumour and pile. diuretic and deobstruent. # 27-29: And We cause therein the grain to grow and grapes and clover plants (i. C Abdullah ibn Jaafar radiyallahu anhu says. “that is the date palm tree. “I saw Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) eating *Qith’a (cucumbers or snake cucumber) with fresh dates. Punica granatum L. 12].” [8. 12]. Its leaves do not fall. # 11-28: Therein are fruits. date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates) [5]. 12]. References from Holy Quran C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. "There is a tree among the trees which is similar to a Muslim (in goodness). oral diseases. Verses. will not be affected by poison and magic on the day he eats them. Fruit edible. # 141: (see under references of Olea ) C Surah Ar-Rahman Verse. # 99: (see under references of Olea ) C Surah Al-An‘âm Verse. J. "He who eats seven dates of Madina (Ajwa dates) every morning. # 16: But they turned away (from the obedience of Allah). 288 . diarrhea and dysentery. so we sent against them Sail Al-‘Arim (flood released from the dam) and we converted their two gardens into gardens producing bitter bad fruit and tamarisks and some few lote-trees [5]. Jhal Habit and Habitat: Shrub or small tree found in rocky slopes and sandy area. “The ‘Ajwah is from Paradise and it is an antidote against poison. 2009 C C Surah 55. C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbass (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. Ar-Rahmân." [8. Useful in biliousness. Mustard tree Local names: Jhal (Saraiki) Playman (Pashto).A) narrated that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. cultivated in the area. C Hazrat Ali bin Abi Talib (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wassallam) said. # 68-69: (see under references of Olea ) References from Ahadith C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radiyallahu Anhu) narrated that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. “Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) ate watermelon with fresh dates. 8]. "There is not a pomegranate which does not have a pip from one of the pomegranates of the Garden (of Jannah) in it.green fodder for the cattle) and olives and date-palms [5].. C Hazrat Aisha (Radiyallah Anha) reports that. What is that tree? The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself said. Verse. Agric. "Pomegranate and its rind strengthen digestion (stomach)" [12]. C Hazrat S’ad bin AbiWaqas (R. Parts used: Whole plant.” [8].13]. References from Ahadith C Hazrat Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Radiyallah Anhu) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi References From Ahdith C Hazrat Abdullah bin Umar (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrated that The Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. Tibb name(s): Pilun. Al-arak. Khardal English name: Tooth brush tree. & Environ. Salvadora persica L. Family: Salvadoraceae Quranic Name: Khamt Arabic Name: Shajar-e-Miswak. asthma and cough. piles. Part used: Fruit Medicinal uses: Stomach cough. Agric. “You have resaisins (Munaqqa) which make the colour of the face handsome and remove the phlegm” [7. Wash (pointing towards a person who died at Arafat) him with water and leaves of sidar [8]. An-Najm. 14]. Hazrat Abu Zaidul-Ghafqi (Radiyallah Anhus) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. According Farooqi [8. Bera.e. there will be a success (Paradise).A): The Prophet said. # 27. 28: (see under refereces of Phoenix. C Surah Abasa. C C Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. Verse 266: (see under the reference of Phoenix). Quranic Name: Sidar Arabic Name: Nabaq. the next day and sometimes the third day [8]. Verse 19: (see under the reference of Phoenix). C Sura Waqiya. References from Ahadith C Hazrat Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmatullah ALayhi) narrates. 14: And indeed he (Muhammad Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) saw him [ Jibril (Gabriel)] at a second descent (i. References from Ahadith C Narrated Abu Huraira (R. Family: Rhamnaceae Habit and Habitat: Wild and cultivated found in dry area and rocky places. # 16: ( see under reference Salvadora). Verse. Parts used: Fruit.. C Surah Israa. cough. & Environ. Folkmedicinal uses: Treatment of abscesses and wounds. Gardens and vineyards (5). Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach [9]. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. anodyne and tonic. C Surah 53. styptic and purifying blood References from Quran C Sura Saba. liver and lung disorders. He used to drink this syrup that day. stomach diseases.Verse 91: (see under the reference of Phoenix). “Miswak purifies the mouth and is a cause of Allah’s pleasure” [Bukhari (13. Fruit juice Common cold. Note: There is contradiction about the plant (Cidar) mentioned in the Holy Qur’an. “Miswak is of three types. Near it is the Paradise of Abode. C Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said.8]. Sci. for the Muttaqun. "Don't call the grapes Al-Karm. 2009 C C C Wassallam) said. remove weary. Verses 27. Narrated Abdullah bi Abbass (R. cultivated for fruit purposes. 8]. clear the face and cancer. C Surah Yaseen. Verse. Verses 13. (because) Al-Karm is the heart of the Mumin” [8]. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit & Habitat: Part used: Medicinal uses: Grapes Munaka Inab Vitaceae Perennial vine. 15] and Chughtai [14] the word ‘Sidar’ does not mean 289 References from Holy Qur’an C Surah Al-Bakara.Am-Euras. . Verse 34: (see under the reference of Phoenix). J.) C Surah l-Mumenoon. C Surah-An-Nahl. dog bite. leaves. When that covered the lote-tree which did cover it [5]. kidney and urinary bladder pain. was the fruit of the Zizyphus [8.32: Verily. Hazrat Abu-Hizat-us-Sabahi (Radiyallah Anhus) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) gave him a twig of Salvadora (Al-Arak) and said. “The first fruit eaten by Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Sallam)” after His descent on the earth. another time). Vitis vinifera L.A): Raisins were soaked for Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam). wood. Hazrat Aaisha (Radiyallah Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. 5 (2): 284-295. “The black coloured Kapas (fruit of Salvadora) is the best (finest) one” [13. Near Sidrat-ul-Muntaha (a lote-tree of the outmost boundary over the seventh heaven beyond which none can pass). 28: And those on the Right hand-how (fortunate) will be those on the Right Hand? (They will be) among thornless lote-tree [5]. C Surah An-Naba. relax body and brain muscles. Sidar English Name: Indian jujube Local Name: Ber. Verses 31. Verse 67: (see under the reference of Phoenix). If Salvadora is not available then (use) Anum and Batum [8]. “Use it as miswak” [8]. 8]. cooling effects on body. (ber in urdu) but it is used for another plant Cedrus sp. The fruit. cellulose. it needs further investigation. Narrated Aisha. diuretic. Ummul Mu'minin (Radiallaho Anha): My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). tonic and vermifuge. The rind of the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic poisoning and diabetes [18]. Sahl bin S’ad Al-S’adi (Radiyallahu Anhu) Narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) ate ripe date with water melon [Ibne Maja. in explaining this. 290 . ‘Yes. magnesium and sodium contents of the fruit act as a diuretic and dieresis-frequency of urination is considerably increased when fruits and fruit juices are taken.(Labnani deodar in hindi and urdu). Agric. Citrullus lanatus (water melon-bittikh) has many references in Ahadith. Dried fruits such as apricots. The sugars and organic acids contained in fruits also increase their laxative effect. should we seek medicine?’ He said. 14]. While the commentators of the Quran and Ahadith consider it Zizyphus mauritiana (ber or beri). In Tirmidhi and other narrations. The ripe cucumbers dispel heat and are diuretic. The fibrous matter in fruits. It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under your eyes.It is diuretic.. Imam Ahmed narrated that Usamah bin Shuraik(Radiallaho Anhuma) said: “I was with the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) when the Bedouins came to him and said ‘O messenger of Allah. & Environ. Cucumis sativus (Cucumber-qitta') is another plant that has many references in Holy Qur’an and Ahadith. It increases the sexual power [8]. Sayyidina Rasoolullah sallallahu alaihe wasallam also said. 25-50 grams of the thoroughly ground seeds (including the seed coat) is a standard dose as a vermifuge and usually needs to be followed by a purgative to expel the worms from the body. DISCUSSION Fruits have highly beneficial natural effect on the human system. The Holy Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of Islam. It is sometimes used in the treatment of the urinary passages and has been used to treat bed wetting. aids in the smooth passage of the food in the digestive tract and easy bowel action. These minerals are essential for strong bones and good blood respectively. Eating dates with green cucumber is said to cause weight gain [18]. Taking of fruits or fruit juice is the most pleasant way of hydrating the organism.” [12. is used as a febrifuge. Fruits furnish minerals to the body. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also found in the skins of tomatoes). paralyze tapeworms and roundworms. regular use of fruits prevents and cures constipation [2]. It is a good vermifuge and has a hypotensive action. Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Salam) and was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) but search and compiling of these medicines is still continued through out the world [16]. Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (Radiyallahu Anhuma) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. for Allah has not created a disease except that he has also created its cure. The seed of Citrullus lanatus (Water melon-battikh) is demulcent. raisins and dates are rich in calcium and iron. As there exists difference of opinions. diuretic. 2009 Zizyphus sp. Hence. The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. It cotains signs and verses which have been leading people of different ages and of different academics and intellectual background to believe in Islam. But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. pectoral and tonic. This is world-wide treatment which is being used to its maximum extent. 5 (2): 284-295. They lower the urine density and thereby accelerate the elimination of nitrogenous waste and chlorides. It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” [17]. The water absorbed by sick persons in this manner has an added advantage of supplying sugar and minerals at the same time. “The cold effect of one removes the heat of the other and the heat of one removes the cold effect of the other. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal stones. Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. This substance has been shown to protect the body from heart attacks. A fatty oil in the seed. “Water melon is a diet as well as drink. except for one illness’ they said ‘And what is that? Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said ‘Old age’ [12]. Then I became fat as she desired [9]. A decoction of the root is diuretic [9]. The seed is cooling. Clinical observations have shown that potassium. as well as aqueous or alcoholic extracts. O slaves of Allah seek medicine. Sci. 1991)]. therefore. eaten when fully ripe or even when almost putrid. J.Am-Euras. Tirmizi (Ghaznavi. The fruit is mildly laxative. especially in the young. 2009 Cydonia oblonga (Quince-safarjal) is said that to eat quince on an empty stomach is good for the soul. hemiplegia and paraplegia [17]. Many workers have proved that increased intake of olive oil icreased HDL level. . Considerable evidence has led to the suggestion that a diet high in olive oil is particularly beneficial with regard to increasing high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) levels which is a protective agent against atherosclerosis and ischemic heart disease. For Allah has sent no prophet as His messenger without feeding him on the quince of Paradise. emollient. can be used as a mouthwash or gargle to treat mouth ulcers. gum problems and sore throats. Almighty Allah has said. peptic. demulcent. Fig plant is one of the only five plants mentioned in the Quraan. By Mount Sinai and By this land which is made safe. digestive and pectoral. According to Ibn Seereen. Ficus carica (Fig-teen) In the first Qur’anic verses in Sura al Teen. A few seeds placed in water will. form mucilage which is an excellent remedy for cough and sore throat. The fruit is often dried for later use and this dried fruit is a major item of commerce. It is a good Diuretic. Now a days olive oil is advised by the physicians in cases of stroke. He said: “Eat it as it cures various diseases”. For quince increases the strength up to that of forty men. Olea europea (Olive-zaytun) is another plant that has many references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. No doubt . after a few minutes. olive oil is more beneficial than corn oil as regards the serum lipid profile. Quince is also excellent for pregnant women. The roasted fruit is emollient and used as a poultice in the treatment of gumboils. quince is astringent to the stomach and it checks excessive menstrual flow. The saying of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) about medicines are spread over 200 books in the world [9]. expectorant. In this context. Phoenix dactylifera (Date-Nahal) The date palm is playing an important role in the history of mankind. astringent. It relieves the Sciatic and arthritis. Syrup of figs. a syrup made from it is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and is particularly safe for children. J. the “Olive” is a very useful tree. 5 (2): 284-295. figs. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. made from the fruit. The function of HDL is to pick up the cholesterol from periphery and to take it to the liver and to excrete it through bile. diuretic. pomegranate and dates. carminative." [18]. Allah feels for human beings [19]. restorative. among the unsaturated edible oils. The fruit and its juice. [12]. Fig and Olive together in the Quran. pectoral. Surely we created man of the best stature” [17]. The fruit is antivinous. The benefits I have restricted myself to mentioning here is an indication of the compassion. garlands. When saturated with oil and covered with emery is used as a substitute for a hone [18]. the holy Prophet (PBUH) has said: “Use the Olive Oil in your meals and also use it for massage. Cold and dry. The leaves contain tannin and pectin. A renowned scholar Shabir Ahmad Usmani states that since the trees of Olive and Fig have many advantages. It is used for hoops. if seen in dreams. Its name has been mentioned in most of the holy books like “Tourat” and “Injeel”. The unripe green fruits are cooked with other foods as a galactogogue and tonic. along with olives. Hadith literature provide us with an event related to the fig: According to Abu Darda (Radiallaho Anhu) someone presented figs to the prophet Muhammed (God's blessing and peace be upon him) and he began distributing it among his followers. hence is used in Ascites. Its importance and versatility are borne out by the fact that 291 . stimulant and tonic. This tree is found in Syria and its bordering countries as well as in some parts of the world. grapes. 1). refrigerant. cardiac. It also removes the kidney stones. It is so remarkable that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) had stressed the use of Olive Oil and the recent medical research has proved that the substitution of saturated fats with unsaturated fats lowers the serum cholesterol level. dental abscesses etc. Furthermore. & Environ. it is cure of seventy diseases”. ornaments etc. 95: verse no. In Ahadith it is said that “eat the olive oil and applied it on the body. it relieves muscular pains. a scholar in the science of dreams. Tannin can be used as an astringent whilst pectin has a beneficial effect on the circulatory system and helps to reduce blood pressure [18]. Agric. "By the Fig and Olive.Wood-pliable but porous and of little value. The massage of olive oil over the body tones up the muscles and organs. So the creator has mentioned the names of Man.. Other workers have also noted that unsaturated oil (including olive oil) has more beneficial potential than the saturated vegetable oil and butter fat. Sci. due to the direct cholesterol lowering effects of unsaturated fats. for it sweetens the heart. "Eat quince. the medicinal advantages of the fig are discussed-the Qur’an says: “I swear by the Fig and the Olive” (Sura no. For this Oil is obtained from a tree full of blessings”. is a well-known and effective gentle laxative that is also suitable for the young and very old. gladdening their hearts. digestive. they have some thing common with biology of man. The unripe fruit is very astringent.Am-Euras. denote wealth and prosperity. 2009 this fruit and its blessed palm find mention in the Holy Quran more than 20 times. Pomegranate fruit is also prescribed in many disorders under the Homeopathic medicine system. G. The rind of the pomegranate fruit is greatly responsible for its good keeping quality. diarrhea etc. There different mechanical and chemical methods available for the maintenance of oral health through plaque control. Modern science has also proved the effectiveness of date. known as 'pelletierines'. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) has emphasized the importance of dates and their effectiveness in the growth of the fetus. when Fasting and before every prayer. This is because dates contain elements that assist in alleviating depression in mothers and enriching the breast-milk with all the elements needed to make the child healthy and resistant to disease. Miswak extract removed more smear layer as compared to CHX. there are three references to it in Sura Maryam alone. They are the best stimulant for muscles and so the best food for a warrior about to engage in battle [12].2% and miswak extract 50% had similar effect on dentin in the control group. Experiments have also shown that dates contain some stimulants that strengthen the muscles of the uterus in the last months of pregnancy. Dieticians consider dates as the best food for women in confinement and those who are breast-feeding. piles and arthritis. before and after sleeping. According to the report of the research done in Cape Town S. anemia. It is also cardiac and stomachic. The juice of the fruit is an excellent cooling beverage and allays thirst. Africa Miswak contains large amount of tannic acid (Tannins). So eat and drink and cool your eyes (26). It is an established fact that Streptococcus viridans attacking the heart valves and damaging them come from the mouth. It is quite effective in guarding against nightblindness. Tooth brushes and miswak (chewing sticks) are widely used for the mechnical removal of plaque. It acts as a good medicine for both diarrhea and dysentery. The dried rind of the fruit is used in the treatment of amoebic dysentery. “Bacterial plaque is solely responsible for the initiation and progression of periodontal diseases.. Dates are also important in keeping up the health of eyes. The use of Miswak is one of the sunnah of the Holy Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam). The tannins prevent the adherence of the bacteria to the teeth. Modern dietary institute now recommends dates to be given to children suffering from a nervous nature or hyperactivity. It is a tonic for heart patients. and heart [17]. Agric. They used to carry them in special bags hung at their sides. He has also recommended they be given to women [12]. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) has also recommended dates as a medicine for heart troubles. Sci.Am-Euras.T. in preventing diseases of the respiratory system. & Environ. When given with honey. Further research is needed in vivo to compare the effects of CHX and miswak extract on periodontally involved teeth and teeth with dentinal hypersensitivity” [21]. This helps the dilation of the uterus at the time of delivery on one hand and reduces the bleeding after delivery on the other. It is said that CHX 0. All parts of the plant contain unusual alkaloids. Punica granatum (Pomegranate-rumman) is a good food and a medicine of great value. reciting the Holy Qur’an.2% and miswak extract 50 % had a similar effect on dentin in the control group. The dentists and gastro-entrologists agree that oral hygiene helps in the prevention of most of the diseases of oral cavity and gastro-intestinal tract (GIT). Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX) is one the bestproven anti plaque agents. So the use of Miswak is a preventive measure against many diseases of the teeth. high blood pressure. 292 .” This verse has a tremendous scientific significance as dates are reported to yield three times more energy than cereals. J. highly efficacious in the inflammation of the stomach and effective to check heart pain. The research conducted recently by dentist Almas K. The fruit is a mild astringent and refrigerant in some fevers and especially in biliousness. jaundice. proved that Chlorhexidine gluconate CHX 0. The fruit can be kept for up to six months [12]. on Friday. Miswak (tooth brush) is one of the products of Salvadora persica as mentioned in its ethnobotanical uses. It is a specific remedy for tapeworm infestation [18]. Starting with verse 23. 5 (2): 284-295. [20]. dates served as food for Muslim warriors. For many ailments such as colitis. Verse 25 and a part of verse 26 of Maryam read as: “And shake towards thyself the trunk of the date palm tree. it will let fall fresh ripe dates upon thee (25). In the early years of Islam. which paralyse tapeworms so that they are easily expelled from the body by using a laxative.I. The Prophet (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) himself used it frequently at various occasions such as when entering and leaving the home. its juice is an effective medicine. it reduces biliousness. Abu Hurairah (R) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said: 'Was it not for my fear of imposing a difficulty on my Ummah I would have ordered that the Miswaak be used for every Salaat [10]. Available at: http://www. Dar-ul-Iman healing.php. pp: 13. cooling. considered to purify blood and improve digestion. Available at: http://www.M. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. Ibn Al-Qaeem considers its fruit very useful for the treatment of diarrhea and weakness of the stomach [9]. Al-Faisal Nashiran Wa Tajiran. Islamic Science-An illustrated study. sultanas and currants of commerce.Y. Khan. Prophetic medicine. Urdu Bazar Karachi. [18]. Plants of the Qu’an (Urdu Nabatate-Qur’an). Westerham press. K.A. Rahat Market Urdu Bazar Lhore. 1985. 15. 2009. 1998. Khan. 2001.M..Am-Euras. grape fasts are recommended for detoxification. 1992. Farooqi. Anonymous. pectoral styptic. 11.S.com/forum/showthread.T.A. laxative and stomachic. 7.. 10. 869. Al-jozi (Al-Jawzyiyya). King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Muhammad Ahmad Zahbi (Rahmat ullah Alayhi) narrates the following hadith: “The first fruit eaten by Hazrat Adam (Alayhi Sallam) after His descent on the earth. The folkmedicinal uses of Zizyphus mauritiana in Pakistan are: the leaves are useful to treat scabies and other skin diseases. On this basis.. 1976.. H. Ibn-al-Qayyim. The fresh fruit is antilithic.S. Hazrat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radiallahu Anhu) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallahu Alayhi Wasallam) said. Wash (pointing towards a person who died at Arafat) him with water and leaves of sidar [8].i-Kutab. 8.H. Farooqi. S. Available at: http://chishti. especially of the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Sheikh Muhammad Bashir and Sons. diuretic and strengthening. U. pp: 1016. 2006. These are cooling. 2009. Accessed March 20. 2: 276. 1985. 2009. 9-lower Mall. 16. and M. (Tibb-Nabbi Arabic) Almaktaba Al-Saudia (Trans. The Holy Qur‘an: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. 2009.B. Urdu Bazar Lahore. 4. Chughtai. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being widely used in the world because of better cultural accept ability. T. Ltd. Nasreen. The Importance of Having Fruits in our Diet. 321. 1: 426. Ghaznavi. 449.. Urdu Bazar Lahore. The dried fruit is demulcent. M.R. pp: 151-152. pp: 101. In: Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. Food of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). A period of time on a diet based entirely on the fruit is especially recommended in the treatment of torpid liver or sluggish biliary function. Importance Of Fruits In Diet. Lahore. Aqab Mian Market. 1991.org/foods_of_the_prophet. A’zami. 1: 50. Sci. Grapes are a nourishing and slightly laxative fruit that can support the body through illness.. Hopkins.. It is eaten in fresh and dried form in Pakistan.home-remedies-foryou. Kutab Khana Shan-e-Islam. I.. The fruit of Indian lote tree (Zizyphus mauritiana) is very useful for human beings. 5. Dar-ul-Isha’t.. 2001. . Nasr. pp: 21. M. and M. 1989. Dried grapes (raisins) were ranked second in scientific tests to identify the most antioxidant rich fruits and vegetables. Some Problematical Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. Treatment Through Herbs.M. Accessed January 23. 13. K. 14. Ahmad. recent tests on the anti-oxidant effectiveness of various commercial fruit put fresh red grapes at number six in anti-oxidant effectiveness against damaging oxidative processes in cells [22]. Madinah. Because the nutrient content of grapes is close to that of blood plasma. pp: 117. 2000. Pakistan. was the fruit of the Zizyphus” [14]. Al-Qadr. P. Agric. Dar-ul-Isha’t. & Environ. cooling. raisins have to be an excellent 'protective-value-for-money' choice. 9. 12. 2009 The dried fruits of grapes (Vitis vinifera) are the raisins. K. 168. least injurious with none or much reduced side effects.Urdu by A’zami A. haemorrhoids and capillary fragility. Westerham. and M. . Different varieties producing the different types of dried fruit.com/health-fitness/importancefruits-diet. J. astringent and useful in bilious affections [23]. 2007. Kent (England). Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers. I. pp: 64-76. 2009.php. constructive.htm. 293 2.Z. Anonymous. 379. S. K. Pakistan. The fruit is also helpful in the treatment of varicose veins. Tafheem Al-Bukhari urdu translation of Al-Sahih Al-Bukhari. Fruits are mucilaginous. Al-Hilali. Nabatat-e-Qurani Aur Jadid Science. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Accessed March 23.. Interestingly. 6. 2000.A. 3. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat. mildly expectorant. REFERENCES 1.ummah.MA.com/ Malik. 334. asianonlinerecipes. pp: 15. Urdu Bazar. 1985. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. Urdu Bazar Karachi. 5 (2): 284-295.. Ghaznavi. Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Tib-i-Nabvi and Modern science. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science. A.. Ali. Tibb-Nabvi. Madinah. Maulavi Musafir Khana. Available at: http://www... The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. Jalalud Din Hospatal. com/natural_saudiherb s. A. 3: 27-35.. H. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam.U.P. and N. Khan and T. Almas. Biomedical Letters 60. 2009. Ministry of Information and Media Development. M. Borhany.3B 31. 28. H.A. Plants For a Future.htm Accessed January 23. 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Rezende. 71. pp: 394-397.naturalhub. Available at: http://www. Lipids of the fruit of mFicus carica. Gupta. L. 30. Mauritine-K. http://www.Singh. J.html.N. Accessed March 23. Pandey and V. V. 2009. 22. Kakhniashvili. Ontemp Dent Pract. 2008. J.) and pistachio (Pistacia lentiscus L. K.K.fcgi?artid=2438359 29. 5 (2): 284-295. 2000. A new antifungal cyclopeptide alkaloid from Zizyphus mauritiana. 1986. Some Scientific Facets of Quran and Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad.M da Costa.uni-graz.A.. Salvadora persica. A. Almas. M. and S. 2006. Volume14. Directrate General of Films and Publication. Tayyab.at/~katzer/engl/Olea_eur. The Faculty Press 88 Regent Street. The substances responsible for this scent were analysed. Dates are high in fiber and an excellent source of potassium [27]. the seeds produce an oil with 80% punicic acid. Olive oil may contain up to 1. linolenic. Vit. Jan-May cultivated throughout Tropics 2. France. minerals also present Juice also contains alenine. Seed kernel contains amgydalin tannin and mucilage. cyanidin-3-glucoside. Spain. Maharashter). Pakistan and Kashmir April-May 6. malic acid. calcium and iron and also contain chlorine.Am-Euras. Fruit contains glucoside. Africa. Spain. 5. In the fatty acid composition. The mesocarp (of fruit) contains about 55% of oil. Pakistan. 12% linoleic acid. Tannic acid from rind. Root and twigs contain alkaloid trimethyl amine. succinic and malic dehydrogenases. the remainder consists of protein. Pomegranate seeds are rich in sugars. Pakistan and India. uronic acid and xylose [8]. Europe to E. polysaccharides. polyunsaturated (n-3) fatty acids. it is the hypotensive principle. They contain salvadorine. vitamins. 5% eicosenoic acid and 5% palmitoleic acid. carotene. 9. Sci. Vitamin C. When crushed and dried. Pakistan and India India. silica. also present. It was found that the major flavonoids in Ficus are quercetin and luteolin [25]. B. India and Arabia. Peru. cyanidin-3. Riboflavin. the following fatty acids are found in olive oil: 66% oleic acid. like all vegetable oils of fatty acids bound to the alcohol glycerol. 2-hexene-1-ol. tyrosin. B1. however. Mucilage is composed of 33% larabinose. iron. emanates a strong fecal odour. Senegal. Nacin. higher aldehydes. Venezuela Almost through out the year April-May 4. Zizyphus mauriiana July-Sept. Alkaloid pelletierine from bark [8]. inorganic salts. The major class of phytochemical present in pomegranate is the polyphenols and includes flavonoids. Fruit contains enzyme erepsin. sugars in fruit Oxalic acid from seeds (stones) [8]. Iraq. B2 and niacin. & Environ. ceramide oligosides. Europe. Us. hexodinase. Ei. along with the isoflavone genistein.. Israel. hydrocarbons and oxygenated monoterpenes were also observed. delphinidin-3. A honey like syrup is prepared from juice [8]. J. Lastly. mono-and digalactosyldiglycerides. Malaya. tartaric acid and racemic acid. Ceylon. India. tartaric acid. The desired flavour of olive oil is dominated by aldehydes (hexanal and 2hexenal). Ficus carica Feb. The main groups are triacylglycerols. linoleic. condensed tannins and hydrolysable tannins. Us. The seed coat of the fruit contains delphinidin-3-glucoside. S. 19% fixed oil containing 42% oleic acid. the phytoestrogen coumestrol and the sex steroid estrone. sulphur and phosphorous. Chemical constituents Fruit contains citrullin. Furthermore. Iron. aldehydes. When dates are mature. Spain. In leaves and fruits of the olive tree. squalene.5% of an acyclic triterpene hydrocarbon. Turkey. Odorous constituents also present. 4-methoxy-2-methyl-butanethiol. glycine. sulphur. mauritiana. copper.E. S. By chromatographic methods. The sugar content of ripe dates is about 80%. Typically. ascorbic acid oxidase and peroxidase also reported [8]. B1 also present. amino acid. Asia-Himalayas. Resin and tannin [8]. Cucumis sativus 3. depend on variety and geographic origin of the oil [26]. Australia. they contain reasonable amounts of vitamins A. pelargonidin-3glucoside and pelargonidin-3. May-July 10. C and Iron from fruit juice.-Mar.Asia. 9% palmitic acid. Pakistan. Turkey. Punica granatum S. fat and mineral products including copper. Us. proteolytic enzymes. Spain. March-June. Zizyphus mauritiana. esterified sterol glycosides and phosphatidylglycerols. chlorides. pectin. lipase. Trop. Agric. China. Phoenix dactylifera N. Iraq.5-diglucoside. 5 (2): 284-295. malic acid. the 18-carbon fatty acid. primary alcohols (mainly C6 compounds like hexanol.Mauritine-K exhibited significant antifungal activity [31]. 2009 Table 1: Phytogeography and Chemical constituents of Fruits Distribution Flowering Botanical names in world Period 1. C and small quantities of tannins. Venezuela) April-July 8. oxidase. free and esterified sterols.5-diglucoside with delphinidin-3. (China. Mediterranean Region and S. Vit. Germany. Invertase. Sugars and vitamins [8]. C. Iraq. sulphur. Mexico. Salvadora persica Pakistan. glutamic acid. Fruits contain oxalic acid.W. Europe. glycolipids and phospholipids have been identified from the fruit of the fig tree. High percentage of sugar is present in fruits. Olea europea Afghanistan. hemiterpenoid volatiles were found (3-methyl butanal. fluorides in large amount. Australia. carotene and pectin. Ethiopia. Seeds contain fatty oil with 40% linoleic acid and 38% oleic acid [8]. Egypt.Arabia. B. Europe-Mediterranean. oleic and palmitic acids predominated (>90%) [24]. Dates are a good source of potassium. Sucrose is the major sugar present. saponins. about 30 groups of various lipid compounds belonging to the classes of neutral lipids.: Afghanistan. protease and sugar. polyphenols and minerals and have high antioxidant activity. Sugars. Cydonia oblonga Cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. arginene. P is responsible for checking the bleeding. It was also found that skatole (3-methyl-indole) is responsible for the fecal odour and vanillin for the sweety odour [30]. ascorbic acid. Java. Vit. India (Rajistan. Afghanistan. South Africa.mauritine-K and sativanine-K have been isolated from the root bark of Zizyphus mauritiana and their structures established by spectral and chemical evidences. Thiamine. catalase. Hydrolysable tannins are predominant polyphenols found in pomegranate juice and account for 92% of its antioxidant activity.Mauritine-K is a new cyclopeptide alkaloid and sativanine-K is the first report from Z. aliphatic carboxylic acids. which showed benzaldehyde as major constituent.When in blossom. a phenolic seco-iridoid called oleuropein is found. cravin. Fruits contains pentose.5diglucoside.Africa. Kurdistan. Turkey. flavenoids and sterol [29]. uronic acid. Mar-April 7. Vit. The cyclopeptide alkaloids. Olive oil is composed.5-diglucoside being the major anthocyanin in pomegranate juice[28]. 295 . Jerusalem.Citrullus lanatus Native of the Kalahari region.Vitis vinifera France. cerebrosides. ethyl esters of 2-and 3-methyl butyric acid). Vit. 40% linoleic acid. magnesium and fluoric acid. P. The flavour components. Vitamin A. enzyme. Vit. Minor benzenoids. 3-hexene-1-ol) and their acetic acid esters contribute to the characteristic olive oil aroma. leucine and valine. magnesium. 1994). The plant 1472 . 2000). The plant species are: Acorus calamus L. Majorana hortensis Moench. family. His recommendations were noted by His Wives (Radiallaho Anhuma) and Companions (Radiallaho Anhum) and remain available to us today (Dar-ul-Iman healing. Boswellia carterii Birdw.. The essential oils which impart the distinctive aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents (Simon. Commiphora molmol Engl. Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam. Origanum vulgare L. English name.. Pakistan 2 Department of Arabic..000-70.. Arabic name.. Muhammad Aslam Khan2.. RESULTS Present findings were confined to 15 Aromatic plant species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families enlisted in Holy Quran. Plants species were arranged in systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by family. F. 2009a). in herbal products. Artemisia maritima L. Ocimum basilicum L. Ahadith and Islamic books. namely root. parts used. Arabic name. Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng. Key words: Ethno medicinal study. Dera Ismail Khan. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name. Human beings have used plants as medicine from the very beginning of time (Marwat et al. 2007). Gomal University. Pakistan 3 Faculty of Pharmacy. which occur as essential oil. Present findings confined to 15 Aromatic plant species belonging to 14 genera of 10 families. and Thymus serpyllum L.. pharmaceuticals and fragrances (Medicinal Plant Specialist Group. Comprehensive and detailed information about 15 Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Dera Ismail Khan. 2009a).. 2009 ISSN 1680-5194 © Asian Network for Scientific Information. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. part used.. 1990). The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom. Plants are an essential component of the universe. These species make an essential contribution to healthcare and along with species used more for their aromatic properties. An essential oil is the actual aroma which is extracted and it is this aroma which is used in aromatherapy to treat a number of ailments (Falsetto. leaf. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Quran.Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (9): 1472-1479. green exudates. Gomal University.. habit and habitat.. Aromatic plants. flower and fruit. ex Tschirch. There are about three hundred essential oils in general use today by professional practitioners. 2009b). Cinnamomum camphora L. Fazal-ur-Rehman3 and Inayat Ullah Bhatti3 1 University Wensam College. Boswellia serrata Birdw. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran.. 2009 Aromatic Plant Species Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Importance Sarfaraz Khan Marwat1. Islamic Studies and Research.. An estimated 50. Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn.000 plant species are used in traditional and modern medicine throughout the world. Citrus spp.. 2008).. Ahadith`s books and books written on the Islamic medicines. Gomal University. first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments through medicines (Marwat et al. Dera Ismail Khan. Lawsonia inermis L. Crocus sativus L. 2007). It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan et al. Quranic name. Ahadith and Islamic literature. wood. The term essential oil is concomitant to fragrance or perfumes because these fragrances are oily in nature and they represent the essence and active constituents of plants (Skaria et al. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethno medicinal uses and create awareness about the Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. stem. Holy Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCTION Aromatic plants possess odorous volatile substances. but the average household could fulfill all its likely needs with about ten (Belt. Pakistan Abstract: In view of the importance of this study comprehensive detailed data was collected from Holy Quran. research work was conducted to investigate ethnomedicinal uses and create awareness about the Aromatic plant species mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and Ahadith. balsam and oleoresin in one or more parts. Ahadith and Islamic books. In Islam diseases are cured in two ways. 1998 and Ghaznavi. Afsanteen Arabic name : Afsanteen Flowering period : August-September. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. C One of the Holy Wives (Radhi Allaho Anha) of The Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. Cinnamomum camphora L. Sweet flag Local name : Zareera Arabic name (s) : Zareera. Data inventory constitutes botanical name. C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said.. References from Ahadith: C Hazarat Abdullah bin Abbas (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe : : : : 1473 . carminative.. diuretic. Citrus spp. local names. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Aisha (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that I myself applied the perfume of Grass Mytle (Zareera) to the Holy Prophet at the time of wearing and removal of Ihram (unstitched. Ingredient of ointments. Lawsonia Inermis L. Chiefly used in incense. rheumatism. Family name : Compositae (Asteraceae) English name (s) : Sage brush. Family : Acoraceae English name (s) : Calamus. Afsanteen). Local name (s) : Kirmala. Burseraceae Olibanum. Arabic Frankincense... 2009 species are: Acorus calamus L. Salai guggal Arabic name : Labban Local name : Lubban Parts used : Dried resin.. analgesic. Boswellia carterii Birdw. family. and Thymus serpyllum L. 1991). He (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi. 1998 and Ghaznavi.Pak. Afsanteen) in your houses” (Farooqi.. they are also useful in healing wounds and ulcers and reducing scar tissue. which are used throughout the world in number of perfumery. stomachache. It is given internally in dyspepsia. Given in dyspepsia. Afsanteen)” (Farooqi. Worm seed... “One day the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) came to me and there was pimple on my finger. “Fumigate your houses with Olibanum (lubaan. tonic and anthelmintic. Botanical name : Artemisia maritima L. apply it on the pimple (Farooqi. insectifuge.. parts used. Also employed for kidney and liver troubles. 8 (9): 1472-1479. Artemisia maritima L. “Fumigate Olibanum (lubban) and Sage brush (Karmala. ex Tschirch. nerve tonic. preferably white. 1998). He asked. Majorana hortensis Moench. frankicense Gogle Guggal. Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi. stomachache. Crocus sativus L.) possess the medicinal property of being expectorant and therefore particularly helpful in treating bronchitis. Al Qadr.. ajvain. Boswellia serrata Birdw. collected from stems and trunk. Botanical name Family Engish name (s) Loal name (s) Boswellia serrata Birdw. Salai Guggal. Burseraceae Indian Bedellium. Medicinal uses : Artemisia (Karmala. Medicinal uses : Diaphoretic. Medicinal uses : Burseraceae plant family members (Boswellia carteri etc. flatulence and worms. Arabic name. antispasmodic. remittent fever. granular tumours and snake-bite. rheumatism and eczema. Sallaki Arabic name : Kundar Parts used : The most important derivative of Boswellia serrata tree is the Boswellia Gum Resin... Oudulwaj Flowering period : May-July Parts used : Leaves and rhizome. astringent. 2007). F. Parts used : Seeds. Botanical name : Family : English name (s) : Boswellia carterii Birdw. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. J. Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. 1991). jaundice. deobstruent. flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. 1998). “Fumigate your houses with Olibanum (lubban) and Sage brush (Karmala. Cymbopogon schoenanthus Spreng. Origanum vulgare L. skin eruption. Useful against moths and lice. Used in nervous diseases. Botanical name : Acorus calamus L. have you grass mytle? I told.. Nutr. Indian Frankincense. colic. yes. Santonica. Ocimum basilicum L. C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. Medicinal uses : Rhizome: Emetic. epilepsy bronchial. pieces of cloth) during the Farewell Hajj (Farooqi. Commiphora molmol Engl. It is used externally as antiseptic. emmenagogue. floral buds and leaves. “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala. Afsanteen) is used as antiperiodic. English name. 1998. 1998). “do not wear clothes (ihram) dyed with waras and saffron” (Farooqi. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr. References from Holy Qur’an Surah 76. References from Ahadith: C Lemon has many benefits for you. insomnia. Botanical name Family English name (s) Local name (s) : : : : Citrus spp. 1998). 1998). lemu. The plant has been used as a folk remedy against scarlet fever. gum camphor Local name : Kafoor Arabic name : Kafoor Part used : Leaves and branches Medicinal uses : Sedative. refrigerant. anodyne. 1998). ‘Some one complained to Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) against his memory. He said. Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated. stimulant. 8 (9): 1472-1479. In over doses. “Fumigate your houses with Sage brush (Karmala. 1998). References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. give Her a bath three or five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri) leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after that (Farooqi. The substance camphor-Kafoor (said to be used in funeral rites) mentioned in the above and other Ahadith. aphrodisiac. it is the best remedy for memory and urine problem (Farooqi. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Ibne Umar (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that one person asked Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) what a muhrim should wear? He said (replied). It is a useful phytotherapy for memory (Farooqi. 1996). baldness. * Lauraceae Camphor Tree. Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi. J. emmenagogue. carminative. 1998). saffron is toxic. take kundar (Boswellia serrata) and soak it in water and drink that water early in the morning. Rutaceae Lemon. carminative. 1998). colds. mita lemu etc. asthma. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) came to us. Arabic name (s) : Utraj. diaphoretic. appetizer. anthelmentic. camphor laurel. smallpox. Verse #. Cures catarrh. is actually the name of Itar-e-Hinna (perfume of Lawsonia inermis) and correct pronunciation Kafoor is Qafoor (Farooqi. old cough. Citron Narangi. One of these is a tree of Malaysia (Dryobalanops aromatica) of family Dipterocarpaceae and the other one is a tall tree of China and Japan (Cinnamomum camphora) of family Lauraceae. The camphor of Malaysia is obtained from the bark of Dryobalanops aromatica while that of Chinese camphor is obtained from the wood of Cinnamomum camphora (by freezing the essence of its wood). C Hazrat Abu Musa Ashari (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrated that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said: “The example of a mo’min (believer) who reads the Qur’an is like that of ‘Turanj’ which has a pleasant smell and a sweet taste” (Farooqi. Meadow crocus. Afsanteen). saffron has traditionally been considered an anodyne. Iridaceae Saffron. He (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. Note: Two types of plants of different families have been a source of camphor from ancient time. 2009 Wasallam) soaked Kundar at night. Crocus sativus L. oral fragrance.Pak. Used as insecticide. He said. urinary calculus. when His Daughter (Radhi Allaho Anha) died. Local name : Zaffron Arabic name : Zaffron Parts used : Rhizome Medicinal uses : As a medicinal plant. nausea. antispasmodic.. ex Tschirch Family : Burseraceae English name : Myrrh Local name : Murmukey Arabic name : Mur Parts used : Gum of stem Medicinal uses : Germicides. Nutr. 1998). swelling of urinary bladder. stomachic. 5: Verily. Toxic causing headache. wound healer. confusion and delirium. excitement. Commiphora molmol Engl. Botanical name : Family : English name (s) : Botanical name : C Cinnamomum camphora L. Turanj Flowering period : Spring season Medicinal uses : Fruits-Nutritive. tumors and cancer. Botanical name : Family : English name (s) : 1474 . Leaves and peel are highly medicinal. expectorant and sedative. Given to promote eruptions in measles. cardiotonic. He mixed brown sugar in it and drank. diaphoretic. Shall drink of a cup (of wine) mixed with (water from a spring in Paradise called) Kafur (Al-Hilali and Khan. It strengthens the heart and prevents heart failure (Farooqi. antiseptic. the Abrar (the pious and righteous). 1998). Saffron crocus. give Her a bath three or five times and it will be better to use cedar (beri) leaves and water for a bath and apply camphor after that (Farooqi. 8 (9): 1472-1479. Marzanjush. "The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayi Wasallam) never suffered from a wound or a thorn without putting Henna on it" (Mutmainaa. except izkhar” (Farooqi. Synonym : Dryobalanops camphora Colebr. The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said: “Cover his head with the sheet and his feet with the ‘Izkhir’ leaves” (Farooqi. nausea. antiseptic. C Abdullah bin Burayda (Radi Allahu Anho) narrates that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) said. Botanical name : Lawsonia inermis L. When it was drawn to cover the head.* References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Umm-e-Attiah Ansariah (Radhi Allaho Anha) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Botanical name : Botanical name 1475 ." (Mutmainaa. antifertility activity in animals and may induce menstruation." (Farooqi. febrifuge. He said. "I saw Prophet Muhammad (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) coming out of the house. Useful in gynaecological disorders. References from Holy Qur’an: Surah 76. intestinal disinfectant. tonic. Also used as astringent and febrifuge. cardio-inhibitory. He was coming after taking bath. stems and rhizomes Medicinal uses : Tonic. 2009 C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) forbade men to apply saffron (Farooqi. antihemorrhagic. the feet would be exposed and when it was drawn to cover the feet. Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. Used as insecticide. Verse #. Local name : Kafoor Arabic name : Kafoor Medicinal uses : Sedative. confusion and delirium. antispasmodic. toothache and earache. 1998). 1998). Satar (M. Its extracts show antibacterial. Sumatra camphor. C Hazrat Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) also relates that the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) loved sweetsmelling blossoms. “yes. carminative. especially that of Henna (Mutmainaa. "the lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world and the next is Henna blossom" (Farooqi. The colour of Henna was visible on his head. hypotensive and sedative effects. hysteria. Given in colic. rheumatism. 2003). C Jahzma (Radi Allahu Anho). C Umm Salamah (Radi Allaho Anha) as commenting. Family : Lythraceae English name : Egyptian Privet-Henna Local name : Mehandi Arabic name : Henna. “Its thorn must not be plucked. Malayan camphor. excitement. Zatar. the wife of Bashir Bin Khasasia (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates. Nutr. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abu Huraira (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said about Makkah. : : : : : Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L. Faghia (Kalli) Parts used : Leaves Medicinal uses : Henna has been used for astringent. References from Ahadith: C Whosoever complained of pain in legs. the head would become uncovered. syriaca) Parts used : Whole plant Medicinal uses : Whole plant-stimulant. Botanical name Family English name Local name (s) Arabic name (s) Majorana hortensis Moench. anthelmentic. diarrhea. to treat the cough of infants and children. antispasmodic. when His Daughter (Radhi Allaho Anha) died. antimalaria and against Guinea worm. Its trees might not be cut” Some one among the Quraish begged (wanted) permission of cutting Camel grass (izkhar) to use it in their homes and shrines. therefore.. jaundice and leprosy. except izkhar. 1998).Pak. : Wasallam) came to us. yes. 2003). diuretic. intestinal antineoplastic. the Prophet (Sallallahu Alayi Wasallam) advised him to apply Henna (on the legs). antifungal and ultraviolet light screening activity. J.) Spreng Family : Poaceae English name : Camel Grass Local name : Izkhir Arabic name : Izkhir Parts used : Leaves. 1998). 1998). The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) permitted. Toxic causing headache. 1998). headache.* Lamiaceae/Labiatae Marjoram Marva khusa. 2003). he was shaking his hairs. Mardaqush. Marzanjosh Mardaqoush. diaphoretic. Family : Dipterocarpaceae English name : Borneo camphor. amoebiasis. F. Al-Insan or Ad-Dahr. When Hazrat Mus’ab bin ‘Umair (Radhi Allaho Anho) was killed in the battle of Uhud and we found such a sheet for a shroud (coffin) which was too short for his size. Note: See Note under Cinnamomum camphora L. 5: See under Cinnamomum camphora L. C Hazrat Khabab (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates. Oil is used in rheumatism and neuralgia. rubefacient. stimulant. anodyne. “there is Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. Wild thyme Local name (s) : Sattar Ban-ajwain. mouth. 2007). sanctum) by some people. Many secondary metabolites of plants are commercially important and find use in number of perfumery. 1991). date-palms producing sheathed fruit-stalks (enclosing dates). antifungal. it is taken in the treatment of bronchitis. tuber closes. antioxidant. strongly antiseptic. common cold. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abu Usman (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. esters. fragrant or sweetsmelling) synthesize and preserve a variety of biochemical products. that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. 1998).. Family : Lamiaceae English name : Sweet Basil Local name : Rehan. 1991). detoxifying. hepatitis. mastitis. lactones. painful menstruation. sprains. ketones. Family : Labiatae (Lamiaceae) English name (s) : Thyme. It is very effective medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi. DISCUSSION Aromatic plants (having an aroma. anti-viral. Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi. Both are medicinal herbs containing pleasant aromatic oil like thyme (Ghaznavi. 2008). They are nearly all comprised of some combination of alcohols. Surah Al-Waqi‘a. then. The result of this means that most essential oils are anti-inflammatory. many of which are extractable and useful as chemical feed stock or raw materials for various scientific investigations. colic and hangovers. (there is for him) rest and satisfaction and a Garden of Delight (Ali. 1998 and Ghaznavi. vaginal swelling. Internally. The essential oils which impart the distinctive aromas are complex mixtures of organic constituents (Simon. One is known as Wild Marzanjosh (Origanum vulgare L. diaphoretic.. eczema. 1991). Botanical name : Ocimum basilicum L. 1998). C Hazrat Abi Na’m (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. “Fumigate Olibanum (lubaan. 1991). Note: Rehan (O. “Whom Ocimum is offered. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates 1476 . arthritis. Verse #. stiff and leaves useful as remedy for colic. labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi. acids. but it is incorrect. J. “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala. expectorant. 1989). 1996). C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. if he be of those Nearest to Allah.) and the other one as Halu Marzanjosh (Majorana hortensis Moench). antidote. References from Holy Quran Surah Ar. malaria and heart diseases. baldness. sedative and tonic. Both are different species (Farooqi. analgesic and decongestant (Falsetto. Afsanteen). antispasmodic. might not refuse” (Farooqi. basilicum) is considered to be Tulsi (O. Za’tar Part used : Leaves Medicinal uses : The whole plant is anthelmintic. Jangli Podina Arabic name (s) : Sa’tar. 89: Thus. carminative. 12.Pak. pemples. Hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as ‘natural-biochemical-factories’ or ‘chemical goldmines’ (Skaria et al. with (its) leaves and stalk for fodder. and sweet-scented plants (Al-Hilali and Khan. 1998). 8 (9): 1472-1479. “These (Hazrat Hassan and Hazrat Hussain Radi Allaho Anhomaa) are ocimum (fragrance or fragrant flowers) for me in the world” (Farooqi. circulatory.* Lamiaceae/Labiatae Marjoram Jungli Marzanjosh Marzanjosh Leaves Essential oil from leaves and for toothache. Seeds and Origanum vulgare L. Niazbo Arabic name : Rehan Parts used : Leaves and seeds Medicinal uses : Fever. “there is Marzanjosh (Marjoram) for you. laryngitis. Botanical name : Family : English name : Local name : Arabic Name : Parts used : Medicinal uses : flowering tops used paralysis. it is applied to minor injuries. catarrh. piles. 2009 References from Ahadith: Hazrat Anus bin Malik (Radi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. throat and gum infections. anti-spasmodic. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. flavouring and pharmaceutical compounds. consception. deodorant.Rahman. Verse #. * Two types of Marzanjosh are found in Egypt and Arabia. 1990). 1998). pain killer. phenols. 88. oxides. asthma. cough. Nutr. Botanical name : Thymus serpyllum L. Externally. coumarins and furocoumarins. muscles pain. 13: Therein are fruits. disinfectant. And also corn. aldehydes. flatulent indigestion. It is very effective medicine for cold” (Ghaznavi. but in modern day herbalism it is mainly used as the essential oil and internal use is not advised. as a muscle relaxant and a skin and circulation stimulant. particularly helpful in treating bronchitis. Frankincense was used by doctors. 1998. place it on the pimple. He said. lemons help build the developing baby's bones. has occasionally been used internally in the treatment of hysteria. stimulate 1477 . Wood 24-40 years old is normally used. 2009 As early as 4000 BC the great Sumerian civilization had discovered that most aromatic plants and shrubs have powerful antiseptic properties. The drug santonin obtained from the flowering tops is specific for round worms. 1970). Al Qadr. 1991). Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) said: The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) used not to reject the gifts of perfume (Al Qadr. stimulant. balms for chilblains. therefore. Plants of this family possess the medicinal property of being expectorant and are. 2009). antirheumatic. One of the Wives (Radi Allaho) of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) said. Lemons also aid in the digestion of heavy meals and in the assimilation of protein. Boswellia spp. “Fumigate Sage brush (Karmala. Ghaznavi. 2007). Afsanteen). The Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) recommended Acorus calamus (zareera) for the treatment of pimple (Abscess). (Olibanum. labaan) and Thyme (Sa’tar)” (Farooqi. It is also used for removing thread worms from the small intestine (Zaman and Khan. tonic and anthelmintics. yes. Artemisia maritima (Karmala. chapped lips. cold sores. It is used externally in liniments for treating joint and muscle pains. Myrrh (murmuki) and Thyme (Sa’tar) in your houses” (Farooqi. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) liked perfume (aroma) very much. J. make what I am suffering small” (Farooqi. The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. The plant is more commonly used in the form of the essential oil which can be obtained by distillation of the chipped branches. thus preventing hair loss and even causing hair regeneration. Decoction or infusion of leaves is used in “ague” intermittent and remittent fever. “From your world. Say. 2007). They are also useful in healing wounds and ulcers and reducing scar tissue (Falsetto. O Allah who transforms the big to small and small to big. Frankincense-Luban). antispasmodic. deobstruent and stomachic.Pak. Lemons are just one example of the simple bounties Allah has provided us with. Commiphora molmol (Myrrh-murmuki) and Thymus serpyllum (Thyme-Sa’tar) are other aromatic and medicinal plants which have been recommended by the Holy Prophet (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) for fumigation in the houses. 1998. lemon (its oil) is used in aromatherapy. he gave me some perfume and said that Anas (Radi Allaho Anho) would not reject the gifts of perfume. carminative. 1998). Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhi Allaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. He said: “Do you have a Tharirah (arum)’ I said. Narrated Hazrat 'Azra bin Thabit Al-Ansari (Radi Allaho Anho): When I went to Thumama bin 'Abdullah. “Once the messenger of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam) came by when I had a pimple on my finger. cardiotonic. cardiac. gave the references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through out the world. He then said. making them natural healers for external wounds and skin infections and as infusions for internal ailments (Highet. 1999). It is useful in whooping cough and sciatica. Eaten during pregnancy. In addition to their nutritional benefits. 8 (9): 1472-1479. stimulant. or from the leaves and twigs. The wood and leaves are analgesic. serrata (Frankincense-luban) belong to family Burseraceae. trunk and wood of the tree. An infusion is used as an inhalant in the treatment of colds and diseases of the lungs. Afsanteen). “Fumigate your houses with Olibanum (lubaan. zinc and vitamins. 2007). calcium. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. Afsanteen). leaves and flowers are antispasmodic. 2008). They counteract cases of anxiety and depression. Lemons also have cholesterol-lowering properties. Rubbed on the face. women and Taib (perfume) were made beloved to me and the comfort of my eye is the prayer” (Al Qadr. sedative and tonic. Hazrat Abdullah bin Jaffer (Radhiallaho Anho) narrates that Rasulullah (Salallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. dentists.. lemons open up the pores releasing heat and refreshing the skin. Citrus spp. rubefacient. Boswellia carterii and B. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases (Farooqi. odontalgic. antispasmodic. Cinnamomum camphora L. chemists and beauticians since as early as 3000 BC and some of the biggest buyers of this highly prized resin were the embalmers (Highet. In addition to its use as perfume the Zareera has numerous medicinal uses as well. 1998). The flowering tops are used in indigenous medicine as anthelmintic. diaphoretic. 2001). A close look at checklist of aromatic plant species tells us that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam). Narrated Hazrat 'Aisha (Radi Allaho Anha): I used to perfume Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) with the best scent available till I saw the shine of the scent on his head and shine beard. 1998). In Arab Zareera was also used as fragrance at the time of Hazrat Musa Alayi Salam (Farooqi. 1999). Locally the fresh leaves are soaked in water kept over night and the water is taken as vermifuge (Amhrwo. Artemisia maritima (Karmala. Nutr. The essential oil is anthelmintic. skin diseases etc and as an inhalant for bronchial congestion (Plants For a Future. 2007). rheumatism as well as gout (GmbH. dysentery and chronic diarrhoea. The antiseptic abilities found in the volatile phenolic compounds. 8 (9): 1472-1479. antispasmodic. stomachic and tonic. colic and indigestion. parasitic infections. antimalaria and against Guinea worm. psoriasis. as well of internal use.) is considered as highly medicinal like other members of the same family such as mint. stomachic and mildly tonic. Oregano (Origanum vulgare) has a beneficial effect upon the digestive and respiratory systems and is also used to promote menstruation. easing flatulence. In a well known hadith. J. Myrrh was extensively used to embalm the dead (Highet. It is reported to be useful in asthma. Henna is useful is healing athlete's foot. carminative and digestive. This quality of myrrh is especially useful in treating arthritis. sore throats and body odour. expectorant. "The Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) never suffered from a wound or a thorn without putting Henna on it" Another tradition mentioned in As-Sahih Bukhari and Abu Dawud Sharif says.. A recent ethnobotanic study shows that this plant is used in traditional pharmacopoeia in Burkina Faso to treat the cough of infants and children (Yentema et al. "Whenever somebody came to Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) with complaints of headache. Myrrh (Commiphora molmol is thick. 2007). febrifuge. "the lord of sweet-smelling blossoms in this world and the next is Henna blossom" (Mutmainaa. The leaves and seeds act as cooling agents for the head and body (Mutmainaa. causing a release in congestion. stimulate the formation of valuable leukocytes in the fight against viral and infectious diseases and stimulate the lymphatic system in cases of cellulite and obesity (Al Qadr. diaphoretic. anti-fungal and antihemorrhagic. stiff and paralytic limb and toothache.. records Umm-e-Salamah (Radi Allahu Anho) as commenting. 2000). 2008). A. he directed him to undergo cupping and whosoever complained of pain in legs. 2009b). Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is another aromatic plant mentioned in Ahadith. Leaves and seeds are reported to provide a ready remedy for colic (Indian food. Thyme was used as incense in religious ceremonies and as a funeral herb. headaches. REFERENCES Ali." During the period of the Black Plague. It has been established by various authors that the active ingredient responsible for the antispasmodic activity is a sesquiterpenediol. It is also used for hot fomentation in acute diarrhea. thyme should not be used by pregnant women or by children as it can act as a uterine stimulant and is toxic in high doses (Burns. 1999). The mucilaginous seed is given in infusion in the treatment of gonorrhoea. all other diseases as well as invigorates the body’s immune (resistance) system. bruises. One tradition of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) cited in At-Tirmidhi. intestinal disinfectant. cited in As-Suyuti's 'Tibb an-Nabi' it is recorded that Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) said. doctors wore "nose gays" and masks that included thyme when visiting sick rooms and clinics. The plant is taken internally in the treatment of colds. mild feverish illnesses. It is considered expectorant. carminative. stomach upsets and painful menstruation. influenza. the cryptomeridiol. The leaves and flowering tops are antispasmodic. cholagogue.Pak. hysteria and paralysis. in thyme make it ideal in combating bad breath. gummy resin extracted from a shrub. cold and catarrh or running nose. It contains ingredients to be antibacterial. gastric problems caused by viruses or bacteria. asthma. Its oil is used as an external application for sprains. The leaves and flowering stems are antispasmodic. The herb’s action to augment digestion also helps in cleansing the digestive tract of all noxious substances as well as function as a remedy for common detoxification and anti-inflammation. yellow. Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallam) informed us of the beneficial elements contained in Henna over 1400 years ago. 2008). 2003).Y. Ocimum basilicum (Sweet basil-Raihan) acts principally on the digestive and nervous systems. Ancient Greeks derived its name from one of its many uses: "to fumigate. 1989. This plant is one of the best natural antiseptics because of its high thymol content (Plants For a Future. Essential oils like myrrh have considerable medicinal properties as ancient Egyptian physicians surmised. indigestion. Thyme (Thymus serpyllum) has been used by mankind since pre-recorded times. Sweet marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench. gum disease. burning of the soles and palms and local inflammation. 1478 . was advised to apply Henna. stimulant. carminative and tonic. burns. The actual Henna plant is sometimes called the "Magic Plant" because it has great healing effects. Izkhir (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) leaves. The herb is particularly beneficial for treating bronchitis.. galactogogue. The Holy Qur‘an: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. emmenagogue. stomach cramps. stems or the rhizomes are used in the therapeutic traditional ones. In Egyptian this plant has a good reputation to be an antispasmodic and a renal diuretic. like disinfecting funerary. aromatic. basil etc. fungal skin infections. ringworm. It is said to remove film and opacity from the eyes. However. It acts against all viral and bacterial infections. 2008). like tonic. 2009). Nutr. 2009 the liver and the gall bladder. The dried flowers are also used to repel moths from clothing (Belt." The Perfume made from henna flowers is very sweet and strong. Extracts from the plant are bactericidal (Plants For a Future. eczema. 2003). as external. thymol and carvacrol. Nutr.africasia. 9-lower Mall.A. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Available at: http://www.P. Alioune and S. Available at: http://www. 2000. Mathew.U. 334. J. Marjoram.com/mutmainaa/food/ henna.cfm/the_properties_of_ essential_oils Accessed on March 13..A. Version 1.com/herbs/herbs_myrrh. Accessed March 13. M. Available at: http://medicinalplants. Medicinal Plant Specialist Group.sdpi.. pfaf. 1994. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Frankfurt and Cambridge (BfNSkripten 195). Appl. O. Edible. Din. Gland.P. 2007. K. Ahmad.org/database/plants. 2008. Available at: http://chishti.net/servlet/ Satellite?c=Article_C&cid=1157365863368&page name=Zone-English-HealthScience%2FHSE Layout.purdue.U. Joseph. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. N. England. naturedirect2u.I. herbs2000. 472-483. Herbs In Hadith. Available at: http://www. Burns.S. Pakistan Forest Institute. Medicinal Properties of Aromatic Plant Families..com/forum/archive/index. M.) Spreng.A.0. Available at: http://www. 2009. 2009. M. 2008.K.htm. Accessed March 27. Aqab Mian Market.htm.htm. Rehman and S. Some Scientific Facets of Quran and Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad.A. Peace Be Upon Him) in The Field of Medicine. The Prince of Dyes-Henna. 8 (9): 1472-1479.. Sultana. Advances in new crops. Zafar. Belt. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. India. A. and M. Falsetto. Joseph and R.. 2009. Falsetto. H.geocities.A. Amhrwo. G..P.). 2009. K. Hurticulture Science Series -1. Medicinal Plant Branch. Artemisia maritima Alpine Medicinal Herbs and Rural Welfar Organization. Available at: http://www. Avaiable at: http://www. Khan.htm#top. p. 1479 .S. S. 2007. Nutr. Part Two of Three: Kitchen Herbs http://www. pp: 738.Pak. Highet. A. Prophetic medicine.. Skaria.. Khan. 2009b. 2009. Joy. S. Accessed March 23. H. Yentema. Odakki Asmannoor Post Ernakulam District. Pak. Q.. J. 1998. Available at: http://www. J. M. Zafar.Z. 2009. Marwat.R. Swaminathan.edu/ newcrop/proceedings1990/V1-472.cfm/medicinal_propert ies_of_aromatic_plant_families Accessed on March 13. Essential oils nature direct 2u 45 Barncroft Court. Khan. medicinal and useful plants for healthier world. Khan.html Accessed March 25. B. 2009. 2008. pp: 1. The Properties of Essential Oils. Pakistan.html. Myrrh. 8: 545. K. 2003. M.. Food of the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wasallam). J. 2009a. Janick and J. Bundesamt für Natur-schutz (BfN).com/article. M.. Mutmainaa. The Middle East.. Sci. Marwat.de/map-pro/. 2009. Khan and M.T. Khan.A. International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP).W. 1970.. Kerala.E. http://www. Kerala Agricultural University Aromatic and Medicinal Resaerch Station. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science.suite101. Aromatic Plants In: Peter. Khan.com/Essential%20oils/ essentialoils. Mathew. Chemical composition and physical Characteristics of the Essential Oil of Cymbopogon schoenanthus (L. MPSG/SSC/IUCN. 1: 50. Tayyab. 2009.com/archive/ me/99_01/mems0101. M. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers.com/1/marjoram. Rehman and S.A. Bonn. Farooqi.. Dorosso. The perfumes of Arabia.. 1999. J. 31: 7-10. 2000.org/alpine%20medicianl%20herb s/5.F. J. floraweb. and M. Available at: http://aromatherapy. Adwiya Aur Ghizain. suite101. Accessed on March 13. Dar-ul-Iman Healing. M. Simon. J. Pak.islamonline. M. Therapeutic Properties in the Same Scented Plant Family.com/Medicinal%20herbs/motheroft hymeherb.E. M. Al Qadr. M. Portland. 8: 530. WWF Germany and TRAFFIC. Plants For a Future.E. Available at: http://www. S. 2009 Al-Hilali. 168. GmbH. M. Khan. Accessed March 31. Ghaznavi. Accessed March 25.htm.S. 2009. Ahmad. 2009.. Accessed March 29. Available at: http://www.org/foods_of_the_prophet. C.php/ Accessed March 13. F. K. In: J. 2009. M.. Zaman. 7: 503506.php?Accessed November 16. Health. P. Salvadora persica. nature direct 2u. Madinah. F..M. Nutr. Mother of Thyme: Thymus serpyllum. I.naturedirect2u. of Burkina Faso.S. indianetzone. pp: 5. and M. 2009a. 2009b. Khan. Leeds LS14 1HT. 1991. Hundred Drug Plants of West Pakistan.U. 2007. 2008.A. Indian Food. Pakistan. 2007. 1990.K. S.. 2009. Vegetables Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Studies in Dera Ismail Khan. Pak. Sultana. Timber Press.hort. 2001.. Essential oils and culinary herbs. Belt. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat. Tamarix aphylla and Zizyphus mauritianaThree Woody Plant Species Mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith and Their Ethnobotanical Uses in North Western Part (D.. pp: 151-152.com/article.htm. Physical and Therapeutic Properties Common to All Aromatherapy Oils. S. The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary.. 1996. Peshawar.ummah.V. Khan) of Pakistan. Available at: http://www. Accessed March 9. pp: 15. 2009. Simon (Eds. OR. Present findings confined to 32 medicinal plants species belonging to 30 genera of 23 families of plant kingdom. Islamabad. Khan. In view of the importance of this study comprehensive and detailed data was systematically collected from Holly Quran. Key words: Medicinal flora % Checklist % Uses % Holly Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCITON Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. In third century of Hijra Muhammad Bin Abu Bakar Ibne Ulsani and Abu Naeem Isphani compiled their books on this topic. better compatibility with human body and lesser side effects. Pakistan ²Department of Arabic.American-Eurasian J. The climax of Islamic medicines started from Abu Bin Zakria Alrazi. He wrote his famous book “Haddi Kabeer” while the book “Kamal-ul-Sannat” by Ali Bin Abbas is also a good one [3] These medicinal plants continue to be extensively used as major source of drugs for the treatment of many ailments. 1 Muhammad Zafar. Pakistan 126 . medicinal uses and references cited from Holly Quran. part used. thought and culture when taken together. Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (Alaihe Salaam. Dera Ismail. Muhammad Abu Baker Alkaim. family. The books written in this era “Alnabvi fee Mannafal Makalat” by abdul Razzaq Altanki is a good one.. It is recommended that plant based industries should be developed in the light of Islamic teaching and research. Shams uddin Albali. habit and habitat. Muhammad bin Ahmed Zahabi. The history of Islamic medicine started form second century of Hijra. Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names followed by English name. Islamic Studies and Research Gomal University. 1Mir Ajab Khan. Present investigation does not mean that the plant and plant parts which are described in Holy Quran for medicinal purposes but described for other purposes. demonstrate both wholeness as a system and systematic nature of plant based Islamic medicines. 2Muhammad Aslam Khan. But in this study emphasis was on medicinal uses as used in different cultures. 2009 ISSN 1818-6769 © IDOSI Publications. Ahadith`s books. In the same era other Muslim scholars like Ali bin Mossa Raza and Imam Kazim Bin Jaffar also worked on Islamic medicines. Agric. Al-Bakra and Al-Inaam. Jalal uddin Alseuoti and Abdul Razzaq Bin Mustafa Altanki did a great work in this field. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being used by about 80% of the world population. Arabic name. Abdul Malik Bin Habib Undlasi compiled his first book “Tib-e-Nabvi”. Al-Rehman. Islamabad. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) used and recommended medicinal plants for various ailments and food [1]. Islamic history and books written on the Islamic medicines. distribution. mainly developing countries for primary health care because of better cultural acceptability. Ahadith and Islamic books. Zia uddin Almukadasi. Sci. Ahadith and Islamic literature. hygiene.) and was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) but search and compiling of these medicine is still continued after the death of Holy Prophet Muhammad (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) through out the world. Kahal ibne Tarkhan. & Environ. health principle. In this 1 Corresponding Author: Mushtaq Ahmad. Al-Quran is one of the best reference book describing the importance of plants in different Surahs as in Al-Momeenoon. In the fourth century of Hijra Muslims Scholars like Abi Jaffar Almustaghfri. 2009 Useful Medicinal Flora Enlisted in Holy Quran and Ahadith Mushtaq Ahmad. The other book which is best and still available is “Kanzulamal Fee Sanan Walakwal” also provide us much more information about medicines of Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihe Wasallaam) [2]. traditions and religions. There is now growing awareness to encourage indigenous production and processing of these plants used in different cultures and religious. 1Sarfaraz Khan Marwat. Pakistan Abstract: The present research work is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holly Quran. 5 (1): 126-140. Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University. practice. 1Tamoor Ul Hassan and 1Shazia Sultana ¹Department of Plant Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University. The main aim of this study is to establish how the different parts or aspects of plant based Islamic medicines (Tibb) such as use of medicinal plants. malaria and arthritis References from Ahadith C C Bukhari (Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha Siddiqa) Kitabul-libas [9]. Acorus calamus L. muscle pain. and C.. 5 (1): 126-140. headache and dizziness 127 . Sci. Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam. arthritis.Am-Euras. N. stomach pain. heart diseases. Arabic name. Ahadith and Islamic books. madness. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Mushroom Khunbii Esh El-Ghorab Agaricaceae Fleshy fungus found in terrestrial and moist habitat. investigate medicinal uses and create awareness about the medicinal flora enlisted in Holy Quran. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran. Ahadith and Islamic books. Ahadith and Islamic books. RESULTS Present findings were confined to 32 plant species belonging to 30 genera of 23 families enlisted in Holly Quran. habit and distribution. clear eyes. family. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Islamabad-Pakistan. Islamic literature and culture for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. Agaricus campestris L. liver and intestinal disorder. Correct botanical names. parts used. local names. paralysis. family. physical strength. Arabic name. These plants are not only used in Islamic countries but also throughout the world for various aspects such as medicinal. 2. Asia. Correct botanical nomenclature was also confirmed by comparing with already known specimens of herbarium of Quaid-i-Azam Univeristy. Honey which is the product of different plant species is described for medicinal purpose in the Holy Quran. food and industrial products. hysteria. paralysis. J. Ahadith and Islamic literature. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). The notation given in the Islamic books were also cited and confirmed from Holly Quran and Ahadith. Agric. Sweet flag Zareea Zareera. Check list and medicinal inventory of plants was arranged in systematic order of botanical names in 1. Europe. Zadul Maad [10]. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran. Holy Quran is considered to be the reference for the citation of these plants. Ahadith. habit and distribution. Oudulwaj Acoraceae Perennial herb found in marshy places and along riverbanks. English name. research work was conducted to prepare checklist. Comprehensive and detailed information about medicinal plants were collected from these sources. eczema. part used. germicide. conception. asthma. Data inventory constitute botanical name. Roots Eye diseases. their families and identification of plants were done by using of available literature [4-8]. MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the most acceptable literature given in Holly Quran. parkensis. & Environ. America. 2009 research medicinal uses of these plants are experience of different communities of world. Cosmopolitan Whole part Eye diseases. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: alphabetic order followed by English name. leaves and seeds. Zadul Maad [10] 128 . intestinal pain worms. Antidote. Russia. 61. constipation.Am-Euras. headache. Allium cepa L. parkensis. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). clear face and skin spots. Ibne Maja (Ravi: Mahdan Bin Abu Talah) [11] Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). & Environ. headache. cholera. eye diseases. Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid [11]. common cold. Kitabul Ashraba[12]. India and USA Bulb Antidote. References from Holy Qurn Verse #. improve sperm production. wound healer. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Surah Baqra [13]. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Stomach diseases. ear pain. hysteria. Zadul Maad [10] 4. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Garlic Lahson Soom Alliaceae Annual cultivated erect herb Egypt. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Onion Piaz Basal Alliaceae Cultivated annual herb Pakistan. appetizer. Ibne-Majja. Sahih-Al-Muslim. 68. cough. baldness. France. Pakistan. influenza. Abwab ul Attamah [12]. Ravi: Saeed bin Zaid. Surah Baqra [13] References from Ahadith C C C C Bukhari (Ravi: Jabir bin Abdullah) Kitabut-Tib [9] Muslim (Ravi: Jabir Bin Abdullah) Chap. China. Kitab ul Tamaih [9] Muslim (Ravi: Abu Ayub) [12]. hepatitis. 5 (1): 126-140. Allium sativum L. Agric. J. Ibne Majja (Ravi: Umer bin Alkhitab) [11]. fever. digestive problems asthma. India.. throat infection. 2009 References from Ahadith C C C Bukhari (Ravi: Saeed Bin Zaid) [9]. References from Holy Quran Verse #. Sci. China. Italy. America and European countries Bulb. menstruation and intestinal diseases. tuberculosis. cough. piles. References from Ahadith C C C C Bukhari (Ravi: Hazrat Anas). paralysis. 3. dog bite. Diarrhoea. J. Yemen Gum of stem Germicide. womb diseases and vaginal pain References from Ahadith C C Bukhari. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Kitabut-Tib [11]. liver infection. Europe. hepatitis. tongue infection. Sci. oral wounds. References from Ahadith C C Tibe-Nabvi and Jadeed Science(Ravi: Ans Bin Malik (R. Ibn-ul Qayyim. testes and anus swelling. 129 . 2009 5. India and Pakistan Gum of stem Increase memory.A) [2]. throat diseases.Am-Euras. 6. arthritis. muscle weakness. Baihaqi [14] 7. Boswellia carterii Birdw. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Indian frankincense Lobban Leeban Buseraceae Tree Somalia. Tibb-e-Nabvi [10]. tuberculosis. Beta vulgaris L. clear the blood blocking. Ireland and Pakistan Roots and leaves Eczema. kidney pain. 5 (1): 126-140. diarrhea. Oman. and baldness. clear urine. skin disease. piles. throat swelling and infection. headache. Tibb-e-Nabvi [15]. eczema. Kitabul-Athama [9]. References from Ahadith C C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). North Africa. India. arthritis and insecticide. Ibne Majja. Boswellia serrata Birdw. Ethopia. Engish Name: Loal Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Frankincense Gogle Kundur Burseraceae An armed shrub or tree common on stony grounds and hillocks. Agric. & Environ. lungs infections.. banjar Chenopodiaceae Annual or perennial cultivated vegetable. wound healer. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Beet roots Choqandar Silq. stomach pain. cough. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). baldness. parkensis. Sci. 10. intestinal pain. References from Ahadith C C Ibne Majja (Ravi: Abu bin Um-e-Haram) [11]. piles. Japan and China Leaves and branches Tetanus. throat disease. Pakistan. remove the poisonous material from stomach. Saudi Arabia. 2009 8. Libya. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Algeria. headache. Pakistan. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). sexual stimulant. Tropical uses of camphor is stimulant and muscle relaxant.. Sudan. arthritis and eczema. Engish Name: Loal Name: Aabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Chicory Kasni Hind-Baa Asteraceae Cultivated annual herb or may be found as weed in Trifolium field. Plant is also used as laxative and stimulant.Am-Euras. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Camphor tree Kafoor Kafoor Lauraceae Tree or shrub cultivated for ornamental and commercial purposes. cold effect on body. eye diseases. 5 (1): 126-140. tuberculoses. Cassia senna L. 9. & Environ. and India Leaves. 130 . Agric. hysteria. remove the blockage of kidney and urethra. breast pain. Zadul Maad [10]. hepatitis. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Europe. antidote. inner wounds. flower. oral and teeth swelling. Zadul Maad [10]. Cichorium intybus L. waist pain. liver diseases. Cinnamomum camphora L. Sri Lanka. Cough. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Senna Sana. roots and seeds. New Zealand. liver and kidney pains. Eriteria. kidney stones and diarrhea References from Ahadith C C Bukhari. sanamakki Sanamakki Caesalpiniaceae A perennial herbaceous plant usually found on sandy grounds. India. cholera. Kenya and Mozambique Leaves and fruit Cold effect on body. India. J. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Somalia Republic. Ravi: Mohd Bin Abu Bakar Al-Kaim [9]. headache. Egypt. pimples. Commiphora molmol Engl. Abwab ul Tamiah [14]. wound healer. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). remove spot from skin. thrust. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb. Chapt. Water melon Tarbooz Al Bataigh Cucurbitaceae Annual trailer. Fruit and seeds. Zadul Maad [10]. stomach disorder. cholera. cough. liver infection. 5 (1): 126-140. Agric. Trimzi (2nd Ed. facial beauty. 2009 References from Holy Quran Verse 15. increase immunity. Myrrh Murmukey Murr Burseraceae Perennial plant Ethopia. myrrha Nees. old cough. Kitabul-Al Athama [11]. ex Tschirch: Syn: English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: C.Arabia Gum of stem Germicides. 13.) Matsumura: English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: References from Ahadith C C C Ibne Majja. Thailand and West. ant peristalsis. Zadul Maad [10]. cultivated for fruit purposes. Ibn-ul Qayyim.Am-Euras. Pakistan. China. Iran. Kitab ul Tib [9]. bark and seeds Antidote. References from Ahadith C Bukhari. skin depletion and leukoria References from Ahadith Bukhari. heart diseases. clear the urine and stomach. baldness. 11. Spain and America Fruit. diabetes. & Environ. oral fragrance. swellingof urinary bladder 131 . 1. Surah Al insane. America. common cold. Chap. J. Kidney pain. 12. India and Pakistan. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Ibn-ul Qayyim. India. Citrus aurantifolia L. Africa. piles. decrease. Sci. juice. hepatitis. Ravi: Abu Mussa Alasharri [9]. intestinal pain. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Lime Sangtra or Narangi Laymun Rutaceae A small fruit tree cultivated in the plains and foothills. C Muslim (Ravi: Um-e-Atiya) Kitabul-Janayez [12].. jaundice and have cold effects. Ravi: Sahal bin Sahad. leukoria. [14]. Zadul Maad [10].. dyspepsia and anorexia.1-4. & Environ. Burma. Quince Bahi Safarjal Rutaceae Wild tree found in foothills and cultivated on the plains. Indo-China. Sci.Am-Euras. at ±1200 m alt.W. Agric. 14. constipation. germicides. Milk Remove kidney and urinary bladder stone. 16. pericarditis. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). kidney and urinary bladder stone and hysteria 132 . swelling. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: References from Ahadith C C C Ibne Majah. Pakistan and India. Hayat ul Hawan ul Kabri [16]. Cydonia oblonga Mill.Asia: Afghanistan. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Bark. Whole plant Heart diseases. J. pile. 13 References from Ahadith C C Bukhari [9]. release intestinal pain. Ravi: Abdullah bin Jaffer. dysentery 15. diarrohea. Yemen and Sri Lanka Leaves extract Tuberculosis. Surrah Teen. endocarditis. Kitabul Athama [11]. [14]. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). References from Holy Quran Verse #. Zadul Maad [10]. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Memcylon (Tintura) Kamaila Warus Fabaceae Tree Sudan. piles. Flemingia grahamiana Wight and Arn. eczema. throat infection. Ibn-ul Qayyim. leaves. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Figs Anjeer Teen Moraceae A small tree cultivated in poor soil Mediterranean Region and S. Pakistan. Ficus carica L. 2009 References from Ahadith Baihaqi Shabalaiman. (Ravi: hazrat Talha). 5 (1): 126-140. # 48. jaundice and have cooling effect. Headache. Ibn-ul Qayyim. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Part used: Medicinal uses: Distribution: References from Ahadith C C C C Trimzi [14] Bukhari [Ravia: Hazrat Ayesha (Chap. Ibn-ul Qayyim. 5 (1): 126-140. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Bukhari. & Environ. 2009 References from Ahadith C C Ibne Majja. intestinal ulcer. Fruit and leaves Arthritis. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Pakistan and America 18. Chap Bab ul Daba [11]. 17. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Hina Mehndi Henna 133 . Ravi: Zaid Bin Arkam [11]. Ravia: Aisha. Piles. kidney and liver disorder and heart diseases. Zadul Maad [10]. Barley Jao Shair Poaceae Annual cultivated herb Fruit Fever. increase immunity. kidney pain. Ravi: Anas.Am-Euras. Surah Younis References fromAhadith C C C Bukhari. Kitabul-athama [10]. common cold. References from Holy Quran Verse. Sci. Ibn e Maja. India. J.. Haiz ul Shahir] [9]. heart diseases. Maleness. fever. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Squash Kaddo Yakteen. Lagenaria siceraria Standl. 19. Madness. Kitabul-Athama [9]. Hordeum vulgare L. weakness. Found all over the world. Zadul Maad [10]. cultivated for vegetable. maintain cholesterol level. Agric. Lawsonia inermis L. lungs infection. Daba Cucurbitaceae Annual trailer. Kitab ul Tamamiah [9] Ibn e Maja. headache. Zadul Maad [9]. 2009 Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Lythraceae Perennial fragrant shrub. Seeds Maleness. Kitbu-Tib [11]. anorexia. Bukhari. annual herb. body pain. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Lentils Masoor Adas Papilionaceae Small. Ibne Majja. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). arthritis. 61. branches and flowers Wound healer.. 20. Ravi: Salma. Lepidium sativum L. Abyssinia. Agric. increase memory. stimulator. protect the rupture of skin. Sci. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Verse #. Africa and Asia. measle. References from Holy Quran Holy Quran. digestive diseases. cultivated as pulse. Surah Al Baqra [13]. widely cultivated. Asia etc. paralysis. Afghanistan Leaves and juice Germicide. Kitab ul Tib [9]. J. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Water cress Hubbe-Rishad Habbul Rashad Brassicaceae Annual weed of both cultivated and wild habitat. skin softer. eczema. widely cultivated in Europe. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and Mukhtiar Ahmad Nadvi) [15]. common cold. vaginal pain. maleness. 5 (1): 126-140. Lens culinaris Medic. Leaves. eye infection. menstruation and digestive problems. leuckoria References from Ahadith C C C C C Trimzi [14] Tib-e-Nabvi. Native country uncertain. 21. cool effect. constipation. References from Ahadith C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Tibb-e-Nabvi (Urdu Tans. 134 . insecticide. heal the muscle and chicken pox wound. & Environ.Am-Euras. face clearness. Ibn-ul Qayyim. constipation. Ibn-ul Qayyim. parkensis. baldness. Ravi: Hazrat Ayesha [2]. Zadul Maad [10]. Ravi: Abu Huraira (Chap. J. W. aerophagy. 23. common cold. labor pain. appendicitis. memory increases. maleness. ear pain and swelling. cough. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Sweet basil Rehan. ascities. antidote. typhoid. brain disorders. liver pain. Trimzi (Bab ul Tib) [14]. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). References from Ahadith C C C C C Bukhri. pimples. wound healer. milk production. eczema. hepatitis. swelling. Turkey. asthma. Surah Al Rahman [13]. 5 (1): 126-140. Asia. paralysis. Nigella sativa L. piles. Malay Archipelago. crohan`s diseases. 2009 22. Kitabu-Tib [11]. heart diseases. piles. anorexia. diabetes. kidney stone. eczema. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya).Am-Euras. 13. Niazbo Rehan Lamiaceae An annual plant cultivated for ornamental purposes Grown in India. constipation. dyspepsia. gastro enteritis. Leaves and seeds Fever. dog bites. flatulence. menstruation. Ibn-e-Maja. 135 . Ibn-ul Qayyim. vaginal swelling. common cold. malaria and heart diseases. common fever. consception. Ocimum basilicum L. urine blockage. tuber closes. Seeds Hysteria. References from Holy Quran Verse #. Kitab ul Tib) [9]. weakness. hearing problems. intestinal worms.. allergy. asthma. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zadul Maad [10]. diarrhea. baldness. Ibne-Majja. digestive disorders. Ravi: Abu Hurrera [14]. & Environ. India and Pakistan. References from Ahadith C C C Bukhri. waist pain. Zadul Maad [10]. Ravi: Salum Bin Abdullah [11]. gas trouble. facial clearness. Tirmizi. Italy. parkensis. 12. Arabia. Agric. Sci. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. ulcerative colitis. baldness. muscles pain. cough. Ravi: Abu Hurrera. pain killer. malaria. pneumonia. arthritis. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Black Seed Clongy Hubatul-sudda Ranunculaceae An annual erect herb. gastric acute. Ravi: Abu Musa Al Asharii [9]. fatness. pemples. Australia. antiperistalsis. sexual weakness. verse #. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Olive Zaiytoon Zaiytoon Oleaceae An erect branched cultivated tree. 11. maleness. 35. Found in Central Asian countries Fruit and oil Strengthen body muscles. Surah Mariam. Bukhri. 39. 60. piles. verse #. Agric. Olea europea L. Rutab. 2009 24. heart attack. stomach and respiratory diseases. verse #. Sci. Surah Alnnor. 27. remove the measlesspot. Surah Al Anam. Iraq. Maharashter). 5 (1): 126-140. swelling of kidney. India (Rajistan. Zadul Maad [10] 136 . English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Date palm Khajoor Nahal. Surah Alnahal. verse #. Abwab ul Tamah [14]. verse #. S. 23. Surah Taha. & Environ. Ravi: Khalid Bin Sahad [9]. verse #. labour pain. 25. Arecaceae Cultivated tree. Ravi-Bussar (R. surah Al Haqqa. Surah Al Qamar. common cold. verse #. intestinal pain. verse #. verse #. Surah Baqra. Zadul Maad [10]. verse #. skin diseases. Balah. Trimzi [14]. Surah Alanam. eczema. Surah Al Kahaf. 91. Pakistan. 34. clear the blood. Ravi. Ibn-ul Qayyim. 11.148. verse #. Ravi: Ibn-e Umer. Surah Rahman. Phoenix dactylifera L. Surah Yaseen. piles. N. may be found self grown. antidote.191. 7. 71. pancreas pain. baldness. 25. kidney pain. verse #. 4. Fruit Heart diseases.6. physical strengthing. Ibne Majja.A) [11].36.Am-Euras. liver disorders. shrill the voice. verse #. Tammar. wound healer. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Zahid Bin Arkum [11]. 1-4.Africa.Arabia. etc. Surah Al Nahal. verse #. Surah Shurah. References from Holy Quran C Verse #. J. Surrah Al Israa. References from Ahadith C C C C Ibne Majja. diarrhea. Trimzi. Surah Al Rahad. 99. stomach pain. Surah Alanam. slow down aging. verse #. Surah Teen [13]. verse #. References from Holy Quran Verse #. References from Ahadith C C C C Bukhri. Surah Abbus [13]. 99.. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). 11-28. verse #. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). sexual weakness. Ravi – Ans Bin Malik [9]. tuberculosis. & Environ. Zadul Maad [10]. headache. piles. oral diseases. Found in desert parts of the world. vaginal pain. Pakistan and European countries Fruit Stomach cough. References from Ahadith C C Bukhri. remove swelling. antidote. 28.. constipation. 137 . diabetes. Kitab ul Tib) [9] Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Sci. hepatitis. eye diseases. 5 (1): 126-140. Ibn-ul Qayyim. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Pomegranate Anar Rumman Punicaceae Tree. India. Branches and roots Dental diseases. good in parkansis. arthritis. muscle pain. maleness. In Pakistan (Kashmir and Northern Areas) Roots Phyrngitis. tuberculosis. heart and liver diseases. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Tooth brush tree Peelu Arak Salvadoraceae Shrub or small tree found in rocky slopes and sandy area. verse #. oral diseases. strengthen heart. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Costus Kuth Kustul Bahri Asteraceae Annul wild herb European countries. Surah-Al Anam.Am-Euras. Agric. 99. J. common cold. References from Holy Quran Verse #. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10]. headache. Saussurea lappa L. Ravi: Jabbir Bin Abdullah (Chap. Salvadora persica L. 69. 2009 26. Afghanistan. piles eczema. Chilli. digestive problems. Ibn-ul Qayyim. References from Ahadith Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). verse #. 141. Punica granatum L. cultivated in the area. Surah Rehman. Surah Al Anam. Iran. diarrhea and dysentery. liver. dental problems. References from Ahadith Tib e Nabvi and modern Science [2]. 27. ajwain Zatar Lamiaceae Wild annual herb Iran. Agric.[( Ravi: Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman) [2]. lactogogue i. Surah-Yaseen. 5 (1): 126-140. Surah Israa. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Grapes Munaqqa Inab Vitaceae Perennial vine. Surah-Al. Surah-Al-Anaam. India. 91. Kashmir. 34. S. diabetes. Thymus serpylum L. cough. Europe. dandruff. Surah-Al-Kahf. Iraq and Afghanistan Leaves Germicides. verse #. piles. 99. stomach diseases. cultivated for fruit purposes. References from Holy Quran Verse #.Al Nahal. back pain. J. Ibn-ul Qayyim. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Wild thyme Sattar Ban . verse #. pain remove of stomach. 28. verse #. 30. France. verse #. C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). common cold. breast pain. Spain. 160.11. 32. cooling effects on body. Zadul Maad [10]. 19. Powerful tonic.. stomach pain. 138 . Ravi: Mohd Ahmed Zahbi. liver. verse #.Tibb-e-Nabvi [16] 31. baldness. [13].Am-Euras. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Surah-Al-Mumenon. References from Ahadith C Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya).Nahl. 266 Surah-Al-Bakara. liver and lung disorders. References from Ahadith Tib-e-Nabvi. lungs infection. Ethiopia Seeds and leaves. 2009 29. Throat infection. kidney and urinary bladder pain. Ibn-ul Qayyim.e. Ravi: Ahmed Zahbi. kill the insect of belly and cough in strengthen lungs. Orient. Surah. 78. 67. ulcer. dog bite. verse #. seeds in powder form used for diabetes. Surah-An-Naba and verse #. Vitis vinifera L. relax body and brain muscles. & Environ. diarrhea and gas trouble. swelling. cough. to stimulate milk production in mammary glands. Sci. remove weary. Germany. Surah-Abasa. verse #. Pakistan and India Fruit juice Common cold. clear the face and cancer. body pain. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Fenugreek Maithi Helba Papilionaceae Annual cultivated leafy vegetable Pakistan. verse #. Arabia. A) [9]. Oman. dates were the major source of food for the people of Middle East. From this study it is found that Phoenix dactylifera (Date palm) has highest number of references in The Holy Quran.. In Islam diseases are cured in two ways. References from Holy Quran Verse #. Ravi. Ravi Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R. Yaman. Bangladesh. Sci. stomach disorders. Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia used to have breakfast with dates and Khubus (bread). Ravi-Abdullah Bin Jaffer (R. Surah.Al-Anam). 2009 References from Ahadith C C Bukhari Ravi: Ibne-Abbas [9]. cooling effect on body. And it is used for skin diseases baldness and pain killer. Zadul Maad [10]. headache. increase urine production. Seralone. Their shapes and tastes are similar as well as different also. Ibn-ul Qayyim. Now a days there is much interest in medicinal plants through out the world including developed countries like China. Similarly in developing countries like Pakistan and India. Zingiber officinale Roscoe.A) [12]. first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments through medicines [17]. piles. In modern times many products of food have been prepared from dates. Olea europea (olive) and Punica granatum (pome grenate). 68. References from Ahadith C C C Bukhari. the people of Dubai. Hazrat Abu Haraira). He recommended Hordeum vulgare (Barley) for heart diseases. gave the references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through out the world. Qatar. Olea europea (olive) is another plant that has many references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. Syria. intestinal swelling. In Ahadith it is said that “eat the olive oil and apply it on the body. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. Germany. In Holy Quran it is said “Your God is that who has made different kinds of orchids and gardens for you. anorexia. English Name: Local Name: Arabic Name: Family: Habit and Habitat: Distribution: Part used: Medicinal uses: Ginger Adrak or Sonth Zanjabil Zingiberaceae Cultivated herb with underground perennial stem. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tells us that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Prophet (PBUH). The Holy Quran is one of the reference books describing the importance of plants used for different ailments in various Surahs. Muslim. Agric. India and Byzantine. constipation and vigorous [18]. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). Persia. Up to 1959. Our Holy Prophet used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. Ravi: Zadul Maad [10] 32. 5 (1): 126-140. India and Pakistan Fruit Intestinal pain. These could hardly reach the . constipation. sexual diseases and heart 139 attacks. Eat these fruit when ripen but keep the share of poor relatives and needy and do not waste them (Holy Quran: 141. Japan. This plant is used for digestive problems. & Environ. France. diarrhea. USA and UK. J. it is cure of seventy diseases” (Abu Naeem. DISCUSSION History of Islamic medicine in its true context can thus be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that was inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek sources but to which became added medical knowledge from. digestive stimulant. dog bite. those have colorful crops of Phoenix dactylifera.Am-Euras. In ancient. sexual weakness. Ibn-ul Qayyim. the benefits of modern medicines and health care reach only to small percentage of population. dyspepsia. The saying of Holy Prophet (PBUH) about medicines are spread over 200 books in the world [19]. Surah Al Baqra [13]. Moreover in remote areas of the world where per capita income of people is very low.Adab-u-Thaam. pp: 3. since there long standing use is plant drug reasonably guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety [20]. & Environ. T. Karachi. Kitabul Athama. Al-Hilali. L. 6. 1966. S. pp: 314-585 Ibn-e-Maja. Y. Tib-i-Nabvi.. Lahore. 326. Ali. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Westerham press. and R. 1995..J.222. S. Lubnan. M.I. 9-lower Mall. 22(2): 153-220. KSA.A. 13th Ed. Medicinal and poisonous plants of Pakistan. S. 817820. 204. Karachi. Lahore. 1. Pakistan. Ghaznavi. Qureshi. 3: 99. 140 . Sahih Muslim. 5. M. 1987.A. Hayat Ul Hawan. 1996.A.. 2004. 281. K. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers. Alfaisal Publishers. Arshad and M. Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of District Attock (Pakistan). 1999. 150. Pakistan. Lahore. Kitab-e-Sahat. Madinah.. 2. 157.htm Baquar. 1938. 3: 39-385. Khan. 21. Pak.siu. 1(1): 10-489.. 2nd Ed. Ltd.. Volme II Part I (A). 1977.H.. Stewart. 2009 large mosses living in the rural areas. 1976. Roberts.A.Am-Euras. Aqab Mian Market.B. K. M.R. Mohaqiqah. Abdullah Muhammad bin Yazid. 19. 5 (1): 126-140. 18. In this way present approach of this study can be adopted to record the medicinal uses of plants for welfare of human beings. by Hakim Azizur Rehman A’zmi and Mukhtiar Ahmad Nadvi) Kutab Khana Shan-e-Islam. pp: 488-489. Babul. Musa. Al Bukhari.. For.I. Ethnobotanical Leaflets.. M.J. The Book Corporation. Khan. 1(1): 15-20.A.I. The necessity for exploration for such useful data from Holy Quran. This study is the logical and applicable step in directions towards the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based industry in the light of Islamic history through out the world for prosperity and safety of the human beings. M. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran. An Annotated Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of West Pakistan and Kashmir”. Lahore. Pakistan.. Ahmad. 11. Nasr. 3.. 118. Kitabul Ashraba. J. 13.. pp: 15. Westerham. 15. http://www. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 7 8.Ali. Hence there is a need for the inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level. J. 2000. 445. Tib-i-Nabvi and modern science. Agric. 10. 362. Wild Flowers of Pakistan. Alhajaj. Sci. Flora of Peshawar District and Khyber Agency. pp: 39-230. In: Flora of West Pakistan. 2004. Khan. Zadul Maad. Near Jamia Masjid Dehli-India. Ghaznavi. pp: 38-320. 1972. The Flora of Karachi. pp: 9. 14. Mukhdoom Printing Press. pp: 383-425. Kent (England). 1998. Tajiran Kutab. Islamic Science-An illustrated study. Alfaisal Printing Press Lahore. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Pakistan.T. Jafri. Nasir. Pakistan... pp: 349. Karachi Pakistan. Ibn-ul Qayyim. K.B. Ghaznavi.Tibb-e-Nabvi (Urdu Tans.M. 12. Noor Muhammad Maalik Book Dept. M. Pait ke Beemarian. it becomes more difficult to buy complicated and expensive prescriptions. Tibatul Jadidah. The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. Islamic Institute of Bangai District Attock-Pakistan for fruitful suggestion and references during this research work. Al Faisal. 1999. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). 4.I.edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto. 849-57. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat. 151. Pakistan Forest Institute. 836. Karachi. Ahadith and Islamic books has long been felt with the increasing need of drugs.H. Al Baroot. R. Darya Sharif District AttockPakistan for their moral support in Islamic studies. medicines and other useful products. Adwiya Aur Ghizain. Qurashi. 5:183. M. Maktaba Rehmania. In this study an effort was also made to review the active constituents of these medicinal plants [21]. REFERENCES 17. 2001. Waiz. Sahi ul Bukhari. Farooqi.. J.Nasir and S. pp: 9-15. 1972. Lahore. Authors are also grateful to Hafiz Qari Azhar Mehmood and Muhammad Shakeel. M. Karachi. and S. Karachi. pp: 298.M. Flora of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. Pakistan.D. Lahore. In: E. pp:105-107. S. 20.B. Holy Prophet as Psychologist. Ibn-ul Qayyim. 9. 1(2): 1-14. Special gratitude is expressed to Khawaja Hafiz Peer Muhammad Abdul Haq.. Peshawar. 245-248. Azeem Sons Publishers. Papilionaceae. M.R. Al-Jozi (Aljawziyya). 16.. Nafees Academy.Mehtab Co.A. and M. Rafique. Zafar. Ilaj-i-Nabvi and Jadid Science. 1985. It speaks “We have neglected nothing in the Book” (Khan. 2009 Vegetables Mentioned in the Holy Qura’n and Ahadith and Their Ethnomedicinal Studies in Dera Ismail Khan. N. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb. It was brought to the Indo-Pak Subcontinent by Muslim scholars and practiced here for centuries (Hassan. Pakistan. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe.P. The Holy Quran is the eternal and everlasting basis of Islam. Pakistan. Dera Ismail Khan. but contain vitamins. It contains signs and verses which have been leading people of different ages and of different academics and intellectual background to believe in Islam. Life and diseases go together where there is life. the use of plants as 530 medicines is an ancient and reliable practice (Arshad and Rao. Pakistan 3 Faculty of Pharmacy. Complete macro and microscopic detailed morphological features of these species were discussed. therefore. & Nakai. Beta vulgaris L. bitter or tasteless. Key words: Ethnomedicinal study. Syria. Muhammad Aslam Khan2. Allium sativum L. habit and habitat. Allium cepa L. History of Islamic medicine in its true context can thus be defined as a body of knowledge of medicine that was inherited by the Muslim in the early phase of Islamic history (40-247 AH/661-861 AD) from mostly Greek sources but to which became added medical knowledge from. Pakistan Sarfaraz Khan Marwat1. NWFP. family followed by Quranic name. . Pakistan 2 Department of Arabic. India and Byzantine.S. Fazal-ur-Rehman3 and Shazia Sultana1 1 Department of Plant Sciences. It is concluded that herbal medicines are being widely used in the world because of better cultural acceptability. least injurious with none or much reduced side effects... mentioned in Holy Quran and Ahadith. English name.) and was completed at Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) but search and compiling of these medicines is still continued through out the world (Nasr. Traditional unani medicine originated in Greece. 2009 ISSN 1680-5194 © Asian Network for Scientific Information. Arabic name. Islamabad. Cure of diseases through medicinal plants is always a salient feature of Islamic teaching and preaching. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and Ahadith.. Quaid-I-Azam University.. Persia. fibers and shelter. The nutrient contents of different types of vegetables vary considerably and they are not major source of carbohydrates compared to starchy foods which form the bulk of food eaten. The main aim of this study is to document the knowledge of ethnobotanical importance of vegetables in the light of Islam. 1994). Mir Ajab Khan1. during 2007. Pakistan Abstract: The present research work is based on nine herbaceous plant species: Agaricus campestris L. diseases are bound to exist. Islamic Studies and Research. 1976).Pakistan Journal of Nutrition 8 (5): 530-538. founded by ancient Greek philosophers and was used/documented by Muslims during the glorious period of Islamic civilization.F. Mushtaq Ahmad1. but also plants have been used to control and ease diseases. 2008). Ahadith [the sayings of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam)] have also described the importance of many plant species. Muhammad Zafar1. Islamic medicine started from Hazrat Adam (A. 2001). Ahadith and Islamic literature. essential amino acids as well as minerals and antioxidants. Dependency and sustainability of man and animal life has been revolving around plants through their uses as food. Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley. This is a part of check list of medicinal flora and their uses enlisted in Holy Quran. parts used. Vegetables are included in meals mainly for their nutritional values. These plants were collected from Dera Ismail Khan District. Local/vernicular name. In view of the importance of this study related comprehensive and detailed data was collected. et al. Gomal University. Dera Ismail Khan... Pakistan is among those countries where traditional unani medicine is popularly practiced among a large fragment of its population.) Mats. however some are reserved for sick and convalescence because of their medicinal properties (Mensah et al. Farooqi (1998) in his book “Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat. 2001). Results were systematically arranged by alphabetic order of botanical names. Holy Quran and Ahadith INTRODUCTION Vegetables are those herbaceous plants whose part or parts are eaten as supporting food or main dishes and they may be aromatic. The Holy Quran from the very start has a claim that it covers every aspect of life and is full of wisdom.. Medicines and Food Mentioned in Ahadith” has reported about 70 plants and plant products. Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Gomal University. Adwiyah Aur Ghizaen” in English “Plants.W. Cucumis sativus L. English Name : Mushroom Local Name : Khumbi Arabic Name : Esh El-Ghorab Family : Agaricaceae Habit and Habitat : Fleshy fungus. So invoke your Lord for us to bring forth for us of what the earth grows. References from Ahadith C Narrated Jabir bin 'Abdullah: (R. hepatitis.Pak. 1998). fever.. leaves and seeds Medicinal uses: Antidote. headache. Comprehensive and detailed information about 9 herbaceous vegetable plants of ethnobotanical importance mentioned in the Holy Quran and Ahadith were collected from these sources. Lagenaria siceraria. 8 (5): 530-538. Cucumis sativus L. "Truffles are like Manna (i. piles. cultivated in the field Rhizome. "Whoever has eaten garlic or onion should keep away from us or should keep away from our mosque (Farooqi. 1998) 531 : : : : : : Onion Piaz Basal Alliaceae Herbacous.) reported Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' which Allah the Glorious and Exalted. 1985). 61. “Truffles are 'Manna' and their juice is the medicine for the eyes (Farooqi. influenza. make them dead by cooking.A. improve sperm production. local names. which are used throughout Pakistan for various aspects such as vegetable. arthritis. Ahadith and Islamic literature. medicinal and industrial products. Ahadith for the welfare of human communities throughout the world. Beta vulgaris L. “Would you exchange that which is better for that which is lower? (AlHilali and Khan.e. 1988) . medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran and books of Ahadith. habit and habitat. onions and garlic (Ahmad.A.. Quranic name. 1998). parknesis.) narrates: one day the companions of Rasulullah (SAW) said to Him (SAW).A. If it is necessary to eat them.A. English name. Nutr. constipation. 1998) C Narrated Mu'awiyah ibn Qurrah (R. clear eyes. Arabic name. Trigonella foenumgraecum L. menstruation and intestinal diseases. J.A. Citrulus lanatus (Thunb. Allium sativum L. research work was conducted to investigate ethnobotanical uses and create awareness about the plant species enlisted in Holy Quran. English name. that is. and Zingiber officinale Roscoe. physical strength. Quranic name.. References from Holy Qurn (Verse #. eye diseases. English Name Local Name Arabic Name Family Habit and Habitat Part used RESULTS Present findings were confined to 9 herbaceous vegetable plant species belonging to 8 genera of 7 families enlisted in Holy Quran. common cold. 1998) C MATERIALS AND METHODS The research work was conducted by reviewing the Holy Quran. germicide. Ahadith and Islamic books.e.): the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) forbade these two plants (i. parts used.) Mats.A. throat infection. Allium cepa L. garlic and onions) and he said: He who eats them should not come near our mosque. its Fûm (wheat or garlic). 2009 Keeping in view the importance of diverse medicinal flora and rich medicinal culture of Islam. its herbs. Chapter #. headache and Dizziness References from Ahadith: C Saeed bin Zaid (R. ear pain. clear face and skin spots..1Surah Al Baqarah): And (remember) when you said.) the Prophet said. Agaricus campestris L. Data inventory constitutes botanical name."(Farooqi. Diarrhoea. and Nakai. Plants species were arranged in systematic order of botanical names in alphabetic order followed by family. Upon this Rasulullah (SAW) said. they grow naturally without man's care) and their water heals eye diseases. part used. Allium cepa L. family. Hazrat Suhaib (R. cholera. Stomach diseases. their families and identification of plants were done by using flora of Pakistan. Abu Huraira (R..) narrates that I heard the Prophet (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) saying. its cucumbers.) reported: I heard Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alaihi Wassallum) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' and their juice is a medicine for the eyes Sa'id bin Zaid (R. paralysis.” He said. Arabic name. medicinal uses and references cited from Holy Quran. Ahadith and Islamic books. its lentils and its onions. distribution.A. “Truffles are the small pox of the earth”. muscle pain.) reported Rasulallah (may peace be upon Him) as saying: Truffles are a kind of 'Manna' which Allah sent down upon Bani Israil and their juice is a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi. C Sa'id bin Zaid (R. terrestrial and moist places Part used : Whole part Medicinal uses : Eye diseases. habit and habitat. sent down upon the people of Israil. cough. These plants are Agaricus campestris L. and its juice is a medicine for the eyes (Farooqi. Correct botanical names. baldness. “O Mûsâ (Musa)! we cannot endure one kind of food. appetizer. The roots of the Silq were a substitute for meat. Chapter # 1 . we used to look forward to Friday (Abdullah. asthma.A. Ali.A. histerea. 1990). We had some ripe dates hung up. 1988). parkensis. References from Ahadith: C Hazrat Anas bin Malik (R. 1998) Cucumis sativus L.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said.Pak.) asked Aisha (R. Ummul Mu'minin (R. It washes and purifies the urinary bladder. Ali. Allium sativum L.): Khalid (R. for it will be more beneficial for you (Ahmad. 1998) Khalid (R. cough. The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) got up and began to eat from them. digestive problems. accompanied by Ali who was convalescing. She replied: The last food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) ate was some which contained onions (Ahmad. Then she would put a handful of powdered barley over it and cook it. On Fridays she used to pull out the Silq from its roots and put the roots in a utensil. dog bite. those who eat onion and garlic should eat them in cooked form (Khan. English Name : Beet roots Local Name : Chakandar Arabic Name : Banjar Family : Chenopodiaceae Habit and Habitat : Cultivated vegetable. It increases the sexual power (Farooqi.A. 1998) C Hazrat Aisha (R.): there was a woman amongst us who had a farm and she used to sow Silq (a kind of vegetable) on the edges of streams in her farm. for you are convalescing and Ali stopped. facial beauty. but the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said repeatedly to Ali: Stop.A.A.A. Ali also got up to eat. increase immunity. She replied: The last food which the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) ate was some which contained onions (Ahmad. kidney pain. skin disease.) about onions. arthritis. hepatitis.. Terrestrial Part used : Roots and leaves Medicinal uses: Eczema.A. 2005) C Narrated Umm al-Mundhar bint Qays al-Ansariyyah: the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) came to visit me.A. 2001) References from Ahadith: C Narrated Sahl bin Sad (R. baldness. Terrestrial Part used : Fruit and seeds Medicinal uses : Kidney pain clears the urine and stomach.): Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat ripe date with water melon (Ghaznavi. 1988) Mahdan Bin Abu Talah narrates: Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. English Name Local Name Arabic Name Family Habit and Habitat Part used Medicinal uses : : : : : : : Garlic Lahson Soom Alliaceae Annual cultivated erect herb Rhizome Antidote. womb diseases and vaginal pain . 1988) Citrullus lanatus (Thunb. Beta vulgaris L.) asked Aisha (R. 1991) C Hazrat Abdullah Bin Abbas (R. J. “Water melon is diet as well as drink.) narrated: the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. After finishing the Jumua prayer we used to greet her and she would give us that food which we would eat with our hands and because of that meal.A. 2009 C Narrated Aisha. She said: I then prepared some barley and beet-root and brought it. jaundice and have cold effects References from Ahadith: C Narrated Sahl bin Sad Al-Sadi (R. wound healer. headache.A. intestinal pain worms. English name : Cucumber Local name : Khira Arabic name : Qissa. Khiarun 532 C Note: He who eats onion should make its odour die by cooking it well.Surah Al Baqarah): “And when you said O’ Moses We will not have patience or We will not endure on food (of) one (kind) so you pray for us (to) your Lord he brings out for us whatever sprouts or germinates (in) the earth of its vegetables or herbs and its cucumbers and its garlic and its lentils and its onions” (Rafai. 61.A. headache.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R. paralysis. muscle weakness.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used to eat water melon with fresh dates (Farooqi.) Matsumura English Name : Water melon Local Name : Tarbooz Arabic Name : Al Bataigh Family : Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat : Shrub.) about onions.A. Nutr. tuber closes References from Holy Quran (Verse #. liver infection. 8 (5): 530-538.) said: Abu Ziyad Khiyar ibn Salamah (R. The Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) then said: Take some of this. "Whoever has eaten garlic should not come to our mosque (Farooqi. to stimulate milk production in mammary glands References from Ahadith: C Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R. lactogogue i. 8 (5): 530-538.): I was a young boy when I once was walking with Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). Maleness. "A tailor invited Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared. Anas (R. breast pain. cough.) added: I have kept on loving gourd since I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) doing what he was doing (Abdullah. He served the Prophet with bread and soup made with gourd and dried meat.A.) bin Ja'far reported: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) eating cucumber with fresh dates (Farooqi. 2000) Anas bin Malik (R. dandruff. diarrhea and gas trouble. English Name : Fenugreek Local Name : Maithi Arabic Name : Helba Family : Papilionaceae Habit : Cultivated leafy vegetable Part used : Seeds and leaves Medicinal uses : Throat infection.) reported: a tailor invited Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared. Narrated Aisha. kidney and liver disorder and heart diseases References from Holy Quran: (As-Saaffat.A. 1985) C C Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Chapter # 37. piles. Daba Family : Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat : Prostrate with tendrils herb Part used : Fruit and leaves Medicinal uses : Arthritis." Anas (R.A.. 1985) References from Ahadith: C Narrated Ishaq bin 'Abdullah (R. Headache. Madness. Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) started picking and eating the gourd.): a tailor invited the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to a meal which he had prepared and I went along with the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). “Seek cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi. baldness..A. "I accompanied Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam0 to that meal. body pain. Then I became very fat (Ghaznavi. diuretic. back pain. Anas (R.” Anas bin Malik (R. Then the slave returned to his work.) added.A.A.e.A. 2005) 533 C Narrated Anas (R. Nutr. ulcer. swelling.A.A. When I saw that. 2005) Narrated Anas bin Malik (R.A. 1998).A.) said. Powerful tonic. fever. 2009 Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Habit and Habitat : Trailing annual.Pak.A.) saying. "Since that day I have continued to like gourd" (Abdullah. Piles. purgative References from Ahadith: C Narrated 'Abdullah (R. J.): my mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). 2000). Ummul Mu'minin (R.A. diabetes. terrestrial herb Distribution : Cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical counties of the world Parts used : Fruit Medicinal uses : Cooling.) bin Ja'far bin Abi Talib (R. seeds in powder form used for diabetes.): I heard Anas bin Malik (R.): I saw Allah's Apostle (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) eating fresh dates with cucumber (Abdullah. tonic and vermifuge. so I have always liked the pumpkin since that day (A’zami and Nadvi.) said: I saw Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) going after the pumpkin round the dish.A.) said: I went along with Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) to that feast. lungs infection. I started collecting and placing the gourd before him. I saw the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) picking the pieces of gourd from around the dish and since then I have kept on liking gourd (Ghaznavi. 1991) .A. common cold. Anas bin Malik (R. diuretic. Verse # 146): And We caused a plant of gourd to grow over him (Al-Hilali and Khan. English Name : Squash Local Name : Kaddo Arabic Name : Yakteen. The tailor presented barley bread and soup containing gourd and cured meat. 2005) 'Abdullah (R. stomach pain. Allah's Apostle entered the house of his slave tailor and the latter brought a dish filled with food covered with pieces of gourd.A. But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Lagenaria siceraria L.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. I saw the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) taking the pieces of gourd from the dish. lungs infection. He presented to Allah's Messenger (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) barley bread and soup containing pumpkin and sliced pieces of meat.) bin Abu Talha (R. 534 DISCUSSION Vegetables are important protective food and highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and prevention of disease. Hazrat Abu Huraira (R. She cured after using the water of mushrooms (Chughtai. 2005). The bulb are anthelmintic. 2002). It is effective in heart diseases and blood pressure. Approximately 70% of the homeopathic drugs are prepared from the fresh plants. Faulty cooking and prolonged careless storage can however destroy these valuable elements.) collected the water of 3. 1998) C through medicines. Baked onions can be used as a poultice to remove pus from sores. the onion has a wide range of beneficial actions on the body and when eaten (especially raw) on a regular basis will promote the general health of the body. grazes (Shahidullah.A. digestive stimulant. 2009 In another hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. He recommended Agaricus campestris L (Mushroom-truffle) for eye diseases. hypoglycaemic. therefore. constipation. Zingiber officinale Roscoe English Name : Ginger Local Name : Adrak or onth Arabic Name : Zangbeal Family : Zingiberaceae Habit : Cultivated herb with underground perennial stem Habitat and distribution : Terrestial and Bangladesh. arteriosclerosis and heart attack. It is extensively used as spice. He also gave one piece of it to me (Farooqi. It also contains traces of iodine. lithontriptic. References from Ahadith: C Abu Saeed Khudri (R. Saeed bin Zaid (R. aromatic and condiment.) Narrates that I heard the Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) saying. Its bulbs are used as flavouring agent.Pak. Allicin is deactivated to diallyl disulphide. Pakistan is very rich in plants of medicinal value (Nasreen and Khan. antispasmodic. J. Most vegetables are best consumed in their natural raw state in the form of salads (Husain. Its juice is mixed with milk to cure T. dog bite. cooling effect on body. Oman. digestive expectorant and aphrodisiac. diarrhea. most important for the taste is allicin (diallyl disulphide oxide). dyspepsia.A. Nutr. anorexia. they grow naturally without man's care) and their water heals eye diseases "(Farooqi. It has been found effective in Asthma. diuretic. asthma and whooping cough (Shahidullah. 8 (5): 530-538. condiment and vegetable in kitchen. spice. He gave every one a piece of ginger. vegetables should be consumed fresh as far as possible. Vegetables contain various medicinal and therapeutic agents and are valued mainly for their high vitamin and mineral content. It is also useful in preventing oral infection and tooth decay (Plants for a Future.B. 2000). has been held in high esteem for its health building qualities for centuries. Our Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) used certain herbs and recommended various medicinal plants for cure of common diseases. intestinal swelling. in bronchial tubes and lungs.) narrated: The rular of Rome presented a basket of gingers in the honour of Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) as a gift. Yaman. He then gave it to a bleared eye maid servant (laundi) to use it for the said eye disease. When used regularly in the diet it offsets tendencies towards angina. stomach disorders.. anti-inflammatory. its biological function is to repel herbivorous animals. stomachic and tonic. When warmed the juice can be dropped into the ear to treat earache. Similarly more than 90% of tibbi medicines are prepared from herbs. Verse # 17): “And they will be given to drink there of a cup (of wine) mixed with Zanjabil (ginger)” (Al-Hilali and Khan. They contain valuable food ingredients which are essential for the proper functioning of the body. The ethers in garlic juice is so potent and penetrating that they help to dissolve accumulated mucous in the sinus cavities. bites. The Holy Quran is one of the reference books describing the importance of plants used for different ailments in various Surahs. It is found to remove toxins and revitalize blood. 1998). hypotensive. 2008). It contains high percentage of minerals and vitamins. Allium sativum L.. 2002). sexual weakness. It is used in folklore and veterinary medicines locally. expectorant. In Islam diseases are cured in 2 ways. 5 or 7 mushrooms and put it in a small bottle.A. 2001). It dissolve fats. carminative. antiseptic.e. sulphur and chlorine. 1985). India and Pakistan Part used : Fruit Medicinal uses : Intestinal pain. "Truffles are like Manna (i. febrifuge. Seralone. To drive maximum benefits of their nutrients. The bulbs are stimulant. Garlic contains a wealth of sulfur compounds. “If my followers (Ummat) knew the importance of the fenugreek then they will buy it by gold of equal weight” (Ghaznavi. increase urine production References from Quran: (Surah Ad-Dahr Chapter # 76. first the cure of soul through prayers and second the cure of ailments . 1991). Allium cepa although rarely used specifically as a medicinal herb. Fresh onion juice is a very useful first aid treatment for bee and wasp stings.. It is regarded as a rejuvenator. headache. which is produced enzymatically from alliin (S-2propenyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) if cells are damaged. 2000). It has an antiseptic effect (Husain. From time immemorial humans have used plants to alleviate their sufferings from diseases. carminative. Arabia. US. Leaf pinnately trifoliate. widely cultivated. Leaves broadly ovate or reniformor sub-orbicular. Hyderabad. Perianth leaves white. coats papery. trailer. erect.5 cm thick. corolla segments greenish. 3-5 mm broad. Kashmir . Taste: Pleasant. At present garlic is grown all over the world from the equator to latitudes of 50o in both hemispheres. cultivated everywhere in the world as in Brazile. reddish-green. Scapes up to 1 m tall. 10-50 cm tall herb. cylindrical to ovoid or almost rounded.. Spain. whitish. Germany Ghana. 10x5 mm. Sepals spreading. Asia. Southern Europe. stout. Gills: Free from the stem (stipe). bracts pointed. Fruit oblong and obscurely trigonous or Cylindric. sometimes tinged with lilac. Scape up to 1 m tall. Cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. green. Egypt France. Salvador. Anther oblong. Pedicels 3-4 times as long as the tepals. March-May Citrullus lanatus L. black or rarely red. high. Karachi district. Almost through out the year Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley A pantropical species of Asian and African origin. Flowers in dense.20(-40) mm long pedicel. Perianth segments ovate-oblong. Filaments exerted. Both male and female flowers solitary. thecae triplicate. villous. spicate clusters sessile. Fruit of variable shapes: long. India. when young sparsely tuberculated otherwise smooth and glabrous. Laiha.. Chile. Cuba. 3-8 lobed . Of doubtful origin.. Spike oblong cylindric. Fruit 5-11 mm long. Male flowers on c. deep pink becoming brown and then dark chocolate brown in maturity. flattened. Nawab Shah. Kurdistan. leaves 15-32x1. white or brownish or reddish. mid-lobe not notched. Cultivated throughout Pakistan and Kashmir. Seeds ovate in outline c. J. Ethiopia. stamens dark purple Commonly cultivated in Pakistan. Stem angular with hairs. Stem densely hairy. perianth leaves (tepals) greenish-white 4-5 mm long. meadows. Corolla yellowish white. deeply 3-5-lobed. trailing or climbing herb. Allium sativum L. Leaves ovate. Nutr. Flowers stellate. Flowers 1-2 in leaf axils. Fruit large.. Guatemala. branched and leafy. India. common in North America of Pakistan Flowering period Season: June-Oct. lawns and grassy areas. Stem glabrous. Peru. Female flowers on c. Native of the Kalahari region. Iraq. Erect. glaucous. smooth. green to purplish-violaceous. smooth and glossy to fibrous to nearly wooly or scaly. Annual. Umbels spherical.Pak. spathe long-beaked. leaflets obovate to oblanceolate. Corolla yellow. Summer months Beta vulgaris L. Annual. 2009 Table 1: Phytogeography and Key to the Identification of vegetables Botanical Names Distribution in world Distribution in Pakistan Agaricus Widely distributed and Found in all the provinces campestris L. convex occasionally nearly flat. Turkey. Anther 3-4 mm long. more or less equal. occasionally in spring. lanceolate. Russia. Pakistan. Europe. Bulbs ovoid with 6-10 bulblets. 10-20 seeded. Annual climber or trailer. Filaments shorter than the perianth leaves Annual or perennial. Almost through out the year Trigonella foenumgraecum L. N. Cauline leaves rhombic-oblong to linear-lanceolate. Commonly cultivated in Pakistan Summer months Diagonstic characters Growing alone or gregariously in fields.Africa. Tendril 2-fid. c. Corolla white. 8 (5): 530-538. annual. China. fistular. mesocarp fleshy. A biennial herb with root stock bearing many sessile tubers. Tendrils 2-3 fid. Widely cultivated in vegetable gardens.5 cm. 30 cm or more in diameter. Orient. subspherical. Leaves linear. 6cm long pedicel. Bulbs clustered. acuminate. widely cultivated (beet). roots slender to tuberous with sugar storage. indehiscent. green mottled with longitudinal stripes. Allium cepa L.. Cap: 3-11 cm. Malaya Mexico Pakistan. Cultivated in all provinces of Pakistan and Kashmir April Zingiber officinale Roscoe Widely cultivated in tropical Asia Widely cultivated in the plains of Pakistan 535 . lip small purplish black. Cultivated throughout Pakistan. dentate or incised. fistular. Stipe: 2-6 x1-2. Sibi district. obscurely 3-5 lobed. leafy stem 90 – 120 cm. Rawalpindi district. Tendrils simple. Stigmas 2. Leaves 12-18 cm long. cultivated throughout Tropics Attock district. scale white. Ovary void. densely flowered. Spore: Dark chocolate brown. Umbels with bulbils and flowers. Leaves cylindrical. January-May Cucumis sativus L. Native country probably Persia etc. round or bottle-shaped. tyrosine. Qasim Bin Abdul Rehman (R.Pak. It contains the substance lycopine (which is also found in the skins of tomatoes). “Seek . Beta vulgaris (Beet Root) Beet root is a very useful vegetable. being effective in the treatment of dropsy and renal stones. Extracts of the plant have shown antibiotic activity. The seed is cooling.): rasullulah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said to me. ferulic-. 536 Ummul Mu'minin (R. mixed with 300 ml of carrot juice. is used as a febrifuge. boils etc. By boiling the top and root of the beet in water and later the water used on your head. J. diallyl sulfide. It is diuretic. 2008). ajoene and minor amounts of other di. Lagenaria siceraria (gourd) was liked very much by The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). diuretic. diallyl disulphide (60%) is found besides diallyl trisulphide (20%). A 25-50 g of the thoroughly ground seeds (including the seed coat) is a standard dose as a vermifuge and usually needs to be followed by a purgative to expel the worms from the body. tonic and vermifuge. A poultice of the crushed leaves has been applied to the head to treat headaches. The rind of the fruit is prescribed in cases of alcoholic poisoning and diabetes.01% essential oil with farnesol. It is sometimes used in the treatment of the urinary passages and has been used to treat bed wetting. 2005). because the gourd strengthens the sad hearts” (Chughtai. 1983). in the case of the tomato at least. Narrated Aisha. erucic and gamma-aminobutyric acids. The fruit. Due to its high iron content it regenerates and reactivates Red Blood Cells (RBC) and supplies fresh oxygen to the body.A. Roots contain leucine. If this is consumed twice daily. Roots. A. 2007). A decoction of the root is diuretic (Plants for a Future. aconitic-. 8 (5): 530-538. In many parts of China 3 grams per day of this species (the report does not say what part of the plant) has been used as a single treatment for diabetes mellitus (Plants for a Future. Vitamin B and C. Vit.A. The stem bark and the rind of the fruit are diuretic. This process is practiced twice a week (Kevin. This is world-wide treatment which is being used to its maximum extent. Cucumis sativus (Cucumber) is another plant that has many references in Holy Quran and Ahadith. gave the references of such plants that are not only grown in Arab countries but exist through out the world. 2008). I saw the Prophet picking the pieces of gourd from around the dish and since then I have kept on liking gourd (Saboor. To fight appendicitis one should use the combination of beet and cucumber juice 100 ml. oleic. This is very useful phytotherapy for removal dandruff. alanine. This substance has been shown to protect the body from heart attacks and. It is believed that cucumber helps in reducing swelling around the eyes or the big dark circles under your eyes. phenylalanine. calcium. tryptophane. Leaves contain quercitin glucoside. It contains phosphorus. 2009 minced garlic changes its aroma if not used immediately. Citrullus lanatus. xylose and 3-hydroxytyramine. it may just do the needful (Kevin. But nothing which she desired benefited me till she gave me cucumber with fresh dates to eat. Nutr. 1999). The gourd has special importance according to Ahadith. Trigonella foenum-graecum has got great importance in Ahadith. After half an hour the head is washed with simple water. A fatty oil in the seed. eaten when fully ripe or even when almost putrid. Then I became fat as she desired (Ghaznavi.A. pectoral and tonic. iron. Roots contain a crude oil with palmitic. The root is purgative and in large dose is said to be a certain emetic (Plants for a Future. A close look at checklist of medicinal flora tell us that these plants are not of Arabic origin but The Holy Prophet (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). The experienced hakims have been advising the use of gourd oil (Roghan-e-Kaddu) for the treatment of diseases of brain and blood pressure for years. as well as aqueous or alcoholic extracts. tricarballyl-. Sulfur compounds of this kind are typical for the onion family (Katzer.): a tailor invited the Prophet to a meal which he had prepared and I went along with the Prophet. 5 other amino acide.. Hence extremely useful in the treatment of Anaemia Beet gets rid of dandruff. In the essential oil from steam distillation. The tailor presented barley bread and soup containing gourd and cured meat. 0. emetic and refrigerant. A poultice of the boiled seeds has been used in the treatment of boils. 2008). ornithine. diuretic. the seed is demulcent. Taken with Achyranthes spp the seed is used to treat aching teeth and gums. herbage and seeds contain raphanol and coniferin (C16H22O8).and polysulphides. Beet juice is considered as one of the best vegetable juice. It is eaten eagerly. “O Aishah when you are going to cooke (prepare) a meal from cure meat add to it gourd. glutamic acid. It is a good vermifuge and has a hypotensive action. Beet root possesses anti-cancer properties and is thus useful in the prevention of cancer (Chughtai. a vitexin combination with glucose. valine. glutamine. The fruit is antilithic. oxalic-. diuretic.A. This shows that the Holy Prophet was light for the entire world. The flowers are an antidote to poison. 2007). 2008). $-sitosterol and a suite of organic acids. free and bound invertase and pectolytic enzymes (James.) narrates that Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. The seed is vermifuge.): My mother intended to make me fat to send me to the (house of) the Apostle of Allah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam). 2005). The pulp around the seed is purgative. B and C and betaine. paralyze tapeworms and roundworms. is more effective when it is cooked. Narrated Aisha (R. Narrated Anas bin Malik (R. 2000). and A. Nutr.Z. whilst saponins in the plant have been extracted for use in various other pharmaceutical products (Plants for a Future. West Lafayette. 2004). Use of Traditional Unani Medicine for Primary Health Care. Urdu Bazar Karachi.. Aqab Mian Market. Handbook of Energy Crops... 2001. 168. Tib-i-Nabvi urdu translation Dar-ul-Isha’t. Wonder Vegetables. 2009 cure by (using) fenugreek” (Ghaznavi. In another hadith Rasulullah (Sallallaho Alayhi Wassallam) said. . Tajaran e-Kutab. The Noble Quran: English Translation of the meaning and commentary. antiphlogistic and hypotensive activity. burns etc.M. Tib-i-Nabvi and Modern science. M. REFERENCES Abdullah. Farooqi. In: Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. M.A. medicines and other useful products. Urdu Bazar Lahore. Compounds extracted from the plant have shown cardiotonic. The powder of seeds can be used externally as a poultice for abscesses. http://www.hort. 9-lower Mall.com. Now a days there is much interest in medicinal plants through out the world including developed countries like China. Note: The seeds should not be prescribed medicinally for pregnant women since they can induce uterine contractions (Plants for a Future. It has a wide range of medicinal applications. which is locally used to keep the skin soft (Shah. “If my followers (Ummat) know the importance of the fenugreek then they will buy it by gold of equal weight” (Ghaznavi.at/~katzer/engl/Alli_sat.. M.html.A. Chughtai. G. M. hypoglycaemic. M. Urdu Translation of Sunan-e-Abu Daud. Similarly in developing countries like Pakistan and India. Urdu Bazar Lahore. A paste of seeds and leaves is applied to reduce swellings and inflammation. Germany. 2008. Urdu Bazar Lahore. M.S.A. Al-Hilali. The seed contains the saponin diosgenin.R. Khan. K. 1985. since there long standing use is plant drug reasonably guarantee their medicinal efficacy and safety (Ahmad et al. One of its constituent alkaloids. James. 2000. 2001. 3: 119. 83.S. Medicinal Plants of Cholistan Desert In: Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. 2008). 2004). http://www.W. A. King Fahd Complex for the printing of Holy Quran.. http://www..D. It is another herbaceous plant which has a reference in Holy Qura’n..Pak. Ethnobotanical Leaflets. 2001.. 2005. pp: 494-4600. 3: 115. Khan. has shown potential for use in cancer therapy. Adwiya Aur Ghizain. edu/~ebl/leaflets/phyto. Pakistan.. J. pp: 151-152. 321. 2004. Almisbah.. 2002. Multan Road Lahore. Ilm-o-Irfan Pulishers. Husain. Katzer. Ahadith Mein Mazkoor Nabatat.M. A. K. Moreover in remote areas of the world where per capita income of people is very low. 236. 334. Seeds are soaked in water to get mucilage. Rao. called 'trigonelline'. pp: 13. 205. boils. pp: 40. the benefits of modern medicines and health care reach only to small percentage of population. T. I.M. Surah Ad-Dahr. unpublished. Fenugreek is much used in herbal medicine. Hassan. it becomes more difficult to buy complicated and expensive prescriptions. In this way present approach of this study can be adopted to record the medicinal uses 537 of plants for welfare of human beings. 2007). 8 (5): 530-538. Hence there is a need for the inclusion of herbal medicines at primary health care level. AlFaisal Nashiran Wa Tajiran-i-Kutab. M. Verse: 17. Ghaznavi. 869. Ghaznavi. Lahore. According to Yousaf Ali the word Zanjabil literally means Ginger. Ahadith and Islamic books has long been felt with the increasing need of drugs. Khan. Maulavi Musafir Khana. Pakistan. pp: 17. 1991). Ethnophytotherapical approaches for the treatment of diabetes by the local inhabitants of District Attock Pakistan). Purdue University. This study is the logical and applicable step in directions towards the ultimate goal of development of natural plant based industry in the light of Islamic history through out the world for prosperity and safety of the human beings. M. pp: 1. Arshad. Urdu Translation of Sunan-e-Ibn-eMaja. Idara-e-Islamiyat. USA and UK. Lahore..siu. Lahore. 1985. Japan. and M.M. Tibb-e-Nabvi and Modern science. Shafi Dawa-een Shafi Ilaj. It is a powerful tonic. 203. It is useful for Back pain (backache). 1988. Zafar. A’zami.. Nadvi..A.purdue. 2008). 1991). Indiadiets. and and M. Mehtab Company. K. Use of one teaspoonful of the powder of its seeds daily is recommended locally for the treatment of gout and diabetes. 1998.html.M.T. Arshad and M. 1983.. Purdue University. Madinah. 4: 904. Urdu Translayion of Al-Sahih AlBukhari. Zingiber officinale Rosc. IN 47907 USA. Center For New Crops and Plants Products.unigraz. France. 2005. Seeds in powder form are used for diabetes (Ahmad. 1: 426.edu/newrop/duke_energy/ Beta_vulgaris. H. 101. Ahmad.. 2: 276. AzanSahr Publications near Main Gate Mansoora. These could hardly reach the large mosses living in the rural areas. Ahmad. 233. 1991. In eastern medicine ginger is administered to give warmth to the body and zest to the taste. Al-Faisal Nasheeran Wa Tajeeran-e-Kutab. 1: 50. Gernot Katzer’s Spice Pages. an important substance in the synthesis of oral contraceptives and sex hormones.htm. H. diuretic. The necessity for exploration for such useful data from Holy Quran. “And they will be given to drink there of a cup mixed with Zanjabil”. D. 2000. Department of olant Sciences... Some Scientific Facets of Quran and Sunnah (of the Prophet Muhammad.org/AJB. S. Mensah. Mansehra. Pak. 1994. H. 1976.H. http://www.W. Pakistan. Khan. Some Problematical Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. pp: 75. M. N.U. Khan. Afr.php? Rafai. U.W. 2008. Khan and M. J.A.academicjournals. 1990. 2007. Jhang Saddar. Phytochemical.H. Quaid-i-Azam University. pp: 54 . 2007... A. Khan. R.P. 8 (5): 530-538. J.Pak. P. http://www. 1999. N.. nutritional and medical properties of some leafy vegetables consumed by Edo people of Nigeria.. Westerham Press.org/ database/plants. 31: 7-10.A Great Fighter of Diseases.M.pfaf. Biotechnol. Plants and Plant Resources of Siran Valley. pp: 53.F. H. 2009 Kevin.A. Kent (England).. Shahidullah. 2001. Shah. Tayyab. 538 .disabled-world. Saboor. Ltd. 2008.. Nasr. Islamic Science-An illustrated study.P.U. Beet . Taha Publishers Ltd. Phil Thesis). Peace Be Upon Him) in The Field of Medicine. J. J..S. G.shtml.F. 1. Din. Eifediyi. 7: 23042309. Thesis. medicinal and useful plants for healthier world.N. Tibb-e-Nabvi aur Modern science wa Tajrabat-e-Attiba.. P-206. Edible. Okoli. Pakistan. Wynne Road London SW9 OBB..I.K. Nasreen. http:// www. Health.com/artman/publish/ beets. Plants For a Future. Ethnobotanical Studies of District Bannu (M. Nutr. Department of Biological Sciences Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad. pp: 15. pp: 117. J. Ph. Saboor Klinik Burji Wala. Ohaju-Obodo and K. A. Islamabad. and M. Westerham. The Quran Translation and Study ‘Juz’ 1 (Part-1).A. a fact that was not so obvious to Hamm and Leeuwenhoek who. which has been in existence for more than 14 centuries. a black child has been born for me!’ The Prophet asked him. then made you pairs [after the stage of the sperm drop].M. The prophet asked him. Kenya Islam is fundamentally rooted in the Holy Qur’an. ‘What colour are they?’ The man replied. Department of Medicine. a collection of sayings and practices of Prophet Muhammad. found that the X and Y chromosomes play an important role in sex determination. and the Sunna. ‘Red’.8 And Allah did create you from dust. The Prophet said.10 This passage shows that a woman participates equally in the process of fertilisation and that her characteristics and traits are also passed on to the child through ‘substances’ (which are now identified as chromosomes) that are contained in her ‘fertile fluid’. then from [part of] a sperm drop. he did not know at what point the sex in the frog embryo was determined in this process.COMMUNICATIONS HUMAN GENETICS IN THE HOLY QUR’AN AND SUNNA A. which states: ‘and He out of semen made both sexes. ‘Is there a grey one among them?’ The man replied. ‘Do you have camels?’ The man replied. University of Nairobi.5 it has gone even further to show at what point in human embryology sex is determined. From a sperm drop when lodged’. after seeing spermatozoa for the first time. and then immediately programmed him [his future]. Morgan and Bridges.7 PROPERTIES OF CHROMOSOMES Abu-Huraira narrated: A man came to Prophet Muhammad [peace be upon him]. Islamic scientists have once more turned to these primary sources in a quest for an alternative view of certain scientific principles and to look for new ideas from this fountain of knowledge. male and female’. and for Welshons and Russell in their study of the mouse in the same year. ‘Is it necessary for a woman to take a bath after she has a wet dream [nocturnal discharge]?’ The Prophet replied.4 The Holy Qur’an describes fertilisation in some detail and has done this in nine stages. male and female. Adam. studying humans. ‘O Allah’s messenger! Does a woman get a discharge [fertile fluid]?’ He replied. ‘Yes and that is why the child also resembles the mother’. if she notices a discharge’.11 The Holy Qur’an exhibits here both wisdom and the J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003. SEX DETERMINATION AT FERTILISATION From [part of] a sperm drop He hath created him. In recent times.6 This verse clearly states that the sex of the offspring is determined soon after a sperm drop is lodged. Um Salamah then covered her face [shyly] and asked. while studying the Drosophila fly. In a tradition related to the Prophet: Um Sulaim came to Allah’s messenger [peace be upon him] and said. Allah says that ‘He did create the pairs.2 In 1919. ‘Yes’. This paper traces various fundamental principles of human genetics within the Holy Qur’an and Sunna and compares these with the source of the same knowledge in Western science. the knowledge of sex determination in mammals had to wait until 1959 for Jacobs et al. This is repeated for emphasis in another verse. The Prophet said. ‘Yes. ‘Yes’. 3 However. And no female conceives. This paved the way for the concept that spermatozoa determine the eventual sex of the baby by containing either the X or the Y chromosome. 33:44–45 The carriage of characteristics from the parents to the offspring is also described in several places in the Holy Qur’an. and said: ‘O Allah’s prophet.9 These two verses refer indirectly to two very important properties of nuclear chromosomes: the first refers to semen carrying the characteristics of the individual and the second suggests the pairing of genetic characteristics.‘maybe it [the colour] was pulled out by a hidden trait’.1 EXISTENCE OF RECESSIVE GENES When Spallanzani discovered the process of fertilisation in 1775 by studying frogs. misinterpreted their role and thought that spermatozoa contained small fully formed babies (see Figure 1). and thought that they were simply part of the genetic make-up and were associated with secondary sexual characteristics. to show that mammals resemble the plant Melandrium in that the Y chromosome is male-determining. ‘Whence comes that?’ He said. Allah says: 44 . Stevens in 1905 but he doubted that these chromosomes were sex determinants in the zygote. or lays down [her load] but with His knowledge.1 X and Y chromosomes were discovered in the beetle by N. The Prophet said. ‘maybe your son’s [colour] was pulled out [by a trait]’.M. 34a.’13 The implication behind this is that if spermatozoa are lodged long before ovulation then the activation of the male genes will be at a more advanced stage than those in the ovum. New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri. Morgan TH. 6–8. Moore KL. Philadelphia: WB Saunders.. Therefore. The many processes of fertility science in the Holy Qur’an. Prophet Muhammad said. 1984. 1. 30:74–7. 278:1–22. Khan MM. 83. Moore. and the colour of her offspring was explained as some concealed trait from the family background. One of the greatest trusts given to a man is when somebody’s daughter or sister is given to him to hold her as his lawfully wedded wife. This statement also has an important bearing on the dispensing of justice: a woman bearing a darkcomplexioned child when both she and her husband are of a lighter complexion is certainly and naturally possible. 8–10. Sahih al-Bukhari. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. Sturtevant AH. More than ten centuries before Gregor Mendel was born. The above two verses state clearly that if there is anybody responsible for the sex of the baby it is the father. history took shape in a monastery garden! No adverse judgement was passed and no sanction applied on this man’s wife. 838. The origin of gynandromorphs. 36:33.COMMUNICATIONS penetrance) or have complex inheritance characteristics. 33:44–45 45 . then the child resembles the mother. J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2003. he should not burden his wife with false accusations and abuse. Third Edition. The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Carn Inst Wash Publ 1905. and therefore they will play a greater role in showing the characteristics gained from the father – especially if these genes follow codominance (with variable 12 13 Moore KL. Studies in spermatogenesis with a special reference to the ‘accessory chromosome’. Adam AM. Bridges CB. This also prevents the use of hearsay evidence to convict and condemn an innocent woman for adultery on the basis that a child is not to the satisfaction of the father. GENE PENETRANCE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 In a tradition narrated by Anas. ref. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stevens NM. 1990. her mother ostracised for bringing shame to the family. Glorious Qur’an. op. Chapter 75. REFERENCES FIGURE 1 A line drawing depicting spermatozoa containing a small fully formed baby. This applies to those communities in which individuals vary in their skin colouring. Chapter 53. JIMA 1998. ‘And if a man’s discharge preceded that of the woman. It may be of some importance to recall that when the Holy Qur’an was written. and if the woman’s discharge preceded that of the man. The Developing Human: Clinically Orientated Embryology. 1982. Carn Inst Wash Publ 1919. New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Verse 11. Soper R Biological Science. cit. Verse 45–6. with Islamic Additions. Chapter 35. women’s rights were nonexistent and many a female baby was buried alive to avoid the shame of a family bearing a female child. highest degree of justice. Glorious Qur’an. 1–97. 140b. The existence of a dominance of certain hereditable traits needs no explanation. 1965. A History of Genetics. Ibid. Glorious Qur’an. 1982. then the child resembles the father. as it is obvious that a red camel would bear a red offspring. Verse 39. p. sucrose (0-8%). faintly acidic taste. The antifungal activity was checked against ten parasitic and saprophytic fungi. Medicine. It has a characteristics odour and a sweet. He produces from her inside a drink of various hues. (Family: Apidae). translucent. has time and again emphasized the medicinal virtue of honey. in which there is healing for mankind. Karachi ABSTRACT Ten samples of crude and processed honey were used to determine antimicrobial activity against twenty five species of pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria. dextrin (0.8 . Most of the samples of honey used in the study showed broad spectrum antibacterial and promising antifungal activity.51-62 STUDIES ON THE ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY DILNAWAZ SHEIKH. pale yellow or yellowish brown liquid deposited in the honey comb by the bee. BAQIR NAQVI. M. The last scripture enlists honey as a miraculous food in a separate surah. S. Introduction The Holy Quran.26-7%) together with water and traces of other nutrients. the heritage of Islamic Sciences. SHAMS-UZ-ZAMAN. Honey is the most primitive nourishing and healing agent.7 Honey is levorotatory and is acidic to litmus paper. then eat of all the fruits and walk thou the ways of thy Lord made easy. It contains: invert sugar (62-83%).5 It is a unique mixture having fat soluble as well as water soluble vitamins. syrupy. saying: "Make thee houses in the mountains and in the trees and in what they (people) build-up. RAFI SHEIKH* AND GHULAM ALI** Department of Pharmaceutics.1l And they Lord commands the bee. Apis mellifera Linn.Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Vol. Most surely in this there is a sign for people who think". January 1995. It is a thick. Faculty of Pharmacy Department of Microbiology University of Karachi. 8(1). commonly encountered in human infections. Sindh Medical College. "AI-Nahl (The Bee)". Karachi-75270 **Department of F. honey is commonly used as a base for ointments and has very successfully been applied in surgical dressings for open wounds and burns to avoid septic infections. It is also used for many minor ailments of animals. flavouring and demulcent agent. Preparation of Test Samples: 10 mg of honey samples were taken in 50 ml sterile volumetric flask. In the present study 25 species of common pathogenic and non. Among the fungi. Eleven bacteria were Gram positive and four-teen were Gram negative (Tables 2. 3). linctuses.18 Materials and Methods 10 samples of locally manufactured.2.52 Antimicrobial activity of honey During the 16th and 17th centuries it was recommended as a cure for almost every thing. imported and crude samples of honey were procured from the market and from the hives (Table 1) in order to determine their antimicrobial activities.2 It is a simple.1 Honey also serves as a substitute for glucose in oral rehydration solutions containing electrolytes. w fractionated into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions by chemical method so as to determine which portion possessed maximum antimicrobial activity. effective and inexpensive healer of wounds.10 In the pharmaceutical preparations it is used as a sweetening.9 In Soviet Union. nine species were pathogenic and only one specie was saprophytic and non-pathogenic (Table 6). . A comparative study of antimicrobial activity has been carried out by the procedure described by Bhakuni et a1. It has been used in the treatment of infected wounds in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Kilimanjaro Christian Medical Centre with excellent results.pathogenic bacteria and 10 species of fungi were used. in order to find which portion contained antimicrobial constituents. The volume was made up with sterile distilled water for a dilution of 20% w/v. It is used as an excepient for preparing pills and masses and as a flavouring agent in gargles. The sample exhibiting maximum antimicrobial activity was fractionated into partly purified alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal portions.3 and Baqir et al. and cough mixtures. The correct dilution of honey and the presence of electrolytes in the oral solution must be maintained. Separation of Alkaloidal and Non-Alkaloidal Fractions of Honey: Crude honey sample (F) which indicated promising antimicrobial activity. 1 ml of the diluted culture was poured on each plate. The present study was carried out so as to determine the antimicrobial effects of honey using prescribed scientific procedures. skin strains and skin infections. Antimicrobial Assay: The tests were run in triplicate. 10. Results and Discussion The Holy Quran intimates honey as the healing for all kinds of diseases. amenorrhoea. tuberculosis. diarrhoea. 18. 4. It is used in all the systems of medicine for the treatment of a number of human ailments such as wound infection. jaudice. The antimicrobial effect of honey has been reported by a number of workers (1. The EtOH extracts was acidified with 10% HCI and extracted with CHCI3 to remove the nonalkaloidal portion. The therapeutic value of honey was under-scored in various literatures. At the end of incubation period the inhibition zones were measured. 25) but most of these reports are conflicting and are not substantiated by enough scientific proof. In ontrol plates no honey was incorporated in Sabouraud dextrose agar. The mass when examined on TLC plate showed several spots indicating several constituents which gave coloured reactions with Dragendroff reagent. tetanus. 53 20 mg of honey (sample F) was extracted with ethanol (EtOH) three times. 1 ml of 10-2 dilution in strile 0.Sheikh et al. Antifungal Assay: The tests were run in triplicate. fever. The results were tabulated in Tables 6. chest infection. Honey is a divine drug quoted in all the scriptures. scanty growth (S) and no growth (N). Wells of 5 mm diameter (approximately) were cut with sterile cork borer in the inoculated agar. paralysis particularly facial paralysis. carcinoma of vulva. The wells were filled with test samples with the help of sterile droppers. The acidic aqueous fraction was then basil-led with NH3 and extracted thoroughly with CHCl3. 7. The plates were incubated for 24 hours at 37°C.9% NaCl of the two-day fungal cultures were spotted on dried Sabouraud agar plates. dropsy. 5. dehydration. Similarly in control plates wells were filled with sterile distilled water. It occupied a prominent place in traditional medicine. . The results were noted as heavy growth (H). deafening ear. 5. 9. The plates were incubated at 25°C for 5 days. urinary tract infections. 2 gm of honey was mixed with 8 ml sterile molten Sabouraud dextrose agar and was poured into sterile petri plates. boils. The results were tabulated in Tables 2. Petri plates were prepared with trypticase soy gar. 3. The finding which is most interesting is that as compared to other honeys. F. M. A. studies on species of Corynebacterium (C. Honey samples C and D (Marhaba. Hamdard) showed no activity against these organisms. T. This importance of this finding lies in the fact that honey can be used in oral rehydration solution for treating cholera patients. A. Including two species of Aspergillus i. only two reports could be traced (13. I and J. C. B. all the samples of honey produced large zones of inhibition against this organism.24 and Obaseiki et al. . semmie. In fact these two samples exhibited activity only against four Gram positive cocci i. These reports indicated that honey had promising activity against Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. pyogenes (Table 2). albicans.5 Warnecke et al. laths and S. hoffmani. niger and C.e. The present study reveals that all the three species were inhibited by honey samples A. tonsurance) and parasitic fungi (Allescheria boydii) and saprophytic (Mucor mucaralis). H. G. As far as fungi are concerned.13 and Ibrahim. E.13 The control plates did not show any inhibition.e. S. flavus. longfeuseus. B. Capilano honey (I) from Australia seems to be most effective against most of the species of fungi used in the study. As indicated in Table 3. T. Firstly. T. ferrogenium. Secondly. Present study seems to be the first report indicating activity against dermatophytes (M. mentagrophyte. Honey seems to be much less effective on fungi than bacteria (table 6). dipfheriae. In our study seven species of Gram positive cocci and four species of Gram positive bacilli were used. xerosis) have not previously been reported. G and H very effectively inhibited the growth of nearly all Gram negative organisms used in the study with the exception of E. lysodeikticus. coil 97 which was resistant to most of the honey samples.12 Thirdly. Samples A. honey has broad spectrum antimicrobial and prominent antifungal activity as indicated by Tables 2-7. the present study seems to be fast report in literature with respect to Vibrio cholerae.54 Antimicrobial activity of honey The important conclusions which can be drawn from the present study can be summarized as such. With the exception of Streptococcus faecalis. This sample did not show promising activity against bacteria. 14). all the Gram positive organisms were inhibited by samples A and B (Langanese and crude honey). Similar results are reported with Gram negative bacteria (Table 3). C. H and J. aureus. T. S. F. ten species of fungi were used. Thus the present study is in confirmation with previous reports of Cavanaugh et a1. However this specie was inhibited by samples E. As far as the Gram negative organisms are concerned the present reports conforms the findings of Obaseiki et al. F. 17. high osmotic pressure and acidity.10 Acidity The general range of honey pH is 3. Both the alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions of honey exhibited similar activity indicating the antimicrobial system was present in both the fractions of honey (Tables 4.6.5. This high degree of acidity prevents the growth of many bactrial forms.e. It can be suggested that during the processing the active components were partially inactivated. Most surely in this there is a sign for a people who think". An attempt was made to fractionate this sample of honey into alkaloidal and non-alkaloidal fractions by chemical method. an antibacterial substance in honey was presented by Cavanagh et al.5. Thereafter several workers reported various physical and chemical properties of the substance. inhibine.Sheikh et al.4.25 From the results of the present study the most important conclusion which can be drawn is that the antimicrobial activity is maximum in the crude honey. It has been suggested that three major system are responsible for the antimicrobial activity of honey i.11 . the exact constitution of which is still unknown.5 who stated that inhibine content of honey was reduced by sunlight. the osmotic pressure of honey creates a very effective antimicrobial system.13. "He produces from her inside a drink of various hues.10 Inhibine The initial report on inhibine. 7).10. in which there is healing for mankind.19 High osmotic pressure Honey is basically a supersaturated solution of carbohydrates.22. showed maximum activity. 55 Among the different samples of honey used in the study sample F. the crude honey procured from a bee-hive of Karachi University. 5. The three samples of fresh crude honey used in the study showed much better activity than the processed honeys.2-4. And above all this humble study scientifically proves what ever is indicated in Surah "AI-Nahl". 56 Antimicrobial activity of honey . 57 .Sheikh et al. 58 Antimicrobial activity of honey . 59 .Sheikh et al. 60 Antimicrobial activity of honey . World Health Forum. Sci. Beaziey J. 2: 363. 6.. 5. Screening of Chilean plants for antibacterial activity. (1985). Honey: a cheap antibiotic. Silva M.N. Pak J. (1974). Bittner M. The Lancet 1: 963. and Ostapowicz F. Lloydia 37: 621-632..Sheikh et al. The Lancet. Marticarena C. Dilnawaz S. and Rah S. Bose B.. Cavanagh D.S. (1968). Bhakuni D. 28(4): 269-275. 4. 77: 1037-1040. Journal of Obstestritics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth. March 6. 3. Chirilie (1982). Baqir S. (1981). p. 61 References 1. 2. Armon P. Radical operation for carcinoma of the vulva: a new approach to wound healing.. (1992). Ind Res. . Honey or sugar in treatment of infected wounds.560.. and Weldt E. Screening of Pakistani plants for antibacterial activity.J.S. as hydrogen peroxide and its origin in a honey glucose oxidase system. Stomfay S. Tib-e-Nabwi and Jadid Science.H. 401. Sept 22. and Onekweli A. 13. Antibacterial action of honey. Afonya T. and Lebenson Z. 15. and Lebenson Z. Bulletin of Islamic Medicine. Duisberg H. Kuwait: Ministry of Health 1981: 563-365. an antibacterial factor in honey. (1981). 12. 290: 1866-1867. and Afonya T. and Moosa A. Ibrahim A.E. Warnecke B. ed. 11: 109. p. White J. pp. Z.. (1960). London. Biophys. Pennsylvania. Haffeejee I.W.1. (1938).E. Uber die bactericide Wirkung des Naturbonigs. Reynold E.. (1981). 8. 23. Biochem. and Werner L. 23: 446. Subers M.L. Martindale . Obaseiki-Ebror E. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Islamic Medicine.A.E.62 7. In vitro evaluation of the anticandidiasis activity of honey distillate (Hy-1) compared with that of some antimycotic agents. Holy (Duran.A. and White J. Kuwait. Marsh G. 2nd edition. Petty J.D. (1958).the Extract Pharmacopoeia. ..W. 17. Acta.. and Saeed MA. (1944).E. Medical Post. et Biophys.I... Infektionskrankh. (1989).C. Obaseiki-Ebror E. and Eckerct J. 24. Translated by Al-Raj Ghulam Sarwar. 6: 194. The identification of inhibine. The Dispensatory of the United States of America. 1973. Chapter 16. Genarro. Prica M. (1985). Pharmaceutical Necessities.C. 22. 34(3): 94-95. 20. Shade T.H. 18. 107: 340. (1948). Kominirs S. Vol. Antimicrobial activity of honey Ewart A.146-197. J.. Preliminary report on the antimicrobial activity of honey distillate.653-654. (1958). and Schepartz A. Food Research. Placky Z. Honey in the treatment of infantile gastroenteritis.E. (1991). Pharmacol.E.1266. Arzneimitlel-Forsch. Pharm. Hamid S. (1991).E. (1963). Oscol-Farrar (1955). Jr. 120: 437. (1960).W. Pharmacol. 35: 748-749.O. Bacteria Parasitenk. 89: 6. Hamdard Medicus. Hyg. J. Arch. Schuler R. Stenson E. abt.1320. 10.. 73: 57. Suers M. Ghaznavi K. Bee keeping. (1984). Untersuch Forsch. pp. 113: 304. 21. (1985). Silverti A. January 1981. J.S.S. Lahore. Biochem. 19. 11. (1983). 1502. In: Remington’s Pharmaceutical Sciences. British Medical Journal. 14. Alfanso R. Philadelphia. and Vogel R. pp. 9. Forsch. Pharm.F. 16. National Book Foundation. 25. 68-69. 36: 283-284. medicinal health. USA a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t Descriptions of the human anatomy derived from religious texts are often omitted from the medical literature. rulings. School of Medicine.” 3. Though revealed during these years. Our comprehension of the two. Int J Cardiol (2009). and the correlation between the two. Mohamadali M. ijcard. as the authority and power exerted by the Christian Church during the Middle Ages and Renaissance stifled open scientific ⁎ Corresponding author. Notably. 0167-5273/$ – see front matter © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. IN. Judeo–Christian Bible and Talmud. Therefore.ijcard. doi:10. Grenada. with specific focus on the cardiovascular system. Indianapolis Neurosurgical Group. Shane Tubbs b. The present review aims to discuss the comments and commentaries made regarding the heart and cardiovascular system as found in the Qur'an and Hadeeth.011 Please cite this article as: Loukas M. History of the Qur'an and Hadeeth The entire Qur'an is believed to be the direct word of God according to Muslims. Found within the Qur'an and Hadeeth are accurate descriptions of anatomical structures. and Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna) [1] and [2]. West Indies Pediatric Neurosurgery.05.05. surgical procedures. physiological characteristics. the transmission of the verses was conducted orally until it was compiled and canonized the year after Mohammad's death. e l s e v i e r. In particular. herbal and organic remedies. prophylaxis of general diseases is emphasized by encouraging physical activity.edu (M. Furthermore. actions and habits of the Prophet Mohammed which are distinct from the direct words of God and were also transmitted orally until they were organized into a comprehensive permanent record in the 9th century. The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. et al. however.2009. c o m / l o c a t e / i j c a r d Review The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth Marios Loukas a. 2. Only the sayings that had a strong. Article history: Received 7 May 2009 Accepted 12 May 2009 Available online xxxx Keywords: Cardiovascular system History of cardiology History of medicine Cardiovascular system and religion 1. advices. Scholars of the time were meticulous in their work and employed stringent rules as to which sayings of Mohammad would be included in the compilation to ensure accuracy and authenticity. doi:10. mloukas@sgu. USA Clarian Neuroscience Institute. the most popular being made by Ibn Kathir in the 14th century.IJCA-12055.1016/j. Birmingham.com. R. © 2009 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. the “Father of Modern Anatomy” Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564). Shoja c a b c Department of Anatomical Sciences. fax: +1473 444 2887. Although there is a considerable amount of information in the Qur'an and Hadeeth about general medicine and anatomy. prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Tel. and spiritual revitalization.2009. revealed to the Prophet Mohammad through the Angel Gabriel over a span of 23 years (610–632 AD). there is a lack of reliable and critical research. Based on this review. the lifestyle prescribed by these Islamic traditions promotes longevity of life. and the Islamic Qur'an and Hadeeth (prophetic sayings of Mohammad) are often omitted from the literature. George's University. would not be possible without the important discoveries and critical observations of our predecessors such as the “Father of Medicine” Hippocrates (463–370 BC).1016/j. General views about medicine in Qur'an and Hadeeth History has shown an antagonistic relationship between religion and science. is the emphasis on the heart and blood as both a vehicle for life and as an organ central to affecting emotion and attitude. The Hadeeth are the sayings. it is clear that these early sources both had a good comprehension of these parts of the body. Hence. it is evident that the authors of the texts had a good understanding of both the etiology and pathology of many diseases of the heart and cardiovascular system. Both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth were used when creating the Islamic law Shariah. and medical remedies. Loukas). credible line of transmission were collected and written. AL. E-mail addresses: edsg2000@yahoo. St.011 .⁎. While the contributions of Galen and Hippocrates are well known. and discourages risk factors associated with such diseases. Yousuf Saad a. Introduction Progress within the 20th century alone has produced an immense amount of literature and understanding in anatomy. “Path. Indiana University Department of Neurosurgery-Indianapolis.: +1473 444 4175x2005. contributions to medicine by numerous religious texts including the Hindu Vedas. the purpose of this review is to accurately present the anatomical and medical contributions of the Qur'an and Hadeeth. The exegesis of the Qur'an was carried out by scholars in later centuries. within these two texts. No of Pages 5 ARTICLE IN PRESS International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Cardiology j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. Narrations exist where Mohammad admonishes healthy individuals to “…flee from a lepers as you flee from a lion” [16] and the narration also warns those who are healthy to keep away from those who are sick. cleanliness is the other half [14]. as well as the organ of the human psyche is a critical to understanding Islamic teachings. specifically. ijcard. “life-artery” [20] and [21]. This form of healing treats. leprosy. In another tradition. Another great vessel mentioned in the Qur'an is the Al-Aatín or aorta “We would certainly have seized his right hand and cut off his Al-Watín. Blood and circulation Blood is mentioned in several passages of the Qur'an and Hadeeth. it is apparent that the Qur'an discouraged actions that might adversely affect the body such as extremely loud noise and unsanitary food. that which hath been killed by strangling. diarrhea. as is made clear by the Qur'anic injunction. In the Islamic doctrine. the Qur'an forbids foods to be eaten that can easily transmit food-borne diseases such as Trichinella. the flesh of swine. breastfeeding [12]. cutting the nails. blood is mentioned in relation to lineage and identity. but that cauterization should be a last resort [8]. the disease is cured by the permission of God [4]. even if such empirical observations were substantiated by rational thought and calculations. Unlike the Christian Church. and when the remedy is made apparent. While the scripture and remembrance of God is supposed to heal the hidden ailments of people. The Qur'an mentions “hidden” ailments meaning doubt. Honey contains the therapeutic contents sugars. unless ye are able to slaughter it (in due form). The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. doi:10. This demonstrates that Islam was compatible with medicine. however. This inharmonious relationship significantly slowed the progress of scientific discoveries and advancements. The Qur'an and Hadeeth even include some of the discoveries made during the time of its creation. plucking or shaving the hair under the armpits and clipping (or shaving) the moustache are all acts that benefit the body and thus bring one closer to God [15]. Islamic teachings strongly encouraged and supported scientific research which led to many advancements and discoveries [3]. human illness was prevented through compulsory hygienic practices. illnesses and diseases that is most emphasized. Mohammad is reported to have said that surgical circumcision. yet similar words. the well of Zam Zam. “Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat. people are encouraged to pray. this rest of this review will focus in on Qur'anic understanding of the cardiovascular system. This supportive attitude towards scientific observation and opinion has resulted in numerous scientific achievements and the adoption of a tolerant attitude toward the expression and discussion of scientific observation and opinion. There is a prophetic tradition where Mohammad has been reported to have said that for every disease there is a remedy. The cardiovascular system Various aspects of the cardiovascular system are mentioned in both the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. impurity. a scripture that has been revealed as a “mercy and healing to those who think” [5]. the Qur'an and Hadeeth recognize the pursuit of knowledge as being an act of worship to God. the need for medical treatment was accepted and required. / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx inquiries into natural phenomena. Indian incense for throat trouble and pleurisy. a miraculously generated source of water in Mecca was believed to be a treatment for fevers [13]. the vast Islamic empire was the epicenter of all academia. mind and soul must be treated. hypocrisy. “We created man—We know what his soul whispers to him: We are closer to him than his jugular vein” [18].011 . it would be erroneous to claim that the practice of medicine was meant only for the divine. Proverbs and stories in the Qur'an discuss faith and loyalty to the divine and state that they who sincerely trust will “cure” then when they are ill [7]. and simply “artery” [21]. that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild animal.1016/j. Although spiritual healing is most mentioned in the Qur'an. The medium through which this healing occurs is via the teachings and revelation of the Qur'an. these Qur'anic verses motivated health consciousness. as major cities consisted of large libraries containing the world's knowledge translated from most languages into Arabic. In the Qur'an and Hadeeth. blowing of a horn. Hence. Mohammad states that while praising God is half of faith. the Qur'an and Hadeeth offer treatments for numerous illnesses common in Arabia during that time. as was At-Talbina (a porridge prepared from milk. For instance. establishing the important concept that Islamic tradition recognizes treatments for the illnesses and the treatments must be sought out and provided to patients. Therefore. both resources heavily emphasizing the cardiovascular system. Mohammad is reported to have said that healing is in three things: a gulp of honey. God created disease and God also created a treatment for every disease. or by being gored to death. which is why the idea of quarantining the sick was encouraged and practiced. 4.2009. blood. such as abdominal pain. including “aorta” [21]. Indeed. The Qur'an establishes the intimate relationship with God and humans by asserting that God.05. In addition. Both preventative and therapeutic medicines are discussed in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. many Muslim physicians found treatment options in the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. the transmission of certain diseases that were communicable by touch and air was known. blood and its circulation and how they are vital to the maintenance of life. clipping or shaving the pubes. fever. et al. and falsehood. This verse is taken to mean that if the Prophet Please cite this article as: Loukas M. Al-Watín has been translated into different. and cauterizing. honey. It was also known that blood circulation reached all parts of the body and is an important element to life [19].1. compelling scientists to work in secret out of fear of the. and embryology. such as abdominal discomfort and diarrhea. Verses from the Qur'an and many prophetic sayings deal with public and individual health. menstruation. Furthermore. In fact. as God removes “rage form their hearts” [6]. Loukas et al. The relationship between God and man is illustrated in the following verse. and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than God. The importance of cleanliness was emphasized in prophetic traditions. Therefore. Physical ailments and their treatments are discussed in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. but also seek out treatments.” [20]. the authors of the Qur'an were well aware of the vitality of blood and the heart to the maintenance of life. and mental illness. vitamins. Furthermore. that which is sacrificed on stone (altars). In general. or by a violent blow. or by a headlong fall. It is for this reason that physicians were highly valued members of the community and Mohammad called upon them to treat illnesses. and ringing bells were all turned down by Mohammad when it came to deciding how to deliver the call for prayer. Alcohol is also forbidden in Islam. Int J Cardiol (2009). it is prevention of human sins. The Qur'an and the Hadeeth discuss the importance of the heart. which is why drumming. eating dates protected against poison [11]. Anything that harms the body.ARTICLE IN PRESS 2 M. is even more intimate with His creation than this vital blood vessel. Noise pollution is also mentioned in the Hadeeth. the heart. (forbidden) also is the division (of meat) by raffling with arrows: that is impiety” [17]. Taeniasis and Neurocysticercosis. The importance of the heart to the human being as an organ for survival in Islam. disbelief. two different forms of treatment can be found—spiritual healing and physical healing. among other things. anti-microbials. slaughtering of animals for consumption. Black cumin was also a source of treatment [9]. where Mohammad encourages his followers not to speak in a loud voice or to engage in any act that consisted of loud sound. By noting the importance of the internal jugular vein and its connection with the heart. Honey was offered as treatment for many illnesses. 4. During the same period. According to the Qur'an and Hadeeth. There are at least six verses which discuss divine healing. and white flour [10]. Thus. in fact. ablution and forgiveness. attributed as diseases of the heart. cupping. as can be seen in the following verse. hypocrisy [26].” if a woman's uterine vessels are to rupture causing bleeding. etc) and because of its high content in fat and calories. the surgery described required knowledge of the anatomical and physiological importance of the heart to the healthy functioning of the body and the detrimental effects of a thrombus. truthfulness. We find that increased number of prostrations in a prayer (i. / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx 3 Mohammed was lying about the teachings of God.e. during a prayer varies from one prayer to the next. physical movement) correlates with the time of day when one usually eats. belief and wisdom are antagonistic in nature. a sign of lineage. the author of the Qur'an asserts “…there hath come to you a direction from your Lord and a healing for (for the diseases) in your hearts” [29]. among others. it can be safely assumed that it is the aorta that the author of the Qur'an is referring to in this verse. where it is stated. Other malaise qualities contributing to a diseased heart includes blasphemy. and shahawat which are desires of the self and become diseases when they grow out of proportion. negligence.ARTICLE IN PRESS M. blood clots. In general. Possessors of such qualities have a “hardened. Blood is also used when the Qur'an describes the early stages of the embryo as “congealed blood” or “blood clot” (to be discussed later in the paper). Repetitive standing–sitting actions throughout the day activate the muscle pump in leg muscles (such as the gastrocnemius and soleus). Thus.3. it governs all actions. The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. Cardiovascular disease Although not outwardly mentioned in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. there is a prophetic tradition that discusses heart surgery. thus preventing edema and decreasing the probability of forming thrombi. extraction of a blood clot. et al. and the munafiqun (the hypocrites) have hearts that are diseased. Beware. the whole body becomes diseased. as spreading disease. reducing anger and jealousy. and emotional impact these characteristics can have on a person. we find several comments of blood in the Qur'an as an impurity. thus giving the heart many characteristics that modern science attributes to the brain. religious scholars discuss two types of (spiritual) heart diseases: shubahat which relate to one's level of understanding and trust. women are to abstain from sexual intercourse and the ritual prayer because menstrual blood is considered impure.05. It is important to note the link between knowledge and the heart. We first see the heart referred to as a muscle and not in a metaphorical sense in a prophetic tradition. He also encouraged the consumption of whole-grain brain for higher fiber intake. social. The author of the Qur'an and Mohammad have discouraged the consumption of pig meat.” The repetitive use of the concept of the heart illustrates its centrality to the core of every individual. the mu'minun (Believers) have hearts that are alive. a lethargic and carelessness approach to prayer neither obtains any spiritual nor physical benefit to the state of health. the “perverse” heart and the heart filled with knowledge. and in relation to women's health. actions and intentions are all rooted in the heart. and treatment of the heart as follows: the Angel Gabriel came to Mohammad as a child while he was playing with playmates. anger. Teniasis. Int J Cardiol (2009). and thus physical movement. Trichinella. the restrictions placed on a female during menstruation does not apply [22]. There seems to be an acknowledgement in the Qur'an that some blood is impure and can contain and transmit pathogens leading to disease. which increase the venous return to the heart upon standing and displaces blood from peripheral to central veins.” diseased heart [28]. the heart is the core of every human being. The artery directly leading from the heart is vital to survival.e. attitudes. the amount of prostrations. Considering the physical. a few but important references have certainly been made about the anatomy and physiology of the physical heart as a vulnerable organ vital to the human being. However. the author of the Qur'an discourages lazily performing prayer as performed by the Hypocrites [34]. Heart The heart is mentioned numerous times in both the Qur'an and Hadeeth and is used in many different contexts. As is popularly stated in Islamic culture. the consumption of alcohol is also forbidden Please cite this article as: Loukas M. and abstention of forbidden foods and drinks. then God would have grabbed the Prophet Mohammad's arm and cut a vital artery. namely if it is a sound or diseased heart. Thus. the importance of the heart is demonstrated in the fact that we find different states of the heart in the three groups of people that the Qur'an describes. The physical movements during prayer also help prevent deep vein thrombi. 4. This tradition holds true if taken either literally or spiritually. the intake of blood is completely forbidden. A diseased heart is one filled with qualities such as doubt [25]. moderate eating. aggressiveness. “Truly it is in the remembrance of God that the hearts find peace” [35]. In addition. Also.2.2009. Furthermore. This is so because “…neither money nor children will benefit [on the Day of Resurrection] except whoever meets God with a sound heart” (emphasis added) [30]. eliminating greediness. physical labor. This verse confirms that 1. corruption. and all of the blood of a slaughtered animal must be drained at the time of the slaughter as the carotid arteries and jugular veins are severed. such as “in the heart” or “from the heart. The Islamic prayer is performed at least five times a day and consists of a series of movements entailing standing. The Qur'an shares with the Hadeeth a metaphorical description of the heart as a possessor of emotional faculties. Blood was indeed viewed as a vehicle for life and 2. Emotions. in the long run. prostrating. the kafirun (the rejecters of faith) have hearts that are dead.’ And then he washed it with the water of Zam Zam in a golden basin and then it was joined together and restored to its place” [33]. As such. Loukas et al. ijcard. it is the heart” [32]. and “…what counts is [to God] the intention of your hearts…” [24]. for that would lead to a hardening of the heart [36]. and ignorance [27] among many others. In addition. probably due to the diseases which they transmit (i. whether “good” or “bad” determine the health of the heart. and jealousy. For instance. although rudimentary and perhaps even metaphorical. as it is directly involved in the relationship between the individual and God. Thus. faith. the role the heart plays in Islam is given much more importance and emphasis than the physiological function and purpose ascribed to the heart in traditional science. as Mohammad distinguishes between menses and blood “…from a blood vessel. and sitting.1016/j. deviation. atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis via the following ways: engaging in spiritual activities. diseases. “…lay him prostrate on the ground and tore open his breast and took out the heart from it and then extracted a blood-clot out of it and said. “Beware! There is a piece of flesh in the body if it remains healthy the whole body becomes healthy. every action is dependent upon intentions [23]. ‘That was the part of Satan in thee. and it is the latter that is favored by the author of the Qur'an [31].011 . Blood is also mentioned numerous times in verses discussing food. doi:10. Firstly. Finally. the lifestyle that the authors of the Qur'an encourage drastically decreases the chances of individuals developing such cardiovascular diseases such as heart diseases. By analyzing the different translations and exegesis of Al-Watín. It is said that Mohammad advised people not to go to sleep immediately after meals. certainly killing Mohammad. desires. sin. the author of the Qur'an states. Mohammad encouraged the consumption of foods such as white meat of fish that are low in fat and help decrease serum cholesterol levels. When performing prayer. possibly to help digest food and. reduce the chances of thrombus formation. knowledge. and if it is diseased. 4. not all blood is impure. rejection of truth. during menstruation. It was also advised not to engage in strenuous physical activity after eating. thus. These actions. fear. Furthermore. and it is the possessor of all emotional faculties. Although there are multiple Qur'anic verses and prophetic traditions regarding the spiritual heart. The two general types of heart that are described are the extensively described spiritual heart and the physical heart. ease of comprehension. and emotion. muscles and bones…” [41]. then We clothed the bones with lahm (muscles. and health is severely lacking in the West and. hypertension and heart disease. the medical education that developed closely resembled what we have today.. pulmonary artery] to the lung in order to expand in its volume and to be mixed with air so that its finest part may be clarified and may reach the venous artery [i. God sends an angel to it. That part of the blood which is less refined is used by the lung for its nutrition” [45]. ophthalmology (Ibn al-Haytham). Even so. The transmission of various diseases was well known around this time. would uncover that discoveries made by European scientists were actually made centuries prior.2009.D. 5. and orthopedics were taught [42]. Thus. cancer. The terminology used by the author of the Qur'an is “…characterized by descriptiveness. For instance. but they also became scientific and medical innovators and educators. fetal development and the acquisition of a human appearance” are also discussed [39]. must rise in the arterious vein [i. for the first time in history. the blood after having been refined. In particular. who wrote medical. not only did his followers vastly expand the Islamic empire. the best to create” [40].011 . heart and brain and can cause numerous problems including liver cirrhosis. Licensing examinations and boards were first established and required within the Islamic empire beginning 931 A.ARTICLE IN PRESS 4 M. accuracy. pharmacology (Masail Hunayn). physiology (Al-Ash'ath) and anatomy (Ibn Nafis) [44]. which included anatomy being taught by dissecting apes. pancreas. “We [God] created man from a quintessence of clay. Although many verses in the Qur'an and prophetic traditions discuss the development of the embryo. Int J Cardiol (2009). / International Journal of Cardiology xxx (2009) xxx–xxx [37]. where therapeutics. So. must be transmitted to the left cavity where the [vital] spirit is generated. An in-depth analysis of the contribution of Islamic medicine in anatomy. as was thought by some persons. The curriculum consisted of training in the basic sciences. intestines. This. after having been mixed with the air and having attained the aptitude to generate the [vital] spirit. skeletal studies.e. as he asserted that there was no direct interventricular opening and outlined. nor an invisible one which could have permitted the transmission of blood. pulmonary vein] in which it is transmitted to the left cavity of the heart.. There were numerous other contributions made by a number of Muslim physicians in various fields of medicine. including medical education. makes its hearing. This era was also the first time where patient records were written and stored. Acknowledgement The authors of this manuscript have certified that they comply with the Principles of Ethical Publishing in the International Journal of Cardiology [48]. specific emphasis is given to the components of the cardiovascular system. Also. blessed be God. remained the most advanced and civilized empire in the world. Therefore. pathology. Conclusions The Qur'an and prophetic traditions and sayings of Mohammad were religious. The Islamic empire.e. sight. It is for this reason that the discoveries and medical revelations in Qur'an should not be ignored or forgotten. Ibn al-Nafis. there is time to reflect and appreciate the Islamic contribution to medicine. for the substance of the heart is solid in this region and has neither a visible passage. as was alleged by Galen. Most notable of these to cardiovascular anatomy was the findings of Ibn al-Nafis.. which led to the creation of different wards at hospitals which treated different illnesses. Perhaps European scientists during the Middle Ages and beyond failed to benefit from the discoveries of the neighboring Islamic empire for multiple reasons. He also states that more harm than benefit exists in its consumption [38]. Contributions to medicine Experimental embryology is a fairly recent discovery. 6. the idea that the human being developed in stages to form the fetus rather than in a miniature human form present in a gamete developed much later in history as more accurate stages in embryological development were described with the introduction of technologically advanced equipment. skin. and clinical training. then We made the drop into an ‘alaqah (leech-like structure). As new advances in technology and medicine continue to grow at an exponential rate today. But there is no passage between these two cavities. Please cite this article as: Loukas M. pancreatic insufficiency. Much of the scientific discoveries and advancements during the Renaissance were largely influenced by the works of various Islamic physicians and scientists. including poor translations [46] and the unreadiness of the medical establishment to give prominence to observation and study over the word of ancient authority [47]. only two will be described below. somite stage). as well as an important body of the organ that can be harmed such as exhibiting thrombi. surgery (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Al-Zahrawi). We then placed him as a nutfah (drop) in a place of settlement. psychotherapy (Najab ud din Mohammad). and integration between description of appearance and main internal processes” and the “timing of sexual development.05. doi:10.1016/j. who shapes it (into human form). “When forty-two nights have passed over the conceptus. et al. a 13th century Syrian physician. made his greatest contribution in Sharh tashrih ibn Sina (“Explanation of the Dissection of Avicenna”). ijcard. theological and philosophical works. physiology. then We caused him to grow and come into being and attain the definitive (human) form. and scientific and influenced medical and anatomical texts. firmly fixed. Loukas et al.e. physical diseases [43]. and the inspiration of all the scientific and medical discoveries and practices stemmed from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Hadeeth. bacteriology (Al-Razi). The Qur'an and the Hadeeth provide detailed. the right ventricle]. The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth. spiritual. accurate descriptions of the major events that occur during embryological development. hospitals. and then We changed the ’alaqah into a mudhah (chewed-like substance. The pores of the heart there are closed and its substance is thick. the pulmonary circulation: “The blood. It is remarkable to note that the descriptions presented in these 7th century texts closely resemble the various stages of the embryo. cancer treatment (Avicenna). teachings that strongly encouraged and supported the drive to seek knowledge and to make scientific achievements and discoveries. who boldly rejected Galen's assertion that there was a direct (but invisible) passage through the interventricular septum between the right and left ventricles. intelligence. its roots beginning with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. and didactics. Shortly after the death of Mohammad. this was the first time in history where leprosy and mental illnesses were not viewed as demonological events but as treatable. if conducted. for more than 1000 years. after it has been refined in this cavity [i. a few centuries after the death of Mohammad. Ibn al-Nafis is one of numerous examples of the modern contribution of the teachings of the Qur'an and Hadeeth to modern medicine. stomach. The heart is extensively described as both an organ of psyche. surgery. although the author of the Qur'an acknowledges the benefits of alcohol. Alcoholism affects virtually all organs of the body including the liver. flesh). within the vast Islamic empire. anesthesia (first oral anesthetics by Avicenna). the likelihood of obtaining various cardiovascular diseases is significantly decreased through the lifestyle encouraged by the Qur'an and Hadeeth. ARTICLE IN PRESS M. 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Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 3 hadeeth 251. [20] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 69. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 45–6. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [21] Translations of the Qur’an. Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, Marmaduke Pickthall, and Mohammad Habib Shakir, University of Southern California: Center for Muslim–Jewish Engagement, Webpage Accessed March 18, 2009, http://www. usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/. [22] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 4 hadeeth 228. [23] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 1 hadeeth 1. [24] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 33. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 5. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [25] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 74. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 31. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [26] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 8. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 49. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [27] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 22. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 63. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [28] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 22. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 53. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [29] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 10. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 57. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [30] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 26. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 87–9. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [31] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 3. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 7. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [32] Al-Bukhari MI. The English Translation of Sahih Al Bukhari With the Arabic Text (9 Volume Set). Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al-Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 2 hadeeth 49. [33] Muslim I. Sahih Muslim Volumes I–IV. Translated by Muhammad Muhsin Khan, Al Saadawi Publications, 1996, Book 1 hadeeth 311. [34] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 4. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 142. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [35] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 13. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 28. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [36] Al-Jauziyah IIQ. Healing with the Medicine of the Prophet (Peace be upon Him). Fordham University: Darussalam Publishers & Distributors; 1999. Translated by Jalal Abual Rub. [37] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 5. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 90. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [38] The Qur’an: A new translation by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, vol. 2. Oxford University Press; 2005. p. 219. Translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem. [39] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 1. Bridgeview, Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. p. 28. [40] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 31. Bridgeview, Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. (translation of Qur’an 23:12–24). [41] Zindani AA, Johnson EM, Goeringer GC, et al. Human Development As Described in the Qur’an and Sunnah: Correlation with Modern Embryology, vol. 31. Bridgeview, Illinois: Islamic Academy for Scientific Research; 1994. (from a hadeeth related by Muslim, Abu Dawud, At-Tabarani, Ja'far Al-Faryabi and Ibn Hajar). [42] Syed IS. 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Please cite this article as: Loukas M, et al, The heart and cardiovascular system in the Qur'an and Hadeeth, Int J Cardiol (2009), doi:10.1016/j. ijcard.2009.05.011 Health And Medicine In The Islamic Tradition Based On The Book Of Medicine (Kitab Al-Tibb) Of Sahih Al-Bukhari Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH* * Senior Lecturer Faculty of Human Ecology Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia e-mail:
[email protected] Summary This article attempts to study the book of medicine (kitab al-tibb) in Sahih al-Bukhari. The book of medicine appears in the book 76 which consists of 58 chapters with 105 traditions (hadiths). The titles of each chapter in the book of medicine reflect the content of traditions regarding the medicine and what is related to it. The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) gives primarily idea on the conditions of Muslims in the time of Prophet (s.a.w), how did they prevent and treat the disease. It is found that most of al-tibb alnabawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji), and has been practiced in the time of the Prophet (s.a.w) and even after. Key words: Islamic Medicine; Medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi); Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih al-Bukahri; Imam Bukhari (194256/ 810-870). I. Al-Jami` al-Sahih (Sahih al-Bukhari) of Imam Bukhari Al-Jami` al-Sahih, known as Sahih al-Bukhari, is a recognized collection of hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) (1). It was compiled by Muhammad b. Isma`il al-Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870). The hadiths were arranged in 97 books (kutub, the plural of kitab) with 3,450 chapters (abwab, its singular is bab). They were classified according to subject matters on Fiqh. In addition, the other subjects such as theology, ethics and medicine are found as a separated kitab in Sahih al-Bukhari. The Sahih al-Bukhari is recognized by the overwhelming majority of the Muslim scholars to be one of the most authentic collections of the hadith or Sunnah of the Prophet (s.a.w) (2). Imam Bukhari spent sixteen years compiling the hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w), and ended up with 2,602 hadiths (9,082 with repetition). Sahih al-Bukahri has been commented by many scholars. Among them are al-`Alam al-Sunan fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari by al-Kirmani (717-786/1318-1385); `Umdah al-Qari by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762-855/1361-1452); Fath al-Bari by Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773 – 852/13721449); and Irshad al-Sari li Sharh Sahih Bukhari by al-Qastalani (851- 923/1148-1518). Al-Bukhari’s criteria for acceptance of hadiths into his collection were amongst the accepted criteria of Muslim scholars of hadith. Each report in his collection was checked for compatibility with the Qur’an, and the veracity of the chain of reporters had to be painstakingly established. It is not merely its authenticity that makes this particular collection arising interested by Muslim scholars, but also the vital role it played in developing the concept of health, * This article is part of my “Health and Medicine in the Light of the Book of Medicine (Kitab al-Tibb) in Sahih Bukhari”. It was prepared while I was a Visiting Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (OCIS). I would like to express my deepest thank to the Director of OCIS, Dr. F.A Nizami for giving me the golden opportunity to conduct my research at the Centre as well as for the funding that I received from the Centre. Currently, the author is a Senior lecturer at the Department of Government and Civilization Studies, Faculty of Human Ecology, University Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail:
[email protected] 2 JISHIM 2006, 5 HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH medicine, prevention and treatment of disease relevance to this age (3). II. Views on al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Medicine of the Prophet) The book of Medicine (kitab al-tibb) of Sahih alBukhari reflects Imam Bukhari’s view on the scope of medicine in Islam. The scope of medicine has been explained in the very well known commentaries of Sahih al-Bukhari namely Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari of Ahmad b. Ali Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 852/1449) and Umdat al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari of Abu Muhammad Mahmud Ahmad al-`Ayni (d. 855/1452), both were living in the era when medical literature over flows with all sorts of medical disciplines, on the meaning of medicine. It was probably in consequence of reading those literatures that they were in preference to hold that medicine of the Prophet as other medical sciences is so broad, meaning that, it does not only refer to what had been said and practiced in the time of Prophet but it reaches and includes as it does into every field of human medical research, activity and thought at all time. To do so, one should know the problem and cause of certain cases, then, he should try to solve it by consulting hadiths of the Prophet (s.a.w) relating to medicine as well as ancient and contemporary medical books (4). So, it was at the time when medical systems were introduced and practiced widely by Muslims, Ibn Hajar and Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni were very concerned in giving the scope of medicine of the Prophet in broad sense especially when they found that Imam Bukhari was in favor to name one of his chapters (kutub, its singular is kitab) as kitab al-tibb (the book of medicine) rather than kitab al-tibb al-nabawi (the book of the medicine of the Prophet). Having this in mind, they clarified the word al-tibb in the linguistic and medical perspectives. Ibn Hajar, for example, held that the word “tibb” in Arabic language was used to denote al-hadhaq bi al-shai` (perfect knowledge of thing and skill in doing it). Those who possess the skill of treatment and healing are called Tabib (5). It also carries other meanings such as to amend, restore, adjust, improve, correct, as well as kindness, expertise, judiciousness, skillfulness, resourcefulness, competence, maturity, habit, regular practice, perspiJISHIM 2006, 5 cacity, intelligence, sophistication, cleverness, efficiency, ability to negotiate, mastering with consummate skills, finesses, along with aspiration and glad tidings. After understanding this, Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni underlined that medicine is the knowledge of the states of human body (Ahwal Badn al-Insan) in health and decline in health (disease); its purpose is preserving health and adopting suitable measures for restoring health whenever lost (al-tibb huwa `ilm yu`raf bihi ahwal al-badn al-insan min jihhat ma yasihhu wa yazul `anhu al-sihhat li tahfizu al-sihhah hasiluhu wa tastariddu raza`iluhu) (6). According to the above, the restoration of lost health is the second aim of Islamic medicine. Basically, the restoration of health in Islamic traditional system consists of a number of different therapies or treatments, notably using a gulp of honey, cupping and cauterization. Later on, medicaments, psycho-spiritual healing, and surgical intervention were introduced when many Muslims had learnt from other civilization. As in Greek medicine, Islamic medicine gives very clear distinction between mufradah (simple) and murakkabah (compound) drugs. In this regard, physicians are advised, if possible, to avoid treating diseases with compound drugs if it effects the weakening of the body. This was an extremely attractive theory which actually provided valuable prevention of diseases because the compound medicines are likely to have more side effects. Those people whose foods are, for the most part, simple have very few ailments, and their treatment also consists of simple medicines. But for city dwellers that are used to compound foods need compound medicine as well (7). However, there are people who define medicine of the Prophet (al-Tibb al-Nabawi) as medical treatments, prescriptions of diseases, prevention, health promotion and spiritual aspects that were recommended by Prophet Muhammad (s.a.w) to his companions, and what does not come from the Prophet (s.a.w) is, therefore, not considered as medicine of the Prophet. It is because of this understanding and attitude that practicing al-Tibb al-Nabawi, according to this school of thought, is part of following the sunnah of Prophet (s.a.w) and those who follow other methods of healing are, therefore, not truly following the sunnah of Prophet and probably Islamic teaching too. It 3 retention and excretion. which preserves and restores the health (9). There is a symbiotic relationship between the two kinds of medical knowledge. Second is al-ilm bi alumur al-lati laysat bi tabiah (the science of non natural affairs) (11). urination and coitus. The former. III. the. the state in which human beings function normally and in sound and perfect conJISHIM 2006. was known in Greaco Islamic system as al-darurah al-sitta and later known as sex res non naturals in Latin. which include bathing. This idea. organs. in Islam. movement and rest. and stresses the primary importance of Tibb al-Jasad and Tibb al-Qalb because they are associated (8). and when it is sound the body is sound. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI seems that this narrow interpretation of the scope of medicine of the Prophet seemingly does not hold true meaning of the concept of health and medicine in Islamic tradition. The former. hifz al-sihhah). 5 . we found another division of medicine given by Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni. implies that one is able to obtain the happiness in this world and in the hereafter as long as he is physically and spiritually healthy. Non-natural affairs referred to the necessary elements for survival and yet they were not natural or to the extent that they can be in some sense manipulated by humans in order to prevent and treat diseases. things become contra-natural and disease is produced. Thus. and parts of the human body viewed as a living organism.a. These six necessary factors for the preservation of health were air.Dr. the breath and the body. as one would find it impossible to achieve one form of medical science without the other. the faith and the world have been accorded equal importance. he divided the science of medicine into two main parts namely the theoretical (al-`ilm) and the practical science (al-`amal). that concerned with the functioning of structures. we see that Ibn al-`Ayni emphasized that a physician should master the second kind of medicine that is known as al-`amal (practical science). according to him. Ibn al-`Ayni asserted that the theoretical medicine comprised of three ma4 jor branches. Ibn Hajar’s division of medicine. if we refer to the hadith of Prophet Muhammad (s. as mentioned before. the soul and matter. in his introduction to `Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. Having known theory alone would not permit physician to interpret medical science correctly. most notably Hipocrates and Galen. It is rather unfortunate that we know so little about this because Ibn al-Ayni did not explain what he means by al-ilmu bi al-umur al-karijah an al-amr al-tabi`ah. The hadith implies that when there is equilibrium in the nature of the body with the nature of heart. it would be easy to interprete it correctly. When equilibrium is lost. First. is the true knowledge of the intended subject in the mind of mankind by which it can administer and put into practice (ma`rifah haqiqah al-maqsud wahuwa maudu` fi al-fikr alladhi yakunu bihi al-tadbir) and the latter is the external part of the subject in human’s mind by which man is able to put into practice directly either through the sense or hand (surgery) (khuruj dhalik al-maudu fi al-fikr ila al-mubashirah bi al-hiss wa al-amal bi al-yadd) (10). is preventing and preserving the state of the body in its nature. the body stays healthy. However. food and drink. sleeping and waking. al-`ilm bi al-umur al-tabiah (the science of natural affairs). This is related to practical medicine that comprised of two braches namely preventive medicine (hifz al-Sihhah) and therapeutic (ilm al-ilaj) medicine. If this is so. it is the qalb (heart) (13). The above as has been mentioned is theoretical aspect of medicine. defecation. Ibn Hajar divides the science of medicine into two types namely Tibb Jasad (physical medicine) and Tibb Qalb (spiritual medicine). Division of Medicine In the introduction of his commentary of Sahih Bukhari of Kitab al-Tibb. To give further explanation. and it can be achieved by the art of medicine. Ibn Hajar praises the value and usefulness of medicine. This implies that Muslims should be fully aware of spiritual and physical medicine because. In trying to reconstruct an aspect of the Greek medicine. Truly. in the body there is a morsel of flesh.w) who said: “Truly. which was originally introduced by Greek medical doctors. It also included the science of anatomy. The third type of theoretical medicine is known as al-ilm bi al-umur al-kharijah an al-amr al-tabiah (things outside nature) (12). It is interesting that after giving a clear definition of the science of medicine. and when it is corrupt the body is corrupt. While he was discussing practical medicine. Abu Bakr Rabi’ b.a. It stresses the fact that Muslims should take good care of their health and always strive to remain in a healthy state because if he is in a healthy state. who lived in the tenth century.a. Other preventive measures in Sahih Bukhari include: quarantine for epidemics. precaution against al-judham (leprosy). he mentions numerous preventive measures against disease scattered in several books of his Sahih Bukhari such as cleanliness. the Prophet (s. Precaution against leprosy was commonly known in the time of the Prophet (s. so that quack doctors will not be able to dispense their mistreatments. Looking to the nature of the practical medicine. considered practical medicine both hifz al-sihhah (preventive medicine) and therapeutics (ilm al-ilaj). precaution against disease that may occur as a result of falling a fly in the liquid. he must learn some skill to earn his livelihood by lawful means (16). mind and spirit. as the noblest science in Islam because its subject matter is human body who is the noblest being of God (15). Next. is concerned JISHIM 2006. In truth.w). he would be able to fulfill his duty towards God during leisure (al-faragh) by acquiring both spiritual and physical knowledge. In addition. In line with this. This is in harmony with the objective of Islamic law that keeping health is better than the treatment of disease. In regard to the former. so that his soul will reach the ultimate goal namely the appreciation of God. in his Hidayat al-Muta‘allim (Guide for Student) articulated that wise men have once said that it is incumbent upon every person to learn the basic of Islamic law. he is immune from going astray. food. 5 .HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr. which is no doubt considered as an advanced concept given the level of scientific knowledge at that time. Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni asserted that the purpose of ilm al-ilaj (therapeutic medicine) is above all to support the natural striving of the body to return to its natural. if a woman sleeps with a leper. precautions of fire in the house. many Muslim scholars both religious and medical authorities.w) said: “There are two gifts of which many men are cheated: health (al-sihhah) and leisure (al-faragh)” (14).w) advised people to run away from the leper as one would run away from a lion (farra min al-judham kama tafarra min al-asad) (18). Imam Bukhari deals with the promotion of health and preventive measures against disease. Preservation of health should be the primary object of medicine in which a physician has to give. In order to show the importance of prevention and preservation of health amongst his followers. leprosy (al-Judham) is known as “the lion’s disease. the primary goal of the medical system is to maintain health rather than to cure the disease or restore it whenever lost. Even Imam Bukhari does not provide specific chapter on prevention of disease. he transmits the disease to her. In other words.” This clearly reveals that the disease makes the sufferer’s skin and face very harsh and gives the appearance of a lion. the real purpose of medical is to save human life and to improve the sufferings of living beings (17). forbidding suicide. The Prophet (s. She may become leprous. most of early Islamic medical tradition is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (tibb al-`ilaji). By linking al-sihhah (health) and al-faragh (leisure) together has its significant. use of tooth stick (siwak). As we know. In Arabic medical literature. Ahmad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari. and not the ‘disease’.a. This strong command is an effective method of preventing the spreading of leprosy from one to another. It was believed that leprous’s breath intensifies until he gave the disease to another person who came into contact with him. perfect health is a wish that humans crave for because it is one of the Creator’s greatest blessings after faith. three major fields namely: promotion of health. forbidding drinking al-khamr. prevention of illness and restoration of health. healthy state. Similarly. peoples believed that leprosy caused the patient to carry out destruction on whoever approaches or comes near him. Throughout Islamic civilization. etc. In the early development of Islam. 5 IV. bath and exercise. Hadiths on Prevention of Illness and Preservation of Health Imam Bukhari is well aware that the task of medicine. because when a person knows its Law. a Muslim must study some basic medicine in order to preserve health. however. which is unanimously agreed. Nurdeen DEURASEH dition: in healthy body. It is generally acknowledged that hifz al-sihhah is the most important branch of Islamic medicine since it is primarily concerned with the prevention and preservation of health rather than with cure. eye disease and others.. lower to them the wing of humanity) (surah al-Isra (17): 24).” It carries an abstract meaning as the words of God “wakhfid lahuma janah al-dhull (and out of kindness. then surely it cannot be denied that He can also placed both poison and its cure in some creatures such as a fly. unfortunately. Leprosy has plagued mankind since the very beginning of recorded history. Egypt. This is because the fly would always keep its “antidote wing” so that it may be able to fly away. Yet. Many civilizations were affected such as China. apart from some other structures. Immediately after mentioning the event.w. Anas motioned with his hand and immersed it (faghamasahu) three times. Rather.w. there was not much scientific treatment of leprosy during that time (19). According to Abu Tayyib al-Tabari as quoted by Ibn Hajar (773–852/13721449). In his Fath al-Bari.). then recited: “Bismillah” and he said that truly. was asserting in an affirmative way that. Naturally. a fly carries poison and antidote. leprosy. one fact is clear was that the Prophet (s. the hadith inspire us about the medical aspect of fly. Ibn Hajar (773–852/13721449) supports the stand that a fly carries some pathogens on parts of its body. which provide the necessary means and religious justification for the preservation of health. 5 . Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372-1449) also discusses another interpretation of the statement “fa inna fi ihda janahayhi (for on one of its wings). According to the Prophet (s.. the left wing has been protected by the right one.w). for on one of its wings there is a disease and on the other is healing” (20).w) encouraged the ummah to preserve her health by asking her to dip the fly into the vessel completely.w) when a fly falls into the liquid. He further asserts that Thumama (r.” This implies that the poison may be understood the pride (takabbur) occurring in one’s soul causing him to disdain eating that food or avoid and discard it altogether. Al-Khatabi added that it is a great wisdom to create a fly with poison and antidote. and wet and dry.Dr.a. malaria. which contains only one tradition of the Prophet Muhammad (s.w).w) said: “If a fly falls in the vessel of any one of you.w) reminded his Ummah that if JISHIM 2006. This is because. The Prophet (s. Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372-1449) related the story by al-Khatabi that some people commented the hadith and siad: How can it be possible that both illness and healing are present in the front wings and the cure in the back wings? He replied: this was questioned that a fool would ask. We have no evidence that there was a particular disease that was caused by fly and the specific drug for that disease during the time of Prophet (s.t) has been able to create thousands of combinations of them. Imam Bukhari mentioned interesting examples of preventive measures taken by the Prophet (s.a. India and Islam. In other words. it falls into the vessel of food or drink.a.a. when a fly touches a liquid food. This behavior is divinely-inspired instinct similar to that of the bees and the ants (26). typhoid. including the antidote for those pathogenic organisms. It is no wondered that al-Khatabi. This is because many of God’s creations possess opposite characteristics i. cholera. the hadith does not stress on cleanliness (altaharah) and impurity (al-najasah) matter.e. Ibn Hajar comments: “I found nothing among the vari6 ants to identify the wing that carries the antidote but one of the Ulama` said he observed that the fly protects itself instinctively.e.a. Imam Bukhari reported that the Propeht (s. if. while the antidote takes places by suppressing the soul and forcing it to be humble (25). this was what had been done by the Messenger of Allah” (23). it stresses on how to prevent the disease as a result of a fly falling into the vessel of liquid (bayan al-tadawi min darar al-dhubab) (21). occurred in Prophet’s time because flies infected the food. let him dip the whole of it (into the vessel) and then throw it away. hot and cold. it infects the liquid with its pathogens. one side is poison and the other the antidote (24).a) and other companions were with Anas when a fly fell into a vessel.a. In the last chapter of kitab al-tibb of Sahih Bukhari. We may safely assume that the diseases caused by flies i. Bab ’idha waqa‘ al-dhubab fi al-’ina’. If Allah (s. These temperaments are opposites of each others. sat on the eyelids of sleeping children and spread diseases of eye. In other words. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI as a lion would.a. therefore the fly must be dipped in order to release the antidote counter balancing the pathogens (22). As we know. mainly affects the skin. the poison of a fly is in the front wings while the remedy is in the back wings. Nevertheless. the peripheral nerves and also the eyes. although challenged by the people in his time. Hadiths on Healing of Diseases Imam Bukhari also mentioned hadiths relating to the methods of treatment of disease which was practiced in the time of Prophet (s. I forbid my followers to use branding with fire (cauterization) (al-Shifa’ fi thalatha: sharbat `asal. which is caused by one of them should be treated either by hijamah (taking the impure blood from the body) or honey. color. if one of the aspects of the liquid is affected i. wa Anha Ummati an alKayy). and branding with fire (cauterizing). aw Kayy bi Nar.a. It is possible that this belief was the result of Muslim’s discoveries during that time that the cause of disease was mainly blood (damawi) or yellow bile (safrawi) or black bile (sawdawi) or phlegm (balghi) (30). the disease. On the other hand. experience from the previous culture and tradition. yellow bile (safrawi). Ibn Hajar clarified that the Prophet (s.w) relating to the treatment of disease i. cupping.a. The consensus among Muslim Jurists is that the fly is pure (al-dhubab tahir) and does not spoil a liquid even if its quantity is small and even if fly dies in it except according Imam al-Shafi`i. First: “Healing is in three things: a gulp of honey.. wa kayyah nar. In trying to answer the question. based on Prophet’s command “liyanzi`uhu’ (throw it way). however.a.a. and branding with fire (cauterizing). it must be treated by cauterization or surgery as in our time. Thus. V. The latter could not be more than a last option to which physicians had to consider when a gulp of honey.w) mention only three methods of healing?. a drink of honey or branding with fire (cauterization) that suits the ailment.HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr. cupping and pharmaceutical treatments failed. some Shafi’s jurist concluded that a liquid becomes impure while Abu Hanifah said it is not impure (annaha la tanjis) (28). Two of them were narrated by Ibn `Abbas and another was by Jabir b.e. So. cupping. but I don’t like to be (cauterized) branded with fire” (29). it was widely known among the Arab in that time. a gulp of honey. Ibn Hajar (773–852/1372-1449) reminded us that the treatment of disease does not predestine only three methods of healing namely a gulp of honey. and cauterization (kayy: to burn a wound with hot metal or a chemical to stop the blood or stop it becoming infected).. then. the medical history is an instrument of medical life. if general history is an instrument of life. wa shartah mihjam.w) could treat a patient suffering from certain diseases during that time successfully without any knowledge of medicine as practiced today but they merely followed the instruction of the Prophet (s. a drink of honey and cauterization (branding with fire) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (alShifa’ fi Thalatha: fi Shartati Mihjam. Abd Allah. it was narrated by Jabir bin Abdullah that he heard the Prophet said: “If there is any healing in your medicines. In his interpretation of the above hadiths.a. In many obvious cases. Though it seems that the modern way of treatment of disease is better than in Prophetic method of treatment of disease partly because the Prophetic medicine is not based on medical experiments but rather on inspiration.” Second: “Healing is in three things: cupping.w) was considered advance method given the level of scientific knowledge at the time. medicine of Prophet is not only history but it is history as well as medicine. we also learn from the hadith about the purity of fly and on the water and liquid where fly may also be found dead. 5 three things). they were to dip the whole of fly into the vessel and then throw. Nurdeen DEURASEH a fly falls into the vessel of any one of them. This implies that the Arab in that time viewed the nature of disease in terms of philosophy and looked upon it as a disturbance in the equilibrium of the body’s blood. many companions of Prophet (s. black bile (sawdawi) and phlegm (balghi) (30). then it is in cupping. Bab al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha (chapter on healing is in JISHIM 2006. It is found that the method of treatment of disease in the time of the Prophet (s.” In another version. In this regard. in his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine). In addition. cupping (hijamah). taste) (27). This was to prevent them from the disease that may occur because of fly. 7 .e. aw Sharbat Asal. the principle of treatment of disease. If we failed to treat a disease by the mentioned method. Hadiths on healing in three things (al-Shifa’ fi Thalatha) were reported by Imam Bukhari (194-256/ 810-870). wa anha ummati `an alkayy). changing smell.w). Furthermore. why did the Prophet (s.w) mentioned only three methods of healing mainly because they were usul al`ilaj.a. The latter is divided into wet (rutbah). ‘let him drink honey. if the disease was caused by the Jinn and evils. but your brother’s abdomen has told a lie (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika). 8 A. according to Ibn Hajar. the ordinary medical therapies were insufficient. we feel much more confidence to say that the body and the soul of mankind have the possibility to be healthy or sick. while the latter should be treated by spiritual method of treatments. honey is considered as healthy drink. is more pleasant and rewarding and less costly to treat and restore (32). Imbalance of the body is like fever. on trees. was basically according to the nature of disease and to know its treatment.w) said: “A man came to the Prophet and said: “My brother has some abdominal trouble.” The Prophet (s. The former diseases should be treated through the medical methods involving the use of honey.” In view of this benefit.w). We are not surprising Imam Bukhari entitled chapter four of his Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine) as “al-Dawa’ bi al-Asal wa Qawlihi Ta`ala ‘Fihi Shifa li al-Nas (treatment with honey and the statement of Allah: where is healing for men). “Allah has said the truth. In certain cases. the evil spirits could not easily influence a Muslim. This is because. That is why before commenting the method of healing as highlighted in the hadith. the patients bear the bitterness of medications. by strengthening faith in God. Honey: Healing for Men (Shifa’ li al-Nas) In Islamic medical system. therefore. balanced or imbalanced. the care and refinement of the soul which is far more important. it has to be cured by giving the effort that may help to end the evil spirit’s influence i. diarrhea was treated by making the patient vomit or by giving him laxative medicine to increase the flow by taking honey. one finds that the treatment of disease.a. the spiritual disease has to be cured by spiritual treatment.” The man came for the second time and the Prophet replied to him. cupping and cauterization. Allah (s. Ibn Hajar had to clarify two types of diseases namely material disease (mard madiyyah) and non material disease (mard ghayra madiyyah). In that time. one was encouraged to use the spiritual treatment rather than physical treatment for many reasons. so abate fever with water’ (31).w) then said. dry (yabisah) and compound (murakkabah). In relatiJISHIM 2006.w. the suffering of cauterization as well as spending large sums of money for medical treatment and care. wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a sign for those who give thought. May be because the Prophet (s. the spiritual disease is appeared as a result of the lack of faith and misery of the soul. that has been mentioned by Imam Bukhari in his Sahih Bukhari in Kitab al-Tibb (book of medicine). if a persons’ soul was fortified with strong faith. Accordingly. First. On the other hand. “I have done that”. headache and other physical illness.a. Secondly. sadness and similar symptoms.e. and in (men’s) habitations. and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colors. Imam alBukhari mentioned three ahadith on honey together with its value which is emphasized in many verses of the Quran.” At this place.a.t) describes honey as Shifa’ li al-Nas: “And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills. in the time of Prophet (s. 5 . in seeking to be healed from the disease of the body. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI When we pondering this method of treatment of disease. it is worth to mention one of the most well known hadith. they were advised to know its cause and symptom (ma`rifatuhu bitahqiq al-sabab wa al-alamah). Bab al-Dawa bi al-`Asal waqawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas (chapter on treatment with honey and the statement of Allah: where is healing for men). Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth).a.” He returned again and said. the Prophet (s. Instead. In Surah al-Nahl verses: 68-69. So he made him drink honey and he was cured” (33).a. In other words. In the light of this evidence. is treated by what has been said in the hadith ‘fever is from the heat of Hell. as in most other medical systems.” He came for the third time and the Prophet replied. In this case.Dr. The non material disease. the treatment of disease was very simple. coldness (al-baridah). while that of the soul is like anger.w) knew what made the patient sick because he was aware of the well-known method of treatment of diarrhea (34). Let him drink honey. “let him drink honey.w) replied to him “let him drink honey. in regard to the medical benefits of honey. From the above hadith. The Prophet (s. The former is referred to the disease caused by hotness (al-hararah).. anxiety. is good to purify what in the veins and stomach..HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr.” we may conclude that sometimes the measures that humans take to cure a disease may not be sufficient on their own to alleviate and ease the condition. This mean that. Of course.a.a. viewed that honey is not only the factor of healing because all are connected with God who is a Healer (huwa al-shafi).” the statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies. Thus. Furthermore. Thus. While it seems quite certain that honey is the most suitable prescription for the patient. al-Baghdadi was of the opinion that honey.w) was aware of the disease and the cure that was suitable for the patient since he was surely belief of the benefit of honey for patient. Allah huwa al shafi. In Umdah al-Qari.w) was well aware that diarrhea was caused by indigestion (tukhma) resulting from overeating.a. It is important to understand the hadith especially the Prophet’s statement. the Prophet (s. 5 This interpretation is a reminder that men should not be arrogant by attributing cure to themselves and not Allah (s. the hadith is concerned about a man who came to the Prophet (s. Nurdeen DEURASEH on to this.w): “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika)” (37). With this illness. Now.w) was again advised to take honey.a. it is worth to give the view of commentators in regard to the saying of Prophet: “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies. It is mostly occurred when mucus (a liquid produced in parts of body such as in nose) clings to the bowels and interferes with the process of absorption. The Prophet (s. Secondly.w). if someone are facing similar prob9 .w) had said the patient’s stomach lied was that he knew that the dosage had not been sufficient.a. the Prophet (s. as mentioned in the hadith. The patient should not lose patience for his suffering of illness because.w) instructed the patient to take honey for many times to make sure it may cure positively the disease. that we have to put into consideration.a. al-Hasan and alQadi `Ayyad.a.” Before we give the correct interpretation of this statement. Thus. it is Allah’s divine intervention and mercy that brings about the complete cure (39). It is clear from the above discussion that we cannot understand the Prophet’s prescription of honey as the way for treatment of disease unless we know what disease he was fighting.a. because it had not staunched the diarrhea and the Prophet (s. It is equally obvious that the commentators of hadith seem to agree that the hadith referred to a particular kinds of stomach disease namely diarrhea. it is a potential to make the blood to circulate better and provide more air to areas of the body such as the brain (41).w) recommended honey. after giving remarks on the above hadith. he gave the correct treatment by asking the patient to drink honey. we cannot conclude the discussion on this hadith without giving a few words about the meaning of the saying of Prophet (s. First.w) said: “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies (sadaqa Allah wa kadhiba Batn Akhika)” (36). It is the nature of honey to expel whatever is left of whatever has collected in the stomach and the intestines. “The statement of God is true and the stomach of your brother lies. The Prophet (s. i.t).a. in any medical treatments. dissolve the excessive food by evacuating the stomach and intestines and clear the chest and liver (40). The reason why the Prophet (s. The Prophet (s. the brother’s patient claimed that he had followed the instruction of Prophet (s. doctors are only attempting to cure.w.e. the moisture is driven out and expelled downwards when honey is eaten. Ibn Abbas. it is Allah who cures.w) and said that his brother was suffering from dysentery (istatlaqa batn) (35). the Prophet (s.a. He came back and reported honey had done no good to his brother. certain diseases take many years to cure and in natural way can take at least months (38). He came back the third and also the fourth time and said he had seen no improvement. Because. it is honey that expels the excess moisture. JISHIM 2006. Ibn Mas`ud. there are two major remarks. but it was no consequences. To cure this disease. Consequently. now. Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni expressed and recognized that drinking honey may open up the obstructions of the blood vessels. sometime.w) wanted to stress that honey was the correct cure but in this case it had to administer several times. if we relate this idea with the statement. which derive from the hadith. Apparently. which contains a variety of sugar and mineral.a. there is no sharp different between the above view with the following.” Some of them. While interpreting the above ahadith. That is why medical doctors advise. Secondly. illness believed to be caused by harmful and dirty blood must be treated by taken out the dirty blood. Lastly. As we expected. Cupping (al-Hijamah) In a number of medical systems.” Secondlt. for I heard Allah’s Apostle saying.w) about a pain in the head.a. become ill. To answer this claim. “fihi shifa li al-Nas (in it (honey) is healing for men). 5 . “I will not leave till he gets cupped. there are two general remarks that we may draw. Imam Bukhari reported that Allah’s Apostle was cupped on the middle of his head at Lahy Jamal on his way to Mecca while he was in a state of Ihram. Ibn Hajar clarified that the statement. then it weakens the faculties and it remove both healthy humors as well as harmful ones.w) was cupped on his head to treat headache and similarly when a man who complained to the Prophet (s. as a means of sucJISHIM 2006.w) was cupped on his head.w) and his companions always had practiced al-hijamah in several occasions from the time he was at home to the time that he was in the state of Ihram. many ahadith would be recorded in Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih Bukhari. Under this influence. In this chapter. the view that headache was caused by dirty blood in the head was widely spread among the ancient people. it seems quite certain that the Prophet (s. by whoever is on the road to recovery. They were recorded 10 from chapter eleven to chapter fifteen of kitab al-tibb. so that the dirty blood.a. from head to toe. It is very regrettable that we do not have very clear rational explanation why cupping was so popular in the time of Prophet. That is why Imam Bukhari entitled one of the chapters of his kitab altibb as al-hijamah ala al-ra`s (cupping on the head). honey cannot be cured for all kinds of disease.w) recommended him to get cupped (45). the Prophet (s. but one fact is nevertheless clear that hijamah is very easy to practice. by whoever is very old. B. “fihi shifa li al-Nas”. weak liver or stomach. Imam Bukhari mentioned that Jabir bin ‘Abdullah narrated that he visited al-Muqanna while he was illness. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI lem. First. We are not surprising to hear that the Prophet (s.a.w) was cupped at day and night and sometime during Ihram. people believed that wherever part of the body. for safety purpose. “There is healing in cupping. Therefore. Thirdly. we must study hijamah because it was widely practiced by the Prophet (s.a.a. from Greek to Malay traditional medicine. Then. One of these five chapters is Bab al-Hijamah min alDa’ (cupping as a treatment for disease). Imam Bukhari reported that: “Allah’s Apostle was cupped on his head. people have observed that the use of leech. al-Bukhari reported that the Prophet commanded the cupping to be used and said: “There are no remedies comparable to cupping and blood letting” (44). if we wish to know the history of treatment of disease in the light of alTibb al-Nabawi. We were told that the Prophet (s.a.w) and his companions and this method of healing is still alive in many Muslim countries. A jar is attached to the skin surface. that cupping should be avoided by those who is suffering from enteritis.Dr. In truth. we have to keep in mind that if blood cupping is done in the wrong place and times or when it is not needed. In other words.” This is because some people believe that honey is beneficial for all kinds of diseases and for all people. However. just using a jar or a similar material. there is no specific time to practice cupping because the Prophet (s. can honey be used effectively? This needs the clarification and understanding the other part of hadith. it is because the dwellers of the Arabian peninsular and countries of hot climate are the most suitable people to be cupped. With advance of method of treatment. This means that honey is possibly harmful for some people who live in hot region (42). who suffers from palsy of the face or feet and by women who are pregnant or who have just given birth or who are menstruating. toxic and other harmful substance flow to the surface of the skin. did not means that honey is suitable to use for all people because the words “li al-Nas” designated that honey was only suitable for “some people” and not for “all people”.a. air. harmful substance may remove from the body. Jabir said. and sucking of harmful blood was therefore a chief method of treatment. Secondly. hijamah can be used as the right measure for treatment. This is because the blood of people who dwell in that region is thinner (raqiq) and is drawn closer to the surface of the skin (tamil ila zahir al-abdan) (43). w) kawa As`ad b.w) prohibited his followers to use cauterization. In another version. the part should be rubbed till it becomes red (46). Ibn Hajar did not interpret the words “wa anha an ummati an kayy (I forbid my followers to use cauterization)” as prohibition (al-nahy) but abhorrent or undesirable (makruh). “Healing is in three things: cupping. but I do not like to be (cauterized) branded” (49).w) did not like al-kayy (cauterization) as the right method of healing. This is the reason why the Prophet (s. They can be used repeatedly. In other words. alBaghdadi and other Muslim physicians suggested that the leech was needed to be cleansed.a. leech-therapy occupied an important place. menace and produce the side effect. the use of leech was the best way for skin disease. was similar to cupping (hijamah). 5 . Mu`ad (52) and also the wound of As`ad b.” From all these evidences.a.w) and even after (47). Ibn Hajar mentioned that Ibn Umar (r. In Graeco-Arab medicine. According to Ibn Sina. the use of leech and other modern methods of healing can be regarded as a substitute for cupping.HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr. salt should be sprinkled on the affected part of the human body. Also. Since there is possibly risk over using leech. Ibn Hajar concluded that the prohibition against utilizing cautery applies for as long as completed trust in Allah (s.w)’s words “I forbid my followers to use (cauterization) branding with fire (‘wa `anha `an ummati an alkayy’)” as recorded in the following ahadith: The Prophet (s. then the patient would 11 C. they should be kept away for a day and then applied.t) is lacking. In order to give further evidence that cauterization is not prohibited in Islam. but one should be aware of the risk of cross-infections.w) had himself cauterized the wound of Sa`d b. the application of leech is more useful than cupping in letting off the blood from deeper parts of the body. The following is alBaghdadi’s words: When they are to be used. Treatment by the use of leech is desirable in skin disease. If a leech does not stick. and he was branding the forehead of a man who had a slight facial palsy. It is quite reasonable to accept this reason because by nature cauterization (al-kayy) may cause the patient in pain.w. The dirt or dust clinging to a leech should be wiped off before application. Ibn Sina and al-Baghdadi. however. there were people who they think that it is the cauterization itself which cures the affliction.w) said. In other words. Ibn Ahmad al-Ayni and al-Qastalani had attempted to give the reasons behind the wisdom of the Prophet (s. ting the ahadith on al-kayy. The question now arises. This is according to the report of Abu Zubayr who said: “I saw Ibn Umar one day.a. Nurdeen DEURASEH king blood from the affected parts of human body. wet and chronic ulcers.a. or branding (cauterization). Leech may also be used as a means of cleaning the tissues especially after micro-surgical operations.a. He argued that it is undesirable to use cauterization if it may cause the pain and menace to a patient (51). is forbidden (haram) to use al-kayy for medical purpose? If not. Zararh in order to stop the bleeding (anna al-nabiy (s. wrote specific section to leech in their al-Qanun fi al-Tibb and al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb respectively. they believed that if cautery had not been used. a gulp of honey or cauterization. In the time of Prophet. for example. “If there is any healing in your medicines then it is a cupping operation. Leech is also used for reducing the weight of fatty and fleshy people. Imam Bukhari reported that the Prophet (s. Zararh min syawkihi) (53). While commenJISHIM 2006. al-kayy or hot metal was used as a way to burn a wound to stop the blood or stop it becoming infected (48). (branding with fire) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (branding with fire)” (50). some commentators of Sahih Bukhari like Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani. why did the Prophet discourage his Ummah to use cauterization even though he had known that it might give many medical benefits.a. al-Kayy: Branding with Fire (Cauterization) Al-Kayy is another method of treatment of disease in the time of Prophet (s. Ibn Hajar quoted the hadith which was reported that the Prophet (s.a) used to use cautery for treating facial palsy.a. When leech has sucked out the blood and tend to drop down. fresh blood should be poured or thoroughly smashed and pounded clay sprinkled over the affected part and if the affected part is free of any wound. During Prophet’s time.a. Though some commentators of hadith understood that the Prophet (s. For al-Baghdadi.w) said. Dr.w). the hadiths of the Prophet (s. it might give medical benefits and harmful as in the case of al-khamr (intoxicating drink) which according to the Qur’an. In this case. It is found that most of al-tibb al-nabawi is preventive medicine (al-tibb al-wiqa`i) rather than therapeutic medicine (al-tibb al-`ilaji).w) in Kitab al-Tibb of Sahih Bukahri gives us the idea throws on how did the Muslim had been treated. how did they prevent and treat the disease.w. In this case. there can be no objection to use cauterization so long as it is done cautiously and we remain aware of its negative effects. but not the essential cause of the cure because Allah (s.t) will take care of it.w) preferred honey. Of course. This means that humans try.e. In other words. Its method of prevention was considered advance. but harmful is more (56). it would be a great mistake to prohibit the cauterization today. For those who said that cauterization is forbidden in medical purpose are mainly based on the hadith related by Ibn Abbas that the Prophet (s. This is because. On the other hand. As far as the treatment of disease is concerned. according to Ibn Hajar. then I absolutely forbid cauterization. but it is Allah who cures. cauterization could not be more than a last resort to which physicians had to recourse when the treatment by honey and cupping failed.. This means that as long as medicine conceived disease in terms of philosophy and looked upon it as a disturbance in the equilibrium of body’s humors. cautery is permitted when it is perceived as being the appropriate means to affect a cure. Therefore. as preference from one thing over another. (branding with fire) but I forbid my followers to use cauterization (branding with fire).t). the surgery should be also forbidden. It gives primarily idea on the conditions of Muslims in the time of Prophet (s. if he was sick.a. or drinking honey or cauterization with fire. It is found that the treatment of disease was mainly based on the cause of disease. in his Irshad al-Sari li Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. given the level of scientific knowledge that existed at the time. It is Allah’s divine intervention and mercy that brings about the complete cure (54). If it is forbidden in Islam. a gulp of honey or cauterization. From the above analysis. it might give both beneficial and harmful for mankind. This kind of cauterization practiced. is prohibited. it is fully permitted when there is no other alternative or no other remedy has proved successfully.a. blood letting over cauterization and it does not means that cauterization is prohibited (haram) in medical treatment (55).a. In case of cauterization (alkayy). it is true that Allah cures but in some cases that cure operates through the agency of humans. i. 5 . Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI have perished.. the Prophet (s. human cannot refuse to take measure to cure disease claiming that Allah (s.t) alone cures and grants good health and not cauterization. he. These remarks lead to the conclusion that we should not use al-tibb al-nabawi (medicine of the Prophet) without empirical research because of changes in medicinal plants and environment as well as the meaning of linguistic terms. Sometimes the measures that humans take to cure a disease may not be sufficient on their own to alleviate the condition. Allah huwa al Shafi. it is right to conclude that it is perfectly correct to recommend al-kayy (cauterization) as the method of treatment of disease when all other remedies i. healing is in three things: cupping.e. Conclusion The previous studies have revealed to us of the importance of Kitab al-Tibb in Sahih Bukahri. TheJISHIM 2006.w) said: “If the cure ultimately depends on either scarification. Al-Dhahabi took a similar attitude to the tradition concerning the prohibition of cauterization. Although al-Qastalani was aware that Ibn Hajar and al-Ayni’s interpretation of the hadith are harmony with the Islamic law. He claimed that the cautery of bleeding wounds was permissible especially when it was knows to be the best 12 possible cure for a particular illness but it was forbidden as a preventive measure. Ibn Ahmad al-`Ayni viewed the hadith.w. Humans should not be arrogant by attributing cure to themselves and not Allah (s.” It is regrettable that this school of thought does not give further explanation and justification of the hadith. a gulp of honey and cupping have failed. Thus the conditions for which these remedies were prescribed in the first century of hijrah may not be exactly the same as the conditions we are dealing with today.w. did not hesitate to add that al-kayy was not as other ways of treatment as far as side effect is concerned.a. in the third century of Hijrah. Al-`Ayni. 2. “Islamic Medicine History and Current Practice”. Ibn Hajar. 8. in his Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul) and al-Kindi’s Risalah fI al-HIlah li Daf` al-Ahzan (Epistle on Expedients to Relief Sufferings and Sorrows). 16. (See. Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (Sustenance for Body and Soul). al-Tarmidhi (d. Ibn al-Qayyim. For this reason. Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. Cf. Miftah al-Tibb wa Minhaj al-Tullab. ethics or manner (akhlaq). 21: 229. 11. n.a. 493/1100) drew a parallel between the strength or health of the body and the supplies of the traveler. al-Zuhri and others to collect ahadith of Prophet (s. Hidayat al-Muta‘allim (Meshed: Meshed University Press. The collections of ahadith were officially began with Umayyad Caliph ‘Umar Ibn Abdul ‘Aziz (d. Kuala Lumpur: S. we shall not be satisfied by referring to the writing of traditionalist scholars in the past without referring to new discoveries made by the researchers after the demise of Prophet (s. This is because. In other words. Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. 270-3. Azami. 15. 10. Daneshpajuh (Tehran: Tehran University. Nagamia.d). Hamidullah. al-Balkhi criticizes medical doctors who only concentrate on physical illness but neglect psychological aspects or mental illness of the patients. ed. M. 1989). 17.T. Fazlur Rahman. 1989). the author will consult many important commentaries of Sahih Bukhari most notably Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Badr al-Din `Ayni (762855/1361-1452). Ibn Majah (d. Amr b. because the two cooperate in repelling and overcoming diseases. 101/720)’s instruction. in Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. human existence cannot be healthy without this ishtibak. If the body has sufficient strength. These collections were well-known with the successful compiled six textual collections of the ahadith namely of Imam Bukhari (d. It would be interesting to mention in relation to this discussion that Ibn Jazlah (d.w). (For details. 25 vols.d). reminded us that since man’s construction is from both his soul and his body. 4. see M. 21: 229. 25-29. Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. 273/886) etc. This is parallel to the health of human being. 3. Fath al-Bari. ed. 1949). Later. 21: 229. Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition (New York: Rossroad Publishing Company. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-Turath al-`Arabi. 5 . Mahdi Mohaghegh and M. Hence. 21: 229.w). al-Nasa’i (d. 146. 279/892). 14. Adab al-Tabib. 12. and third. Abdul Majeed & Co. Al-Ayni. Nurdeen DEURASEH refore. If nafs gets sick. Because. the second is al-fi‘liyah that is the traditions that is derived from the deeds of the holy prophet. 4 October 2003. for the first time to Abu Bakr b. 25 vols. 10: 165. Ibn Hindu. 1978). if we wish to have a complete account of Prophetic medicine. Al-Balkhi. 10: 165. and al-Isnad wa al-Matan (narration and text of hadith). Vol. if the supplies are sufficient for the entire journey. there has been a lack of effort to study the medical aspect of Sahih Bukhari. repr. Kitab al-Riqaq. scholars of ^adIth devoted their life and energy in shifting the hadith examining the narrators and ensuring their authenticity for preserving the ahadith of Prophet (s. 7. 208.HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI Dr. 1985).w). Muhammad b. 1989. Abu Bakr Rabi’ b. No.w). The wise person must prepare his supplies for traveling according to the distance intended. sirah al-nabawiyyah (history of Prophet). REFERENCES 1. the psychological condition is considered as one of the main factors for physical health. From the middle until the end of third century. Marizan `Asiri (Riyadh: Markaz al-Malik Faysal li al-Buhuth wa al-Dirasat alIslamiyyah. when a man’s psyche becomes strong. the body may also find no joy in life and may eventually develop a physical illness. if the body gets sick the nafs loses much of its cognitive and comprehensive ability and fails to enjoy the desirous aspects of the life. Sahih al-Bukari. Fath al-Bari Sahrh Sahih al-Bukhari. To give an accurate explanation and interpretation of ahadith in Sahih Bukhari. 13 vols. he is safe. the traveler perishes. 1993). the ahadith of the Prophet are divided into three parts: al-qawliyah. n. it will be able to overcome 13 JISHIM 2006. 275/888). Studies in Early Hadith Literature (Indiana: American Trust Publications. Kitab al-Iman. 1965). n. 303/915). 14. al-Zuhri was the first who recorded them. Imam Muslim (d.a. Hazm.M. 322/934). 6. ilm al-kalam (theology). Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari.a. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah. Ahmad al-Akhwini al-Bukhari. al-Tibb al-Nabawi (Beirut: Mu’assasah alRisalah. Bab Fadl man Istabra’ li dinihi. most of Muslim scholars have been repeated attempts at writing common aspects of Sahih Bukhari such as the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). Al-`Ayni. 2. 1992). there was a serious collection of ahadith. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al`Arabi. Hadith (its plural is ahadith) is the sayings (aqwal). Fath al-Bari fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari by Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449). Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari. the traditions which are statements and sayings of the prophet. Al-`Ayni. It is extremely important to mention here that Abu Zayd alBalkhi (d. al-Ruhawi. 256/ 870). al-taqririyah (the traditions of the tacit approval). the actions (af`al) and the tacit approval (taqrir) of the Prophet Muhammad (s. Sahih al-Bukari. Al-`Ayni. Early Compilation of Hadith. Abu Dawud (d. 5. according to al-Balkhi. the bodily nature is also strengthened. for if the supplies end before the destination is reached. tafsir al-quran (exegesis). May. Subsequently. Bab al-Sihhah wa al-Faragh wala `aysh illa `aysh al-Akhirah. Islamic Review. 1989). 25 vols. However. 39 (page reference is to the reprint edition). 13 vols. 9. Unfortunately. 261/875). 13.d). Ibn Hajar.a. therefore. 19-30. 21: 229. (Beirut: Dar Ihya’ al-turath al-`Arabi. is taken from the Prophet’s silence or tacit approval regarding deeds which had occurred with his knowledge. Huasin F. Dr. Nurdeen DEURASEH HEALTH AND MEDICINE IN THE ISLAMIC TRADITION BASED ON THE BOOK OF MEDICINE (KITAB AL-TIBB) OF SAHIH AL-BUKHARI 35. The disease of the lower intestine caused by infection with bacteria, protozoa or parasites and marked by severe diarrhea, inflammation and passage of blood and mucus. 36. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal. 37. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa’ bi al-‘asal. 38. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 232. 39. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 233. 40. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21; 232. 41. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172. 42. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 172. 43. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 186. 44. Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Hijamah min al-Da’. 45. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 187-8. 46. Al-Baghdadi, Kitab al-Mukhtarat fi al-Tibb, 1: 299. 47. In relation to this, it is worth to mention that the process of destroying tissue by heating or freezing it is known at the present as electrocautery. It is done by using a small tool which has an electric current running through it. So that it is able to cauterize or burn the tissue. Normally, this method of treatment, electrocautery, is a safe procedure and is routinely used in surgery to burn unwanted or harmful tissue. Sometime, a small electrode is applied to the skin near the surgery site. This is used to collect the electricity from the body and safely discharge it back to the machine. A grounding pad is placed on the person’s body (usually the thigh) before the surgery starts to protect the patient. Of course, it causes a patient in painful and menace compared to a gulp of honey and cupping. 48. In relation to this, al-Suyuti was of the opinion that the verb hasama (cut off, terminate) is the synonym of kawa (cauterize). From this point of view, he explained that hasama aldamm anhu bi al-kayy means qata`a al-damm anhu bi alkayy that is to stop blood from bleeding by cautery. (Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170-1). 49. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab man iktawa aw kawa ghyrihi wa fadl man lam yaktawi. 50. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, bab al-shifa fi thalatha. 51. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 170. 52. Ibid, 10: 170. 53. Ibid, 10: 170, Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21: 231. 54. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171; . 55. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21: 233. 56. Al-Qastalain, Irshad al-Sari, 12: 413, Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. an illness, however, if strength is not sufficient and the body weakens before the end of the illness, the person is in danger and requires treatment together with the care of a physician. See, Joseph Salvatore, Tabulated Compendium in the Eleventh Century as Represented in the Works of Ibn Jazlah, 55. Imam Bukhari, Sahih Bukhari, kitab al-tibb, Bab al-Judham. For details on infectious disease such as leprosy, cholera, thyphus in the Muslim world, see Aysegul Demirhan Erdemir and Oztan Oncel, “Development of the Foundations of Quarantine in Turkey in the Nineteenth Century and its Place in the Public Health”, in Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Vol. 2, No. 4 October 2003, 42-44. Other version of hadiths was mentioned by Ahmad b. Hanbal in his al-Musnad, al-Nasa’i in his Sunan and Ibn Majah. It was reported that: “Sa`id b. Khalid said: I went in to see Abu Salama. He brought us some butter and date pastry. A fly fell into the dish. Abu Salama began to submerge it (yamquluhu) with his finger. I said: “Uncle! what are you doing?” He said: “Truly, Abu Said al-Khudri (r.a) told me that the Messenger of Allah said: “In one of the fly’s tow wings there is poison and in another, its antidote. If it falls into food, submerge it in it; for it sends the poison first and keeps the cure last.” Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. Possibilities for use of bacteriophages in disease control are discussed in the article “Smaller Fleas... Ad infinitum: Therapeutic Bacteriophage Redux” in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America [PNAS] Vol. 93 No. 8 (April 16, 1996), 3167-8. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 307. Malik Badri, The Aids Crisis: an Islamic Socio-Cultural Perspective (KL: ISTAC, 1998), 224. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 308. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. Al-Qastalani, Irshad al-Sari, 5: 304-5. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-Bari Sharh Sahih al-Bukhari, 10: 309. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab Shifa’ fi thalatha. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani (773–852/1372-1449), Fath al-Bari fi Sharh Sahih Bukhari,13 vols. (Beirut: Dar al-kutub al-`ilmiyyah, 1989), 10: 170. Ibn Hajar al-`Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, 10: 171. Badr al-Din `Ayni, Umdah al-Qari Sharh Sahih Bukhari, 21: 231. Sahih Bukhari, Kitab al-Tibb, Bab al-Dawa bi al-Asal waqawl Allah Ta`ala fihi Shifa li al-Nas. It is described as frequent and excessive discharging of the bowels producing abnormally thin watery stools, usually as a symptom of gastro-intestinal upset or infection. 14 JISHIM 2006, 5 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 Statistical Profile of Holy Quran and Symmetry of Makki and Madni Surras Muhammad Khyzer Bin Dost (Corresponding author) Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail:
[email protected] Dr. Munir Ahmad Rector, National College of Business Administration & Economics, Lahore, Pakistan. E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract In this paper, probabilistic approach has been made in the study of Makki, Madani and Mixed Suras of the Holy Quran. Using the word-size and word-length of Ayats, these Suras are categorized by word-length and a frequency distribution is obtained. The paper highlights the constructional characteristics of the two types of Suras in the Holy Quran. We have also discussed the dispersion and shapes of word-size and word-length of Makki and Madni Surras at other compositions of Surras as introduced by Quran Mufassirs and scientists. Keywords: Quran, Statistical profile, Frequency distribution of Ayats. 1. Introduction Muslims and non-Muslims have done tremendous work on various aspects of the Holy Quran in respect of its detailed Tafseers, its indexing counting of words, letters vowels number of occurrences of certain words, numerical wonders of Quranic texts including miracles. The Quran provides laws and regulations of living in a society, educating Muslims on relations with relatives, neighbors, friends and foes, working relations with others, management of jobs etc. It guides people on almost every human activity. It is full of knowledge. Quran is such a Holy book which has numerous purposes and objectives for different people. One may study the Holy book with specific questions in mind and will find answers during its reading. It has been noted by many Mufassirs that the Ayats and Suras are not arranged in chronological order but are placed at appropriate locations by the will of God and as such the chronological order is not important for the present study as compared to the placement of Ayats and Sura in the Quran. Al-Dargazelli (2004) had identified numerical pattern of the Holy Quran based on verses, he has only used basic descriptive statistics and computed frequency tables of verses. He has given number of verses for each Sura and identified the Suras by Makki and Madani. Al-Dargazelli. (2004) has also worked on Muntasir Mir groupings. In this paper, we have made an attempt to study various Suras, Manzils and Groups of Holy Quran statistically on the basis of lengths of words. The purpose is to find underlying statistical structures of Suras. The similarities and differences among Makki, Madani and other groupings of Suras in Quran are highlighted. It needs to point out that numerical study of Quran does not display the beauty of Quran. The beauty of Quran lies in the Ayat structure and their meanings. The beauty of Quran given in the Quran lies in the construction of Ayats and Surras. No earthly human being can produce a single Ayat or Surra even with the help of Jins. However it is possible for any one to induct any number of word(s) in to any document in any language of same size. For example letter “is” can be written in a couple of hundred times that are divisible by any other number say 7 or 9. One may count all “is” and if it is not divisible by 7 then some sentences can be added with letter “is” so it is divisible by 7. As such beauty of Surras does not lie in numbers but its beauty is in the Ayat and Surras meanings. We have also attempted to look at the symmetry of Makki and Madni surras by studying the Skewness and Kurtosis. 1 Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Authors numerical miracle pointed out are given bellow. Table 1: Pair of Words in Quran Sr. # 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Pair of Words with Frequency Muhammad (saw) 4 Eblees 11 Miss lead people 17 Speaking publicly 18 Men 24 Tongue 25 Zakat 32 Muslimeen 41 Mind 49 Benefit 50 People 50 Magic 60 Spending 73 Museebah 75 Al-Mala’ikah 88 Hardship 114 Al-Dunya 115 Al-Hayat 145 Sharee’ah Seek refuge from Eblees Dead people Publicizing Women Sermon Barakah Jihad Noor Corrupt Messenger Fitnah Satisfaction Thanks Al-Shayateen Patience Al-Akhira Al-Mout Vol.1 2008 (See Al-Suwaidan 2006). 2. Some Basic Statistics of Suras and Verses The Holy Quran is divided in to 30 Chapters (Paras) and each chapter is subdivided in to sections (Rukus) and each section is further divided into Ayats (Verses). There are a total of 114 Suras in Holy Quran. The Sura is identified as Makki and Madani Sura. The Suras, chapters and sections are sometimes overlapped. Sura and sections can be continued (run) over chapters, but Suras are complete units. Suras are subdivided into Ayats. The Suras and Ayats and their placements in the Quran are ordained by God. From these 114 Suras of Quran, 89 are Makki Suras and 25 are Madani Suras. Similarly there are 6236 Ayats of which 4725 Ayats are Makki and 1511 are Madani Ayats. The mean number of Ayats per Sura is calculated to be 51.72, whereas Makki Suras have a calculated mean of 41.87 and Madani Suras have the mean 82.56 showing that Madani Suras are larger than Makki Suras with respect to lengths of Ayats. The range of Madani Sura, Ayats size is also larger than Makki Suras which mean that the variation in Madani Suras are more than the Makki Suras (See AlDargazelli 2004). This fact has also been noted by many Mufassirs. The total number of letters in Holy Quran is 322,564 and total words are 86,872 showing the mean number of letters per word is 3.71. In Madani Suras the total number of letters is 124755 and the total number of words is 33,247 showing the mean number of letters per word is 3.75. In Makki Suras, the total number of letters is 197,809 and the number of words is 53,625 showing the mean is 3.69. Details are given in the Tables at Appendix A 2.1 Analysis of Verses Al-Dargezelli (2004) has discussed the basic statistics of verses, but he has made some unintentional mistakes in applications of the methods. In this section, various aspects of the verses are presented. This study shall hereafter refer verses as Ayats. The Ayat-size by words and Ayat-size by letters is calculated. This gives a comprehensive insight into the structure of Ayats. The Table 1 below exhibits the number of Ayats, words, letters and words per Ayat, letters per Ayat and letter per word. 2 In fact the Madani Ayat size is larger than all Ayats in the Holy book.69%) 14.360 (6. The distribution of 1and 2 letter -words of Makki and Madani Suras may be seen in the Table 3 below: Table 4: Word size by type of Suras Word size One Two One & Two All Suras 9.625 33. Madani Ayats are almost twice as much as Makki Ayats both by letters and by the words.558 (6. 46 Suras have 9 letter -words and 14 Suras have 10 letter -words. In the Holy Quran.044 (27. we may study the largest word sizes.42%) 5.398 words with one letter per word and 14.27%) 9.247 86.71 It is noted by all early authors that Madani Ayats are longer than the Makki Ayats.646 (16.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.96% words with two letters per word.286 (10.82%) 14. letters and Ayat-size by word. Words containing 9 or 10 letters are the largest words. showing that there are 27. One thing is different that the word sizes by letters are almost similar.82% of words with one letter and 16. of 17 Suras. If we further examine the distribution of Suras over Ayat sizes by words. This confirms early authors work that Madani Suras have longer Ayats than Makki Suras. It shows that there are 10. Thirty one (31) Suras are Makki and only one Sura is Madani. we find some interesting aspect of the Suras as shown in Table 2 below. there are 9.40%) 9. we may note that of 32 Suras of Ayat size 1to 5. Of Makki Suras. Ayat-size by letters and word-size by letters of Makki and Madani Sura Suras Makki Madani Total No Ayats 4725 1511 6236 No. One-letter and Two-letter Words In this section a study of the words with one letters and two letters per word is conducted.844 (17.69%) Makki 31 27 11 18 2 89 Madani 1 1 8 12 3 25 Total 32 27 12 26 14 3 114 Similarly.1 2008 Table 2: Numbers of Ayats.872 Ayat-size by letters 41.78%) Makki Suras 5. There are 23 words in all Suras that have 10 letters each. On the other side of the Ayat size of 20 and above.755 322. 15 Suras are Madani and only 2 are Makki Suras.34 22. whereas there are 129 words with 9 letters each in the Holy Quran.87 82.letters word.809 124.75 3. letters 197.and one .78% words with two. It may be noted that there are more than one fourth of words that have 1 and 2 letterwords in the Holy Quran.93 Word-size words 3. Table 3: Distribution of Suras by Ayat-size by words Ayat Size 1-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 31 and above Total 4. Further. It is evident this characteristic by Ayat-sizes by letters and by words from the Table 1.00 13. 31 Suras have 9 letterwords and similarly of Madani Suras. only 15 Suras have 9 letter words and of Makki Suras.69 3. We note that 58 of 89 Makki Suras have smaller Ayats of size 1 to 10 Ayats per Sura whereas 23 of 25 Madani Suras have larger Ayats of size 15 and above. Similarly the Madani word size is also larger than Makki word.200 (10. The following Table 4 summarizes the information: 3 .73 Ayat-size by words 11.09%) Madani Suras 3840 (4.646 words with two letters per word.57 51. Of all Suras.398 (10. words .564 No words 53.96%) 24. only 8 Suras have 10 letter-words and of Madani Suras only 6 Suras have 10 letter -words. we have constructed bivariate table of 1 and 2 -3 in tables 1 and 2 below.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol. Of 9 letter-words. If we look at the number of words with 9 or 10 letters. 4 . The present study is still under progress and it is anticipated that further relationships will be identified from the data collected for the research. For Madni Surras. In order to study the Skewness and kurtosis of Makki and Madni Surras. only 8 Surras out of 25 have 1 in the interval (-1 to +1) and 10 out of 25 have 2 -3 in the interval (-1 to +10. This may be seen from the Table 6: Table 6: Letter sizes by Makki and Madani Suras Letter Size Nine Ten Nine & Ten Makki 76 13 89 Madani 53 10 63 Total 129 23 152 Statistical tools can be used to understand the numerical beauty of the Holy Quran. Makki Suras have more 10 letter-words than Madani Suras.1 2008 Table 5: Word sizes by Makki and Madani Suras Word Size Nine Ten Nine & Ten Makki 31 8 39 Madani 15 6 21 Total 46 14 60 It is important to see that Makki Suras have more number of 9 and 10 letter-words in the Holy Quran. Graphical representation of ( 1 . of 23 words of 10 letters. 2 -3) are given in Fig (1) and (2). It is seen that Makki Surras are closer to symmetrical functional from than Madni Surras. Almost half of Makkii Surras have 1 (-1 to +1) and a little more than 50% Surras have 2 -3 in (-1 to +1) interval. there are 76 words in Makki Suras and 53 in Madani Suras. In 10 letters -words. There are 41/89 Makki Surras whose 1 and 2 lie between (-1 to +10 and (+2 to +4) respectively whereas 7/25 Madni Surras 1 and 2 lie in (-1 to +1) and (+2 to +4) respectively. there are 13 in Makki Suras and 10 words are Madani. we note that there are 152 such words of which 129 words have 9 letters and 23 words have 10 letters. Symmetry of Makki and Madni Surras. Similarly. 5. Makki Suras have more number of 9 letter-words as compared to Madani Suras. This study has provided a basis for conducting further analysis of the Holy book on similar lines. 2 2. 0 1 1 2 3 1 1 19 17 2 3 8 6 6 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 0. 5 5. 6 6. 7 Total 1 1 2 22 23 11 6 7 2 3 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 89 5 . 3 3. 4 4.1 1. 1 -1 .Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 Table 7: Bivariate Table of Makki Surras B2 B1 (-4 to -3) (-3 to -2) (-2 to -1) (-1 to -0) (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (2 to 3) (3 to 4) (4 to 5) (5 to 6) (6 to 7) (7 to 8) (8 to 9) (9 to 10) (10 to 11) (19 to 20) (24 to 25) (50 to 51) Total 2 9 39 29 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 -2 . Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Vol.1 2008 Table 8: Bivatiate Table of Madni Surras B2 B1 (-4 to -3) (-3 to -2) (-2 to -1) (-1 to -0) (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (2 to 3) (3 to 4) (4 to 5) (5 to 6) (6 to 7) (10 to 11) (11 to 12) Total (-1 to -0) (0 to 1) (1 to 2) (2 to 3) Total 1 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 4 1 3 2 1 1 2 4 4 5 1 3 3 1 1 1 3 7 11 3 2 1 25 6 . 2 -3) of Madni Surras 7 . 2 -3) of Makki Surras Fig (2) Graphical representation of ( 1 .1 2008 Graphical representation of ( 1 .Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences Fig (1) Vol. org 3. Lahore.29 17.93 19.62 22. 2.60 44.S. Al-Dargazelli.59 1.76 3.84 1. Ahmed and Ahmed (2007). (2007).74 15. Naik A.quranicstudies.06 18. M.M. M. N. Kanaan. 4. 7.65 17. [Online] Available: .com/beliefs/science/numbers.72 3.60 1.34 16. 1999.70 1.72 3.67 1.74 3. Dost. E. (2004).63 1.71 1. Pakistan. 6.82 3. 2004) IEEE. Syria April.70 1.73 43.87 45.Kanaan. K.580-583.02 26.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences References 1. I.D 1.39 8 .62 3.58 3.36 20. A Statistical Studies of Holy Quran. Dost and Ahmed.1 2008 Al-Shalabi. Proceedings of 1st International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies from theory to applications. Renaissance. proceedings of 9th Islamic Countries Conference on Statistical Sciences.69 Mean word per Ayat 3.77 S.39 46. Jaam.com/2007/05/06/62truthbook.19 45. Z.65 3.html.85 1.32 45.24 15. A. [Online] Available: http//www.88 47.67 3.64 48. Rosty. A statistical analysis of the Holy Quran.15 22. Stefan (2007).59 46.38 43. France. Statistical Classifier of the Holy QuranVerses ( Fateha and Yaseen chapters) Journal of Applied Science.70 1.Stop-word removal algorithm for Arabic language. A short note on the statistical analysis of Surra Baqra and Surra proceedings of 3rd National conference on statistical sciences.08 45.05 48. A Short note on the frequency distribution of Quran word length..R. Bani.99 19. H. Al-Suwaindan.com/printout104. Ghassan .79 1.33 3. M. 545-550 .68 3.70 1. 5.72 3.73 1. A.J. August.60 C.87 7.G. and Hilat..67 24.97 45. M.15(3).73 1.V 39.. The numerical miracles in the Holy Quran. ( 2004).. Kula Lumpur Malaysia.Alya.51 17.75 1. 8. Is the Quran a shapeless book. T. Naji.wordpress. (2006).86 3. and Basal.78 3.74 1.( Damascus.html Vol.71 3. The Quran and the modern science: compatible or incompatible. (2004).86 23. [Online] Available: http//islamicweb.29 47.55 3. Islamic Research Foundation.74 1.87 47.81 3. Appendix A1 Table A1: Some Basic Statistics on Holy Quran No of Sura 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 No of Ayat 7 286 200 176 120 165 206 75 129 109 123 111 43 52 99 128 111 110 No of Words 27 6860 3934 4228 3163 3440 3694 1436 2846 2018 2127 1956 974 929 727 2079 1747 1735 No of Letters 117 25637 14642 15971 11894 12458 14071 5337 10865 7406 7615 7140 3461 3446 2809 7655 6491 6407 Mean letter per Word 4. Mir. [Online] Available: www. (1999).79 45.http//pressthat.85 17.20 45. 86 1.44 1.82 1.00 43.00 21.66 1.66 1.66 3.44 3.56 1.21 47.74 1.73 3.96 48.97 44.78 17.72 3.08 39.74 3.90 1.61 1.19 6.83 11.22 47.74 3.76 1.98 46.73 3.98 16.77 3.73 1.72 3.62 3.84 45.56 6.22 46.1 2008 44.92 20.60 3.89 45.27 43.55 1.74 3.24 9.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 98 135 112 78 118 64 77 227 93 88 69 60 34 30 73 54 45 83 182 88 75 85 54 53 89 59 37 35 38 29 18 45 60 49 62 55 78 96 29 22 24 13 14 11 1081 1481 1310 1434 1166 1478 1016 1457 1282 1582 1118 918 616 409 1501 995 872 805 954 818 1269 1342 896 980 941 380 552 717 615 638 386 423 395 341 407 383 383 430 670 526 499 393 244 194 3828 5292 4904 5161 4372 5596 3721 5498 4683 5802 4188 3377 2118 1522 5619 3512 3159 3002 3780 2993 4731 4986 3288 3422 3518 1437 1998 2610 2376 2463 1492 1475 1500 1290 1402 1442 1569 1696 2472 1993 1921 1531 942 743 3.49 45.44 3.24 9 .74 1.23 46.02 44.46 45.74 1.71 1.49 10.86 45.84 48.83 1.12 13.44 46.64 1.61 42.96 6.52 46.49 3.67 1.63 1.74 46.90 3.79 3.76 1.49 44.16 45.75 3.64 1.48 23.66 1.56 18.62 1.85 3.55 43.78 3.81 1.17 48.10 3.94 3.63 20.58 1.78 1.64 3.66 Vol.79 30.18 22.75 3.44 14.72 1.55 47.64 1.01 47.73 1.43 46.40 6.91 20.59 18.92 15.03 10.64 1.57 3.05 46.23 17.65 3.49 44.30 16.38 9.96 3.54 3.66 1.69 1.40 3.02 45.09 13.68 3.42 13.68 1.41 48.94 44.87 44.74 1.49 16.36 43.86 3.90 1.44 9.57 6.78 3.65 1.67 47.70 5.78 1.53 3.93 46.70 1.87 3.65 45.65 3.96 4.30 18.97 11.62 3.38 9.11 46.80 1.80 3.79 16.99 46.43 19.67 3.91 4.64 46.88 23.19 45.56 1.10 23.86 3.69 3.86 3.20 15.58 6.64 1.82 1.67 3.77 4.86 46.43 17.79 3.69 1.71 1.70 18. 52 1.74 1.85 44.00 3.34 3.12 4.32 3.43 43.78 47.44 3.40 12.71 Vol.62 1.12 42.65 1.29 34.65 3.89 3.38 46.62 1.50 6.00 18.29 42.13 6.64 4.80 1.54 1.58 1.78 3.60 4.15 40.41 3.49 46.73 1.58 1.42 40.18 4.48 3.85 37.70 3.71 1.97 4.11 4.63 4.83 3.78 1.80 4.75 1.48 1.60 1.43 42.73 43.85 4.75 4.02 43.03 46.37 52.74 3.1 2008 47.51 1.49 1.70 1.87 10 .71 3.48 5.60 3.20 44.60 4.23 41.62 44.94 26.52 1.47 43.60 4.00 6.84 1.97 1.81 36.85 1.00 3.70 1.73 4.65 1.59 1.89 4.85 1.92 5.63 3.08 3.88 4.48 4.16 45.76 1.33 23.97 3.88 44.45 3.81 4.03 4.24 4.39 3.61 3.83 4.43 3.80 42.52 1.72 1.22 50.93 3.29 48.78 45.69 3.55 42.67 3.35 5.59 42.09 45.69 3.89 1.72 3.58 12.43 11.50 1.87 46.92 5.21 4.13 3.41 47.98 1.73 1.64 44.68 1.21 1.54 3.74 1.91 3.86 3.29 3.27 15.70 1.63 4.85 40.13 3.49 3.17 46.60 39.00 4.71 1.39 1.62 48.77 3.12 3.50 8.45 9.64 1.84 3.63 4.55 3.98 40.53 46.38 3.43 11.96 5.55 3.09 51.61 1.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 11 18 12 12 30 52 52 44 28 28 20 56 40 31 50 40 46 42 29 19 36 25 22 17 19 26 30 20 15 21 11 8 8 19 5 8 8 11 11 8 3 9 5 4 201 287 316 283 364 327 285 240 264 320 227 290 180 278 198 201 197 151 122 89 179 123 124 70 82 102 154 92 69 89 50 29 37 76 32 103 38 44 38 28 18 35 24 18 782 1067 1173 1068 1315 1262 1114 943 950 1091 841 1012 665 1069 818 771 749 551 424 323 737 436 455 240 291 386 569 334 234 310 167 101 151 284 110 392 157 164 156 92 59 134 96 71 3.68 4.52 1.52 43.80 3.52 47.29 5.74 44.13 4.53 1.48 3.44 1. 40 4.94 1.67 3.195 6.977 16.0100804 11 .8174 1.8495 1.6542 1.77 3.300 18.52273163 46.881 13.54 3.65 3.6625 1.73 S.62 3.59 3.78 1.44292425 45.79 1.970 11.21298016 47.20 3.86830694 47.67 5.773 11.6582 1.74 3.1 2008 43.7802 1.633 18.33 3.72 3.696 9.118 13.5984 1.37 40.71 3.38390941 43.58 50.5890 1.33 5.00 2.D C.58 3.49140331 45.6022 1.20 3.59 1.49 Appendix A2 Table A2: Number of Ayats.7380 1.18 46.06 44.13 1.02101002 44.40723076 48.7052 1.15 3.6734 1.64172519 45.82 3.57 3.82 2.81 3.61 1.7321 1. Letters Means and Standard deviations of Makki Surras No of Sura 1 6 7 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 No of Ayat 7 165 206 109 123 111 52 99 128 111 110 98 135 112 118 77 227 93 88 69 60 34 30 54 45 83 No of Words 27 3440 3694 2018 2127 1956 929 727 2079 1747 1735 1081 1481 1310 1166 1016 1457 1282 1582 1118 918 616 409 995 872 805 No of words per Ayat (mean) 3.031 10.72541167 43.75 3.7018 1.857 20.50 13.419 13.47 Vol.6436 1.7103 1.00 7.65 3.848 17.7586 1.865 7.16295654 45.44 3.86 3.86513625 44.43355825 46.87784334 47.67318853 47.62 3.30 40.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 7 3 6 3 5 4 5 6 6236 27 11 30 22 27 17 26 21 86872 112 42 96 79 81 48 70 76 322564 4.V 1.67 3.62 3.6097 1.08437743 45.20163901 45.5777 1.55436875 43.68 3.343 16.242 15.514 17.16860578 46.7158 39.785 17.5606 1.86 3.53 3.622 17.68 3.69 3.28 40.75 3.21 1.89477858 45.6761 1.19 1.739 15.7414 1.38720631 44.97040325 47.02479789 46.203 15.293 17.66 3.5480 1.72 3.25 5.78816401 45.71 3.699 117 12458 14071 7406 7615 7140 3446 2809 7655 6491 6407 3828 5292 4904 4372 3721 5498 4683 5802 4188 3377 2118 1522 3512 3159 3002 No of Letters Mean Letter per word 4.932 18.426 19. Words.6989 1.69 3.7386 1.59734397 44.378 9.19 44. 5753 1.55 3.636 4.288 5.54570897 42.83986629 45.7281 1.13 3.5197 1.78 3.38319629 46.22039437 50.7487 1.6320 1.6499 1.46848013 43.972 4.67 3.1 2008 47.40 3.41836891 40.98241912 46.65 3.441 14.54 3.91 3.34 1.67 3.6365 1.242 9.923 5.350 5.16739998 46.5234 1.964 4.920 5.920 15.53408284 46.573 6.6383 1.48 3.93 3.7388 1.40753346 47.6245543 44.94334833 44.316 3.88298079 44.4912 1.23388116 42.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 182 88 75 85 54 53 89 59 37 35 45 60 49 62 55 78 96 30 52 52 44 28 28 20 56 40 31 50 40 46 42 29 19 36 25 22 17 19 26 30 20 15 21 11 954 818 1269 1342 896 980 941 380 552 717 423 395 341 407 383 383 430 364 327 285 240 264 320 227 290 180 278 198 201 197 151 122 89 179 123 124 70 82 102 154 92 69 89 50 5.64533818 45.29030162 48.12 3.49061636 44.8471 1.9012 1.6628 1.22003309 46.77683209 45.486 9.10 3.025 4.6008 1.4792 Vol.595 4.62402679 48.48 3.600 4.63 3.8912 1.60873084 42.910 4.545 3780 2993 4731 4986 3288 3422 3518 1437 1998 2610 1475 1500 1290 1402 1442 1569 1696 1315 1262 1114 943 950 1091 841 1012 665 1069 818 771 749 551 424 323 737 436 455 240 291 386 569 334 234 310 167 3.5408 1.8409 1.49310465 46.133 6.3605376 43.63 4.77 4.7143 1.09393973 45.960 5.80 3.6918 1.583 6.85 4.5932 1.8378119 48.73880053 44.7794 1.7104 1.80 3.684 4.565 6.39 3.85167988 44.60 3.78 3.7402 1.73548519 44.74 3.9024 1.118 4.6956 1.62 3.18952338 45.788 16.207 4.69 3.179 4.28874711 12 .78 3.73 3.69 3.86358062 46.6719 1.64 3.7083 1.65 3.15758339 45.19805565 44.7381 1.7276 1.6629 1.44 3.96310698 48.07771954 39.70 3.72 3.5636 1.6243 1.58836962 42.86 3.479 12.6777 1.429 11.455 9.61 3.500 8.593 18.238 4.04630744 46.400 6.133 4.49 3.5109 1.968 3.02405051 43.429 11.6219 1.7015 1.919 20.491 10.80091771 42.27004925 43.481 5.72862086 43.84 3.94 3.63938239 44.7334 1.6966 1.6120 1.37182395 52.6246 1.49 3.295 16.43 3.4355 1.41 3.959 6.7994 1.96 3.378 3.600 4.87023007 46. 593296 46.6426 1.49340769 Appendix A3 Table A3: Numbers of Ayats.889 4.56 16.857 3.7030 1.62 3.78 3.6299 1.973116 44.42957811 46. word.69 3.4655 Vol.7342 1.17788631 46.7787 1.7968 1.221248 13 .29 3.460663 48.9699 1.79 3.V 1.99 19.82 3.6060 1.00 4.7911 1.188129 45.8466893 40.1311 1.00 2.3898 1.55 3.625 4.86 3.8179 45.986261 46.77972895 47.250 5.926744 46.09248567 51.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 94 95 96 97 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 Total 8 8 19 5 11 11 8 3 9 5 4 7 3 6 3 5 4 5 6 4725 29 37 76 32 44 38 28 18 35 24 18 27 11 30 22 27 17 26 21 53625 3.5162 1.6984 1.000 3.87464629 43.11 4.37349207 40.48 4.79 3.76 3.69 1.83 4.44 3.8396 1.74 3.91 20.60 3.85 S.000 3.046026 48.18822331 44.000 7.1 2008 34.000 6.15140627 40.640223 46.83 3.11575593 42.74 3.98478119 40.72 3.110272 46.7150 1.87 3.288010 48.82 2.7498 1.400 4.86 3.59525656 39.7814 1.09 20.333 5.7857 1.1923 1.6878 1.D C.4446 1.500 3.36 19.2089 1.400 4.06 22.545418 47.5264 1.10 23.74 3.455 3.69 3.28479262 40.5240 1.8116 1.7331 1.44 23.34 101 151 284 110 164 156 92 59 134 96 71 112 42 96 79 81 48 70 76 197809 3.200 3.8338 1.20 3.7436 1.00 4.58398896 50.82 3.00 21.388402 46.18 22.500 6.02 26.7591 1.667 5.867810 45.84690403 37.486064 46.2136 1.15 3.06017609 44.9778 1.625 4.800 4.79 No of Words 6860 3934 4228 3163 1436 2846 974 1434 1478 1501 615 638 386 670 526 499 No of Letters 25637 14642 15971 11894 5337 10865 3461 5161 5596 5619 2376 2463 1492 2472 1993 1921 Mean Letter per word 3.72 3.29803499 40.15 22.67 24.59 3.321240 45.500 11.38 23.5934 1.65 18. letters and Means and Standard deviations of Madani Suras No of Sura 2 3 4 5 8 9 13 22 24 33 47 48 49 57 58 59 No of Ayat Average No of words 286 200 176 120 75 129 43 78 64 73 38 29 18 29 22 24 23.80693912 36.7182 1.08 3.73 4. 81 4.0745 10.3431 0.3224 56.8433 49.6453 1.0578 9.8485 17.3434 16.2047 0.2602 1.9510 0.5436 0.3778 9.3000 18.521807 43.860591 44.1948 6.3203 10.2192 36.4185 13.1033 0.8802 2.89 3.1174 43.6649 5.2418 9.6953 Vol.7916 24.9494 1.6964 9.6390 1.2614 5.0306 10.2955 16.033230 2008 Appendix A4 Table A4: Words per Ayat.9412 0.4098 0.0264 0.1344 1.0730 1.V 34.4132 0.2986 1.0335 6.83 3.6606 1.2029 15.8065 6.7360 40.2927 17.6578 3.3521 1.6546 0.6216 17.64 18. Standard deviations.43 17.5503 48.8654 7.7161 0.8488 1.8645 1.4331 54.D 1.2088 8.9704 11.23 17.2347 -0.8014 2. 1 and 2 of Makki Suras Surra 1 Nu 6 7 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 23 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Mean 3.3109 0.9773 16.75 1.6599 0.2946 4. coefficient of variation.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 98 99 Total 13 14 11 11 18 12 12 8 8 1511 30.5075 0.5089 9.6856 0.7371 1.88 4.75 22.86 3.2866 50.1246 42.1911 0.429971 43.1200 1.0390 48.7174 7.3452 10.8190 45.7211 41.5683 46.995125 43.33 23.7309 48.8215 2.3581 1.9168 2.2582 1.3012 40.0102 0.5885 43.4461 0.00 393 244 194 201 287 316 283 103 38 33247 1531 942 743 782 1067 1173 1068 392 157 124755 3.5658 40.5531 7.2422 15.7021 43.0860 42.2886 39.7582 1.8959 5.4734 8.5739 58.71 3.9346 2.7957 17.1119 5.5138 17.8752 48.5623 1.5954 0.6758 0.292778 42.1 47.5642 14 .4784 8.6333 18.13 3.4573 -0.0624 0.1307 0.8084 52.3025 0.0126 6.6988 5.9305 47.5784 1.0110 5.2165 4.8326 1.5873 58.3597 3.9720 7.7596 2.9757 1.58 12.8821 50.4112 4.9861 45.6976 1.5617 0.77 3.8814 13.2823 0.27 15.4259 19.4420 5.9320 18.94 26.7882 S.0346 34.243489 47.90 3.6222 C.5490 8.0853 0.1176 13.1022 1.72 3.7691 1.7727 11.9903 6.2697 8.1311 0.8681 1.0338 2.3576 4.2775 1 0.1191 2 -0.519603 47.8571 20.7136 8.7387 15.9379 7.0140 9.6562 1.9200 15.231196 41.1287 1.4411 36. 5175 2.5516 Vol.5492 1.6586 -0.4545 9.4809 27.3158 3.3959 0.0571 39.9642 1.7469 0.0348 1.2672 0.2599 24.4792 12.0615 1.2160 0.2690 50.8678 2008 15 .3967 43.3056 2.7908 26.4366 1.5000 6.4007 38.4808 35.8078 18.3830 89.7100 0.6575 -2.2507 5.7155 8.0068 -0.7514 0.1992 1.2844 1.5804 42.0000 3.6000 4.1349 1.9033 -0.4559 0.1664 38.6250 4.0000 1.7059 3.6691 39.7817 1.9200 5.4997 47.4808 5.8778 -0.5455 3.5926 18.9636 4.0108 3.4163 168.0663 -0.7153 1.7346 4.8212 0.0250 4.5451 -0.5730 6.2772 52.5531 29.2447 4.0413 0.5940 0.7298 41.9482 1.6262 -0.8000 7.7373 42.9178 0.4407 14.1333 4.4000 6.0737 2.1355 3.5680 166.0736 1.1917 20.4857 9.9028 3.0000 3.0047 37.0000 -1.6613 1.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 41 42 43 44 45 46 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 100 101 102 103 104 105 16.4545 3.2384 0.1948 -0.4349 1.9574 1.5524 2.2357 2.4579 0.2992 -1.0657 28.6804 47.1044 -0.8998 -0.2089 3.4397 1.3614 6.6441 1.8889 4.6754 34.7915 19.5037 0.4730 0.8179 39.1018 30.8193 14.8281 1.8062 30.4910 1.3086 3.8902 2.0622 2.1176 4.4977 1.1282 0.3627 48.8467 1.3373 5.1644 2.2915 0.5754 1.4225 31.0765 0.9677 3.3019 1.8919 1.7655 1.4652 0.7268 3.7931 2.0000 6.9592 6.2885 5.3464 1.4189 -0.1709 1.5530 0.3202 49.8831 33.2306 1.9494 9.9189 20.8752 1.4715 1.9345 1.1082 0.9857 2.2069 4.2381 43.2381 4.1 0.4470 24.1903 42.7014 1.9370 0.3965 -0.2975 5.6364 4.3472 -1.9456 3.2905 2.2690 1.3500 5.1743 1.4906 10.5563 0.5084 4.1494 88.4832 46.4286 11.5465 3.9975 0.4012 0.8506 53.2309 2.3333 32.6898 10.0392 1.2826 3.8882 8.0781 5.1788 49.6903 36.0645 -0.9971 9.5952 4.1742 63.7502 0.6000 4.6842 4.9722 4.1981 47.3076 7.4458 1.5000 8.7669 34.5912 -0.9008 0.1705 40.5513 3.4738 1.2465 3.2304 2.1386 6.5139 5.7260 2.3464 1.1952 5.9103 4.8387 0.9231 5.5833 6.5957 6.4345 1.8413 1.3284 0.6419 -0.1333 6.8140 0.6038 25.3145 50.6250 4.8195 32.1770 -0.1786 4.7430 1.0316 40.9600 5.5645 6.2400 3.8346 -0.1682 0.3333 2.8306 23.0216 2.6722 69.3072 2.4560 0.4286 11.3945 -0.4000 4.3522 1.9623 2. 3351 0.7010 1.2271 -0.V 66.8752 15.0744 65. Surra Nu 2 3 4 5 8 9 13 22 24 33 47 48 49 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 98 99 Mean 23.8750 4.1467 22.3025 0.0602 11.7240 0.5256 1 and 2 of Madni Suras 2 11.6402 46.0000 21.0646 0.0620 22.4444 23.6086 -0.0904 16 .9731 1.5995 1.1 2.6098 6.3331 0.0350 61.2727 15.2152 -0.9980 8.6524 4.5585 1.3261 6. coefficient of variation.D 15.9301 18.7415 -0.2247 55.0663 34.5166 1.1842 22.8185 4.5774 1.9247 34.7459 28.4899 Vol.4843 45.2881 1.7321 1.3333 23.3919 0. Standard deviations.7321 -0.0317 48.6364 18.0954 1.3333 5.8574 10.4252 13.3347 0.9953 39.2551 53.6667 5.1301 54.0790 0.9807 12.3044 1.9444 26.7478 10.5745 1.8356 9.5627 34.0800 -0.2066 9.5000 3.8284 60.4647 53.1650 C.8682 64.7873 10.1034 23.5551 1.4431 2.6799 5.2308 17.5947 1.6668 -1.6584 0.9927 1.7917 30.0004 58.2816 5.8144 43.6692 55.2649 1.7857 51.6115 2.1938 2.5833 12.2272 1.8894 -1.6851 47.7488 -0.0000 3.4768 8.9094 4.9821 2.0847 40.7459 25.2982 15.3333 -1.0227 26.8027 32.4667 2008 Appendix A5 Table A5: Words per Ayat.6700 24.9860 19.1684 0.8307 3.1667 9.1841 21.8183 1.6688 0.1293 0.7813 0.5000 2.9091 20.1544 1.2114 13.5166 1.1517 1.0445 15.3429 -3.3583 19.4286 17.7078 1.9906 1.6588 -0.0074 -0.2748 3.5357 10.9913 25.0938 20.7186 40.2500 5.6112 11.2584 24.0858 1.3452 0.5750 49.8920 10.9644 14.3521 -1.1470 3.4000 4.5616 16.1547 1.0000 -0.9229 46.2000 3.4961 -1.3846 23.6512 18.7500 S.0169 -0.7349 12.8571 3.7528 -0.0000 7.Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 4.3909 1.9937 -1.0100 8.6710 5.8729 0.7600 59.5203 1.6133 1 2.0770 -0. structures. ship building. A scientist is basically interested to study the natural systems and phenomena in order to know certain aspects about the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta 'aia about His creation. woodworking. Qur'an emphasizes to follow sunnah by saying "And whatsoever the Prophet gives you. Sun. 2000 . minerals. They include animals. an indication to advance and develop agriculture. a blessing and a good news to those who submit to Allah" [Surah 16:89]. plants. reproducible and communicable. Department of Electrical Engineering. The scientific facts are verifiable. where it was advanced further. armour. 1. grain storage. the Muslim scientists developed the method of controlled experiment and other techniques which form the basis of modern science. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. including as to how the man should seek empirical knowledge. crops. stars.Teachings and Reflections of Qur'an and Sunnah About Science. Mehran University of Engineering and Technology. As a result of new spirit of inquiry and struggle. etc. what method must he use and what procedure he should follow. ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY IN THE LIGHT OF QUR'AN AND SUNNAH Qur'an has mentioned various aspects of natural systems and phenomena. iron. The Sunnah is the explanation and implementation of Qur'an by Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam. Earth. systems. aerial and space travel. They also wrote a good number of highly valuable books. abstain (from it)" [Surah 59:7]. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala says "For you we have revealed the Book which manifests the facts about all things. processes etc. mining. birds. mineralogy. lighting system. thinking. raining etc. Qur'an and Sunnah provide complete guidance about every thing. This resulted in certain material benefits but gave rise to adverse effects related to belief and moral aspects. Jamshoro. manufacturing/ constructing. Management deals with planning. glass. and invite mankind for observation. And whatsoever he forbids. This is accomplished by applying scientific and empirical knowledge and techniques to the materials and forces created by Allah subhanahu wa [a 'a/a. Qur 'an is a Book for the guidance of all mankind in every walk of life. using/operating and maintaining machines. In one Hadith it is said "Try to get your earnings from the hidden treasures of the Earth ". a guide. technology. In order to safeguard these aspects. textile. for the benefit of mankind. agriculture. INTRODUCTION All science rests on the idea that similar events occur in similar circumstances. mining and other related fields. Engineering. That knowledge was transferred to Europe. JANUARY-JUNE. Technology and Management ABDUL RASHID SHAIKH * ABSTRACT This paper discusses some of the teachings and reflections from Qur'an and Sunnah about science. 1. Some Ayat and Ahadith which mention some basic tools and techniques and some related to modern theories and trends are also quoted. take it. NO. but without guidance of Qur'an and Sunnah. understanding the creation. The Qur'an has also given indications about many technologies directly. communication. transportation. 2. These include. engineering and technology. wind power. and management. day & night. metallurgy. an important aspect of Tawheed is presented which explains the reality of cause and effect phenomena. Moon. execution and control in order to achieve desired objectives. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. VOLUME 1. engineering. IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE. *Professor. and acquiring the knowledge. The engineering and technology mainly deal with designing. but whom Allah doth know" [Surah 8:60]. In one Hadith it is said that query is the solution to ignorance [Sunan Abu Dawud ]. Technology and Management It is evident from the history that the progressive attitude was adopted and encouraged by the Prophet sallaltaho alaihe wasallum [1. specially the systems capable to destroy the enemy targets. O ye with eyes (to s e e ) " [Surah 59:2].8]. so wherever he finds it. Emphasis on considerations for timings is also laid. that Allah has subjugated everything in the Heaven and in the Earth to you " [Surah 31:20]. Therefore technology could be transferred from any suitable country. and in the ships which pass through the sea for the profit of mankind. designed and dug under the direct guidance of the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum. show me the nature of things as they are". it is said "And equip your selves against them (the enemies) with as much force as you can. and in the rain which Allah sends down from the skies. That technology. and in the change of the winds and in the clouds that are made to do service between the heavens and the Earth. including steeds of war. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES There are over 500 references in the Holy Qur'an that invite man to Tanadhur (observation). "Travel on Earth and see how He originated creation" [Surah 29:20]. At one place Qur'an says " They are but signs to mark fixed periods of time or mankind" [Surah 2:89]. THINKING. engineering. VOLUME 1. are signs for those who understand" [Surah2:164]. to strike tenor into (the hearts of) the enemies of Allah. It means Qur'an and Sunnah teach us to make advancement in these fields. For the first time the Arabs saw a deep trench in Ghazwah Ah 'zab. NO. At one place Qur'an suggests to use "Analogy" and study the related situation by saying "So learn a lesson (through Analogy). The observable aspect of reality is emphasized by Qur'an in several verses throughout the book [5 . Who has created for you all things that are in the Earth " [Surah 2:29]. perhaps the latest at that time. Qur'an stresses on careful observation and research by saying "Then turn your eyes again and again" [Surah 67:4]. and scattering over it all kinds of Qur'an says that weights and meaures be kept in perfect condition (well calibrated)[Surah 17:35] and measurements be made correctly [Surah 55:9]. Tazakkur (recollection). giving life to the Earth after its death. Dababa and Zaboor. One of the constant prayers of the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum was "My Lord. 3. Overall importance of written and physical standards is also indicated [Surah 57:25]. For learning and importing the technology of armoured cars and mobile weapons called Manjnek.Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science. One of the verses is as follows: " Assuredly in the creation of Heavens and the Earth. reflection) and Ta'aqqul (rationalization) on the natural phenomena and creation [4]. the Prophet sallallaho allaihe wasallum sent Sahabah to Syria.3]. he has a better claim on it" [Tirmidhi ]. In one Hadith. Qur'an andSunnah emphasize on acquiring knowledge and teach us the prayer "My lord! Grant me increase in knowledge" [Surah 20:114]. In Hadith it is said "The word of wisdom is the lost property of the believer. The very first Qur'anic verses revealed to the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam contained the information about "reading and writing" [Surah 96:1. 4. At other places Qur'an says: "Do you not see. DEVLOPMENTOFSPmrrABOUTOBSERVAnON. Engineering.2. Behold! power lies in hitting the target. Such development surely needs appropriate advancement in many fields including science.3]. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY. Determination for direction of Ka'ba and calculations of Inheritance and of Zakat require certain depth of mathematics. Hazrat Salman Farsee gave the suggestion and the trench was demarcated. and in the alteration of night and day. GUIDANCE ABOUT BASIC CONSIDERATIONS. technology and management. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala orders the Muslims in Qur'an "Against them make your strength ready to the utmost of your power. Tadahbur (deliberation). AND ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE cattle. in transanction involvingfuture obligations in a fixed period of lime. reduce them to writing " [Surah 2:282]. It may be noted that Syria was not Muslim state at that time. At another place Qur'an says "Man should QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. Qur'an also gives importance and orders for documentation by saying " O ye who believe ! when ye deal with each other. was used in Ghazwah Ta'if'[1. 2000 . thinking). [Al-Hadith: Muslim]. Behold! power lies in hitting the target. In the above verse and the Hadith we are strictly ordered to develop a well defined level of military power. At another place Qur'an says "Prayers are enjoined on believers at stated timings 1L [Surah 4:103]. JANUARY-JUNE. Tabassur (understanding. Qur'an also exhorts to verify the news (information) when reported by dissolute person [Surah 49:6]. Tafakkur (consideration.4]. UNDERSTANDING CREATION. Behold! power lies in hitting the target".2. "// is He. your own enemies and others whom ye may not know. 1. In another Hadith. Allah ^ubhanahu wa ta 'ala says "On no soul does Allah place a burden greater than it can hear [Surah 2:286]. there is a treatment" [Bukhari and Muslim]. but also. Considering the precautionary measures regarding health. pork. no patient visited him. and also loading other things (animals. in whose Hand is my life.This Ayah guides us for. need sufficient planning. The long travel and performance of Haj. Qur'an also indicates two main aspects to be assessed in the candidate for staffing/ recruitment: "-Potential for the related job" and "Trustworthiness" [Surah 28:26]. ablution before the prayers five times a day. A physician after staying for six months in Madina reported to the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam that during the period of his stay. cleanliness of public places etc.Abdul Rashid Shaikh not follow that whereof he has no knowledge" [Surah 17:36].These are important considerations for modern engineering design and manufacturing. team-work spirit. In one Hadith. Economy is very much stressed and unnecessary expenditure and wastage is prohibited. In Madina. Much emphasis is laid on taking proper care of subordinates. the bondman (of Allah) does not become a believer unless he likes far his brother what he likes for himself [Bukhari and Muslim].Taking care of safety and security measures. "We are the people who eat when we are hungry and we withdraw when we still have some appetite ". a place with smoke has been given analogy with bad society. Qur'an says " Eat and drink. pollution free water. Circumcision as part of personal hygiene is compulsory for the Muslims [9]. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1.) as per their specifications/capabilities. Qur'an says: O you who believe! Fulfil your undertakings ( and promises) [Surah 5:1]. Qur'an allows the postponement of compulsory fasting of Ramadhan for those who are ill or on journey [Surah 2:185]. To conduct affairs by mutual consultations. 2000 . have also been stressed upon in Sunnah. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam said "For every ailment. not to flee from it if they find themselves there [Bukhari and Muslim]. some lady physicians also treated the lady patients [9]. intoxicants. it is said "Jffe seek refuge from that knowledge which carries no utility " [Sunnan Ibne Ma/ah]. In one Hadith. In Islam. The Holy Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum said "Any one who treats a patient without being in possession of the experience would be responsible for the loss suffered by the patients" [Abudaud and Nasai]. are taught in Qur'an and Sunnah. and also for contributing to human welfare in general and taking care of subordinates and labour in particular. brushing the teeth. Also a believer is supposed neither to deceive others nor get deceived from others. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum advised the Muslims not to visit a country where a pestilence is raging. discipline. thus recommended a medical board [2]. Tree plantation. Such teachings educate for setting up an ideal society including solutions to environmental issues. doing jobs in a nice and preferred way. structures etc. In one Hadith. QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. These considerations along with few more quoted above are very much needed for the purpose of management. it is said that "By Allah. making payments to labour in time. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam told him. machines. and giving importance to aesthetic aspects are also included in the teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah.mental etc. JANUARY-JUNE. 1. In a Hadith it said that p l an n i n g and management is the highest level of intelligence. This is all in agreement with modem medical theories also. NO. adultery are strictly prohibited and smoking is also disliked. to be on safe side and be away from doubtful acts. frequent bathing. is one of the branches of faith. TEACHINGS ABOUT HEALTH CARE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Islam has laid great stress on personal hygiene. it is said that removing a hurdle from the path. but waste not by excess " [Surah 7:31]. also clean clothes an* hair and even use of perfumes. assigning the jobs appropriately(both in quantity and quality) to employees according to their capabilities(physical. 5. Once the Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam instructed the Sahabah to consult two physicians for a patient. ). algorithm. and in their own souls. Technology and Management 6. Haluk Nurbaki in his book. Making of Humanity. Introduction to the History of Science. Islamic Science and Engineering. mules and donkeys. Ibn Al-Haitham. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1. 22:5. Muhammad Raziuddin Siddiqui." [Surah 41:53]. we shall soon cast into the fire: As often as their skins are roasted through. similar to those of modern expert systems. are Arabic in origin" [16]. Engineering. It may be noted that if skin is roasted. Western historians also recognize now the Islamic origin of scientific methods. Al-Jazari. that they may taste the penalty [Surah 4:56]. opening the way (to other evils)" [Surah 17:32]. Verses from the Holy Qur'an and the Facts of Science. 7. until it becomes manifested to them that this is the fact. Donald R. In this verse it is told that from time to time. Qur'an says: IF his shirt is torn from the back. In this Ayah there is indirect mentioning that low oxygen and decrease of atmospheric pressure in high altitudes causes breath problem [ 10 ]. SOME EXAMPLES OF CORRELATION BETWEEN AYATAND AHADITH RELATED TO MODERN THEORIES. which is in accordance with the Quranic Verses [Surah 2:22. Sir Oliver Lodge in his book. directly from Arab nations at those points in Spain and Italy where Europe and the Islamic world met. 23:13. In support of his claim he has mentioned the scientific works of many Mu sli m scholars related In the fields of Mathematics. Under one of the topics he has quoted the verse "O Believers. THEN she is the liar [Surah 12:47].The physician will interpret this Ayah from the point of prvention of many sexual diseases such as AIDS. zero. In Surah Yusuf. An English Professorof History of Technology writes: "Europe began to import inventions. Many familiar mathematical and geometrical terms algebra. and George Sarton in his encyclopedic work. Dr. Transmission of Islamic Knowledge to Europe [15]. Qur'an says "He maketh their breast close and constricted as if they rad to climb up to skies "[Surah 6:125J. Al-Bairuni. Some Ayat of Qur'an do mention IF THEN statements. The intellectual world can not forget the unique contribution to scientific creativity of s u c h lowering personalities like Jabir Ibn Hayyan. it will be looked as a form of low morality leadindtothe collapse of society.* QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. Al-Khawarzmi. will continue to appear [3].Teachings and Reflections of Qur 'an and Sunnah About Science. Qur'an says "Then Allah sent a raven (crow). On the basis of a research work done at an observatory in USA. 1. Soon after the advent of Islam. NO. Robert Briffault in his book. has established the fact that the Method of Controlled Experiment was evolved by some Muslim scientists [5]. Riolotiy and Medicine. ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY It has been found that the followers of Islam devoted themselves whole-heartedly to the acquisition of knowledge. novel signs and blessings of Allah subhanahu wata'ala. JANUARY-JUNE 2000 . For example. Dr. we shall change them for fresh skins. At another place Qur'an says "Those who reject our signs. who scratched the ground to show him how to hide the dead body of his brother " [Surah 5:31]. it becomes insensitive to temperature. one author [ 12] has written about a recent discovery of comets of ice descending to Earth from the Heavens. Chemistry. nadir. FINDINGS AND TRENDS Qur' an says " Soon we will show them signs in the (furthest) regions (of the Earth). Al-Farabi and many others. Hill in his recent book. engineering and technology [10]. Qur'an says "You should not commit adultery. Zakariya Al-Razi. and has created other things of which ye have no knowledge" [Surah 16:8]. IbnSina. This shows that one can learn something useful from the study of birds and animals (Zoology). has written a complete chapter titled as. But from socialogy point of view. Then he has pointed out that in modern coal fired power stations the stone is generally burnt along with fuel. for you to ride and use for show. The Qur'an says "And (He has created) horses. right up to the last day. 24:43]. etc. CONTRIBUTION OF MUSLIM SCHOLARS TO SCIENCE. This method was tested in an Agriculture University and has been reported to be quite successful even today [14].14] which mention the various human embryo development stages have been observed by various eminent embryologists of the present age [13]. The truthfulness of Quranic Verses [Surah 76:2. In this sentence Qur'an has foretold all types of transportation-means upto last day [3]. . references are given to 1274 Ayat (verses) concerning various branches of science. On the basis of internal and direct evidence. In one paper. for it is shameful (deed) and an evil. guard yourselves and your families from afire whose fuel is men and stones" [Surah 66:6]. a method is mentioned for preservation of grain [Surah 12:47]. Astronomy. has discussed 50 major topics mainly related to contemporary sciences [11]. the Muslims achieved leadership of the civilized world as much in learning and scholarship as in the political and military powers. This method is the essence of modern scientific investigation and discovery. Pioneers of Science. Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallam also taught complicated phenomena with the help of graphical models drawn by him. Al-Kindi. give ample testimony to this fact [5]. The Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallam replied that he should tie his camel and also rely on Allah. So a Muslim believes "Glory to Him. These points may be summarized as follows: (i) Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala is the Absolute and Sole Creator of every effect at every instant and every thing is under His commandment. This is because the Creator says "The religion before Allah is Islam" [Surah 3:19]. In Islam. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala is the Absolute and Sole provider of security which is the ultimate needed effect. that they may sail through the sea by His command" [Surah The actions which have been prescribed by the Shari'ah as Farz.D) contained no less than 600. Toledo and Cordoba. The various inventions and control over natural forces are to be utilized as per teachings of Qur'an and Sunnah (ii) (iii) Islam has potential and steering power to provide both spirit as well as guidance for the advancement of science. 9. He could take away. SCOPE OF SCIENCE. Islamic way to teach science calls for an important modification in the present trend.Vajib. ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY IN SHARI'AH Quran says ""Listen carefully.000 books. On the contrary the progressive attitude has been encouraged. are left optional [3]. At anotherplace Quran says "And if Allah willed. Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala says "Hast thou not turned thy vision to thy Lord? How He dofh prolong shadow!" Surah 25:45]. for Him in to create and to command" [Surah 7:54]. whereas those actions which are declared as Mu 'bah by the Shari 'ah. Subjugation of the creation or the controlling of the natural forces is not the ultimate goal and basic purpose of creation of mankind. This is because Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala has created the form and guidance of everything including Sun and Earth. Practically the former actions are relatively small in number as compared to the latter which are Mu 'bah. could be safely avoided. Here the actual desired effects are being related directly to the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. Qur'an also indicates that Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and every thing in a particular form and has also provided guidance to it [Surah 20:50].19]. its catalog was published in 44 volumes. The Library of Cordoba ( Kurtaba of Muslim Spain ) in 900 (A. IMPORTANT POINT OF TAWHEED TO EXPLAIN CAUSE AND EFFECT PHENOMENA 14:32]. Although apparent causes mentioned for these effects are also the thunder and the lightning but the real cause is the Will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. which are otherwise supposed to be effective in themselves. NO. Western Europe was barbarous. Really there is nothing astonishing about it at all. Islam and the Eastern Roman empire constituted all that was civilized'1 [17].D) consisted of slightly more than 400 titles.18. In fact it is the will of Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala which acts as the real cause of all apparent causes. Here variation in the length of shadow is being related directly to Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala. and we were not capable (of subjugating them by ourselves) " [Surah 43:13]. In one Hadith it is said that one person inquired from Prophet sallallaho alaihe wasallum if he should tie his camel with rope or rely on Allah. the novelty has not been the basis for rejection of progressive actions. Once Prophet Mohammad sallallaho alaihe wasallum told a physician "You are simply a friend and Allah is the physician (in fact) ". QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. In this regard. only to worship Me" [Surah 51:56]. SCIENCE ^TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1. provided the objectives and the related working procedure are not against Islamic shari'ah [3]. who has subjugated these to us (for our use). In this case. although apperant cause of this phenomenon is the Sun and the rotation of Earth. 8. Cairo. Kufa. This is astonishing in view of the fact that the library of French king in 1300 (A. as experienced by the West.Abdul Rashid Shaikh Two American authors of a book. some scholars have given quite suitable suggestions [4. their faculty of hearing and seeing" [Surah 2:20]. Haram and Makrooh. JANUARY-JUNE. Although the capability for security has been empirically correlated with the strength of rope. Allama Justice Muhammad Taqee Usmani has mentioned three points which a Muslim has to bear in mind while carrying out SE&T work [3]. 2000 - . who has made the ships subject to you. At another place Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala gives an example "It is He. can not be altered. Mustahib. Allah subhanahu wa (a 'ala says "/ created the Jinn and Mankind. write: "New Universities arose in Basra. 1. As an example we may say "Look at the wonderful Wisdom of Allah (Sunnatullah} discovered by Archimedes" instead of simply saying "•Archimedes' Principle". engineering and technology in such a way that its adverse impacts on belief and moral aspects. M. London. March 1995. No. Qur'an and Sunnah provide spirit and teach us to make advancement in the fields of modern science. Siddiqui. 19-36. H.. 1992. No. Vol.8.. ibid. CONCLUSIONS [5] Siddiqui. Afandi. 2 No. No. "Islam Aur Jiddat Passandi"..574-594.. "Conceptual Framework of Islamic Educational System".R. H.. 1989. 139-150. Islamic Thought and Scientific Creativity.41. Corp. H. 27-44. Karachi. JANUARY-JUNE.. pp. Lahore. It is the miracle of Qur'an that its teachings are applicable for all times up to the last day. pp.. "Verses From the Holy Kuran and the Facts of Science". 1993. 2000 . Engineering. A. April-June.. R. Kattanee.A. Islamic Thought & Scientific Creativity. pp. engineering. The Thomas Alva Edison Foundation. technology and management. "The Pursuit of Scientific Knowledge in Islam".. 5-18. June.C. 1990. Jamshoro. (English Translation). Cat Card No. S&T in the Islamic World. They provide guidance or every thing.30. COMSTECH International Conference. pp. engineering. pp. technology and management.. M. et. Usmani. Harold. appropriate arrangement and additions. Karachi.2. pp. Allama A. "Comets of Ice Descending to Earth From the Heavens. "Qur'an. Karachi.. Inc. "Science Aur Islam". 1984. 1954.1.. ibid. A. Maktaba Darul Uloom. "State of the Art in the Field of Science During the Days of the ProphefMohammed (SAW)". Allama M. Karachi. Kazi. A. "Islamic Science and Engineering". M. including science. et. Vol. R. (Urdu Translation) Idaratul Qur'an wal Uloomul Islamiyah. Carclwell. Technology and Management 10. 1991.. B.58. 0. "Scientific Themes in the Holy Qur'an". 1990. [14] [15] [ 16] [2] [17] [3] [18] [4] [19] QUAID-E-AWAM UNIVERSITY RESEARCH JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING. January-March. Nadvi. S. New Jersey (I. Nurbaki. "Quranic Method of Storage of Wheat". 1992. could also be applied to other fields and aspects. 6(3). 1988. 1991. Science Aur Musal'maan". Kazi.2. pp. S&T in Islamic World. 1st Hdition.2. Vol. 135-150. 2. (Urdu). "A Basis For the Integration of Modern Scientific Studies With Islamic Thought". Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala has created each and every thing in a particular form and has also provided guidance to it. NO. 31. Jamil.. M. July-September. pp. 54-7059).2328. Shah. al. Qur'an and Sunnah basically guide us for achieving real success in both worlds. "Character-Building As An Integral Component of Curriculum"... for providing facilities. (Urdu). 13 No. Indus Pub.2. D. "Al-Tarateebul Idariyah". 1... and Kettering. Edingurgh University Press. pp. (4) [10] [11 (5) [12] [13] ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is grateful to the authorities of Mehran University of Engineering & Technology. [6] (2) |7J [8] (3) [9] Rauf. M. April-June 1995. 3. January-March. March 1995.8. 109-123. (Urdu translation of AI-Risalah Hamccdiyyah). 1990.. Vol..1. Vol.Qurashi.4. Bowen. Idara Islamiyal. pp. T. "The Fontana History of Technology". Majlis Nashriyate Islam.. V. F. Hill.II. 115-119 Islamabad. 1990. "A Short History of Technology".1991.. C. Majority of verses quoted here..M. As Confirmed by Science". M. pp. Islamabad. 7-24. D. 1993. COMSTECH Conference. ibid. ibid. al.A. I. January-March. REFERENCES [1] Shaikh.Teachings and Reflections ofQur 'an and Sunnah About Science. R. Syed. In fact it is the will of Allah subhanahu wa ta 'ala which is the real cause of all apparent causes..l. (1) This is a preliminary study and needs more collective effort. pp. "Islamic Scientific Thought and Contributions of Muslims".l. S & T in Islamic World.29. Allama Justice M. Qureshi. Islamabad. Allama H. These points need to be taught to the students and general public in a well planned manner. M. 1994. "The Development of Human Embryo Scientific Findings and Quranic Revelations". F. No. Vol. pp. . SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY VOLUME 1. Vol. No.. Islamabad. Islamabad. Fonlana Press. Vol.. "Developing S&T Facilities for the Defence Needs of the Ummah". Example: The sequence number The name of the surah The number of ayats 1 AlFāti a 7 Difference = number of ayats – sequence number Difference = 7 ─ 1 = 6 If the difference is a negative figure. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Surah Al-Fāti a Al-Baqarah Āl ‘Imrān Al-Nisā Al-Māidah Al-En‘ām Ayat 7 286 200 176 120 165 Difference 6 284 197 172 115 159 .ayats Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number If there appears a positive value other than zero when we subtract the sequence number from the number of ayats of a surah. then it means the number of ayats is greater than the sequence number in such surah. The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater than the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list below: No. then this means the number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence number. Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 51 Al-A‘rāf Al-Anfāl Al-Tawbah Yūnus Hūd Yūsuf Al-Ra‘d Ibrāhīm Al.ijr Al-Na l Al-’Isrā Al-Kahf Maryam āhā Al-Anbiyā Al.ajj Al-Mu’minūn Al-Nūr Al-Furqān Al-Shu‘arā Al-Naml Al-Qa a Al-‘Ankabūt Al-Rūm Luqmān Al-A zāb Saba Fā ir Yāsīn Al.affāt ād Al-Zumar Al-Mu’min Fu ilat Al-Shūrā Al-Zukhruf Al-Dukhān Al-Dhāriyāt 206 75 129 109 123 111 43 52 99 128 111 110 98 135 112 78 118 64 77 227 93 88 69 60 34 73 54 45 83 182 88 75 85 54 53 89 59 60 199 67 120 99 112 99 30 38 84 112 94 92 79 115 91 56 95 40 52 201 66 60 40 30 3 40 20 10 47 145 50 36 45 13 11 46 15 9 61 . Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir www.symmetricbook.com 53 54 55 56 Al-Najm Al-Qamar Al-Ra mān Al-Wāqi‘ah List-16 62 55 78 96 9 1 23 40 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 48. Now let’s look at surahs which have odd and even number of differences (number of ayats - sequence number), out of such 48 surahs. which The surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater than the sequence numbers and has an odd number difference No. 3 5 6 7 8 10 12 19 20 21 23 26 31 36 37 40 41 42 44 Surah Āl ‘Imrān Al-Māidah Al-En‘ām Al-A‘rāf Al-Anfāl Yūnus Yūsuf Maryam āhā Al-Anbiyā Al-Mu’minūn Al-Shu‘arā Luqmān Yāsīn Al- affāt Al-Mu’min Fu ilat Al-Shūrā Al-Dukhān Ayat 200 120 165 206 75 109 111 98 135 112 118 227 34 83 182 85 54 53 59 Difference 197 115 159 199 67 99 99 79 115 91 95 201 3 47 145 45 13 11 15 62 Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number 51 53 54 55 Al-Dhāriyāt Al-Najm Al-Qamar Al-Ra mān 60 62 55 78 List-17 9 9 1 23 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 23 23. The surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater number than the sequence numbers and has an even number difference No. 1 2 4 9 11 13 14 15 16 17 18 22 24 25 27 28 29 30 33 34 35 38 39 Surah Al-Fāti a Al-Baqarah Al-Nisā Al-Tawbah Hūd Al-Ra‘d Ibrāhīm Al- ijr Al-Na l Al-’Isrā Al-Kahf Al- ajj Al-Nūr Al-Furqān Al-Naml Al-Qa a Al-‘Ankabūt Al-Rūm Al-A zāb Saba Fā ir ād Al-Zumar Ayat 7 286 176 129 123 43 52 99 128 111 110 78 64 77 93 88 69 60 73 54 45 88 75 Difference 6 284 172 120 112 30 38 84 112 94 92 56 40 52 66 60 40 30 40 20 10 50 36 63 Binary Symmetric Book dr. eng. halis aydemir www.symmetricbook.com 43 56 Al-Zukhruf Al-Wāqi‘ah 89 96 List-18 46 40 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 25 25. Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of which their number of ayats is greater than the sequence numbers: is The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater than the sequence number and which have odd sequence numbers No. 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 Surah Al-Fāti a Āl ‘Imrān Al-Māidah Al-A‘rāf Al-Tawbah Hūd Al-Ra‘d Al- ijr Al-’Isrā Maryam Al-Anbiyā Al-Mu’minūn Al-Furqān XX Ayat No. 7 200 120 206 129 123 43 99 111 98 112 118 77 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 51 53 55 List-19 Surah Al-Naml Al-‘Ankabūt Luqmān Al-A zāb Fā ir Al- affāt Al-Zumar Fu ilat Al-Zukhruf Al-Dhāriyāt Al-Najm Al-Ra mān Ayat 93 69 34 73 45 182 75 54 89 60 62 78 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 25 25. 64 the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayats. 23. number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayats.Surahs of which the number of ayats are greater than sequence number The surahs of which their number of ayats is greater than the sequence number and which have even sequence numbers No. Let’s see the results which outcome collectively: 65 .sequence number) is also 25 25. the 25. 26 28 30 34 36 38 40 42 44 54 56 Surah Al-Shu‘arā Al-Qa a Al-Rūm Saba Yāsīn ād Al-Mu’min Al-Shūrā Al-Dukhān Al-Qamar Al-Wāqi‘ah Ayat 227 88 60 54 83 88 85 53 59 55 96 List-20 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 23 23. 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Surah Al-Baqarah Al-Nisā Al-En‘ām Al-Anfāl Yūnus Yūsuf Ibrāhīm Al-Na l Al-Kahf āhā Al. The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the sequence number and which have even sequence number is 23 On the other hand.ajj Al-Nūr XX Ayat 286 176 165 75 109 111 52 128 110 135 78 64 No. Evaluation The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is larger than the sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 25 On the other hand.sequence number) is also 23 23. ajj Al-Mu’minūn Al-Nūr Al-Furqān Al-Shu‘arā Al-Naml Al-Qa a Al-‘Ankabūt Al-Rūm Luqmān Al-Sajdah Al-A zāb Saba Fā ir Yāsīn Al.Q ā r i ‘a h Al-Takāthur A l .u a Al-Inshirā Al-Tīn Al-‘Alaq Al-Qadr Al-Bayyinah Al-Zilzāl Al-‘Ādiyāt A l . symmetric distribution for the surahs of which their number of the ayats is greater than the sequence numbers is shown. halis aydemir www.ijr Al-Na l Al-’Isrā Al-Kahf Maryam āhā A l. eng.ujurāt Qāf Al-Dhāriyāt Al. X .com number of ayats > sequence number NO.Anb iyā Al.N a b a’ Al-Nāzi‘āt ‘A b a s a Al-Takwīr Al-Infi ār Al-Mu affifīn Al-Inshiqāq Al-Burūj Al.ashr Al-Mumta inah Al.āriq Al-A‘lā Al-Ghāshiyah Al-Fajr Al-Balad Al-Shams Al-Layl Al.‘A s r Al-Humaza Al-Fīl Quraysh Al-Mā‘ūn Al-Kawthar Al-Kāfirūn Al-Na r Tabbat Al-Ik hlā Al-Falaq A l .N ā s AYAT 7 286 200 176 120 165 206 75 129 109 123 111 43 52 99 128 111 110 98 135 112 78 118 64 77 227 93 88 69 60 34 30 73 54 45 83 182 88 75 85 54 53 89 59 37 35 38 29 18 45 60 49 62 55 78 96 29 22 24 13 14 11 11 18 12 12 30 52 52 44 28 28 20 56 40 31 50 40 46 42 29 19 36 25 22 17 19 26 30 20 15 21 11 8 8 19 5 8 8 11 11 8 3 9 5 4 7 3 6 3 5 4 5 6 (number of ayats sequence number) (number of ayats sequence number) ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 66 a x i s 23 25 25 23 X X X X o f X X X s y m m e t r y X X X In the figure.ūr Al-Najm Al-Qamar Al-Ra mān Al-Wāqi‘ah Al.Binary Symmetric Book dr.symmetricbook.adīd Al-Mujādalah Al.affāt ād Al-Zumar Al-Mu’min Fu ilat Al-Shūrā Al-Zukhruf Al-Dukhān Al-Jāthiyah Al-A qāf Mu ammad Al-Fat Al. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 number of ayats > sequence number ODD sequence number X X X X X X X X EVEN sequence number SURAH Al-Fāti a Al-Baqarah Āl ‘Imrān Al-Nisā Al-Māidah Al-En‘ām Al-A‘rāf Al-Anfāl Al-Tawbah Yūnus Hūd Yūsuf Al-Ra‘d Ibrāhīm Al.alāq Al-Ta rīm Al-Mulk Al-Qalam Al.āqqah Al-Ma‘ārij Nū Al-Jinn Al-Muzzammil Al-Muddaththir Al-Qiyāmah Al-Insān Al-Mursalāt A l .aff Al-Jumu‘ah Al-Munāfiqūn Al-Taghābun Al. ashr Al-Mumta inah Al.adīd Al-Mujādalah Al.Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number Now let’s perform the same analysis which we have made for the surahs that have the number of their ayats greater than their sequence number for the surahs of which has the number of surahs smaller than the sequence number.alāq Al-Ta rīm Al-Mulk Al-Qalam Al.ujurāt Qāf Al. The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and the differences are shown in the list below: No. 32 45 46 47 48 49 50 52 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Surah Al-Sajdah Al-Jāthiyah Al-A qāf Mu ammad Al-Fat Al.āqqah Al-Ma‘ārij Ayat 30 37 35 38 29 18 45 49 29 22 24 13 14 11 11 18 12 12 30 52 52 44 Difference -2 -8 -11 -9 -19 -31 -5 -3 -28 -36 -35 -47 -47 -51 -52 -46 -53 -54 -37 -16 -17 -26 .ūr Al.aff Al-Jumu‘ah Al-Munāfiqūn Al-Taghābun Al. eng.Binary Symmetric Book dr.symmetricbook.com 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 Nū Al-Jinn Al-Muzzammil Al-Muddaththir Al-Qiyāmah Al-Insān Al-Mursalāt Al-Naba’ Al-Nāzi‘āt ‘Abasa Al-Takwīr Al-Infi ār Al-Mu affifīn Al-Inshiqāq Al-Burūj Al. halis aydemir www.āriq Al-A‘lā Al-Ghāshiyah Al-Fajr Al-Balad Al-Shams Al-Layl Al.u a Al-Inshirā Al-Tīn Al-‘Alaq Al-Qadr Al-Bayyinah Al-Zilzāl Al-‘Ādiyāt Al-Qāri‘ah Al-Takāthur Al-‘Asr Al-Humaza Al-Fīl Quraysh Al-Mā‘ūn Al-Kawthar 28 28 20 56 40 31 50 40 46 42 29 19 36 25 22 17 19 26 30 20 15 21 11 8 8 19 5 8 8 11 11 8 3 9 5 4 7 3 -43 -44 -53 -18 -35 -45 -27 -38 -33 -38 -52 -63 -47 -59 -63 -69 -68 -62 -59 -70 -76 -71 -82 -86 -87 -77 -92 -90 -91 -89 -90 -94 -100 -95 -100 -102 -100 -105 68 . Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number 109 110 111 112 113 114 Al-Kāfirūn Al-Na r Tabbat Al-Ikhlā Al-Falaq Al-Nās List-21 6 3 5 4 5 6 -103 -107 -106 -108 -108 -108 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 66 66.ujurāt Qāf Al.aff Al-Jumu‘ah Al.āqqah Nū Al-Muzzammil Al-Qiyāmah Al-Insān Ayat 35 38 29 18 45 49 24 13 14 11 12 30 52 28 20 40 31 Difference -11 -9 -19 -31 -5 -3 -35 -47 -47 -51 -53 -37 -17 -43 -53 -35 -45 69 . out of such 66 surahs. The surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers and has an odd number difference difference No.ūr Al. 46 47 48 49 50 52 59 60 61 62 65 67 69 71 73 75 76 Surah Al-A qāf Mu ammad Al-Fat Al.alāq Al-Mulk Al. Now let’s look at surahs which have odd and even number of differences (number of ayats .sequence number).ashr Al-Mumta inah Al. halis aydemir www. eng.symmetricbook.adīd Al-Mujādalah Al-Munāfiqūn Al-Taghābun Al-Ta rīm Al-Qalam Al-Ma‘ārij Al-Jinn Ayat 30 37 29 22 11 18 12 52 44 28 Difference -2 -8 -28 -36 -52 -46 -54 -16 -26 -44 70 . 32 45 57 58 63 64 66 68 70 72 Surah Al-Sajdah Al-Jāthiyah Al. The surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers and has an even number difference No.āriq Al-Fajr Al-Layl Al-Tīn Al-‘Alaq Al-Zilzāl Al-‘Ādiyāt Al-Humaza Al-Kawthar Al-Kāfirūn Al-Na r List-22 50 46 19 36 25 22 17 30 21 8 19 8 11 9 3 6 3 -27 -33 -63 -47 -59 -63 -69 -59 -71 -87 -77 -91 -89 -95 -105 -103 -107 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 34 34.com 77 79 82 83 84 85 86 89 92 95 96 99 100 104 108 109 110 Al-Mursalāt Al-Nāzi‘āt Al-Infi ār Al-Mu affifīn Al-Inshiqāq Al-Burūj Al.Binary Symmetric Book dr. 45 47 Surah Al-Jāthiyah Mu ammad Ayat 37 38 No.u a Al-Inshirā Al-Qadr Al-Bayyinah Al-Qāri‘ah Al-Takāthur Al-‘Asr Al-Fīl Quraysh Al-Mā‘ūn Tabbat Al-Ikhlā Al-Falaq Al-Nās List-23 56 40 42 29 19 26 20 15 11 8 5 8 11 8 3 5 4 7 5 4 5 6 -18 -38 -38 -52 -68 -62 -70 -76 -82 -86 -92 -90 -90 -94 -100 -100 -102 -100 -106 -108 -108 -108 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 32 32. Now let’s look at the sequence numbers of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers: The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have odd sequence numbers No. 83 85 Surah Al-Mu affifīn Al-Burūj Ayat 36 22 71 .Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number 74 78 80 81 87 88 90 91 93 94 97 98 101 102 103 105 106 107 111 112 113 114 Al-Muddaththir Al-Naba’ ‘Abasa Al-Takwīr Al-A‘lā Al-Ghāshiyah Al-Balad Al-Shams Al. 32 46 48 50 52 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 Surah Al-Sajdah Al-A qāf Al-Fat Qāf Al.aff Al-Munāfiqūn Al. The surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have even sequence numbers No.āqqah Nū Al-Muzzammil Al-Qiyāmah Al-Mursalāt Al-Nāzi‘āt Al-Takwīr 18 29 24 14 11 12 30 52 28 20 40 50 46 29 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 101 103 105 107 109 111 113 List-24 Al-A‘lā Al-Fajr Al-Shams Al. 30 35 29 45 49 22 13 11 18 12 52 44 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 Surah Al-Infi ār Al-Inshiqāq Al.ūr Al-Mujādalah Al-Mumta inah Al-Jumu‘ah Al-Taghābun Al-Ta rīm Al-Qalam Al-Ma‘ārij Ayat XX No. eng.alāq Al-Mulk Al. halis aydemir www.com 49 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75 77 79 81 Al.Binary Symmetric Book dr.symmetricbook.ashr Al.ujurāt Al.āriq Al-Ghāshiyah Al-Balad Al-Layl Al-Inshirā Al-‘Alaq Al-Bayyinah Al-‘Ādiyāt Al-Takāthur Al-Humaza Ayat 19 25 17 26 20 21 8 19 8 11 8 9 72 .u a Al-Tīn Al-Qadr Al-Zilzāl Al-Qāri‘ah Al-‘Asr Al-Fīl Al-Mā‘ūn Al-Kāfirūn Tabbat Al-Falaq 19 30 15 11 8 5 8 11 3 5 7 6 5 5 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 32 32.adīd Al. Surahs of which the number of ayats are smaller than sequence number 72 74 76 78 80 Al-Jinn Al-Muddaththir Al-Insān Al-Naba’ ‘Abasa 28 56 31 40 42 106 108 110 112 114 List-25 Quraysh Al-Kawthar Al-Na r Al-Ikhlā Al-Nās 4 3 3 4 6 As it can be seen in the list hereinabove the total number of such surahs is 34 34. Let’s see the results which outcome collectively: < “Yāsīn. hand. By the Hakīm Qur’ān” (Yāsīn/ (Yāsīn/1-2) īn 73 . the number of those which have odd number difference of (number of ayatssequence number) is also 34 34. 32. The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have even sequence number is 34 On the other 34. the number of those which have even number difference of (number of ayatssequence number) is also 32 32. Evaluation The number of the surahs of which their number of ayats is smaller than the sequence number and which have odd sequence number is 32 On the other hand. aff Al-Jumu‘ah Al-Munāfiqūn Al-Taghābun Al.adīd Al-Mujādalah Al. symmetric distribution for the surahs of which their number of the ayats is smaller than the sequence numbers is shown.N a b a’ Al-Nāzi‘āt ‘A b a s a Al-Takwīr Al-Infi ār Al-Mu affifīn Al-Inshiqāq Al-Burūj Al.ujurāt Qāf Al-Dhāriyāt Al. .Q ā r i ‘a h Al-Takāthur A l .āqqah Al-Ma‘ārij Nū Al-Jinn Al-Muzzammil Al-Muddaththir Al-Qiyāmah Al-Insān Al-Mursalāt A l .affāt ād Al-Zumar Al-Mu’min Fu ilat Al-Shūrā Al-Zukhruf Al-Dukhān Al-Jāthiyah Al-A qāf Mu ammad Al-Fat Al. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 number of ayats < sequence number ODD sequence number EVEN sequence number SURAH Al-Fāti a Al-Baqarah Āl ‘Imrān Al-Nisā Al-Māidah Al-En‘ām Al-A‘rāf Al-Anfāl Al-Tawbah Yūnus Hūd Yūsuf Al-Ra‘d Ibrāhīm Al.ijr Al-Na l Al-’Isrā Al-Kahf Maryam āhā A l.ūr Al-Najm Al-Qamar Al-Ra mān Al-Wāqi‘ah Al.N ā s AYAT 7 286 200 176 120 165 206 75 129 109 123 111 43 52 99 128 111 110 98 135 112 78 118 64 77 227 93 88 69 60 34 30 73 54 45 83 182 88 75 85 54 53 89 59 37 35 38 29 18 45 60 49 62 55 78 96 29 22 24 13 14 11 11 18 12 12 30 52 52 44 28 28 20 56 40 31 50 40 46 42 29 19 36 25 22 17 19 26 30 20 15 21 11 8 8 19 5 8 8 11 11 8 3 9 5 4 7 3 6 3 5 4 5 6 (number of ayats sequence number) (number of ayats sequence number) ODD NUMBER DIFFERENCE EVEN NUMBER DIFFERENCE X X X X X X X X X s y m m e t r y X X X X X X X a x i s 34 32 32 34 X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X o f X X X X X X 74 In the figure.ashr Al-Mumta inah Al.com number of ayats < sequence number NO.u a Al-Inshirā Al-Tīn Al-‘Alaq Al-Qadr Al-Bayyinah Al-Zilzāl Al-‘Ādiyāt A l .Anb iyā Al.ajj Al-Mu’minūn Al-Nūr Al-Furqān Al-Shu‘arā Al-Naml Al-Qa a Al-‘Ankabūt Al-Rūm Luqmān Al-Sajdah Al-A zāb Saba Fā ir Yāsīn Al.āriq Al-A‘lā Al-Ghāshiyah Al-Fajr Al-Balad Al-Shams Al-Layl Al.Binary Symmetric Book dr.alāq Al-Ta rīm Al-Mulk Al-Qalam Al.‘A s r Al-Humaza Al-Fīl Quraysh Al-Mā‘ūn Al-Kawthar Al-Kāfirūn Al-Na r Tabbat Al-Ik hlā Al-Falaq A l . eng. halis aydemir www.symmetricbook. next. to work hard. surah Yusof: verses 43-49 as follows (adapted from Yusof ‘Ali): 43. Hj.utm. Key words: Seven-year-cultivation rule of thumb (7-Y-C RoT). "Then thereafter will come a year in which people will have abundant rain and in which they will press (wine and oil). apply oneself َ ََ eagerly to. Secondly."… 47. This paper discusses some examples of agricultural crop systems that demonstrate such characteristics.my/web/hamidiman Abstract Underlying the verses describing a prophetic interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream about “seven lean cows devouring seven fat ones and seven dry ears of corn withering around seven green ones” are some principles that remain to be further uncovered in farming research. Ph. Johor Darul Ta’azim. Skuai. Mar Iman. continue to do. keep on. Putra World Trade Centre. there will be a year in which the people shall have heavy rains and bumper crops. devote oneself assiduously or steadily to. seven-year-cultivation period is also a basis for analyzing the cyclical nature of many agricultural crops. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. it is better to store and preserve the required quantity of grain in clusters because. In brief. if it be that you can interpret dreams. persist in. They shall press grapes. "Then will come after that. Faculty of Engineering & Geoinformation Science. 1.my academic portal: http://ac. farming management.International Seminar on Islamic Science and Technology (InSIST’08): Reviving The Supremacy of Islamic Science. O notables! Explain to me my dream. .utm. do persistently or regularly. 49. It is found that the agronomic and economic aspects of crop production are logically tied to the concept of seven-year time horizon and. 18-19 March 2008. Afterwards. From the harvests. (all) except a little of that which you have guarded (stored). e-mail: hamid@fksg. And the King (of Egypt) said: "Verily. seven-yearcultivation period is a basis for many crop production systems. 48.D. the above interpretation of dream is as follows: Farmers will sow for seven years diligently whereby there will be seven years of bumper harvest in the country. it makes sense to strategize farming management on a seven-year cycle basis. seven hard (years). especially in terms of efficiency and major production decisions. therefore. to keep doing. (all) . The principles laid down in the 7-Y-C RoT is recorded in the al-Quran. 81310 UTM. Centre for Real Estate Studies.0 INTRODUCTION The prophetic rule of thumb about seven-year-cultivation period (7-Y-C RoT) in farming based on Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of an Egyptian King’s dream has set some important scientific and economic principles in the agricultural sector since the old times. The relevance of the principles probably lies in the science and economics of farming management. be diligent. THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF THE SEVEN-YEAR-CULTIVATION RULE OF THUMB (7-Y-C RoT) IN FARMING MANAGEMENT by Abdul Hamid b. [(Yusof] said: "For seven years you shall devote yourself assiduously or steadily* to raising crop as usual and that (the harvest) which you reap you shall leave in ears. there will be a famine lasting for another seven years during which the preserved stores of grain shall be utilized for feeding the famine-struck people and little quantity shall be used for cultivation." * Notes: The word دأبmeans persevere in. Kuala Lumpur.except a little of it which you may eat. I saw (in a dream) seven fat cows whom seven lean ones were devouring .and of seven green ears of grain and (seven) others dry. Firstly. which will devour what you have laid by in advance for them. These have set the general principles in farm production and food system management. It sets some general principles on aspects of farming management. barley.The agriculture along the Nile was based on growing winter crops after the annual floods had subsided (Cowen. Because of their obstinence and rejection of Allah as the only God to be worshipped.000 years ago (Gadalla. the ancient Egyptian agriculture was largely dependent upon the Nile river system. production planning. The main concern of any farming management is to minimize the impacts of environmental uncertainties on the economic and social well-being of a particular country. Aswan. There could a question: what is the wisdom of “seven-year” cultivation strategy? The prophetic 7-Y-C RoT is by no means a decree. The abovementioned period of extreme drought in Egypt was one of these. Rainfall was almost non-existent in Egypt. Wilkinson. 2005. many ancient Egyptian farmers used to grow either short-term or mixed crops. and the Nile has always been the source of water for raising crops and animals (Harris. The last section concludes this paper. 1990). 1961. The next section discusses a brief background on ancient Egyptian farming system. then. especially with regards to crop and animal production. Romano. crop and animal breeding while food management involves. Crops used to be harvested three times a year ().These verses underline a number of major scientific principles and/or aspects in farming management. However. 2008). This is followed by the background to the quranic interpretation of the verses on the King’s dream. and cucumbers. in the southern Egypt. During this time. However. Theoretical and empirical discussions on the scientific principles of 7-Y-C RoT are given in the ensuing sections. The people of Egypt have always been working closely with the seasons and understanding their change. among other things. Allah sent various disasters upon Pharaoh and his subjects. Mellersh. Wheat and barley were the staple food of which bread and beer were made. The verses clearly stipulate that the harvest should be stored and preserved for consumption and growing materials. The place of calamity was believed to be Sehel Island. 1962.0 A BRIEF ACCOUNT ON ANCIENT EGYPTIAN FARMING SYSTEM Like its modern version. The principal crops of ancient Egypt included emmer (a type of wheat). and consumption. Other popular fruits and vegetables in the Egyptian ancient times were dates. 2. Thus. Farm production involves. It was. Throughout the history. among things. Due to the seasonality of groundwater from the Nile river system. 1979. 1980. grapes peas. 2008). 1998. James. Cowen. the ancient Egyptian farmers have devised a sophisticated irrigation system since 4. the major aspects related to alleviating the effects of agricultural cycle (including buffer stock). Haiying. no man’s power can overcome Allah Almighty’s power. This means. it was a management strategy that has a great wisdom in it. the only strategy for minimizing such impacts is proper management of the farming system. a “ta`bur” by a prophet who has been divinely inspired by Allah but. for ensuring a well-managed economy. This occurred as a lesson to Pharaoh and his subjects as mentioned in the al-Quran: “We seized Pharaoh's people with years of drought and scarcity of fruits so that hopefully they would pay heed” (al-‘Araaf: 130). the major aspects related to rotational farming (applicable to animal production as well). 2 . figs. and flax (Robinson. the main water source for farming was the Nile. 2001). Famine was a critical problem of national importance to the ancient Egyptian farming system whereby the first terrible drought that lasted for seven years nicknamed as Famine Stela was said to have taken place during the reign of Djoser. respectively. seeds storage/breeding stock. in the first place. the Nile was said to have not flooded the nearby lands for years. the Pharoah’s third dynasty king (Lichtheim. crops were also grown in other seasons. beans. 1999). For example al-Tabari and al-Ghurnathi give the following interpretations. Interpreter Al-Tabari (d. 3.0 BACKGROUND TO THE QURANIC INTERPRETATION OF VERSES Although there are slight differences in the use of terminologies in interpreting surah Yusof verses 4349 among the scholars. This means. 741 H). Since water was terribly crucial for the Egyptians.It was recorded in the Egyptian history that the 7-year good harvest and 7-year famine did really occurred long before Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream. fruitless. the granaries were full. The country did not face a shortage of food. At the Prophet Yusof’s adulthood time. By the time the seven good years were over. Based on some clues in verse 46. productive) ٌ َِ ْ ُ ( ﻣﺠﺪﺑﺔInfertile. however. finance and agriculture. fruitful. their ijmaali interpretation does not deviate very much from each other. One of his agricultural and food management strategies was to make a brief tour of Egypt to assess the best locations where intensive cultivation could be carried out. During the first seven years of famine he supplied grain to the people according to their minimum needs and stored the rest in the newly-built granaries. 310 H) Table 1: Comparative interpretations of verses Quranic key words Interpretation اﻟﻄﺒﺮي اﻟﺴﻤﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻘﺮ (Fat cows) اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـﻤﺨﺼﺒﺔ (Years of fertility) اﻟﺴﻤﺎن (The fat) اﻟـﻤﺨﺎﺻﻴﺐ (The fertile) اﻟﺴﺒﻊ اﻟ ِﺠﺎف ﻌ (Seven lean) ﺳﻨﻮن ﻣـﺠﺪﺑﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻨﺒﺖ ﺷﻴﺌﺎ ً (Years of infertility no crop at all) اﻟﺒﻘﺮات اﻟﻌﺠﺎف (Lean cows) اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـ ُـ ُﻮل اﻟـﺠ ُوب ُﺪ ﻤﺤ (Years of draught and infertility) اﻟـﺨﻀﺮ (The green) اﻟﺴﻨﻮن اﻟـﻤﺨﺎﺻﻴﺐ (The fertile years) اﻟـﻴﺎﺑﺴﺎت (Dry out) Jazii al-Ghurnaathi (d. With the Prophet’s Yusof’s wisdom. among other things. there were no reliable records as to how many times draught has struck the ancient Egypt. capable of storing several hundred tons of the surplus grain. He also ordered the construction of huge storehouses (granaries). the drought directly threatening their very livelihood. Prophet Yusuf was then made a minister in charge of. by Allah’s leave and due to Prophet Yusof’s divine foresight and planning. the calamity did not take place. He allocated extra money to the farmers in the most fertile areas of the Nile so that they would be able to grow the maximum amount of grain. the years of famine have been salvaged through a well-managed system of farming (including seed storage) and food consumption management. However. the words “seven fat cows” mean cows that became fat for seven years and “seven lean cows” mean cows that became thin for seven years. Agricultural products diminished in availability and famine ensued. 741 H) اﻟـﺠ ُوب اﻟـﻤـﺤﻮل ُﺪ (The infertile. the draught) ﺟﺰي اﻟﻐﺮﻧﺎﻃﻲ ﺑﻘﺮات ﺳﻤﺎن “Fat cows” اﻟ ِﺠﺎف اﻟﺒﻘﺮات ﻌ “Lean cows” ( ﻣﺨﺼﺒﺔFertile. unproductive) ٌ َِ ْ ُ ( ﺳﺒﻊ ﺑﻘﺮاتSeven years) Based on the interpretation of Jazii al-Ghurnaathai (d. the verses refer to different time periods of 3 . Some accounts mentioned that a severe famine struck the ancient Egypt again during the King’s rule at a time before Prophet Yusof’s was born. scholars have concluded that the “fat” and “lean” conditions of these cows occurred at different time periods. The water level of the Nile fell tremendously and the country was hit by a severe drought. 2. Table 2 shows an example of crop systems practised in some countries. S = sunflower. Irrespective of their life structure. Notes: B = barley. 1993) Arable Arable Arable System 1 (6-year): F-W-W-S-B-C Various systems (5-7 years) System 1 (7-year): Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt-Bt 1. used a typical 4 . O = oat. 1993. 2002).g. on the nature agricultural system practiced and the climate of the country. arable) and long-term (perennial) crops. a farmer with 25 years of farming experience in the U. This means. there are fallows in between the years. It may also mean a “medium-term” period during which some important farming strategies and decisions should be made. Table 2: Example of Seven-Year Arable Crop Systems Country Type of farming Example of general crop rotation system Former Soviet Union in general Arable System 1 (5-year): W-W-B-O-F [1] System 2 (6-year): Option 1 W-W-W-B-B-F Option 2 W-W-W-B-O-F Option 3 W-W-W-O-O-F System 3 (7-year): W-W-W-W-B-O-F Ukraine [2] United States United Kingdom (Pfiffner et al. agricultural production) and strategies to alleviate the impact of the changing environment in terms of good farming and food system management. pests and diseases.g. 4. among other things. These approximations could be true perhaps in light of the Egyptian farming of the time at which Prophet Yusof passed his divine recommendations to the King. the “seven-year” mythical principles can be broadly applied to the modern farming management in many ways.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF 7-Y-C RoT IN FARMING The keywords seven years may not necessarily mean exactly seven years. Bt = beetroot. successful organic production begins with crop rotation to break up cycles of weeds. Bowman. 4. 3.g.S. The right combination of rotation systems can be part of farming success (Pfiffner et al. one important goal of agronomic practices is to protect soil resources (e. Fairly simple rotation guidelines can be followed. Discussion follows. Nevertheless. Jazii al-Ghurnaathii mentioned (Jazii): ﻓﻌﻠﻤﻬﻢ ﺣﻴﻠﺔ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺴﻨﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺨﺼﺒﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﻨﻴﻦ اﻟﻤﺠﺪﺑﺔ (So. maintaining soil’s biological quality) and improving production potential (e. best crop combination and cultivation system). he taught them a strategy whereby they survive during years of fertility as well as years of infertility) Prophet Yusof’s interpretation of the King’s dream points to at least two main phenomena of the physical world: cyclic nature of the environment (and.. this depends. seven-year rotation system is a common practice in many parts of the world. by selecting three crop rotation elements over a seven-year period without using the same element consecutively (Goforth. However. For example. 2008). agricultural crops can be divided into short-term (e.1 Agronomic Aspects In general. F = fallow. For short-term crops. C = corn. It can mean “within” or “in the region” or “plus-minus” seven years. W = wheat In the case of organic farming. thus. For example.fertility (or productivity) and infertility (or unproductivity). for example.. Stage I is an irrational stage at which there tends to be underemployment of input. and a horticultural enterprise was assessed over the first seven-year experiment with a potential for a further experiment over the second sevenyear phase (Leake. another rye cover-soybeans sequence. For instance. For instance. In agricultural property valuation. 5 . is a rational stage. this cycle may be somewhat modified. cultivation of 7 types of a seven-year crop rotation system of fodder crops produced the highest yield (average of 10.e. finishing with a fallow year when the forage mix growth is clipped but left to replenish soil organic matter. Although there is no hard-and-fast rule for assessing crop performance. 2001). winter rye and sorghum. during which important production decisions need to be known. i. Such a principle may have some economic basis since longterm investments such as those in perennial crop and livestock have some components of mediumterm income and profit profiles. In Russia. in Ohio. the concept of seven-year profit capitalisation has been accepted by the court as a basis for estimating the value of rubber plantation. 1999.31 t/ha) when using crop rotations of pea. For example. Remedial agronomic practices are needed after such a period to prevent further loss of crop output. and maize (Stupakov et al. Stage III is again an irrational stage for a different reason. A late seeding of buckwheat for grain in the seventh summer and then a fall seeding of rye to restart the rotation combine to provide a needed break in the legume cycle that has prevented a buildup of soil disease organisms. the length of each stage is about seven years. So. 2006). corn. and grasses.. cereal grain frost-seeded with a legume/grass mix. some long-term crops such as oil palm and rubber have a span of productive age of about 20 years. CWS Farms Group. a stockless all arable farming system. Yield reduction due to soil compaction can reach a substantial proportion in a period of seven years. reductions in crop yields are 25% in maize. For example. and 30% in oats over a seven-year period (Lal. 20% in soybeans. Stage II. a fall-planted small grain. a complete nutrient recycling in arable crops occurs in seven year and with rotational cropping. In the case of citrus farming. at which there is full employment of inputs.seven-year rotation in planting an over-wintering rye cover crop followed by soybeans. [3] 4. It includes two years' worth of quarantine on the land and five years before the farmer can start getting any real production off those trees. 1996). In another context. wheat grain yield responds to nitrogen rates in the first five while to potassium rates in the first two years of seven years of growth. The seventh year’s “crop” was found to be an enrichment and regeneration of soil biological life. several years of hay or pasture. 2002). whether one could recoup capital investments within the seven-year period needed to depreciate them (Thompson.92 t/ha) and the best humus balance (+2. barley. a legume/grass mix “frost-seeded” into the grain in late winter. Some aspects of farm husbandry such as pest and disease control take just enough time make an impact. 1997).2 Farm Economics Crop production optimisation strategy normally necessitates calculation of short-term or medium-term profit from a particular enterprise. Grain nitrogen content can be affected in six of seven years of growth (Girma et al. lucerne and grasses. The effect of organic farming on the production of crops under a mixed organic system.. for example canker takes a farmer a seven-year trip before he can start making money again. The soil benefits which improved and protect succeeding crops easily offset the opportunity cost plus clipping and $20 per acre in taxes. over-employment of input. In some farming research such as the livestock production. Yield response needs sufficient time to show even in short-term cash crops. which is divided into three production stages whereby the outputs follow the law of diminishing returns (Figure 1). a period of five to seven years is considered sufficiently long enough to produce reliable field results on breeding and/or feeding (Dwayne Rohweder and Ken Albrecht). On average. there are about seven years' worth of no cash income at all. a seven-year period is commonly perceived to be a reasonably sufficient duration for observing yield response to manuring and other treatments. The terminal point of Stage I is characterized by maximum profit is at A. Based on output mean differential adjustment technique (Hamid. Study Case To illustrate the above three events. Johor. a study case was chosen. A summary of production area is shown in Table 3 while the basic production profile is shown in Table 4.) 219 356 334 282 269 296 105 128 12 13 2. Bukit Lawiang.205 + 2. Two essential production functions were then estimated as follows: 6 . 2000) the equation was used to further predict the FFB production for years 16 through 28.0548*year .0. It was then multiplied by price of FFB per ton to obtain total revenue curve. the point of maximum revenue at B. Johor Block PM 82A PM 83B PM 84A PM 84B PM 84C PM 84D PM 85A PM 85B Building/office/quarters Hilly forest/vacant land Total Planted year 1982 1993 1984 1984 1984 1984 1985 1985 Area (ha.0622*year2 where year represents the age of oil palm trees from field transplanting.014 Using the data in columns 2 and 4 of Table 4. while the point of terminal productive cycle at C. Table 3: Production area of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation. namely the Tabung Haji oil palm plantation at Bukit Lawiang.Figure 1: Principles of production efficiency (Notes: Figures at the bottom are based on the study case – Bukit Lawiang oil plam plantation) These stages also reflect three important production events. Each stage can have a time-span of around 7 years. Kluang. Kluang. a production prediction curve was estimated as FFB = 6. 79 210.581.68 = 12.21.900. Thus.00 21.e.142.593. 798.12 210.142.035 .035 . MC = d(TCOS)/d(YEAR) = 250 At point A. i.41 107.771785 + 798.771785 The logical solution is 548.771785 + 798.68*YEAR = 250 ∴YEAR = (798. MR = d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0. the point is when MR = MC.59 184.77 105.035*YEAR .00 92.84*YEAR2 . three fundamental aspects of production decisions in oil palm cultivation can be analysed (see Figure 2).00 23.956.84*YEAR2 TCOS = 250*YEAR where TREV = total revenue and TCOS = total cost.68*YEAR.771785 + 798.84*YEAR)*YEAR = -0.01 85.24 113.000. Secondly. this point can be ascertained by mathematical differentiation of the function.18 270. Johor Age Total output (ton FFB/ha (ton) FFB price Production cost (Year) FFB) (RM/ton) (RM/ton) 5 33.00 21.035*YEAR . (a) Age of highest profit MR = d(TREV)/d(YEAR) = 798. ∴YEAR = 798.21.00 13 41.334.07 82.207. i. at point A.70 170. the point at which profit is the highest. MR = MC.00 15 42.TCOS = 0 = 0.92 234.49 77. Firstly.13 210.13 157.89 120.77 80.e.035/43.21.28 18. Thirdly.21.37 20. Kluang.62 8 45.00 19.035 – 250)/43. age of maximum yield is achieved when MR = d(TREV)/d(Year) = 0. With the production function given.68*YEAR At point B.59 20. Thus.18 22. TREV = 0.00 7 40. (1) (2) Using equations (1) and (2) above.e.035 .72 6 36.07 210.035 .250*YEAR = 0 = (548.22 16.55 (b) Age of maximum revenue TREV = 0.035 . at point C. at point B.00 21.057.84 = 25 The summary of the above calculation is shown in Table 5.3 10 40.84*YEAR = -0.43.27 (c ) Age of replanting π = TREV .11 22. age at which replanting is needed is when profit is equals zero.035*YEAR .43.00 Note: FFB = fresh fruit bunch.00 90.95 12 43.00 14 46. 7 .e.Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Table 4: Production data of Tabung Haji oil palm plantation. Bukit Lawiang.84*YEAR2 d(TREV)/d(Year) = 798.21.68 = 18.54 11 45.806786/21.21 286.771785 ∴YEAR = 548.000. i. i.26 9 38.43.00 93.00 95. 2004a. This cycle is reflected in the successions of good period and abundant yields or favourable prices (period 1). good growth. 7/3/2008). Output price cycles in some crops such oil palm and soya bean have an average cycle length of seven years (Figure 3). 2002). and finally rainy period. famine.Production stage Point of maximum profit Point of maximum revenue Point of terminal production Table 5: Three important production events in oil plam Criteria Remarks When MR = MC (where MC = 250) Achieved after about 9 years Calculation: Year = 12. 8 . and unfavourable product prices (period 2). bad growth. This cycle is illustrated in Figure 2. For such a crop.S. say five to seven years. From this point. and favourable product prices again (period 1). the manager should embark on an efficient approach to produce the highest profit within seven years after the first year of FFB production.3 When TREV . 2004b). it can be said that the 7-Y-C RoT is useful in the production planning of long-term crop. The final seven years is a period that prepares the manager for a replanting scheme. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF “SEVEN-YEAR” PERIOD IN FOOD MANAGEMENT UNDERSTANDING CYCLES One important aspect of 7-Y-C RoT is related to seasonal fluctuation in agricultural production and output price or simply called agricultural cycle. (USDA.5 years of age) When MR = 0 Calculation: Year = 18.TCOS = 0 Calculation: Year = 25 Achieved about 6 years after age of maximum profit Achieved about 7 years after age of maximum revenue From Table 5. good harvest. abundant yields.6 from first production (3. followed by dry period. Figure 2: The concept of cycle Agricultural cycle can last for a few. Examples of such a phenomenon were 5year production cycle starting in 2000 in China (China Daily. seven-year downward trend in wheat production starting in 1998 in the U. he knows that production rate is going to decline whereby the rate will reduce to zero when the production reaches the maximum level of revenue over the next seven years. The El Niño that affects agricultural production can develop every 4 to 7 years (Strock and Everett. bad harvest. In order to achieve this goal. social. FOOD SUSTAINABILITY Food production has the fundamental function of providing necessary nutrition to the society permanently. preparation and consumption. on a declining basis (Kintzle. Prophet Yusof’s approach to providing grain storage has set the principle in the use of buffer stock for many commodities in the modern world’s economies as a strategy of facing production and economic 9 . food LCA uses indicators that address economic. This needs a wellmanaged farming system. Thirdly. or activity. In agriculture. especially to alleviate the impacts of production and price risks since producers normally rely totally on the marketplace. he managed to avoid starvation and control the prices of grains. Firstly. in turn. Secondly. agricultural sustainability is a must. This way. the key food sustainability strategy is well-managed food production. requires a thorough understanding of life cycle stages of the food system. Fourthly. both oil palm and soya ben faced a tremendous pressure to increase their market prices during the periods of 1989-1990. food processing. process. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is an analytical method used to evaluate the resource consumption and environmental burdens associated with a product. he allocated the budget for agricultural production and building storage and processing facilities. 1999-2001. 1994-1996. This.Figure 3: Price fluctuation in crude palm oil (CPO) and soya bean oil (source: PT SMART Tbk. consumption. In this context. agricultural growing and production. he recommended continuous food production through seven good years or cultivation. Among other things. he allocated the amount of stored grains to the Egyptian people according to per capita minimum requirement. 2005). One widely adopted agricultural risk stabilizing strategy is agricultural contract scheme. As shown in Figure 3. this is a difficult task. he recommended grain storage for seeds propagation. and 2003-2005. Therefore. and end of life (Heller and Keoleian. and environmental aspects of each life cycle stage: origin of (genetic) resource. packaging and distribution. USDA’s Risk Management Agency. seven-year contract schemes in agricultural subsidies have become the common ground in many countries. has an agricultural support scheme whereby producers receive fixed payments over a seven-year period. it is crucial to understand such changes and to put up farming strategy during such periods. and stock systems. during the following seven famine years. 2006) One of the challenges as a result of agricultural cycles is to stabilize production and/or price. The basic principle of this has been laid down by Prophet Yusof himself. 2000). Indeed. for instance. 026.69 42.00 1.506. t = 7.06 Current 1. Dt = 365.702.766.316.985.36 42.892.134. g = population’s annual net growth (%). g = 2%. Ac = total minimum annual area of cultivation (AAoC) needed (ha. is food production planning. Rubber. The concept was then broadened to include processed foodstuff. cocoa. etc.00 40.63 1.135.08 16.107. The main objective is to ensure food sufficiency through farm production.712.933.112.) 14. The solutions for the above models are tabulated as follows: Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Total Average Population 100.204.53 2.883.90 Year 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Table 7: Hypothetical example of grain production planning Minimum AFWeG production (metric ton) Total minimum AAoC needed (ha.702.204. as a result of shortage of supply and rising prices Malaysia has made a move by creating buffer stock for controlled consumer food items such as sugar.000 104.47 1. The principle lies in the sustainability mentioned above.60 27. Rr = minimum required annual fresh-weight grain (AFWeG) production (metric ton).57 14.64 40.47 16.53 2.16 Future 2. Cd = 0.15.506. Fl = processing & marketing inefficiency factor (per tonnage basis).93 38.cycles.169.24 41.243 110. Po = population size in the base year.883.08 1.36 1.408 112. and Fl = 0. A simple example of cultivation planning is as follows: Od = Cd x Sf x Dt x Pt Rr = Od/[Fd x (1 – Fl)] Ac = Rr/Og [where Po(1 + g)n] (3) (4) (5) where Od = minimum annual dry-weight-equivalent dietary (ADWED) needs of the population.000 102.45.32 15.933.).53 10 .33 39.38 1.119.712.441.53 2.55 Future 141.180.228.316. are examples of such commodities. Dt = number of days of annual consumption of that grain type.2 kg.941.803.090.n = number of years of growth. and Og = potential grain production (metric ton/ha.16 108.00 38.58 42. and flour in 2008.32 1. as taught by Prophet Yusof.142.51 41. Let say Po = 100.97 42. Og = 35 metric tons/ha.13 70. Sf = 2.157.54 283.112.63 15.33 1.180.57 1.).06 141. One very crucial aspect of food sustainability.121 108.84 39.00 38.134.93 1.189.616 106. Fd = 0.) Current 38.157.169.142.55 1.600. We may have wondered how he has planned crop cultivation for a 14-year period to ensure food security. Fd = dry food content conversion factor (per tonnage basis).090..702.38 15.11 8. cooking oil.985.040 106.204 Table 6: Hypothetical example of grain production functions Minimum ADWED needs Minimum AFWeG Total minimum AAoC (metric ton) production (metric ton) needed (ha. Cd = minimum daily per capita per serving dietary needs of a particular type of grain crop.24 1.540.69 1.000. Pt = population size in a particular year.493. For example. It has done so for rice in the 1960s. Sf = frequency of daily intake of that grain food.228. column 4) in Table 6. Steel in the Field: A Farmer’s Guide to Weed Management Tools.fas. REFERENCES [1] http://www. China Daily.gov/pecad/highlights/2004/12/Ukraine%20Ag%20Overview/index. the total minimum AAoC needed at the end of the first seven years should be twice the total AAoC figure (row 9. there must be a great wisdom behind the event. (2002). Nevertheless. Since al-Qur’an is a miracle. U. aimed at the improvement of rural living conditions and rural infrastructure.S. there is evidence to believe that various aspects in farming changes crucially over a sevenyear period.aspx?guid={5E1ED83A-F5D9-4232-BC35796E7580FC82}&siteId=mktw Al-Tabari (d. It was then repeated in the al-Qur’an through a story in surah Yusof. expansion of food grain production to achieve self-sufficiency. the minimum AFWeG production at the end of the first seven years should be twice the total AFWeG figure (row 9. 304). 11 . there is reason to believe that resource use and production optimality may be best achieved over a sevenyear period.htm [3] http://www.com/news/story/Story. Therefore. China's grain production ends a 5-year slide7th.Since the first “good” seven years should be planned to provide a buffer stock for the next “bad” seven years. Among other things. This paper has discussed the basic principles underlying 7Y-C RoT in farming management. Maryland 20705: Sustainable Agriculture Network. Bowman. G.altafsir. 1985). In the same way. among other things. seven-year period can be said to be a crucial period during which agricultural phenomena change. Beltsville. the Second Seven-Year Plan (1978-84) and Third Seven-Year Plan (1985-1992) have.com/Tafasir. Tafseer Jami’ fi Tafseer al-Qur’an/Al-Tabari musonnaf wa mudakkaq. Korea has also done this whereby together with its First Six-Year Plan (1971-76). Russia has ever done this a long time before (Rutland. column 5) in Table 6. Handbook Series Book 2. the total area of cultivated land should be doubled beginning from the fifth of the first seven years while crop output should be doubled beginning from the sixth and seventh years.marketwatch.usda. there can be an opportunity to strategize the management of agricultural sector on a seven-year basis to achieve such optimality. CONCLUSION The 7-Y-C RoT was a prophetic interpretation of a dream that took a place thousands of years ago. In general.asp?tMadhNo=0&tTafsirNo=1&tSoraNo=12&tAyahNo=45&tDisplay=yes&Page=3 &Size=1 [2] http://www. Department of Agriculture. development of land and water resources to protect farmers from unfavorable climatic conditions. there is some reason to believe that 7-Y-C RoT has some scientific rationales for farming practices. Although the discussion is far from conclusive. In other words. 1999). March 2008. accelerated farm mechanization so as to free farm workers from heavy manual labor (1998. IMPLICATIONS OF THE 7-Y-C ROT A question that perhaps worth pondering is: do we need to change our farming management strategy from a five-year to a seven-year basis? This paper does not provide the answer for the question since it did not carry out a comparative analysis of farming management in that way. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program of CSREES. Dawani. 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