33933691-The-Periplus-of-the-Erythræan-Sea-Travel-and-Trade-in-the-Indian-Ocean-by-a-Merchant-of-the-First-Century-Translator

\' BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Henrij W. Sage 1S9X /\^'xw:^7^v*'!^ x'^Aa^.t^ 1357 DATE DUE THE PERI PLUS OF THE ERYTHR^^AN SEA Cornell University Library The tine original of tiiis book is in Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in text. the United States on the use of the http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030139236 SCHOFF. FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET. GREEN. BOMBAY AND CALCUTTA . m. AND 1912 CO. NEW YORK LONDON. Philadelphia LONGMANS.THE PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHR^AN SEA TRAVEL AND TRADE IN THE INDIAN OCEAN BY A MERCHANT OF THE FIRST CENTURY TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK AND ANNOTATED BY WILFRED Secretary of the H. a. Commercial Museum. 1 COPYRIGHT 1912 BY THE COMMERCIAL MUSEUM PHILADELPHIA ' t V— .^ 'My1 . RULERS MENTIONED IN THE PERIPLUS .TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 DATE AND AUTHORSHIP OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PERIPLUS NOTES PERIPLUS 7 17 22 50 THE PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHR^^N SEA ARTICLES OF TRADE MENTIONED IN THE PERIPLUS. . 284 289 ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY AT ALEXANDRIA DATE OF THE PERIPLUS AS DETERMINED BY VARIOUS COMMENTATORS.290 294 295 INDEX MAP TO ILLUbTRATE THE PERIPLUS AT END OF BOOK . . D. and the Commercial Museum will not have to apologize it for rescuing this work from obscurity and presenting to the general public. which in its early stages of developIt ment was shown and at the Jamestown exposition. The notes add great interest. to its and more under exact laws history of demand and earliest When the commerce from its dawn present tre- mendous international proportions shall be carefully written. They have lost no opportunity all in presenting to the in- quirer the trade conditions of parts of the world. WILSON. The Periplus of the Erythrjean Sea the first record of organized trading with the nations of the East. More work of of than four years ago the a graphic history of Museums undertook the the making commerce from present the earliest dawn trade and barter down to time. facts Parthia. The Philadelphia P. Director. was in the preparation of this exhibit that attention was directed to the Periplus. together with a collection of touching the early trade of a number of other countries of much interest. W. The author of this translation was entrusted with the study and preparation of the exhibit.FOREWORD The Philadelphia Museums came into existence some fifteen years ago with the avowed purpose of aiding the manu- facturer in taking a larger share in the world's commerce. India and China. giving as they do an exhaustive survey of the international trade between the great empires of Rome. 1911 . Sc. Museums September.. in vessels built and commanded by subjects of the Western world. the Periplus will furnish a most interesting part of such early history. its interest in the early history of commerce is appreciated. The whole trade of the of world is every day coming more supply. . incense to the ever-increasing This muslins was their prerogative. The peoples of that region. and a commercial system was developed for the interchange of products within those limits. where there is and the gold of that land good. the various Arab tribes and more especially those ancestors of the Phoenicians. The and spices of India they fetched themselves or received from the Indian traders in their ports on either side of the Gulf of Aden. from the dawn history. jealously guarded. commerce which supplied precious stones and spices and service of the gods of Egypt. there is bdellium and the onyx stone. which express not only individual enterprise. without interruption. like the journals of Marco Polo and Columbus and Vespucci. Egypt and the nations of Ancient India came into being. which had set in one the of It marks the turning of commerce direction.INTRODUCTION The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is one of those human documents. reserved for themselves the lucrative commerce within the Sea. but that apparently. carrying them in turn over the highlands to the upper Nile. It is the first record of organized trading with the nations of the East. and gold: in the whole land of Havilah. the mysterious Red Men. vals In the rare inter- when the eyes of Egypt were turned eastward. and voyages of commerce and conquest were despatched to the Eastern Ocean. tolerated the presence of Indian traders in Africa. in Elam is and Babylonia. or before the exploits of the Phoenicians in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. and eastward we know not whither. in vessels built and commanded by a tide of subjects of Western World." With the spread of culture in both directions. The growth of in India created an active merchant marine. civilization were the active carriers or intermediaries. human culture and commerce had centered in the countries bordering on the Persian Gulf. trading to the Euphrates and Africa. having its center of exchanges near the head of the Persian Gulf. the . and upon this they lived and prospered according to the prosperity of the Pharaohs. The Arab Red merchants. For thousands of years before the emergence of the Greeks from savagery. but the awakening of a whole race toward new fields of geographical discovery and commercial achievement. or through the Red Sea and across the desert to Thebes or Memphis. spices while the cloths and precious stones. One Arab kingdom with its after another retained the great eastern coast of Africa.officers of the in the Pharaohs found the treasures of all its shores gathered nearest ports. trade in gold and ivory. and their curiosity began to trace the better things toward their source in India. indeed. the westward shifting of the Indus ing of the harbors the delta. The Greek colonies. Sabbatha and Mariaba were all partners in this commercial system. ostrich feathers and oil. Palmyra and Petra. there in the West commercial glories which competition in the East was beginning to deny them. The story of the world for many centuries was that of the struggles of the nations upon the Nile and Euphrates to win all the territory through which the new routes passed. and sought no further to trace them to their sources. but never overthrow of the East by the great Alexander was the control of the great overland caravan-routes threatened by a western people. and the disorder incident to . new trade-routes were gradually opened. while the accounts of Agathar- chides are sufficient proof of the opulence which came to Southern topog- Arabia with the increase of prosperity trade control in Egypt. the shoal- Cutch region. the shores of the Arabian Gulf produced an ever-rising value in frankincense and myrrh. when the Ptole- mies had made Egypt once more mistress of the nations. were redistributed at Socotra or Guardafui. and his early death led to no more than a readjustment of conditions as they had always existed. and so to prevent the northern barbarians selves. led to nothing more than the conquest of a few outposts on the Red Sea and at the head of the Gulf of Aden . in for changes in the raphy of India. And vessels. subject agreements and alliances with the merchants of India. It from trading with others than themthe Persian Gulf was early in this struggle that one branch of the people known as Phoenicians left their to home on win and settled on the Mediterranean. the was more complete than ever. The trade came and the price was paid. As the current of trade gradually flowed beyond the Nile and Euphrates to the peoples of the north. The Egyptian nation in its later struggles made no effort to oppose or control it. Here. and carried to Gerrha and OboUah. the infusion of Greek energy after Alexander's day. the timbers and — particularly cinnamon —brought from India largely by Indian the Nile and the Mediterranean. planted at the terminus of every trade-route. Meantime the brethren Arabia continued to their of the Phoenicians and their kinsfolk in in control of the carrying trade of the East. gained for themselves a until the measure of commercial independence. and the new ruler of the Western World. vessel. whose ambitions were bitterly opposed to the state which possessed its former home in the "Frankincense Country" of Arabia. might have hostile been many years before a shores. Augustus. and one Arab the Straits. and thus added to its defeated adversary. But rose and in Arabia itself there were struggles for the control of all this wealth and power. came into possession of Egypt. that of a direct sea-route to the East. and the routes that led to them.' great invasions of Asiatic peoples. for which the people clamored. former neighbors in Arabia. so that all this rich a generation the center of exchanges of the Mediterranean trade that flowed to to Rome paid its tolls to the Empire of Parthia and the Arab kingdoms." was building up the kingdom of Abyssinia. was moved But a wise decision of the Emperor from Alexandria to Rome. prize thus within reach of the Roman all people was a rich the Mediterranean Successive conquests and spoliation of peoples had brought to and a taste was developed almost over-night. And in an unknown ocean. establishing in the old its control of the caravan-routes previously won Syria. The one. the Empire of Rome. Within for the precious things of the East Rome treasures as yet unexampled. only once departed from and that disastrously. in Asia Minor and by way of the Ptolemies' outposts on the Red Sea. Money was plentiful and merchants flocked thither from all quarters. its Roman Axum. was courting the Roman . and every device the imagination could create was directed toward discouraging the least disturbance of the channels of trade that had existed since human memory began. Against such an enterprise the energy and subtlety of the Arab was called into action. It was at this juncture that the rule of the Ptolemies came to an end under Cleopatra. The public triumphs of the conquerors of Asia Minor and Syria glittered with new treasures. But accidents favored Roman ambi- The new kingdom at smarting under the treatment of alliance. limited the Roman dominion to the bank of the Euphrates. tion. had sapped the vigor of the Indian sea-trade. unless Rome all could develop and control a sea-borne trade to India. coasting along could reach the goal. while "land of Cush. and in the days of the later Ptolemies kingdoms fell and passed into oblivion with bewildering frequency. with only the vaguest ideas of the sources of the it products they sought. in No information was allowed to reach the merchants Egypt. The African coast was left to its own tribe people and to the remnants of maintained itself itself at the Indian trade. Ocean. Roman merchants throughout the and as malabathrum formed the basis of one of their this entry of most valued ointments. whence he returned in a few months with a favorable wind and much information.The now old trading-posts at Guardafui. where a power under the . And then a to sea Roman subject. observed the periodic change of the Indian monsoon (doubtless long known to Arab and Hindu). a venturesome naviin the Abyssinian service. while the leaf of the same tree producing that precious bark was freely offered to the Malabar coast. at by the Romans only Guardafui and was scrupulously kept from it knowledge in the markets of India. fell into fell Roman The Homei-ite Kingdom and some old South Arabia its upon hard times. sapped by the diversion of Palmyra and Parthia itself. West diminished The trade-routes the center of exchange shifted leading to that center were the revivified old routes through Mesopotamia. so strong was the age-long unwas still derstanding between Arab and Hindu. gator of balms and spices. wars home. later events If this state of things had continued. As to a nation the resources of the to Constantinople. and boldly setting sail at the proper season made a successful trading voyage and returned with a cargo of all those things for which Rome was paying so generously: gems and pearls. capital into ruin. and a greater Rome might have left its system of law and government from the Thames strong. which had found made their the fortune of traders to Egypt in earlier times. The that old channels of trade were paralleled but not conquered. to the Ganges. where was gathered and distributed. formerly under Arab control. of best to men migrated northward and as the Ghassanids Abyssinia flourished in proportion as its neck Rome. its by one Petra and Gerrha. were free. cinnamon. ebony and sandalwood. through the quarrels of their overlords. their revenues accustomed in trade. and menacing tion a drain which was very real which made no notable advance in producor industry by means of which new wealth could be created. the whole course of might have been changed. was driven whose name deserved as much honor in Roman annals as that Columbus in modern history. Roman One hands. Islam might never have appeared. bowed the enemy declined. Great shiftings of national power followed shipping into the Indian. Then Hippalus. and in a constant drain of specie to the east in settlement of adverse trade balances. and their markets to were open who might seek. But the logic of history was too fell to Gradually the treasure that the Roman arms was exin pended civil in suppressing insurrections in the at conquered provinces. but especially pepper. perhaps and carried in an open boat to India. could offer the Byzantine emperors no aid in checking the revival of Eastern power. activity let loose And the whirlwind of by Mohammed welded the Eastern World as no force had yet done. It is the only record for centuries that speaks in its with authority on briefly lighted this trade entirety. became a mere granary for even the proud Arab states Constantinople. human is and among them the Periplm of Erythraan Sea — one of the most fascinating plain this this and painstaking log of a steered his vessel into the first Greek in Egypt. and the London manuscript does not contain that reference. Egypt. and of the conditions and ances of its peoples. PERIPLUS London Heidelberg manuscript copies of the Periplus at Heidelberg and The manuscript attributes the work to Arrian. no longer in the highway of commerce. turn back the channels of trade from their ancient direction." THE DATE AND AUTHORSHIP OF THE The do not enable us to fix either date or authorship. . and by grafting Arab discovery on Greek theory. who was governor of Cappadocia D. driven from its hard-won footholds effective Red Sea. are of enduring interest all. who strove during the ages to stem in the story of this irresistible current. and laying them down in Eastern markets on their own terms. a Roman subject. knowledge they gathered together. transportation nations find commodities of The endeavor. who brought to the restless West the surplus from the ordered and industrious East. records of the pioneers. however great the store of ography. and brought the West for another millennium to its feet. apparently because in that manuscript this Periplus follows a report of a voyage around the Black Sea made by the historian Arrian. who waters of the great ocean and brought back the the imports and exports of its detailed record of alli- markets. including which had not yielded submission to Hammurabi or Esarhaddon. east of the and Abyssinia.Sassanids was able to conquer every passage to the East. laid the foundations of modern geNot Strabo or Pliny or Ptolemy. Nebuchadrezzar or Darius the Great. This is manifestly a mistake. can equal in human unknown merchant who wrote merely of the things he the peoples he so little interest this dealt in still and met —those peoples of whom our it civilization knows and to whom owes so much. and in so doing ruled the waters of the "Erythraean Sea. and the gloom which it was not lifted until the wider activities of Islam broke the time-honored custom of Arab secrecy in trading. about 131 A. Not until the coming of those vast changes in industry and which marked the nineteenth century did the Western which the East stood in need. D. which. come very soon (The question suggested by this story what the freedman was doing outside the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb As to this and from whom Annius Plocamus farmed the revenues. as a date earlier than which this Periplus can not have been written. is is simply the Hindu name In § 47 Bactrians. after. of . He evidently feels a deep respect for the discoverer. from the Red This freedman was carried away by a gale and in fifteen days drifted to Ceylon. as indicated for 'city of the invaders. described in § 57. In § 38 we must look next for a limit on the other is mentioned the sea-coast of Scythia" around the mouth was of the Indus. seems to have oc- curred not long before the author of the Periplus made his voyage. which began in the year 41. indicates a growing pressure from the Kushan kingdom on the north. Pliny says that this occurred during the reign of Emperor Claudius." Minnagara. explained in the notes. and goes ' ' on to say that from that time until now ' ' voyages could be made directly Hippalus. the ruler mentioned in § 52. the lower Indus valley.?) The discovery of Hippalus. but prior Kingdom. the memory of the discoverer had faded somewhat from view. when he was writing. Greek colonies in Arabia still in existence. parts of the coast of India They submitted to the Parthian which they formed an important part. Pliny has but a passing reference to between 73 and 77 A. Minnagara. is fixed by Vincent at about 47 A. after which the Ceylonese kings sent an embassy to Rome. or were the Pliny is silent. and the metropoHs of Scythia.' The Periplus only guidance to date or authorship must be found in the itself. ' mentioned the "very war-like inland nation of the As Saka chi. D. where he was hospitably received and after a stay of six months returned home. the Scythians of the Periplus are the who had been driven from Eastern Turkestan by the Yuehand overran Beluchistan. itself. Their southern extension under Sandares. and adjacent tribe. D. Assuming 50 A. Vincent reasons from Pliny's account (VI." In § 41 mentioned another city in the notes. side. subject to Parthian princes at is which war among themselves. Hippalus' discovery of the sea-route to India. The first discovery of Hippalus must have is. suggesting that across the ocean by the monsoon. described in § 57. Can it have been the friendly Abyssinians. 24) of the accidental journey of a freedman of Annius Plocamus the Treasury the revenues arising who had farmed from Sea. suggests the same conclusion namely. . and their mother-land the order of events they relate dates are merely approximations. Salt identified whom Henry in the with the name Za Hakale" found by him Tarik Negus/! or Chronicles of the kings of Abyssinia. . In §§ 4 and 5 our author mentions the city of the Axumites. 90 and 95 A. or many years and six months. A defeat of this magnitude must certainly have been reported throughout India and would not have Khotan. The duration Za Hakale' s reign. later than which this Periplus can not have been written." Thus we two dates.to the conquest of this whole country by the Kushans. . and it is quite possible that his rearrangement has slipped in a whole reign before that of Za Hakale. . Za Hakale' s predecessors. D. shows that the chroniclers were only estimating the time. D. The date of the accession of this Zabaesi Bazen was 84 years prior to that of Salt's identification of the Za Ha- name is probably correct. but the dates as they stand in the Chronicles were written some centuries after the events. D. The conditions in its the text indicate a time before this nation had in the valleys of the commenced conquests Indus and Ganges. the Habash or Ethiopia of South Arabia. of this years. following a note in the Chronicle that the birth of Christ took place in the eighth year of one of kale. at any rate in their earlier portions. early in the second century A. that the Abyssinian Chronicles are unreliathe Periplus. was thirteen his dates Salt fixes at and 76 to 89 A. which occurred led our author to refer to the nation as arrive at very warlike. and probably before the great defeat of its king Kadphises by the Chinese general Panchao near in 90 A. and can hardly be accepted as safe authority in the absence of other evidence. ruled over by Zoscales. of rulers who must have been subject to the Arabian uncertain. tribe of The "war-hke nation of the Bactrians" to China. given as lasting The fact that nearly all the reigns are else as so an even number of years. overran the Greek kingdom of Bactria and set up there a powerful kingdom which. able. D. coast and inland. according to the Chronicle. after being driven westward by the Huns. South Arabian inscriptions covered by Glaser indicate the separation of Axum from its mother-land. and not even in Pliny. formerly subject who. Salt himself was obliged to rearrange their chronology in order to fit it to known facts.. not long before the date of and the fact that there is no mention of Axum in any work earlier than the Periplus. and the territory. They count as is independent kings a number . D. Zabaesi Bazen. is the • Yueh-chi or Kushans. which occurred soon after 95 A. Obviously Salt's dis- names are worth more than his dates. conquered most of northern India. however. The Periplus. and he may have chosen to follow the Periplus only where it did not contradict the earlier accounts of King Juba II of Mauretania. which known to have been published beis tween 73 and 77 A. ist. for whose knowledge he repeatedly exearlier than. The principal indication their similarity in the description of Arabia Felix. He has an account of Mariaba. whose work was dedicated in 77 A. in the Periplus he ought to have included the African coast as far as Zanzibar. D. is tempted to imagine that Pliny' s account of the voyage to time. but by no means conclusive. as stating that the Sabaeans are the richest tribe in south- ern Arabia. placed. Periplus. borrowed from the Periplus is. indicating for the Periplus a date earlier than that era. Pliny has much more information about appears in the Periplus. The argument that Pliny. and Glaser has based of his much age. Promontory of Mosyllum and says that the In this he follows King Juba. and Salt' s identification of Zoscales with Za Hakale were to strictly correct. which the Periplus has . but he does not mention the African coast at the Meroe than Axum. the royal city of Arabia not. would bring Za Hakale' is down all Nearly Pliny' s 71 A. . the sea-route to India had been opened for nearly thirty years. . argument as to the authorship of the Periplus on that pass- but Pliny goes on to describe a voyage different in that of the Periplus. 5 B. where Pliny seems to condense the on the other hand. D. Returning to § 41. C. here published for the first ' refers to the Peri- then existing merely as a merchant's diary. sixth but. ' India (VI. and his death to 84. the Periplus. pressed respect. accession C. writing 24 B. suggestive and even plausible. has them subject to the Homer- who One receive only passing mention from Aelius Gallus. D. then. as indeed he might have had the facts concerning Arabia Felix which seem to be in such close agreement with the Periplus. there are many statements in Pliny's book which describe facts in disagreement with. D. At the time Pliny wrote. and probably Of course Pliny was a compiler and copyand usually not very discriminating. He ends Atlantic Sea begins there. the reference to the anarchy in the Indo-Parthian or Saka region does not suggest the consolidated power of that King of Kathiawar and Ujjain who founded the so-called Saka era of 78 A. but had he known Felix.s 10 Even if the dates in the Chronicle. many ways from and giving quite a different account of the coast of India. the commentators think that the Periplus is earlier than Natural History. ites. He quotes Aelius Gallus.. and he might have had this information from any sea-captain. 26) in which he refers to "information on which reliance may be plus. the date generally ac- cepted for the birth of Christ. the Periplus after that expedition. A. The ' capital city is supposed to be the modern Singanfu. Ant. mentions a king Eleazus who was ruler in 29 A. This seems evidently to be the state of Ts'in in northwest China. 4.." and therewas written before Titus' campaign of the year 70. Malichas also would have been § 23. who reigned about 40 to 70 It was a sister of this Malchus who married Herod Antipas.. confirms that a Nabataean king Aretas (Hareth). but that few men come from there and seldom. 1619 eral rulers during the first century A. based on the Frankincense Country. In §§ 23 and 27 we have the names of Charibael. D. 8). king of the Nabataeans. king of the two tribes. mother of Salome. and of Eleazus. D. Herod brought him to war with his father-in-law. this mentioned Malichas. D. a 'friend of the Emperor. p. king of It was the opinion of Glaser. and was abandoned by Herod for his brother Philip' his expedition against Jerusalem. that both these names were titles rather than personal names. XVIII. {^Bell. . Josephus in his Wars of the Jews mentions a Malchus. (Josephus. Jud. § 2) . D. and that they were borne by sevHis incription No. wife.. under which name he always refers to the Nabataean kingdom. while the route south of the desert was opened 73 A. king of Arabia. as having assisted Titus in which he destroyed in the year 70 and Vogiie in his Syrie Centrale. tetrarch of Galilee. The text says that ' "silk is brought overland from that country to Bactria and India. Jud. Ill. Semitic Inscriptions. and doubtless explains to some extent the policy of Malichas in assisting Rome against Judea. ' This suggests a time when the trade-routes across Turkestan were still in turmoil and before the conquests of the Chinese general Panchao. D. Charibael as "a friend of the Emperors" might answer for a date called. contemporary with the Emperors Tiberius and Caligula. and actively en- gaged in pushing Chinese boundaries and influence westward across Turkestan. D. had a son Malik. As is one of the most important indica- tions of date contained in the text. the Homerites and the Sabaites. This action of Aretas. D. as early as indicating that the Periplus is must be fixed before that date. Herodias. 107. like Charibael in fore that the Periplus .s ' 11 Mention of the land of This' ' in § 64. or Malchus III. at the date of the Periplus the most powerful of the states of China. The route north of the desert of Turkestan was finally opened by him in 94 A. inscriptions discovered by him in South Arabia. and a king ChaThe mention of ribael whose reign was from -bout 40 to 70 A. This must have been the same as It is fair to infer that if the Malichas of the text. In § 19 Fabricius has pointed out. A. and his action against Jerusalem must have been near the end of had been written his reign. is helpful. he mentions the crisis through which Rome passed in the later years of Nero and his short-lived successors. 27. In many places. however. Meroe itself were but few in number and were named Candace. Ten loss out of the fourteen districts of the city were destroyed. insurance did not exist. and has no mention of a cessation or decline of that trade consequent upon the burning of Rome. always with some reticence. 22. This capital of the Nubian kingdom was severely treated by the Romans soon after their occupation of Egypt. and of the "rest several passages to the destruction . before the memory of his predecessor Claudius had faded. including that of This was in B. roughly. is shown left in Acts VIII. July 19-25 in the year 64. ventured as far as when he was Meroe and reported that they had met with nothing but deserts on their routes. This state of things can be D. A. That another queen Candace in the first half of the first of century D. In § 2 our author mentions the city of A-Ieroe. It is true that this great calamity hardly receives mention in Pliny's work. Nubia retained considerable power Napata. so sent by the emperor Nero (Pliny. lated and an expedition sent out against her under Petronius annihiher army and destroyed many of her cities. in the reign of This reference indicates a date early Nero. A in trade that the Periplus tells only of the great increase with India. VI. any time between 54 and 60 A. the savage tribes of the neighboring deserts came down and plundered that an expedition of in- what was quiry of the Nubian Kingdom. obviously later than the account in the Very soon as the after Pliny' s time Meroe must have been destroyed. It is fixed at about 67 A.12 under Vespasian after the succession of short reigns that followed Nero. once in so many words. In § 23 is a reference to the recent destruction of Arabia Ludae- mon. temples fire. After this. but the years of turmoil throughout the Roman Empire. and and the like. D. name does not appear suggestive fact is again for several centuries. for several years after the death of Nero. Pliny relates. that name having passed queen for many years. 35) contemplating a campaign in the South. The Nubian queen Candace had attacked Egj'pt. refers to the baseless story of He in Nero's having started the of buildings. Our present knowledge of Arabian history does not give us to the destruction of this any positive date for the war leading port. but the Sabaean inscriptions discovered and commented on by Glaser first point to a time after the middle of the century. fire The was not equalized. that the buildings in still ruled over by a queen to from queen Periplus. were not years of prosperous trade such as the Periplus describes. C. alas. and and and scarlet.. such as writing after that great disaster. of luxuries. and frankincense. weep and mourn over her. Alas. and line linen. would have been most probable. and cinnamon. saying.. written far from Rome but relating to a commerce whose sudden expansion was due entirely to Roman demand. and vessels of ivory. stood afar off. of brass. . some mention of the trade depression that must have t"' an exhausted empire distinctly of a ' But in a work followed such a destruction of capital and the ensuing political disorder. . and odours. and beasts. commercial nature. that was clothed in fine linen. all and purple. and sailors. and lament the merchants of the earth shall smoke of her burning." Now our author was one of those same shipmasters trading by is no suggestion of standing afar off. This increase. that great city. Alas.. riches is come to nought. XVIII. the circumstances he describes are of importance here. weeping and wailing. and oil. and pearls ! .. many as trade by sea. and sheep. and scarlet. and decked For in one hour so great with gold. silver. and marble. and precious stones. saying. which and souls of men were made rich by her. and of all and for no man and buyeth their merchandise any more: the merchandise of gold. And the kings of when they shall the earth see the . particularly in the importation can be . and parThe Periplus. stones. and cried when they saw the smoke of her burning. weeping and wailing. and. For thy merchants were the great men of the earth. tion c. manner vessels of manner most precious wood.13 brought by the strong hand of Vespasian.. and wheat. And and as every shipmaster. for her. and oint- ments. pearls. The merchants of these things. and saying.. and iron. wherein were made rich all that had ships in the sea by reason of her costliness! . in now needed for the cinnamon trade. that great city. What And they cast dust on their heads city is like unto this great city! and cried. notwithstanding the different point of view of the and of writer of that book. alas. and purple. but in his account there weeping and wailing. Following the discovery of Hippalus there seems to have been a sudden and enormous increase ticularly in in the the importation of Indian products. The facts of this conflagraits effects upon trade are thought to be stated in Revelation. and wine. and horses. and and fine flour. larger ships ' ' § 10. shall stand afar off for the fear of her torment. all and sweet wood. would probably have appeared if he were sea. and slaves. and precious silk. refers to the Roman trade with India. and chariots. shall bewail her. and all the com- pany in ships. the its southern coast of Arabia. 41. the date of the it Periplus. 26) by ing that specie amounting to about i>22. D. which. A second Parthian embassy to Rome in the spring of 63 settled the matter by placing a Parthian prince on the to receive investiture Armenian throne and requiring him from the Roman Emperor. he estimates a over ^$4. The truce was broken the same winter by a Roman invasion of Armenia. The Parthians. Arabia and China. Hostilities continued in a desultory way until 62. him. Armenian succession civil led Rome the to XVI. gave hostages and aband- oned 58. but a sudden increase in commerce is none the The coasts of absence of any description in the Periplus of trade with the the Persian Gulf. Our stop author's descriptions. or at any rate the date of the voyage on which was based. Frankincense Country and dependency. as far as commercial interests were concerned. suggests that at a it was written at the time when Rome and even of Parthia were at war. Therefore. which he further confirms (VI. when the two powers agreed upon a mutual evacuation of Armenia and a settlement of the dispute by a Parthian embassy which was to visit Rome. D.. 000.14 ascribed to the fashion of extravagance set by Nero's court.) conflicting claims make war on Parthia in 55 A. 000. 000 as the balance of specie required for the entire trade with India. The embassy made its visit in the autumn and returned without a treaty. at the in their time occupied with war in South (possibly even newly-acquired South Arabian possessions). Hostilities between the two countries certainly ceased the winter of 62 and probably. This ceremony in occurred in 65 A. their Armenian pretensions. Pliny's reference to the enor- mous quantity of spices used at Poppaea's funeral (XII. The possibilities are rather in favor of the second or third year of . however. then subject to Parthia. 41) indicates stat- such an increased trade. less evident. D. 000 per year to vi'as required at balance the trade. in the summer at of that year. the second year of Nero's reign. which was repulsed and the truce renewed. the island of Masira. and that these Indian imports sold in their cost. and he explains that the coast beyond the islands of Kuria Muria was "subject to Persia" and thus closed i^Sixth to According to the account given by Rawlinson. as to the Monarchy-. as XII. This truce occurred in the summer of 62. can probably be fixed than the not later than the summer of 62 and not earlier summer of 58. they reasserted in when war broke out anew. whose influence lasted from 58 until her death in 65 A. during the ascendancy of his favorite Sabina Poppasa. little Rome one hundred times in Pliny's figures are untrustworthy. but other editions. Glaser. As to the authorship. 34. whose work on the Erythraean Sea was written about 113 B. He assumes book of Pliny quotes from the Periplus. and in all his references to the Periplus after the date of that article. Glaser assumes that the a different man from the Basilis of his index. 454 b. and Periplus did not "belo^^. his argument falls. refrain too. when the Parthian power had fully recovered from the disorders in the South. referring merely to information on which letters reli- ance can be placed. author of the Periplus. pp. and Fabricius' own second edition. p. Bekker). b). a century and a half before the Periplus. D. That the author was an Egyptian Greek. The Periplus nearest single year that suggests therefore. C. and a work on India. Basilis of Pliny's text is Unless. It . . and therefore that by comparison of the indices of authorities sents an argument that the sixth sixth which Pliny puts at the end of each book. Phot. therefore. 56 to 67 A. By such means Glaser arrives at the name Basilis. was that of our author. as his text omits him. itself as the date of tiie is. first it is best to admit that nothing it is known. Altogether." 15 the renewed Roman-Parthian war. IX. that his work could have been quoted in no other book of Pliny. rather than a later writer of like name. Fabricius in his edition of the Periplus attributed to an Alex- andrian merchant named Arrian. he is careful to cite — Basilis. D. 390. and merchant in active . pre- that seems too tempting to be true. who wrote about 230 A." But Pliny himself in that same book (VI. 35) refers to Basilis as the author of an account of Meroe and the upper Nile. 60 A. The possibility that Pliny may have used his account does not imply s ^he use of his name. alsb by Basilis. His index would omit an obscure sea-captain. just Then. C. a man of Pliny's standing would have been apt to from mentioning by name a writer with no literary reputation in Roman society. is quoted by Agatharchides {Jp. that the heretofore unpublished account. Indica is quoted by Athenaeus (^Deipnos. in an article published in Aiisland. apparently considerably earlier than the expedition of Petronius against Nubia in 24 to 22 B. Glaser' argument a is more ingeni- ous than probable." imperial For the aristocracy of the writer of the was very real in Rome. 1891. seems whose to be this same Basilis. any name appearing in the book only would be the name of our author. remove the name altogether. 45-46. D." which Pliny mentions. ed. . not in its literary merits. That he was not a highly educated man is evident from his frequent confusion of Greek and Latin words and his clumsy and sometimes ungrammatical constructions. seem to have been him only by hearsay. the entire Persian Gulf and the coasts of Persia as far as the Indus river. an known enemy of Rome. we possess almost nothing of ligent and comprehensive nature. but in its trustworthy account of the trade of its the Indian ing Ocean and of the settlements around shores. is e\ident by the text is he lived in Berenice rather than Alexandria indicated by the absence of any account of the journey up the Nile and across the desert from Coptos. unless seems rather be quoting from someone indeed much of this part of the work has been and Beluchistan to lost in copying. The value of his work consists. v\hich Strabo and Pliny describe at length. who that personally made the voyage to India.16 trade itself. until his time. It is possible that he is made the voyage from Cape Guardafui to Zanto zibar. They were subject to Parthia. but the text so vague and uncertain that he else. The coast of Arabia east of the Frankincense Country. concernan intel- which. Ejusdem Periplus Maris Rubri. dc Palude Maeotide et de Ponto III.17 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE PERIPLUS CoDKX Pal. supposed to be of the Four- teenth or Fifteenth Century. Ejusdem epistola ad Trajanum qua periplus Ponti Euxini continetu. titles.391. Manuscript of it 19. Plutarchus de fluminibus et MONTiBUs: Strabonis epitome. Basilea Anno AIDXXXIII. £5' di quclla poi Trade tta nella Italiana. VI. Arrianus de ver. corrupt and full of errors due to lack knowledge of the subject. turies as the basis of later editions. Vol. In J nctia. A parchment. common original. . MDLXXXFIII. (Allazi. 281-283a has Discorso Battista Ramar musio. Batt. 1563 and 1588. pp. Hannonis periplus. or from a Athos.. begins Navigatione del Rosso Jino A Indie Orientali scritta per Arriano in Lingua Greca. There were editions of Ramusio' s Collection at Venice in 1550. 398. Argumentum a Leone AUatio. di Gio. This manuscript contains twenty first six I. Gr-«c. jino all' India Orientalt scritta per Arriano and lie p. nella Stamperia dc Giunti. . of This first printed text.atione. and was restored to Heidelberg 1816. in the British is Museum. Oelle Navigationi et Viagci raccolta da Gio. IV V. Arriani et Hannonis Periplus. who packed and shipped the Heidelberg Library to Rome. 1554. Froben. It in the Library of the Uni\'ersity of Heidelberg.) II. A portion supposed to have come from the monastery of Mount Such matter as it contains in common with the Heidelberg manuscript seems to have been copied therefrom. Ramusio. and in to was taken to Paris under Na- poleon. Fragmentum Euxino. A parchment of the Tenth Century. because of the disappearance of the Heidelberg manuscript. sopra la navigatione del Alar 283a Rosio. served nevertheless for three cen. Sigismundus Geknius Amelmo Ephorino Medico S. is In this the Periplus anonymous.". 1. Rome during the Thirty Years War. different of which the are as follows. Acies contra Alanos. In two volumes.angucbar. The Sea. Jun. with notes translated from Hudson. 1683. Gutlielmo { A mono ) vulgo adscriptus The text is based on Gelenius and Stuck. E Theatro sonus. is Kotis. London: Cadell. Sea. t'es This contains. Syiloges ion ex Epitomei tois palai Geographethenton ckdothenton philotimoi dapanei ton ex ph'on typois loannmbn philogenestaion adel- Hcilenon. The Periplus the Ery threat} containing. Flavii Arriam Nicomediensis Opera Greece ad optimas cditiones collata. Dissertationibus . It 295-333 Arrianou Periplous tes Erythras Thalassh. Cadell II. Studio August! Christiani Borheck... Kicolai Blancardi. 1807. Arriam Ars Tactica. plurimusque mendis rcpurgatus. ad Adrianum C^SARE. Ahycr. Gvi- Stvckio Tigvrino avthore. . Geographic Veteris Scriptores GRiECi pretatione AIixores. Latina. I By William I incent. Genevce. lielmo Jo. Peripu s Ponti EixiM. contains. Janssonio-Jl acsbcrirn. with few material emendations. Part the Ancients first London: Vol. of the Axcjen'is in the Indian D. Liber de Venatione. from the Sea of Suez the Coast of Zanguebar. Part the first. This contains Periplus Alaris Erythnei eidcni Stuckio Interpi-ete Jo. Cum text is Interpretihus Latinis. Lcmgovicc. The Periplus OF THE Erythrean With containing: An to Account of the Navigation of the Ancients. Account oJ . pp. Sheldoniano. 1807. MDCXCVIll. Is Davies. Dean of IVestminster. Cu7n InterOxonia:. the Sea A/i Account of the to Navigation '/. apvd Evstathivm I'lgnon. 1809. ihe oyage of Nearchus.D. Part the second containing./.m. This text is based on that of Gelenius. I. Dissertations. o Davies. Thalasscs. . rjf NoX. etc. Amstelodami. This professedly based on that of Stuck. Ttgunno. Arrianou Periplous Erythras The text is from Hudson. 1800- The Commerce and Navigation Ocean. pp. 1577. Periplus Maris Erythr^ei. ac Annotationibus. as its fifth title. etc.. of from of Suez the coast oj With the Dissertations.18 ArRIANI HISTORICI ET PHILOSOPHI PoNTI EUXINI & MaRIS ErYTHRjII Periplus. ( Praestitit ) Joannes Hud- Dissertationes Henrici Dodwelli. ZosiMlADON charin ton t'es HelUnikh paideias cphiemcnon En Btennet tes Austrias ek tes Schraimblikes Typographias. 91-121. By AX'illiam Vin- cent. Ex Recensions tif illiiserj. . Nunc primum e Graco sermone in Latinum versus. translated by W. die iibrigen iiber die im Auszugc. illuminating first and trustworthy. xi). einzeln'e Gegenstaende der alten GeG. text is that of Blancard : His edition I was obliged to adopt.19 Navigation of the Ancients from the Gulph of Elana. schichte. Arriano Opuscoli. Reichard. Oxford. and when written. beautiful volumes. und Chronologie. 1836. in commissts Gott- MDCCCXLIX. are still of deep interest and importance to the student of the Periplus. This partial translation is is based on the texts of Stuck. G. pp. 1S02. AUS IJEM GeBIETE DER MATHEMAGiins. Fabricius. son and Borheck. which are were. still. tradotti da S. in large part. Recensuit et Dresda:. Milano. G. Periplus. Berlin. womit 1861. Blandi. brevi annotatione instruxit B. in Sea. presenting the These two Greek text English translation in parallel columns. Hartung. part II. German. to the Island the Red and of Ceylon. the intelligent presentation of the sub- The Voyage 1809. Hudvalue. Vincent's textual emendations are generally less useful than his geographical and commercial notes. and of little Arriani Alexandrini Periplus Maris Erythr^ei. Untersuchungex ueber Altona. Vincent. because I could obtain no other to use as copy. Des Pseudo-Arrians Umschiffung des Erythraeischen Meeres die Ersten — neun Kapitel vollstHndig. " (Vol. SaMMLUNG KLEINER SCHRIFTEN Reichard. Druck von Hickethier. preface. \ari. schalcki. translated into This includes Vincent's pp. 715-797. . 1826-7.374-425 and 438-496. of Nearchus and the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (ascribed to Arrian). Bredow. tischen und altex Geographie. This includes \'incent's work. Hammerkh. — einladet C. The II. C. . preceded by dissertations that denote exhaustive geographical and historical research. p. Geographie. ject. Sonxogm. Vcbcr- set%t von Streubel in Jahres-Bericht fiir Stralauer hohere Biirgcr- Schule das Schuljahr von Michaelis 1860 bis Michaelis 1861. and desired. a translation (with commentary) of the Periplus by an unknoivn writer of the first Christian Erythcentury. while based professedly on Miilthe second part of the ler's text. carefully corrected from the Heidelberg manuscript. and thus repeats various errors which Miiller' s notes had corrected. \o\. Griechisch und deutsch mit kritischen und erktdrenden Anntn-- kungen nebst vollstdndigem Leipzig. incisis anno- mdicibusque instruxit... Didot. J8Sj. 108-15L This excellent translation. pp. MDCCCLV. Cjreek text. ut fertur) Periplus being the eighth title Maris the titles Erythrcci. notes. drawn to illustrate and four more. McCrindle. with clear and exhaustive notes. GR-ffiCl MiNORES. tabulis ari Parisiis. prolegomenis. E codicihus recognovit. VIII. Vol. The Greek text. The translation of the Periplus was also printed in the Indian Antiquary of Bombay.20 Geographi tatione. The notes are valuable for the original material they contain concerning Hindu names. LL. Vol. Ill contains four maps. The Commerce and Navigation J. included in that volume. I. is often reminiscent rather of X^incent's. places and commodities. UnbekannFabricius. A The leaves call translation most scholarly presentation of Greek text and German on opposite pages. is critically revised and im7'he presented side by side with a Latin translation. but show lack of acquaintance with German writers. vi— viii and xv. Der Periplus des Eryi hraeischen Meeres von Einem 'I'EN. M. xi-xiv. which has been revised with extreme care.A. admitting of modifi- minor details. contains many verbal corrections of Mullet's standard text. presenting a text which is still the standard. and of Indika of Arrian. reflect almost everything of importance to the subject which had been written up of the to that time. which are in Latin. I'erlag 1Forterver%eichnisse von B. Calcutta. By IF. .. This volume contains R/Ei Maris. Erythr^an Sea. This edition cation only in a vast improvement over all its predecessors. The historical and commercial notes where they omit conclusions previously reached by English writers. illustravit Carolus Mullerus. pp. especially Periplus. von Feit ^ Comp. Erythnci^ and pp. and in so far as they are affected by later little to be for revision research. xcv—CXI has Prolegomena Anonymi Periplus Mark 257—305 Anonymi ( Arriani. 1879. drawn for other is but presenting details that further elucidate this work. and proved.D. 21 The present translation is based on Miiller' s text. but conforming as possible with the results of later research.have also Vincent's text and been consulted frequently. translation . authorities. adopting far as most of Fabricius' verbal emendations. as well . References in with modern the text to articles of commerce have been carefully collated with as Pliny and other contemporary writers. called Ptolemais of the started for the interior Hunts. of the at a distance of 4. Berenice. the true land-tortoise in small quantity smaller in the shells. on the right hand. lies a city in the country toward the west. 3. there called Meroe. Below Ptolemais about three thousand stadia. and beyond them leys. But the place has no harbor Hunts. Below the Calf. and behind them. lying at the inner end runs in toward the south. Before the harbor the . This market-town has . and the market-towns around tian it. further inland.Eaters there is a little market- to^^'n on the shore after sailing about four thousand stadia from Berenice. 2.22 The Voyage around 1. the Egyp- port of Mussel Harbor. its the Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters. each tribe gov- erned by chief. of Egypt. is and is reached tjnl}' b\' small boats. a port esof a bay that lies tablished by law. living in scattered caves in the narrow valFurther inland are the Berbers. the country of the Berbers. the Erythraean Sea Of the designated ports on the Erythraean the first is Sea. To The those saiHng after down from dred at the that place. it is white and a little And here also is found ivory. there is harbors of both are boundary and are bays opening from the Erythrzean Sea. like that of Adulis. from which the hunters under the dynasty of the Ptolemies. eighteen hun- stadia. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is Along the shore are the Fish-Eaters. there Adulis. They used formerly to anchor the very head to the . which could be reached on foot from the land by which means the barbarous from shore. and this is the only These places. From that place to the is city of the people called Auxumites there a five days' is journey more. at sea Before the harbor of that market-town. striving for who is miserly in his ways and always more. of the bay. an inland first town and the market for ivory. the bottom which the opsian stone is found. Opposite Mountain Island. there lie a on great many little sandy islands which is called Alalaei. And up at about eight hundred stadia beyond there is another very deep bay. yielding tortoise-shell. sides. from the place where it is produced. and thence to Adulis. and acquainted literature. with the shores of on both now anchor here because of bound for attacks from the at land. from which a three-days' journey to Coloe. with a great piled of mound at of sand the right of the entrance. by an island called Diodorus. on the mainland twenty stadia lies Adulis.23 so-called Mountain Island. to brought market there by the Fish-Eaters. are governed by Zoscales. close shore. but otherwise upright. Calf-Eaters to the other Berber country. whole number vals of elephants and rhinoceros that are although at rare inter- killed live in the places inland. with Greek . they are hunted on the seacoast even near Adulis. to that place all the ivory brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district Practically the called Cyeneum. a fair-sized village. out the right hand. 5. about two hundred Ships stadia sea- ward from the very head the mainland close to this port it of the bay. there is natives attacked the island. and colored There are exported from these shell places ivory. and in their wars. . the broad cloth called monache and that called sagmatogene. there are other Berber market-towns. lying at intervals one after the other. and thin coats of skin. olive oil. known the "far-side" ports. Thoth but seasonmonth of September. and coats of skin and mallac.24 6. Besides these. and tortoiseis and rhinoceros-horn. undressed cloth sinoe. to From this place the Arabian Gulf trends toward the east and becomes narrowest just before the Gulf of Avalites. robes from Ar- cloaks of poor quality dyed in colors. sheets of soft copper. of Laodicea and coming not much. and Indian cotton cloth. and adzes and swords. round and large. cups. which made into spears used against the elephants and other wild beasts. small axes are imported. low-colored cloth. There are imported into these places. and for clothing. to this The most from Egypt of . wine . double- many articles of flint glass. Likewise from the district of Ariaca across this there are imported Indian iron. without harbors . and girdles. and steel. brought market from the month is. silver plate not much for the king. of no great sea. to the market. copper drinking- a little coin for those Italy. which fringed linen mantles. used for cooking-utensils and cut up is for bracelets and anklets for the women . made in Egypt for the Berbers. made in Diospolis and brass. After about four thousand stadia. January to September. iron. is used for ornament and in cut pieces instead of coin. for those sailing eastward along the same as coast. \alue. gold and made after the fashion of the country. and others of murrhine. that from Tybi ably they put to sea about the 7. and a few muslins. military cloaks. to this to place the voyage from Arabia is the far-side coast shortest. where the ships lie at anchor more safely behind a projecting island close to the shore. assorted. by a spit running out from the Here the natives are There are im- ported into this place the things already mentioned. a little tin. wine. duaca. assorted. a (that frankincense. made for the Berbers. and a very little myrrh. Indian copal and macir. better than this. cloaks from Arsinoe. stead. Two or three. town and called Here there is a small marketAvalites. the harder cinnamon. but rarely. a little ivory. and slaves. and There are exported from the same place. days' sail. little drinking-cups. and sometimes by the Berbers themselves crossing on rafts to Ocelis and Muza on the opposite shore. and gold and silver coin. known as far-side). sheltered The anchorage more peaceable. tunics. dressed and dyed. spices. There are imported into this place. 9. called Malao. flint glass. dressed cloth. distant a sail of about eight hundred stadia. There are imported into this place the things previously set forth. There are exported from these places myrrh. which are imported into Arabia. but live in better than the And the Berbers who the place are very unruly. and from it likewise are exported the mer- . not much. 8.25 but having roadsteads where ships can anchor and he in good the \veather. wheat. The first is called Avalites. tortoise-shell. beyond Malao is the market-town of Mundus. sheets of soft copper in small quantity. juice of sour grapes from Diospolis. and many iron. which must be reached by boats rafts. After Avalites there is another market-town. rest. is an open roadeast. to a large ofTers safe shelter. and a small laurel-grove. that the deep water its becomes more they turbid and changes all color. a tortoise shell. run promontory asypha. are shipped (so that from the place this a great quantity of cinnamon. When this happens called Tabas. Sailing along the coast bej^ond Mosyllum. because the place the north. and the incense called mocrotu. and a fine spring. you reach Mosyllum. . and fragrant gums. more quarrelsome. Beyond this place. ivory and myrrh in small quantities. (the far-side). on a beach. exposed to A sign of an approaching storm is which is peculiar to the place. and a large laurelis grove called Acanna. the shore recedes into a bay. Mundus). gizir. frankincense. in great quantity 12. the south. where alone produced the far- side frankincense. There There are imported here the same things already mentioned. after Beyond Mundus. and moto) and frankincense. Elephant. after a two days' course you come to the so-called Little Nile (poorer than that of River. and has a river. mag/a. a very little iron. the coast is trending toward of Spices. The anchorage dangerous is at times from the ground-swell. . also silver plate. sail. with a bad anchorage. toward the east. sailing another two days' or three.26 chandise already stated. and of the best grade. the very end of the Berber coast is toward the east. there the at Market and Cape an abrupt promontory. And the traders li\'ing here are 10. 11. spices. which There are imported into this markettown the things already mentioned and there are produced in it cinnamon and its different varieties. and mocrotu. Then called . and glass. arebo. and Cape Elephant. mtirket-town requires little ships of larger size). . wheat. is Beyond stadia Tabae. and this course south-west. rice. there another market- town called as ported Opone. the first order. and after that several rivers and other anchorages. the shore trending more first ward the south. 27 13. one after the other. Epiphi. sailing and others exchange their cargoes while This country is along is not subject to a King. but there are places where ships can lie at anchor. (the monache and the sagmatogene) girdles. better numbers and . and in it the greatest quantity of cinnamon is produced. to- Beyond Opone. is The voyage market-towns that is made from Egypt about the month of July. after four hundred stadia. after sailing four hundred along a promontory. of six days. (the arebo and moto). the being called Sarapion and the next Nicon. which are brought to Egypt a great quantity of tortoise- in increasing shell. And ships are also customarily fitted out from the places across this sea. than that found elsewhere. to all these far-side 14. And then. bringing to these far-side market-towns the products of their oil. of there are the small and great bluffs is Azania . from Ariaca and Barygaza. and and honey from the reed called sacchari. clarified butter. Some make the coast. there the village of Pano. the voyage especially to these market-towns. this coast destitute of harbors. own places . sesame cotton cloth. toward which place is the current also draws you. the direction being Then come the small and great beach for after that in another six days' course and Courses of Azania. separately a rest and a . and slaves of the better sort. but its each market-town 15. the shore being is abrupt. ruled by separate chief. into which the same things are imthose already mentioned. which there is ivory in quantity. them in a peculiar way. in stature. There are no wild boats. 17. low and and wooded. 'which they fasten across the channel-opening between the breakers. but . not for trade. but there they do not attack men. 16. and who know the whole coast and understand the language.28 run for each day. and various kinds and some places a little wine. is a little to the south of south-west. seven in all. ver\^ great place. beasts except the crocodiles . There are imported into these markets the lances made at at Muza especially for this trade. and hatchets of glass. tortoise-shell. Along this coast live men of piratical habits. using Arab captains and agents. after of a day and night along the Ausanitic the island Menuthias. two courses coast. there lies the very market-town of the continent of Azania. until the Pyralaae islands . and under separate chiefs for each chief governs it The Mapharitic is it under some ancient the people of right that subjects to the sovereignty of the state that Muza now hold it under his authority. its which in is called Rhapta. which In this they use for fishing and catching island they also catch tortoise. about three hundred stadia from the mainland. in which there are rivers and many kinds of birds and the mountain-tortoise. In this place there are sewed and canoes hollowed from single logs. who are first become in Arabia. last Two days' sail beyond. and daggers and awls. in wicker baskets. And famiHar with the natives and intermarry with them. which has great name from and the sewed boats {rhaptbn ploiarion) already mentioned. and what is called the channel beyond which. and send thither many large ships. and wheat. there is another harbor and fortified place. There are exported from these places a great quantity of ivory. and some altogether. whom those sailing off the middle course are plun- dered. King of It holds the position of a market-town for the small vessels sent there from Arabia. and those surviving shipwrecks are taken for slaves. and so a centurion of is stationed there as a collector of one-fourth the merchandise imported. but inferior to that of Adulis. And so they too are continually taken prisoners . as a garrison.29 to serve for getting the good-will of the savages. the Nabataeans. in length bordering a great disDifferent tribes inhabit tance on the Erythraean Sea. but is peopled by rascally men speaking two languages. some is partially. Directly below this place its is the adjoining country of Arabia. with an armed force. last 18. White Village. and a palm-oil. which is called road to Petra. for beyond these places the unexplored Aethiopia and Libya and sea. ocean curves around toward the west. the country. sailing for two or three days from Mussel Harbor eastward across the adjacent gulf. the country inland The land next the sea similarly dotted here and there with caves of the Fish-Eaters. 19. and rhinoceros-horn and tortoise-shell (which little is in best demand after that from India). differing in their speech. who by live in villages and nomadic camps. from which there is a which is subject to Malichas. and running along to the south of mingles with the western Now to the left of Berenice. And these markets of Azania are the very of the continent that stretches down on the right hand from Berenice by the regions Africa. 20. it . about thousand stadia. The market-town Muza is without a har- good roadstead and anchorage because of the sandy bottom thereabouts. through continual embassies gifts. Navigation dangerous along whole coast of Arabia. lives in that city. the Homerites and those living next to them. he is a friend of the of Emperors. the metropolis. is and they are called this Carnaites. in which lawful king of two and tribes. with bad an- chorages. gether from Berenice for those sailing southward. tA^elve market-town established by law. sending their own ships there. And after nine days more there lives Charibael. Beyond a these places. directly below which there are regions of peaceful people. pasturers of cattle. there is a place by the shore called distant alto- Muza. Saphar. nomadic. sheep and camels. The merchandise imported there consists bor. And the whole place is crowded is with Arab shipowners and seafaring men. called the Sabaites. inaccessible because of breakers and rocks. in the midst of the region called is Mapharitis. Therefore we hold we come our course down the middle of the gulf and pass on as of fast as possible by the country Arabia until to the Burnt Island. and terrible in every way. and with the affairs of busy commerce. for they carry on a trade with the far-side coast and with Bar'gaza.30 by the chiefs and kings of Arabia. 22. foul. which is without harbors. 24. but has a . in a bay at the foot of the left side of this gulf. Three days inland from and there this port there is a city called Sana. where the anchors hold safely. a vassal-chief named Cholsis bus who 23. 21. the sea widening again to\\ ard . not much.31 of purple cloths. and a great deal of wine. is blowing down from the adjacent ridge Directly on this strait by the shore there a village of Arabs. with sleeves. And finely King and the Chief vessels of are given horses and sump- ter-mules. which it forces the sea together and shuts into a narrow strait. subject to the same chief. cloaks. sweet rush. sixty stadia in length. woven clothing and copper vessels. ordinary. called Ocelis. to prevent this it this that Thoth but there nothing even earlier. not long in extent. sashes of different colors. clothing in the Arabian style. Avalites and the place is is made . the coast of Arabia and the Berber country about the Avalitic gulf no\v gether. and the Gebanite-Minaean all alabaster and the things already mentioned from far-side coast. gold and polished silver. plain. the island it is Diodorus divides. best about the is The voyage to month of September. the passage through which. embroisaffron. Therefore the course through beset with rushing currents and with strong winds of mountains. landing for those sailing Beyond Ocelis. there is coming close to- a channel. try There are exported in the counstacte. both fine and coarse . others some and made in the local fashion. blankets (not many). or interwoven with gold. 25. from the same place the things produced : selected myrrh. fragrant ointments in moderate quantity. plain muslins. dered. 26. is which not so much a market-town as first it is an anchorage and watering-place and the into the gulf. wine and wheat. to the For the country produces grain in moderate amount. After sailing beyond place about three hundred stadia. the Frankincense Ccnmtry. one called Island this place of Birds. sweeter and better than those at Ocelis. is the frankincense produced to that place to in tlie country brought by camels be stored. came tothe cargoes from both receives the things Eg3^pt. and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more. the entrance of a bay. and watering- places. just as Alexandria now brought both from abroad and from long before place. Cana on rafts held up by manner of the country. 27. is Eudasmon Arabia. along which there are living in villages. and facing there are two desert islands. just Cana. in which the All King and to lives. and the land recedes from It was called Eudaemon. countries. also of the Kingdom and having convenient anchorages. this Nomads and Fish-Eaters bay there is beyond the cape projecting from another market-town by the shore. one hundred and twenty lies from Cana. it gether at this place. and when they did not dare but received from Egypt to the ports across this ocean. it lies at it. with Barygaza and Scythia and of Persia. But not our own time Charibae' destro3xd the After Eudaemon Arabia there is a continuous length of coast. the other stadia Dome Island. Ommana and the neighboring coast . because in the early days of the city when the vo3rage was not yet made from to sail all India to Egypt. Inland from the metropolis Sabbatha. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports. of the Kingdom it of Eleazus. after about twelve hundred stadia there a village bael. and in inflated skins after the boats. of Chari- by the shore.32 the east and soon giving a view of the open ocean. frankincense and aloes. or rather earlier. and opposite this cape. Egypt weep their healthy. also horses. plain Muza. the land receding called Sachalites follows a very deep bay stretching a great way across. this place. Muza. and thin clothing of fine quality. called Syagrus on which a fort for the defence of the country. These incense-bearing trees are not of great height or thickness. well out at sea. The frankincense is gathered by the King's slaves and those who are sent to this serFor these places are very unvice for punishment. and the the things that enter into the trade of the other ports. clothing in the it Arabian ous. and pestilential even to those sailing along the coast. but almost always fatal to those working there. On this bay there a very great promontory is facing the east. and the Frankincense Coun- mountainous and forbidding. lying between and the Cape of Spices opposite. there it an island. who also perish often 30. and is very large but desert and . is . at The voyage to this place is best made the same time as that to 29. and King usually wrought gold and from silver plate. and yielding frankincense from the trees. greatly.: 33 28. native rest of And there are exported produce. wrapped in thick clouds and fog. style. which try. images. they bear the frankincense stickas ing in drops on the bark. and a harbor and storehouse for the frankincense that is collected is . from want is . of food. and tin common and most for the and copper and and coral and storax and other things such as go to Muza. there Beyond Cana. but nearer Syagrus it is called Dioscorida. just the trees among us in gum. a httle There are imported into this place as at from Egypt of spuri- wheat and wine. trade there. The yields no fruit. they bring in a and wheat and Indian and they take cloth. is Now the island farmed out under the Kings and 32. largest of all and has the thickest of which the \'alue worthless specimens cannot be cut apart on the under side. and the mountain-tortoise. and beyond this there are mountains. great quantity of tortoise-shell. which is collected in drops from the subject to is It happens that just as Azania is Charibael and the Chief of Mapharitis. neither vine nor grain. which shell . of which the flesh the fat eaten and island melted and used instead of olive oil. this island subject to the King of the Frankincense Country. the being six hundred stadia. is produced in cinnabar. garrisoned.34 marshy. and few female a is slaves. There called trees. because they are even too hard. foreigners. . having rivers in it and crocodiles and many is snakes and great lizards. for their exchange cargoes. live The inhabitants They are are few and they on the coast toward the north. . who have emigrated to carry on the white tortoise red for is its The island produces the true sea-tortoise. and the land-tortoise. which from this side faces the continent. and which is very numerous and prefer- large shells. Trade is also carried on there by some people from chance to call there Muza and by rice those who on the voyage from Damirica and Barygaza. of Immediately beyond Syagrus the bay width of it Omana cuts deep into the coast-line. but those of are cut apart and the shells made \\'hole into caskets and small plates also and cake-dishes and that this island sort of \^'are. a mixture of Arabs and Indians and Greeks."^l. that Indian. a villainous lot. and ships from Cana call there regularly. the ship could not clear from the harbor. and ships returning from Damirica the season is and Barygaza. 34. Beyond the harbor at Moscha for about fifteen hundred stadia as far as Asich. as the gods. and beyond a port established for receiving the Sachalitic frankincense. It is about two hundred stadia wide and six hundred long. and small and cargo-ships are sent there regularly from Sailing along the coast. exchanging their cloth oil for and wheat and sesame in heaps all frankincense.35 high and rocky and for five steep. the place were under the protection of for neither openly nor by stealth can it be loaded on board ship without the King's permission. inhabited by three settlements Eaters. a mountain range runs lie is along the shore. there meets you an island called Sarapis. a Beyond no longer these there of the barbarous region which is same from Kingdom. winter there. in a row. inhabited by cave-dwellers this is hundred stadia more . who use the Arabian language and wear boats girdles of palm-leaves. The island produces sail- considerable tortoise-shell of fine quality. called Zenobian. the harbor is called Moscha. Cana. there are . open and unif guarded. 33. which trends north- ward toward the entrance of the Persian Sea. Sailing along stadia this coast well out at sea for two thousand the Zenobian Islands. the end of which. trade ^^'ith if late. about one hundred and twenty stadia from the of Fish- mainland. but now belongs to Persia. which lies over the Sachalitic country. seven islands. and the King's officers. if a single grain were loaded without of this. called Apologus. lot. Kingdom. the Persian Gulf. rises and to the right there in full view another round and be- high mountain called Semiramis. and the from the middle of which a cape juts . To Ommana frankincense is also brought from Cana. passage across the strait is between them the . many pearls. but inferior to those of India purple. To the left of the are great mountains called Asabon. Sailing through the mouth of the Gulf. reaches far into the interior. loaded with copper and sandalwood and timbers of teakwood and logs vessels are regularly sent of blackwood and ebony. At the upper end Gulf there is a market-town designated by law. 36 many islands known as the Calsi. and there follows not far is beyond. where there much straits diving for the pearl-mussel. a great quantity of dates. Beyond the Ommanitic region there is a coun- try also of the Parsidae. after about two thousand stadia. To both of these market-towns large from Barygaza. and slaves. The in- habitants are a treacherous 35. gold 37. clothing after the fashion of the place. From each of these market-towns. and from Ommana to Arabia boats sewed together these are after the fashion of the place. of another bay of Gedrosia.. is At the upper end of these Calsi islands a range of mountains called Calon. about six hundred stadia yond which of this that very great and broad sea. 36. very little civilized. known as madarata. there are exported to Barygaza and also to Arabia. extending along the shore. wine. is a six-days' course there called another market-town of Persia Ommana. the mouth of the Persian Gulf. situated near Charax Spasini and the after River Euphrates. \\ hich flows down the ri\'er Sinthus. which lies above toward the north. figured linens. it is subject to Parthian princes who are constantly driving 39. there follows the coast district of Scythia. before reaching of the ocean is water. also the King's court. to to the metropolis by the There are imported into this little mar- ket a great deal of thin clothing. Beyond this region. and a spurious. the continent making a wide curv^e from the east across the depths of the bays. Barbaricum. Barbaricum. bringing down an enormous volume of wav out at sea. distant a seven days' journey is from the sea. are those called grace. storax. with a Httle market-town the in- mouth. The ships lie at anchor at up the King. the water apsea. from 38. very shallow and marshy. it is called (prob\\ ably Rhambacia). topaz. is rice and dates. but all their cargoes are carried river. except the one in the middle. vessels . and back from the place an cit}'. frankincense. so that they are not navigable. Here there is a river affording at an entrance for ships. there lie* a is the market-town. \\ This country yields much heat. land called Ortea. at which by Before the it the shore. Minnagara. fresh from it. coral. Now as a sign of proach to this country to those coming from the there are serpents coming forth from the depths This to meet you. the whole marshy. so that a long this country. and a sign of the places just mentioned and in river has seven Persia. each other out. and inland behind it is me- tropolis of Scythia. in which ine. small island.37 out into the bay. the greatest of all the rivers that flow into the Erythraean Sea. mouths. but along the coast there nothing but bdellium. is and has in eddies and rushing whirlpools. some being quickly cut off. and in others rocky and sharp. places on this coast and around Barygaza. Seric skins. and a little wine. cotton and indigo. and in color bright green. and the sea tumultuous and foul. Beyond the its river Sinthus there is another gulf. \\ hich contains seven Those who come it to the entrance of this bay escape by putting about but those a little and standing further inside into the out to sea. with shifting sandbanks occurring continually and a great is way from shore tempt to . not navigable. And sailors set out thither with the Indian Etesian winds. and they at- hold their course they are wrecked. silk yarn. and enclosing the gulf called Baraca. running into gold. in both parts the water is shallow. turquoise. who is are drawn gulf of Baraca are lost. curving around promfrom Eirinon toward the East. . and others chafing on the bottom. running in toward the north Eirinon. but winds the voyage is more direct. are smaller. islands.. and it is sooner completed. lazuli. about the month of July. A ontor\ stands out from this gulf. silver and gold plate. more dangerous then. On the other hand there are exported costus. The bottom some places abrupt. then South. for the waves are high and very violent. ships run aground. As a sign of these places to those approaching from the sea there for at the other tliey are serpents.38 of glass. lycium. . that is Epiphi: through these 40. bdellium. . so that the anchors lying there are parted. then West. so that very often when the shore if not even in sight. lapis cloth. nard. it is called parts are called separately the small gulf and the great. very large and black. opposite Barygaza. passages. which is the be- ginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and is of all India. straight to and this river is mouth of the Nammadus. hard to navigate for those coming from the ocean is this the case with both the right is and left left. and the men are ure and black in color. from to Barygaza. called Herone. and rocks. river of Barygaza.39 41. leaving behind to their left the island just visible from their tops toward the the very called is east. from Barbaricum stadia. of three is and before Astacampra. walls of forts and great wells. rice called Abiria. at the mouth its which there is an island called Bseones. This gulf very narrow to Barygaza and very . Those is Barygaza pass across which three hundred stadia in width. yielding oil It is wheat and and sesame and clarified butter. thousand Beyond of this there another gulf exposed to the sea-waves. x^'hich The metropolis of this country much cotton cloth is brought down such In these places there remain e\'en to the present as time signs of the expedition of Alexander. is That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia called Syrastrene. cotton and the Indian cloths sorts. . made therefrom. but the coast a fertile country. this gulf. The sailing course along this coast. but there a better passage through the For on the lies a right at the very mouth of the gulf there full of shoal. is at innermost part there sailing to a great river called Mais. is Minnagara. long and narrow. to the promontory called is Papica. 42. 43. of the coarser Very many of great stat- cattle are pastured there. ancient shrines. Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca. running up toward the north. to Barygaza. \vhich called Papica. rivers. and the full moon for three days. and cotymha. 45. suddenly seen. rivers. be made out until you are close upon it And when you have found shoals at the 44. under the inrush is of the flood tide. stationed at the very entrance in well-manned go up the large boats called trappaga coast as far as Syrastrene. But about Barygaza is it is so that the bottom sea. and they tow them beginning of the going up with the at flood. and the bottom being rough is and rocky. ^\'hich from they pilot vessels And they steer them straight from the cre\\"s mouth of the bay between the shoals with their to fixed stations. And the even if the entrance to the gulf made with safely. creasing the new moon. and falling off during the intervening days of the moon. about three hundred stadia up from the mouth. Now the whole country of \'ery great at India has very many in- and ebb and flow of the at tides. native Because of fishermen in the King's service. when the whole force of the sea . this. places in the river as These basins are deeper as far which lies bv the river. and now parts of the dr} land are and now and the dry where ships were sailing just before.. mouth of the river at is Barygaza is found difficulty. bad anchorage it because of the strong current setting in around because the anchors are cut of?. 40 facing the village of the left Cammoni. because the shore \er\ low and cannot it. it is much greater. anchorages and in basins. the passage is difficult because of the mouth of the rixer. and promontory and is opposite this on projects the is that lies before Astaa campra. and lying through the ebb Bar}'gaza. and so driven on the shoals and wrecked. by numerous such as the Arattii. are driven upwards against their natural current. is The country inland from Barygaza tribes. in which is Bucephalus Alexandria. and to the present day an- cient drachmae are current in Barygaza. Above these are is the very war- like nation of the Bactrians. a noise like the cries of itself an army heard from afar. and . And Alexander. who under their own king. on the instant there is borne to you at the mouth of the river. and those that have been turned aside among left the channels by the receding waters at the ebb. the flood tide comes first upon them suddenly and under with water. you begin the entrance at the moment when the waters are still. for 46. setting out from these parts. and the anchors cannot hold against ships are caught so that large up by the force of it. and very soon the sea ing in over the shoals with 47. the Arachosii. bearing inscriptions in coming from Greek letters. are on the their sides. a comes rushinhabited hoarse roar. and smaller boats are overturned .41 directed against them. and if not held on an even keel by props. liead of the current they are filled For there is new moon. sels is more strongly many stadia. irresistible. that if so great force in the rush of the sea at the especially during the flood tide at night. turned broadside on through the speed of the current. penetrated to the Ganges. For this reason entrance and departure of ves- very dangerous to those to this who are inexperienced or first is who come market-town at for the time. this country. leaving aside Damirica and the southern part of India. the Gandarjei and the people of Poclais. For the rush of waters the incoming tide it. Indian muslins and mallow this cloth. Through that is. cotton cloth cloth. Apollodotus and Menander. wine. lycium.42 the devices of those \\ho reigned after Alexander. Those bound Epiphi. gold and on which there is a profit when exchanged the for the money of the country. And King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver. . bdelUum. also costus and bdellium. and lead. but not very costly and not much. storax. There are exported from places spikenard. agate and carnelian. There tin. copper. 48. long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market- towns. thin clothing of the finest weaves. ivory. and for ointment. formerly a royal capital. and the choicest ointments. . timony. thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds bright-colored girdles a cubit wide. and : many things for our trade agate and carnelian. and much ordinary cloth. is the this city called Ozene. flint glass. these fine A\'ines. yarn. Caspapyrene and Paropanisene and Cabolitic and that brought through the adjoining country of Scythia. realgar. singing boys. coral and topaz. beautiful maidens for the harem. costus. sweet clover. also Laodicean and Arabian. imported into this market-town. Italian preferred. same region and from the upper country is brought the the spikenard that comes through Poclais. silk mallow cloth. Inland from this place and to the east. from place are brought fare of the down all things needed for the wel- country about Barygaza. ansilver coin. for this market-town from Egypt make that is the voyage favorably about the month of July. of all kinds. are 49. and other merchandise brought there locally from the regions along the sea-coast. enormous and many serpents. hyenas. 51. about another very great ten city. for dachanos in the lan- guage of the natives means "south. Psethana. and mon cloth. but since is it came to into the possession of Sandares the port much obstructed. and all kinds of wild beasts —leopards. 53." country back from the coast toward the The . the Ganges. distant about twenty days' journey south from Barygaza. zigara. Meli. and baboons of many sorts . The market-towns : Barygaza Suppara. the end of Damirica distance 52. Then . Togarum and Aurannoboas. from Paethana car- nelian in great quantity. inland east comprises many desert regions and great mountains tigers. and so this re50. days' journey east. Among the market-towns of Dachinabades there are two of special importance. is seven thousand stadia but the greater to the Coast Country.43 in a Beyond Barygaza the adjoining coast extends straight hne from north to south. Byzantium. after is And the whole course to . is gion called Dachinabades. there Tagara. beis yond which. all kinds of from Tagara much commuslins and mallow cloth. as far as elephants. Mandagora. which in the time of the elder Saraganus became a lawful market-town. of this Beyond Calliena there are other market-towns region Semylla. populous nations. and the city of Calliena. of this region are. Palaepatms. in order. There are brought down to Barygaza from these places by wagons and tracts through great without roads. and Greek ships landing there may chance be taken to Barygaza under guard. it a village in plain sight sea. abounds in a ships sent there with carit is goes from Arabia. and \vith blood-red eyes. a great quantity of coin topaz. river is full because the clear. 55. and then leading im- Muziris and Nelcynda. from Tyndis by and up the is river and hundred stadia. and that of the Caenitas.. of another King- dom. not . There is another place to at the mouth of this the village of Bacare. Muziris. place. the Pandian. like snakes in the head. of shoals and the channels are not The from kings of both these market-towns live in the in- terior. which ships drop down on the outward voyage from Nelcynda. Then come Naura no\\' of and Tyndis. opposite the place called Chersonesus (and in these places there are pirates) and after this the White first Island. 44 there are the islands called Sesecrienae and that of the Aegidii. This place also is situated on a river. black in but shorter. thin clothing. river from the shore twenty river Nelcynda distant from Muziris by and is and sea about five hundred stadia. 54. And as a sign to color. is markets of Damirica. pepper and first There are imported here. which are Tyndis is of the Kingdom by the of Cerobothra . 56. and by the Greeks. those approaching these places the sea there are serpents coming forth to meet you. the portance. They send large ships to these market-towns of on account of the great quantity and bulk malabathrum. about one hundred and twenty stadia from the sea. in the . and anchor in the roadstead to take on their cargoes. of the same Kingdom. located sea on five distant stadia. river. river. and the coast of Damirica. Besides this there are ex- ported great quantities of fine pearls. silk cloth. on the shores this of India the wind is sets in from the ocean. first discov- and the conditions ered how at to lay his course straight across the ocean.45 much. not much. but much as at Barygaza. bound for Barygaza and Scythia keep along shore not more than three days and for the rest of the time hold the same course straight out to sea from that region. wine. This whole voyage as above described. and that taken among the islands along They make the voyage to this season who set out from Egypt is about the month of July. and wheat enough is for the sailors. and those bound off Damirica throw the while those ship's head considerably the wind. From that time to the present day ships some direct from Cana. they used vessels. For the same time when with us the Etesian winds are blowing. southwest wind called Hip- from the name of him who first discovered the passage across. ivory. crude as glass. copper. antimony. sailing close make in small . realgar and orpiment. and palus. tin. figured linens. from to Cana and Eudsmon Arabia. which produced a in quantity in only district called one region near these markets. and some from the Cape for of Spices. start. around the shores of the gulfs and Hippalus was the pilot of the ports who by observing the location of the sea. spikenard from the Ganges. . Epiphi. that from Chryse Island. diamonds and sapphires. place in a favorable tortoise-shell . coral. for this there. not dealt in by the merchants is There is exported pepper. transparent stones of all kinds. lead. Cottonara. that S7. malabathrum from the places in the interior. exported muslins. w^hich on a bay.. and other very large vessels made of single logs bound together. district stretching and another along the coast toward place is the south. then Poduca. and are \'ery large. there is this another place called of Beyond Comari. 46 with a favorable wind. Argaru. quite away from the land. the most important as lie. at which hither are the Cape Comari and a harbor. the south this region From Comari toward extends to Colchi. and nowhere are bought the pearls and from there are gathered on the coast thereabouts. and the greatest part of what is brought . Among the market-towns of these countries. 60. and so sail outside past the aforesaid gulfs. There in at imported into these places everything made Daany mirica. those called Argaritic. 58. come and those men Vv'ho wish to consecrate themselves for the rest of their lives. called sangara. in and the harbors where the ships put they from Damirica are. first order Camara. where the pearl-fisheries are. also do the same for it is told that a goddess d\\'elt here and bathed. but those which make the voyage to Chryse and to the Ganges are are called colandia. called Paralia. are to . and has a region inland called else. At this place. in which there are ships of the country coasting along the shore as far as Damirica. women once 59. (they worked by condemned criminals) and it belongs Beyond Colchi there folthe Pandian Kingdom. district called lows another lies the Coast Country. . and bathe and dwell in celibacy . then Sopatma. it The first called Balita has a fine harbor and a village by the shore. Beyond Bacare there is the Dark Red Mountain. in and from the north. There and a is a river near called the Ganges. toward the who are said to be cannibals. It transparent stones. and sailing with the ocean to the right and the left. 62. and near it Ganges comes into east. and the southern part trends gradually toward the west. Through sorts. 63. Beyond this region. the course trendis ing toward the lying out at sea toward the west the island Palassimundu. About these places is the region of Masalia coast before the inland is stretching a great way along the country. there ing the ivory the region of Dosarene. About the following east. sailing is toward the east and crossing the bar- the adjacent bay. called by the ancients Tapro- bane. Ganges. and almost touches the opposite shore produces pearls. a great quantity of muslins made there. muslins. yield- known as Dosarenic. region. and tor- toise-shell. and muslins of the finest which are called Gangetic. ver}^ savage. brought from Damirica and through Paralia. another tribe. . together with most kinds of all the things that are of those that are carried 61. the Bargysi. of Azania. course trending toward the north. there are many barous of tribes.. as and its it rises is falls in the same way the Nile. and the Horse-faces and the Long-faces. On as bank market-town which has the same name the river. a race men with flattened noses. Beyond this. the very last land toward the it Chryse. After these. among whom are the Cirrhada.47 time from Egypt comes here. this place are brought malabathrum and Gangetic spikenard and pearls. shore remaining beyond to the view. The northern part is a day's journey distant. the course turns east again. and are almost entirely uncivilized. and is The country under the Lesser Bear. rising under the sun itself. all the places on the Ery- After this region under the very north. into the ocean. And just opposite this river there last an island in the ocean. are called Besataa. and by nature peaceable. there great inland city called a \'ery silk Thins. They meet in a place what looks like green between their own a feast countrj^ and the land of This. There they hold to their for several days. the sea is outside ending in a land called This. into that place and gather up their mats. But the land This not easy of access. from which raw and silk yarn and silk cloth are brought on foot through Bactria to Barygaza. under themplaces in and then return own the interior. flat faces. spreading out the baskets selves as mats. next to of which lies Lake Maeotis all which empt}" 65. and it has the best tortoise-shell of thragan Sea. and there the is a gold coin which is is called caltis. and are also exported to rica Damiof by way is of the river Ganges. it is called Chryse. Pontus and .48 It is said that there are gold-mines near these places. And then the natives watching them come petri. their wives They come with great packs and children. carrying and plaited baskets of grape-leaves. Every year on the borders of the land of This there comes together a tribe of men with short bodies thej^ and broad. few lies men come from parts of there. part of the inhabited world toward the east. 64. said to border on the farthest the Caspian Sea. and call they pick out from the braids the fibers which they They lay the leaves closely together in several . and seldom. or of cannot be sought out because some divine influence of the gods. which they pierce with the sorts. large-ball malabathrum and those those of the smaller. Thus there exist three sorts of malabathrum. of the smallest. . And there are three those made of the largest leaves are called the . and brought into India by those 66. The of regions beyond these places are either their excessive winters access because of else and great cold.49 layers and make them into fibers balls. difficult who prepare it. the small-ball. the meit is dium-ball. from the mats. 50 NOTES (Numerals Title. being pleased with the island. the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. A strong wind was blowing from the land. a Persian by His home was by the sea." Title. In the winter-time he used at his to go to Pasargadae. making the journey own cost. refer to paragraphs similarly numbered in the text. of marked braver^'. On a time the lions charged into a large and same were slain. while the rest. but were so at the time of the empire of the iMedes. facing toward birth. There was a man and wealth. we are assured by Agatharchides a means. S is The famous for Persian account his valor after this manner. following Persian legend. they swam through the sea and came out on the shore of With them went one of the herdsmen. including adjuncts. who thus reached the shore by clinging to the flock of his mares.) Periplus was the name applied to a numerous class of writings in eler's Roman times. and he for in- dulged in these changes of scene now for profit. fled to the sea. they were carried beyond their footing. The of the the account gi\en by Agatharchides of the origin 5. and happening on across which he was wind. Erythra means Red. by the waves. seeing them. Erythraean Sea was Greek and Ro- man geographers to the Indian Ocean. and not raft of put together a small size. but Sea of King Erythras. and brought hither from the main-land opposite such as v\ere dissatisfied v\'ith their life there.) name: iDe Marl Erythrao. he built a stronghold at a place well chosen by the shore. so that the modern but name that it perpetuates the ancient. hand-book. which answered for sailing-chart and travThe title might be rendered as Guide-Book to the term applied by its the Erj'thrasan Sea. a youth the island opposite. and now some pleasure of his own life. but secure in the a favorable building. islands which are not now desert. and their fear continuing. when Erythras lived. not following Red is Sea. and subsequently . and as they plunged into the waves in their terror. pushed off into the strait. and so found his mares and found their keeper And then. shoulders of a mare. by name Erythras. unharmed but terror-stricken at what they had seen. strength of first its Now Erythras looked for his mares. he swiftly carried also. son of Myozaeus. who succeeded Alexander the Great. Sea of Erythras. "of the Red King. of the Now the ohe explanation is name. reopened under the Empire in the 15th . the other." according to Agathar- chides. was limited established. 285-246) the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea (originally dug by one of the Sesostrises. was once more open to commerce." Here is manifestly a kernel of truth. 4. ascribing to the man who ruled there. century. including the sea that washed their shores floated their vessels: Sea of the Red People. infinite in extent." its thereby straining the meaning of the word and losing scription of historical facts. that even to him by to the popular voice because down our that sea. set forth. for the is a very different thing from Thalatta Red Sea) .51 settled all the other uninhabited islands with a numerous population. or. Under Ptolemy II. obvious de- Under the early Ptolemies. as people from Elam. Egyptian shipping on the Red Sea were established and colonized. but the true one. for the reason here erythra. to be well distinguished ( for to say Er'ythra thdlatta. various caravan-routes. it is own time they have called And so. and by the newly-established Kingdom the latter. Fabricius objects to 'designated. as due to the color. government —Trade it. C. and partly reopened by the Persians under Darius in the 5th century). possibly. it is false (for the sea not red). as the text has designated" by law. or "ruddy" and in many places. There were many Red Sea under the Ptolemies. and such was the glory ascribed of these his deeds. to ports of entry Designated ports." See under §§ 23 and 27. carefully provided with wells tween the river and the sea. one commemorates the most illustrious ?rian of that sea." and translates "frequented. There were also ports of entry maintained by the Nabataean Kingdom. suggests the theory of set forth a Cushite-Elamite migration around Arabia. 1. Egypt went far toward recovering her former wealth and glory. referring. C. and regular trade was opened with the Sabaeans of and stopping-places. by the Homerite of the Kingdom Axumites. now Ro- man subjects. Erythraan. called Philadelphus (B. leaving their epithet of Red" or. was encouraged. in Yemen. is as the Persian story testifies. however. about the 20th century B. farmed to Egyptian Greeks. while the other refers to the color of the water. were opened beand where they terminated ports of entry . by Glaser and Hommel: the story of a who settled in the Bahrein Islands and then spread along South Arabia. and super- vised by such ports on the officials who levied duties. to a much earlier time than the Empire of the It Medes and their capital Pasargadae. and they cleared the to Red Sea assist their before the first of September they had the monsoon ocean. W. in preference to Arsinoe (near the modern Suez). in given by Agatharchides in his work on the Erythraean Sea. and elsewhere. carried when the them quickly down if the gulf. carried with them But now watering-places are pro- vided. with two yards. even in the Mediterranean. is identified now known as Ras Abu Somer. 1. At the time of this Periplus. and the tribes of the Somali these ports. —The ship used by the author of the Periplus prob- ably did not differ \ery materially from the types created in Egypt long before. was not generally used. but difficult of access because of the bad passage through the upper waters of the Red Sea. the remainseem to be Arsinoe. The names of all description of this newly-created terms of romantic enthusiasm. D. in the bend of the Nile. IVIyos-hormus.. E. Formerly the camel-merchants traxeled a supply of water. which was closer to the Egyptian capital." and rainwhich is also collected in the modern Koft. He selected as the principal port of Eirjptian trade with India. 12 N. also obtained in the night. 274. falls. N. later developed into a general use. Berenice. By the first century A. like mariners. 1. says at 45) present Coptos and Alyos-hormus are in repute. as depicted in the reliefs of the Punt Expedition in the Der-el- Bahri temple at Thebes. each much longer than the height of the B. 55' was founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus C. the single square sail. bowsprit. ( within the headland . while a triangular topsail had come into The artlmon or sloping foremast. and. to a great depth. passage across the Sailing. It it with the bay 27 B. by digging Vessels bound for Africa and Southern Arabia left Alyos-hormus about the autumnal equinox. The accompanying illustration of a modern Burmah . directing their course by obser\'ing the stars. water is is water found although rain rarely Coptos is reservoirs.^5° Mussel Harbor Myos-hormus). through the desert by Ptolemy Philadelphus. C. distant or seven days from Coptos on the Nile. until the 2d century. wind then prevailing Those bound for India or Cey- lon left in July. ing settlements and Adulis. along a road opened I. Ptolemais The other places mentioned by Agatharchides had that fringed the probably lost their importance as the Egyptian ships ventured farther beyond the straits and frequented the richer markets Gulf of Aden. six Alyos-hormus was Strabo (XVII.52 South Arabia. are commerce. and they are frequented. which distinguished the shipping of the 15th century had been modified by omitting the lower yard and by increasing the height of the mast. sail. and a coast. built for different which were all of Mediterconditions and purposes. and voyages were timed so that the ship could run before the wind either direction. in In the Indian Ocean navigation depended on the trade-winds. probably gives a better idea of our author' ship than any of the Greek or Roman coins or reliefs. . to reach a destination farther south than the straight course would make possible. Hippalus' discovery of the periodicity of the trade-winds. but largely by shifting the yard. T. without calling the rudder into at the quarter. the much use. trader.) 53 (From a sketch by R. described in i? 57. carried with it a knowledge of steering the boat somewhat This was done partly off the wind. overlooking the whole vessel. This was steersman plying the tiller from his station high in stern. ranean shipping. Pritchett. by the rudder. which perpetuates in many ways the shipbuilding ideas of ans cient Egypt. but was and their Story: Torr: Ancient Ships. as exemplified in the Arab dhow.11 " " or.54 The Jiotia. the figures in the text can be considered only as approximations. and thence in the calculations of mediaeval Jsurope. wind and distance current. C. which naturally aried according to direction of the as well. — —Three stadia were in use in the Roman world at the Phileterian of 525 to the degree. Therefore. 1. the Phileterian stadium. was 600 Greek mile. stadia. But it must not be forgotten named \ in this text are approximations. degree =1 " . Holmes: Ancient of Shipping and Craft. 75 English " " " =6067. (being the length of or 8 to the feet. the Olympic of 600. The Olympic or standard Greek stadium the race-course at Olympia). Olympic stadium 606.50 =6086. based principally on the lent^th of time consumed in going from place to place. given in round numbers.50 6087. of is sailing-course. Reduced to English measure this would make the Phileterian stadium equivalent to about 650 feet. Chamock: History oj MaPritchett: Sketches Jal: Archeologie Nanjale. Genthat all erally speaking. of 700. and other factors The generally at an exact calculation. being very nearly the English furlong. . rather than Egyptian or Greek. the circumference of the earth was estimated at 180. and without any means of arriving According to the system of measurement laid down by Ptolemy. the Olympic about 600 feet. According 1 Leake' s calculations. Lindsay: History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. by Clarke's measurement. lateen sail. the Bombay and so on.000 with 500 stadia to the degree. ten stadia of the Periplus to the English statute mile would be a distances fair calculation. and that of Eratosthenes about 520 feet. The true length of the degree is 600 stadia. and Modern rine Architecture. and that of P^ratosthenes. to Col. 4854 English feet) This. this time. used by Arab and Hindu.50 10 1 = feet. Roman There was a later stadium of which 7/2 went to the Roman mile (1000 paces. sur\'ived in Arabic science. Nautical mile 1 Admiralty knot =6075. 10 Olympic stadia m) " " = 1 minute of the equator. See Chat'terton: Sailing Ships Ships. The stadium of the Periplus seems to be that of Eratosthenes. Stadia. came into use about the 4th century B. or statute miles.09 to be exact). Berenice seems to have been the leading port of Egypt for the Eastern trade. below Ras Benas. arrangement of streets being clear. gave 21.874 25.625 leagues to the equatorial degree. 6) mentions dangerous rocks and violent winds from the sea. By 1517. by a road across the desert. and was probably the home of the author. Columbus. made the degree 56^3 miles.5 4 miles ft. or 14}i leagues. that ratio was admitted on both The correct figure is very close to 17/^ leagues. feet. § 2. IV. 467 flf. log-line did The come into use until 1521. 1. V.000 Tordesillas geographers. and Strabo (XVI. earth's circumference nautical miles. the globe l-16th larger than really Vespucci. Le Nord de fAfrigue dans rAntiguite grecgue romaine. The who made or 24. in the center is a small the ship. p. is Berenice (named It is for the mother of Ptolemy Philadelphus) 55' identified with Umm-el-Ketef Bay. it but followed Eratosthenes. 1863: . in 1494. but the bar is now impassable low water. All ancient calculations were based on dead reckoning. according to Navarrete. They were wrong. Roman miles. The = 19. marine league. from There are ruins still visible. The Line of Demarcation of Pope Alexander VI Society of Canada. so that dividing by 360.^ leagues At the treaty of Zaragoza. at Egyptian temple with hieroglyphics and bas-reliefs of Greek workmanThere is a fine natural harbor. : Samuel Edward Dawson Vol. in the degree had become general. Paris. 16/'§ leagues made a degree. even Coptos. following Ptolemy and Alfragan. and that of the Treaty of Tordesillas. 1529. 1899. the valuation of 17. Roman miles.1 69. N. (or 75..600 = 24.416 English = 1 = 21. ss 1 1 1 Roman mile mile Old English Modem Statute Roman Roman miles " 75 = = = = 1000 passus= 4854 English 1000 paces = 5090 5280 1 degree. figured 6000 leagues. 197. At the time of this Perlplus. . All this confusion goes back to sides. or 11 days.020 A degree on the equator = 69. et See Vivien de Saint-Martin. following various Arabian geographers. is. to some deduction based on Ptolemy. as the measure of the earth's circumference.. 23° 258 and about 35° 34' E. in Transactions of the Royal pp. to to statute miles. . of calves. translated.. the Danakils Nile. a desert." to to be foreign to the people. 2. of the barbarians. the modern Berbers or Kabyles. tinued attacks by the tribes of the desert and the negroes of the Sudan. when the kingdom. the Nile town and district of Berber (and appear inhabitants. 2. —The original names. below the 6th fertile is but just within the the Atbara. on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. e. Phoe- nician. Berbers of the Periplus probably included the ancestors of the Bejas between the Nile and Red Sea. or public enemies in general. Berber Country. locust-eaters. being merely appellations given by the Greeks. as representing the ancient Hamitic stock of North Africa. worn out by concataract. about 16° 55' N. and its application to ' . the Barbara. . still another tribe calling themselves Berabra. add nothing to our ethnic knowledge. the Barbary States. with like mean- The Upper Gallas. and they are therefore These tribes are represented by the modern Bisharins. 56 2. submitting time after time to similar Semitic conquests. region that begins above the confluence of and identified with the modern Begerawiyeh." and seems. and the Somals and Cave -Dwelling Fish -Eaters. Calf-Eaters. The markable. overcame the children of the desert' who spread over all North Africa and carried the name with ably related to the Arabic bar. Ichthyophagi (Troglodytas ) Agriophagi. The ancient Egyptians extended the word to include the of savage and outlander. Some commentators would replace Agriophagi by Acridophagi. them. fell to pieces. rather than eaters of calves. —This word means more than the "land modern Barbary States. or ruddy people. of green things. Moichophagi. when the Red Aim. Meroe was the final capital of the Kingdom of Nubia. and continued as such until a after this few years Periplus. Abyssinia and the Gulf of between the Aden. i. occurrence of the name throughout North its Africa is re- We have the modern Somali port of Berbera. meanings and from them word into their own language. itself The name seems and is prob- North Africa recalls that ancient race-opposition about the Gulf of Aden. C. It was located on the Nile. Wild -Flesh -Eaters. and at the western extremity. Calf-Eaters" seems to mean eaters after the style. It became the royal seat about 560 B. the Greeks took the ings. who in the ancient Theban inscriptions as Beraberata) . like our refer to the Berber race. Barbe- rins or Barbarins. Carthaginian or Saracen. northern Abyssinia or Tigre. so to the Nile. The upper reaches of there the Nile were peopled by various negro tribes. the fully dynasties of the Amenemhets and Sesostrises. From the Sudan as the very name means ebony and ivory. Above Assuan the desert hugs the river close until above the 5th cataract. and various fragrant of which were in constant demand for from the Red Sea across woods and resins the Egyptian treasury and the service of the temples. but with a mixture of negro blood and a strong strain of Arabian origin. During the prosperous period of the Old Kingdom. the Nubian all beyond which no negro was permitted to go. ' ' desert east of the Nile. and formed a natural barrier. entirely distinct from Egyptian or Berber. came gold. when it gives place to open fertile country. and the more or Nubia at different periods. myrrh. but their population varied greatly. Assuan. from for all Egypt. about 150 the Blue Nile flowing miles above Meroe. C. This narrow strip of river-bed was Nubia proper. down from the mountains of Central Abyssinia or the White Nile from less subject to Nyanza lakes.: 57 The early Kingdom of Egypt comprised the Nile delta ] and the fertile valley of the river as far as the st cataract. at some 40 miles below Khartum. the riverroutes were kept in order. and the site of Meroe. the distance is about 480 miles in a direct line. fall of the Delta dynasties. and Egyptian ships sailed the Red Sea as Then came a period of disorder and the far as the myrrh-country. These kings conquered the river tribes to the . the Tigre. flowing into the Nile Meroe. was the market its history." probably negroes. These regions were Amhara. frankincense. gold. The Abyssinian highlands were peopled by a Hamitic stock still originally related to the Egyptians as well as to the tribes of the eastern uncivilized and western desert. Here and the modern town. and provided a constant reason for Egyptian control of this important avenue of commerce. . followed in the 22d century by the rise of the Theban or Middle Kingdom. Between the island of Elephantine and Assuan. between the 30th and 25th centuries B. and by the river about 1000 miles. Here a narrow gorge made the stream impassable for boats. The rises in Atbara. Thence and other routes reached Meroe from the Sudan and the products of trade found their way down-stream to Elephantine. panther skins and ostrich feathers. the river branches again. In the early period of the Egyptian nation the power centered in the Delta. From the mouth of the Red Sea was a regular trade-route across the Tigre highlands to the Atbara River and Uganda. repeats market. but a loose control seems to have been maintained between the 1st and 2d cataracts over tribes appearing in the inscriptions as "Wa-wat. the modern Assuan. below the 4th cataract (the modern Gebel Barkal). where they developed the gold-mines that added so much to their In this period. syrian invasions.' 58 cataract. but much of the highlands. subsequently invading Egypt and establishing their power the As- over the whole valley. the Hyksos. were held contempt by the Egyptians. as Glaser thought. negro female. under Sheshonk or Shishak I. C. There they were attacked by the Psammetichus and about 560 B. (III. together with the harvests of this country. C. This was ended by the expulsion of the Arabs and the establishment of the Empire under the XVIIIth dynasty (1580-1350 B." After the fall of the Xllth dynasty. with capital Napata. after settling incense-producing regions of Southern Arabia and Somaliland. a much better location. The Thebes is prophet Nahum II. apparas mongrel race. C. vessels laden with ivory. ferred their capital to Meroe. whose annals contain numerous references such "Impost of the wretched Cush: gold. came a period of feudal disorder. the name "Cash" first appears in the inscriptions. from Asia Minor still and possibly even farther south.Mesopotamia. in great These people. and calves. The Nubians restored transto withdrew to Napata. to the 4th cataract C). less open . indi- cating. 1788 B. 2d turies B. all male and oxen. from the 22d to the 18th cenwealth and power. now called Ethiopia (indicating a at growing Arabian settlement). probably Minaean Beduins. Nubia Egyptian. whence they had opened trade with . seems ently a to have included not only the Nile valley between the 3d and and 6th cataracts. first Then came ruin of by Esarhaddon and then the definite conquest of in Egypt proper by Assurbanipal vividly described by the 661 B. C. ebony. dynasties. bulls. These great Pha- raohs carried the Egyptian arms to their widest extent. a migration o\erland to the Nile by the wan- dering Cushite-Elamite tribes the Persian Gulf in the who had left their home at the head of some 300 years previously. the good products of this country. 8-10). C. had now traced The name Cush' the same trade to its other great market in Egypt. the following: slaves. as well as the "Nubian troglodytes" of the eastern desert. established in was so inefHcient that Theban princes Nubia separated from Egypt and formed a new kingadministration dom. and who. death of The ) left collapse of the Empire at the Rameses III (1167 B. power of Egypt under C. Invasions from the west resulted in a series of Libyan which began. by reasserting sovereignty over Syria and by plundering the temple of the treasures of the newly-established latter part of this Solomon and but the Kingdom of Israel. from 722 to 663 B. followed by an invasion from Arabia and a foreign dynasty. D. 1905. Nubia again became a center of culture and prosperity. notes that of a long of cities and was towns Philae.) In 30 B. whose Natural list History completed above in 77 A. they maintained an increasing commerce. one of the name of the capital.59 attack the desert. 332 B. the Ptolemies. The capital fell into his hands for a time. under the Byzantine Empire. II. 1. and in the in a fertile region instead of a narrow gorge in direct path of the rapidly-growing immigration and trade from the south and east. Egypt became a Roman province and the Nubians met a different foe. who had Saba. if not mainly peopled. ' ' up to the Egyptians as the condition of Moses' marriage with the Ethiopian King's daughter Tharbis. Here they checked the army of Cambyses. by Arabs. the modern Kharits tum. who had followed the ancient trade-routes from the mouth of the Red Sea. Their queen. (Strabo. . from the north. C. C. J History of Egypt. described a century before. under the command of Moses. 54. National decay had done its work. which made Egypt a Persian province in 525 B. 9) has an account of a war of the Egyptians against the Ethiopians. C.. was but a few wretched huts. became a leader in Christian thought. left The conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great. and Pliny. but the country was not sub- dued.. finally to new irruption from the under the spur of Islam. attacked the Egyptians. D. 42-3) notes that Napata . and to leave again to the Abyssinian highlands the defence of what remained of its Monophysite Christianity. and maintained only influ- ence even after the Saracens had overrun Egypt. ) Gradually the enfeebled kingdom was engulfed by the tribes of the desert. The Ethiopians were finally driven back into their capital. notwithstanding the active policy then pursued to assert Egyptian supremacy in the (See Breasted : Red Sea. and that the capital collection of a east. and with his successors. repeat history by being utterly destroyed by a desert. XVII. Josephus {Antiquities of the Je-ws. and the few remnants left from the attacks of the Berbers had joined the new Kingdom of the Axumites" in the highlands to the south- could find hardly a trace. . Its new capital. them undisturbed. and a punitive expedition by Petronius destroyed their power. itself. N. Glaser {Punt und die siidarabischen Reiche. Y. indicates that Nubia was ruled. fact is Aside from the obvious anachronisms interest: in this story. in compliit being situated at the conflux of the rivers ment to his sister The city was finally delivered Astaphus and Astabora with the Nile. Saba. Candace. Nero's embassy in 67 A. fallen in love with him. In later times. "to which city Cambyses afterwards gave the name of Meroe. Meroe. From to very early times there was a trade-route from the Red Sea the Nile at this point. which near the mouth of the bay of Adulis. and Indicopleustes. D. C. a large flat many miles in extent. confirmed by the in pompous titles of the later Cushite kings Meroe (Ed. 285-246). Here was the famous inscription reciting the built by Syrian Greeks. center of the Italian colony of Eritrea. It is on numerous black basalt ruins are Adulis was one of the colonies of Ptolemy Philastill visible there. delta. and iPtolemy sent his own hunters to Nubia. the southern portion of the Tokar was fortified by Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. —The present port lies is Massowa. It 18° 9' N. Nebaioth (son of Ishmael). stretching and says that at its greatest width from east to west its a two- months' journey. 247-223) with an addition by Aizanas. and corresponding closely to the railway recently built between Berber on the Nile and Port Sudan on the 3. for a copy of which we are indebted to the Christian Topography of Cosmas cred City of the Ethiopians.' 60 also rian is a Semitic name. 38° 27' E. or El Abreha. 228-230). —The ruins of Coloe were found by Bent It is at Kohaito. where elethe elephant-trade. the later Nabataeans of § 19. Chap. King of Abyssinia about 330 A. 359): Kings of the ' four quarters of the world and of the nine distant peoples. Meyer: 3. Herodotus (II. its location was very favorable. Ptolemais. —This is identified with Er-rih island. plateau {Sacred City of the Ethiopians. phants abounded. delphus. Geschichte Aegyptens. to have been the main setwhich was inhabited no more . to allied to Nabatu of the Assyand to inscriptions. and was always of commercial importance because it was the It seems to have been natural port for Abyssinia and the Sudan... against the will of the inhabitants. Adulis. 1896: pp. cense. XII). Zula. Red Sea. to south along the Nile. Coloe. terminating near Meroe. The ancient name is preserved in the modern village of The location has been described by J. 8) refers to the mountain of Arabia" extending up to the Erythraean it is from north Sea. Theodore Bent. " and that is eastward confines produce frankin- Here also an indication of the connection of Nubia with Somaliland. but the cost was high and the supply uncertain. (&- London. C. conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes (B.. to obtain a nearer supply. high above the surrounding country (7000 feet) It and thus cool and comfortable. the west side of Annesley Bay. 4. The Egyptians had formerly imported their elephants from Asia. seems tlement. probably Nabat. and Adulis the trading-post. and became the center of Being situated near the Nubian forest. 2600) occurs the first definite record of ivory as a commercial article in "I descended (from the country of Yam. the Tenessis of Strabo). King Solomon's throne was of ivory. 219 and in one place 74 4 inches above bed-rock. the the Papyrus Harris. sent to Yam before. chests. Glaser notes {Punt und die sudarabischen Reiche. being an item in a of gifts of Ra- meses III to the god Ptah. and whips. its — Eastern Sudan. throwI was more vigilant than any and every good product. tribal He derives the Alalaei Islands in this § 4 via Halahila. overlaid with gold. same as the Arabic Kala'a. — fix the date of foundation. Cush (Nubia). C. at chitecture resembling that Adulis. which would naturally take longer in proportion than the subsequent road over the table-land. his together with gold and silver." (Breasted: Ancient Records of Egypt. Kalhat. statues. in XlXth and XXth list dynasties. ) There and (Libya. Pliny and other writers of this period mention the Asachae living south of Meroe and known as elephant- . The town many acres. tables. under the XVIIIth Dynasty. the whole built of large cut stones without mortar. stiff but he seems to overlook the climb up the mountain. 336. cf. Retenu (Syria) and Isy (Cyprus). — In the inscriptions of Harkhuf.61 than necessary because of feet long. Also articles made of ivory: chairs. God's Land (S. apes and peacocks (I Kings X. from the same name. coming from Tehenu Punt (Somaliland). Arabia). and is deriyed from the same source as the Calsi Islands and Calon mountains in southeastern Arabia (in §S 34-5). sticks. the ar- There are numerous covered ruins of stone temples and dwellings. panthers. but are numerous records of the receipt of ivory. 4. ebony. its hot climate. an Assuan noble Egypt. caravan-conductor who had been I. is Glaser thinks Kohaito too near Adulis to be the ancient Coloe. with sluice-gates 5 feet 3 inches wide. (which appears in the Aduhs of King Aizanas). 4. the South Countries. The name 23} is the inscription Coloe. 18-22). W. ivory. Cyeneum is the modern Sennaar first City of the people called Auxumites. apparently Ptolemaic Greek. Ivory. grain. and serves very nearly to 4. When in use a large lake would have formed. southern Nubia) with 300 asses laden with incense. in cornmerce as tribute. under King Mernere of the Vlth Dynasty (B. and "navy of Tharshish" brought him the ivory every three years. feet There is a fine dam. Similar records occur under the latter. Gnbti (vicinity of Kuria Muria Islands). This is the known reference to the city of Axum. " and it is significant that even the time of the Periplus their ancient home in Mahra was still "Frankincense Country." then. but both supported on inflated skins. probably the same five days from the sea. writers . the Asachae or Ascitae. and their stronghold. Sacae'' in the and Ptolemy locates a "city of the has no knowledge of Tigre highlands. in Mahra. for several cen- The Habashat appear likewise along the eastern terraces of South ( Arabia Mahra) where they were the dominant race turies before the Christian era.62 hunters. (Periplus. east of Hadramaut. is the ancient capital and sacred city of the still kingdom we themselves call is the place of coronation for its its kings." while Herodotus explained Aethiopia as of the sunburned faces. § 16). the Cushites who traded with Babylon intermarrying with the natives" and Thebes. Hellenized into Aethiopians. Abasa and Sacaea" (probably Kuria Aluria. and dwelt. probably. apparently. brought myrrh and frankincense to South Arabia on their bladder. a branch of whom. and Axum. while people is Itio- pyavan. Glaser derives the "gatherers. meaning Synonymous with this is Aethiopian or Itiopyavan. This people. 34) also speaks of the Ascitae who astos. Hasik (Asich § 33 of the Periplus)." one of the Punt-people From the Egyptian inscriptions we learn visited in their trading voyages was called also in Socotra Hbsti. atyob. zantium says that beyond the Sabasans are and Stephanus of Bythe Chatramotitas (Hadra- maut) and the Abaseni. but and Eastern Somaliland. not only in Mahra. Axum. Pau^anias ide Situ Griscice. to warfare was due and oppression rather than trade. in that it But their migration was different from the others. Habash translated by modern land Arabs as "mixture. 26-9)." name Habash from a Mahri word. and there is evidently an ethnic and geographic connection between Hasik. incorrect. helped found the Nubian Kingdom. call Abyssinia the Latinized form of Habash. Socotra and Somaliland for the (the in true frankincense country) and migrated westward. and like the Punt or Poen-people of the Theban inscriptions. settling finally the Tigre high- where first time they established an enduring power. the Roman mention an Abissa Polis in this region. but rafts Axum." cessors As gatherers of incense. Pliny (VI. we have the mission of the Asachae or Axumites. like their prede- from the same region. having islands. left their settle- ments lands.Masira. settlement as Axum. . speaks of a "deep bay of the Erythraean Sea. VI. which he derives from in the incense. and suggests a derivation of the name from in names reproduce rather the called mountainous coast of South Arabia. and Socotra) . Bion speaks of Asachae Oppidum Saca." each explanation being. Abyssinia. the language of the Habashat. The is prosperity of the trade attested by Agatharchides. and through a fertile country instead of the desert to the north. centuries the new in his ways and always striving for kingdom of Abyssinia kept up its alliance with Rome and Constanti- King Zoscales more. their attack from the East. rela- the Sabaeans. Himyar overthrew Saba and demolished Egypt was in a bad way. so long as a state 5. then at worked with them in the spice and incense trade the height of its power under the Ptolemies. their Despoiled of their incense-terraces in Arabia and of activities at commercial and in Guardafui. or Arsacid. and hence the picture of its could flourish. and twice over- and not Mohammedan conquests . then. with three successive kings of Saba. to the Atbara River. perhaps. in their incense-lands. the Habashat sought a built their stronghold. Beyond were tribes under Persian influence. the sea- port. King of the Habashat. With of the Parthian. its port. This dates from about Charax Spasini.63 In the 3d century B. § 10). and breaking up the system which had so long closed the Arabian gulf to Indian shipping. named Goaisos {. and Hadramaut moved on Habash. The Habashat held Socotra and coast. Hadramaut and a threatening policy by Himyar against the Sabaeans. for mutual protection against Hadramaut and Himyar. the south Arabian from west to east. The kingdom grew until the later apace. Hadramaut. C. mentions a chief of the Omanites in the Incense-Country. Cape Guardafui. and their allies it the Parthians and Persians. was no great journey. Glaser has edited an inscription telling of an alliance of Djadarot. empire. which soon became the city of Axum. to Egypt. the Tigre highlands It lay across pidum Saca. Isidorus of aging a direct sea-trade from India. wave of conquest by the Almost simultaneously came a said to campaigns of Ptolemy Euergetes. In order along coast. the Sabaeans. and much of the East African But the succeeding centuries were turbulent. from Adulis. C. receiving Indian embassies." For six in § "miserly nople against its ancient enemies the Homerites. came Parthians throughout eastern the African Arabia." and their and. the establishment (Himyar). the natural trade-route from India to Egypt. the Here. Romans who were taking over its government were encourand the 75 B.cf. ran southern Arabia. "Berbers" of the lowlands could be dominated. have reached Mosyllum on the Somali coast (Periplus. Kataban. writing in the time of Augustus. the Habashat or "gatherers" were allies supreme tives.) who was apparently But very soon afterward the Parthians renewed of the same race. were the Homerites and the Habashat. Gee'z. The two incenseThen came the conquest of Kataban by lands were hard hit. the new Op- home. converted to Christianity about 330 A. and represents that curious marriage of Indian with Egyptian art which in we would expect to find in the spot where the two people came . Before that time their strongest outside influence may have been I. first is of Indian inspiration.64 was to its power broken and for its people shut up in their mountains. until driven from Arabia. the successor of a long line of kings at make Zoscales at the time of the Axum. The final migration Glaser places not far from the Christian era. The Abyssinians were Buddhism. translated in Egyptian in the century of the Christian era!" He says it notes its likeness to such Indian temples as Bodh-Gaya. preserve. and not and that most of Zoscales' predecessors local chiefs tribal kings. their hundreds of years unknown Monophysite Christianity. D. Abyssinian Chronicles The that Periplus. Egyptian. but the details An Indian nine-storied pagoda. James Fergusson {History of Architecture. It is probable as the Habashat had frequented the country for a century before. but as colonists rather than state-builders. 142-3 j notes Monoliths at Axum "the idea that the great monolith at Axum Indian. there to the outside world. power were of Egypt receded. § 25). and Axum . Homerites stopped their vessels at Ocelis on the Arabian shore cargoes thence to Egypt by caravan. (Periplus. taking their here was a new power that allowed them to trade to Avalites and take their wares to Egypt Adulis. and even to march overland and first themselves. close connection during the and Alexandria were in and second Christian centuries." The and enlisted architecture to symbolize their commercial Such an alliance was to the advantage of the Hindu traders. Ujjeni and Bharukacha. union.contact. Henry ^"ule in his Marcrj Polo. 190-4 J. . or four inches that a One of the natives told me few miles farther in the interior. Arabten und Afrika. was found according to Pliny. — Salt {op. Coast subject to Zoscales. on the ground in at a short distance from the sea. and Salt fixes the dates as 76 to 89 A. describes his visit Bay of the Opsian stone. —These preserve the name. 67) says the obsian stone (as he was \ery dark. north of Ras Hanfilah. pp.) 66 See Glaser: Die Abessinier in in masterly marshaling of inscriptions Geograp/iie Arabiens. 1880. which was marked by a hill. For the interrelation between Buddhism and early Christianity. sometimes transparent. three. cit. in India. that lay scattered about much it. 434. and reflected the shadow rather than the image. the Antiphili Portus of Artemidorus. It seems to have been a \ olcanic glass. Preuss. II. in cit.) identifies this name with Za Hakale. Alalaei Islands. the 1 0th century at least. also. . Bay of the Opsian stone. It and the same as our obsidian. — identified with H "Hanfilah" spells Pliny itj {/jp. Christians. see Edmunds: Buddhist and Christian Gospels noiv first compared from the originals. D. so that from the reflections on the polished surface he might detect any one of Aethiopia approaching from behind. was still subject to Abyssinia. 40° 49' is Amphila. of most of which were two. Wissenchaften. P2ngland and found to be true obsidian.) Zoscales. the whole coast-country of the Red from near Berbera probably to Suakin. resembling glass. 14° 44' N. and it was extensively imitated in glass." 5. 4. They lie at the entrance to Annesley Bay.e der GeSchichte und Dillmann: Geschic/ite des Axumitischen Reiches. (A support of his thesis. This is HauakilBay. pieces are found of much larger This substance has been analyzed since my return to dimensions. Punt und die sudarabischen Keiche^ 1899. which appears the Abyssinian Chronicles. to the Henry Salt {A J'oyage into Jhyssin'ta. near which he 'was delighted with the sight of a great many pieces of a black substance." 5. 1890. Munich. Skix-x. At this time we hear only of 'Alusalto the man families' residing in Zeila and the other ports and tributary III. above summarized.Qer\m. It was used by the Emperor Domitian to face a portico. and I collected nearl\' a hundred specimens diameter. his day for jewelr\' and for statues and votive offerings. sa\s "To Sea. Berlin. Philadelphia (4th edition). 5. (See also Mas' udi. Berlin. 1908. feldspar in a more or less pure state. 1895. bearing a \ery high polish. at Samnium in Italy. being called Dahalak. d. and the hist<5rical causes leading thereto. — Col. and in Portugal. in Kon. but dull to the It was used in sight. The reign i'^ said to ha\e lasted 13 years. 460-5. Akad. XXXVI. 34. . that "no great dependence can be placed" The list begins with Arwe. years. and in the 13th year of this reign Christianity was introduced." who reigned 400 Za Beesi Angaba. 91 years 2 months. Za Makeda. and the correspondence known to have been carried on between them and the Roman Emperors Constantine and Constantius. and Za Hakale. like Salt's facts. the serpent. there are evidently great omis- is said to have begun in 8 was obliged to move Aizanas and Saizanas from their places in the Chronicle. brought to 59 A. 50. Abyssinian Chronicle was composed some time after the Its conversion of the people to Christianity. and in the eighth year of his reign Christ was born. then Za Baesi Bazen. 26 years 6 months. in her 4th year she went to Jerusalem. then 15 more names. in the absence of confirming evidence. mere tradition. 50." Then comes Menilek. Zakawasya b'Axum. 16 years. in the 10th century B. and to advance them 130 years.l." Then follow 7 names. earlier portions are. D. . in order to make them tally with their Axum and Adulis inscriptions. Zazebass Besedo. he must be advanced in the Chronicle to meet known accession is By moving him up three places in the line his date. as given by Salt. months Senatu. first The follows reigns in the Christian century. If Za Makeda was the Queen of Sheba who visited King Solomon B. and Aizanas (el Abreha). and after her return reigned 25 years. C. 68 years. vvhose reign And Salt place in the fix list. followed by 15 others. 16 years. Zagdur. 200. 29. More probable is it Aizanas. C. 460) upon the Chronicles. and Saizanas (el Atzbeha). a very probable The therefore. can hardly the date of the Periplus. Therefore Za Hakale' sions before Za Baesi Bazen. are as Za Za Baesi Bazen.: s 67 But he admits (p. 100." and so on. 13. during his visit to that and two versions of it which Salt examined country were found to differ materially. that. as proposed by JMiiller. 227 years 4 months. was on the Nile greater below Coptos. recalling the Dja of Glaser' list s Arabian inscriptions. and that the sand of the river Belus was long the only known material suitable for the industry. and then became pure white glass. made from flax. Later and their experito an ments led to the use of manganese and other substances. 65) says that glass-making originated in Phcenicia. as mentioned in the Periplus. —See the note to § 49. The murrhine mentioned here was evidently a cheap trading product. Still (City of Diospolis — another. above the Sebennytic mouth. at the head of the Heroopolite Gulf. probably colored 6. The was 6. way in the 3d century to a long beginning with El. This was its name under the Ptolemies and Romans. mentioned by Strabo. 6. indicating perhaps a change of dynasty from the Habash stock to the Sabaean. and the accidental subjection of nitre and sand to heat as the merchants set caldrons on the beach to cook their food. doubtless the process used in Egypt. XXXVI. At one time it was important commercially. but it was not of great importance. and this was in glass-making. . Throughout Gaul and Spain a similar process was used. but was extensively imitated in glass by the Phoenicians and Egyptians. but now some distance inland owing to the recedence of the Gulf. cit. from which the caravans started for Berenice. Arsinoe was to the —This was linen. GodJ was probably Thebes. corre- modern Suez. There was another Diospolis in Egypt. it was in the Nile delta. known as Diospolis Parva. Glass. Egyptian cloth. at advanced stage of perfection In Pliny's time a white sand the It mouth of the river Volturnus was much used nitre and fused was mixed with three parts of into a mass called hammo-nitrum which was subjected to fusion a second time. after which the glass either blown. the Phoenicians applied themselves to the industry. sponding as an entrepot for the Eastern trade. the metropolis of the Egyptian Empire the modern Karnak. color was added in the second fusion. It was named for the favorite wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He attributes the discovery for the process to the wreck of a ship laden with nitre on this shore. and in the product. being no great way above Coptos. turned or engraved. 6. It was probably agate and carnelian from the Gulf of Cambay. . glass. par- ticularly in textiles. — Pliny {op. it and while it soon lost that posi- tion. Murrhine.68 The gives Zfl prefix. continued for centuries to be a leading industrial center. 6. center of The Diospolis —Diospolis some distance Magna —was a commerce and industry. Gv&ek. and Beckmann. but the weapons The metals were so ingeniously worked into one another that the pictures which they formed were comparable to the productions of the most famous Greek artists" (McCrindle: India. It was used for the the Cyprian copper being thought good enough for the Oreichalch seems to have been a native brass obtained by smeltingores abundant in zinc. (See II. golden copper. —The cit. as in the case of the Corinlater it was found by accident that the native earth.. as. Ancient The Greek word The Sphinx: is effectively used by Oscar Wilde in his poem the God of the Assyrian. D. Strabo quotes Homer {Iliad IX. and they cast lots for in chains. the earth having been quite exhausted. Yet was she carried away. 383) with her hundred gates. Painted with silver and with red and ribbed with rods of oreichalch. as aurichalcum. silver. and this the Romans did without under' ' But standing what the earth was. and oxidized copper. but says none had been found for a long time.^ 69 As illustrating the fame of that city." which Pliny or the {op." her honourable men. calamine. City of God) it among ' the rivers. an impure oxide of zinc. through each of which issues two hundred men with horses and chariots. her great men were bound Brass. Pliny XXXVII. The various figures were portrayed mosaic of orichalcum. that had the waters round about Ethiopia and Egypt were her strength. "mountain-copper. and it was infinite. and 6. 192). high request. Put and Lubim Cyrene and Libya) were thy helpers. and their exhaustion thian brass. 2) makes into a hybrid. mentions a shrine in Taxila in which were hung pictures on copper feats of in a tablets representing the Alexander and Porus. Pliny describes it as an ore of copper long in sestertium and double as. gold. a yellow alloy. as a separate metal.) Philostratus of Lemnos. like strange transparent rose high above his hawk-faced head. talc. as distinguished from pure copper darker alloys. brass. 44. Whose wings. she went into captivity. at her young children also were dashed in pieces the top of all all the streets. added to molten copper.-wor6. the Roman metallurgy did not distinguish zinc Alines yielding such ores were held in the highest estimation. was deeply regretted. city after capture by the Assyrthat situate populous No (or No-Ambn. would imitate the true oreichalch. History of Inventions 32-3. about 230 A. just as they used native oxide of cobalt in coloring glass without knowing the metal cobalt. in iron.\soreichalcos. . XXXIV." 8-10) draws another picture of the ians: The its prophet Nahum was (III. visiting Venice. are distinguished for the use of their waters in smelting. and Comum in Italy. chap. Miiller makes a more like plausible suggestion. is in the hand of man. Indian iron and Yule steel. As the indicates. an especially fine it andank of Persian merchants for swords and mirrors. the religion then dominant among them. especially the around the Gulf of Cambay. and incidentally of Buddhism." That the metallurgy of Roman days included a fusion with honey or other organic substances." Isle of The Elba. . impure. Kathiawar and was at the time of the Periplus one of the strongholds of the Indo-Aryan races. to produce greater ductility. mentions iron and ondamque in the markets of interprets this as the Kerman." ore. must have been the same. It is not known which is meant here. c'lt. Gujarat. that this was ductile copper in thin sheets. 6. that apparently. Bilbilis and Turiasso in Spain. XXXIV. — Pliny {op. The text left is kaunakai." made by the Next to is Seres. this in quality the Parthian iron. Probably this was also the ferrum candidum of which the Malli and Oxydracae sent 100 talents' weight as a present to Alexander. has been asserted. —Marco steel ' ' Polo (Yule ed. but not proven. Ferrum indicum also appears in the lists of dutiable articles under Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Sheets of soft copper. it 6. such as cow's blood. Ctesias mentions two wonderful swords of such material which he had from the King of Persia. —This name is the northwest coast of India. is found almost everywhere. and was called honey-copper ' ' because the sheets were shaped honey-cakes. The In best iron is that send is it to us with their tissues all and skins. X\^II. suggesting the modern frieze which was largely exported. 6.70 6. Ductile copper in Roman times generally meant an alloy with 5 to 10 per cent of lead. on. 93) Book I. Iron. Kenrick suggests that the "bright iron" of Ezekiel XXVII. and its quality depends somewhat on the water into which the red-hot metal is plunged. 39-46) speaks of iron as "the most useful and most fatal instrument he says. Coats of skin. is other kinds the metal alloyed. Ariaca. they were imitated in Mesopotamia by a heavy woolen fabric. modern Cutch. I. derives from hundwdniy Indian steel. the ore 6. who is. It even in the worked like copper. and 19. —The text is "honey-copper. later — Originally these were of rough skins with the hair overcoat. it was exported by sea to the and it found . (the Chaldee). B. impossible to find anything to surpass the edge steel. this was also grown it in the island of Tylos Persian Gulf. cal ginning. was perhaps cotton. both in the Roman Empire and The industry was one of the main factors in the wealth of ancient India. and says that it was made into cloth by the women It of Patra. Latin. and the transfer of that industry to England and the United in the States. in Cotton seems also to have been grown to Syria. way very early to Egypt. C. and according to Theophrastus. have also workshops wherein are forged the most famous sabres It is in the world. Department of Agriculture. a report of the in U. pasos. and the natives of that country before the woven by dawn of history. Any generalizations based on the Arabic kufn or the Greek . — Sanscrit. kttf n.'' you get from Indian 6.. carbasui — karpasa. Cilicia and and the fiber known Josephus as c^iv/w/. Greek. Malvacea) native in India. better than that of sheep. it have been admirably stated by Mr. Pausanias describes cotton as growing in Elis. The facts concerning 1896. arboreum (order. R. 800 B. Handy in The Cotton Plant. Syrian and Movers states that the inhabitants of migration Hebrew made use of cotton. but this could not have been an extensive industry. Hebrew. spinning and the cheapening of the process by mechaniand weaving. issued in the Cotton thread and cloth are repeatedly mentioned laws of Manu. Arabic. It how extensively in the unknown. and the Periplus confirms by mentioning Palestine. Cotton.). in Arabia. its The manufacture of best in India until very recent times.71 Salmasius notes a of Indian steel." Edrisi says Greek chemical treatise "On the tempering They that The Hindus excel in the manufacture of iron. Palestine before the same sound appears in Phoenician. and the fine Indian muslins were in great demand in and commanded high Mediasval Europe. C. prices. kctonci. fruit Herodotus describes cotton cloth was at as a wool. Hebrew. is perhaps the greatest single factor economic history of our own time. carpas. Sayce in his Hibbert Lectures shows ground for the belief that head of the Persian Gulf its in the 4th millennium B. it H. in Achaea. as an article of export from Ommana. D. Pliny and Pollux state that cotton was grown in Egypt is in their time (1st and 2nd centuries A. Professor A. and that the Phoenicians exported Syrian cotton cloth to Sabaea. the of trees growing wild in India. karinto cloth the seed-fibers of Gossypium herbaceum and G. was quite certainly not produced or woven in Ilaly during Roman days. S. meaning simply cloth. "a shrub bearing a nut from the inside of which wool white and soft. 6. women in the towns often prefer the Arab costume a short- — sleeved robe extending to the knee. and ends hanging on the shoulder. the edges are knotted generally over the right. and a Futah or loin-cloth underneath. 26. while the ' Mmatismos. yields India. carried forward over the left breast. and in sumit is mer it is allowed to below the left Generally is passed behind the back. This is the man's Tobe. sometimes over the left shoulder. the Somali Tobe is by no means the most decorous of dresses.' 72 karpasos are uncertain. rests upon the shoulder. because those words were applied also to flax. ' McCrindle. is made is into the latter a soft which used for padding cushions." and for sagmatogene to stuff. below which hangs a lappet. etc. Pliny says (XIX. where it displays a gaudy silk fringe of red and yellow." described by Burton (First Footsteps. 1) that Upper Egypt also is produces got. it is girdled round the waist. It worn fall in many ways. and two breadths is sewn is together. pillows. but is difficult to see just what is gained. the occurrence similar alteration Fabricius alters monache to mohchine because of of the same word in the following line. in noteworthy that the word used the Periplus is uniformly othonion. notes that tinct species of cotton. sometimes the right arm is bared. which in cold weather can be brought like a hood Though highly becoming and picturesque as the over the head. translated as lengths to be clothing. in cold weather the whole person muffled up. a cotton sheet eight cubits long. Gossypwords may be Greek corruptions of some Indian trade-names for different grades or dyes of cloth. ' was very likely cloth in suitable worn as tobe or toga. India has two disand Gossypium arboreum or cloth. Gossypium herbaceum. waist. ium arboreum. Ancient tree-cotton. p. the sort used for stuffing" (from sasso. Roman toga. — Vincent says cloth would read But these sagma. which was It is in very general use in all the Mediterranean countries." but usually cotton cloth. Monache cloth. while The and former only silky texture. surrounds the body. but differently worn. as to the which we cannot determine. The woman's dress is of similar material. and makes a it wherever the word appears in the text. a saddle) being the "singularly fine. ' This 29) It is broad cloth ' was no doubt used for garments such as the modern Somali : 'tobe. particulars of down from the tree -cotton. p." . Vol. ). both were dis- when the resin shellac again became more important. 79 miles from the . vermiculum or vermilion. being used for small receptacles. Kerr) is native in India and practically confined to that country. dyed with a preparation of a variety of the hibiscus native in This purplish cloth must have corresponded drills still in demand on this coast. closely to the coarse blue 6. The antiquity of uncertain. connected with the root ranj. as an element in the so-called 6. IV) 6. The until dye competed on favorable terms with the Mexican cochineal placed by manufactured aniline. ornaments. The horns and the teeth. 73 6. as they adhere to the lac being a minute hemipterous insect living on the plant-juices sucked The dye is taken from the bodies of the females. and for inlaying furniture and woodwork. It was used by women for dyeing the nails and feet. whence the dye known as similar nature to lac Of somewhat carmesin. The still lac insect {Tachardia Lacca. a later form of raksha. 1053 ff. to dye. plete account of the product For a com- and its uses see Watt. Rhinoceros. ' was the kermes-berry" produced on the Mediterranean holm-oak. Molochine." Tortoise-shell. or mallow cloth. pupa-stage of the insect. yields two distinct products a dye and a resin. cramoisi.. Lac. The Prakrit form is lakkha.straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. formed around the young swarms up by a proboscis. referring to the or. 7. C. where Bruce found the hunting of this animal still a trade and described it ( Travels. —This was a great article of commerce in the Roman world. — also as a dye for cloth. scarlet. associated with murex. or. Tyrian purple. by another derivation. in It is one of the most fre- quently-mentioned commodities the trade the is the Periplus. 43° 28' E. crimson or carmine. These insect dyes were used separately. but this seems to be the shell" brought from Land of Punt by Queen Hatshepsut's expedition in the 15th cen- tury B. pp. — skin. Avalites It is is is identified with the modern Zeila. or. McCrindle notes that the Sanscrit is laksha. 11° 20' N. The ancient name preserved by the village Abalit. on the north shore of . According it to Watt ^Commercial : Products of India.. and probably the were exported from the coast of Abyssinia. resin is The the trees. was a coarse cotton cloth India. which assume a bright red color during the process of reproduction. owing to the feuds of its rulers. At in that time the exports from Zeila were slaves. which high tides 250 tons cannot approach within a mile of the landing-place. had. and the coraline bottom renders wading painful. and the Apologus of § "I then went from Aden by sea. clarified butter. ." Zeila. torical Avalites is thought by Forster {His- Geography of Arabia. apparently perpetu- Ausan of the South Arabian coast. also to survive in Obollah at the Euphrates which was the Ubulu of the Assyrian 35. is described by Burton {First Footsteps in East Africa. 14) 'the normal African port —a strip of sulphur-yellow sand. The stench of the country is extreme.74 the bay. mouth on thus indicating a very early migration of this tribe to the Somali coast. Ibn Batuta. There no harbor. rise high. inscriptions. said: flesh its filth. the reefy situation is The a low and level spit of is sand. a people of Sudan. writing in the 14th century. make almost an island. This is a settlement of the Berbers. with a deep blue dome above. raised by refraction. coral. unknown in Arabia. ivory. My companions put me into a cockboat. buildings. lost the caravan trade to Berbera. I) to perpetuate the son of Joktan (Gen. and wading through the water. considered advisable for our ship to anchor. ating the The Somali tribes call the place Ausal. extending half a mile seaward from the town. The coast abounded sponge. The greatest number of the inis termed Zeila. the open roadstead is exposed to the terrible north wind. so that the characteristics of in its people had not changed from the account given § 7 of the Periplus. This name seems the Persian Gulf. . from the stink of the fish and the blood of the camels in its which are slaughtered Zeila as ' streets. however. IV) whose name is almost name of Obal. the nearest port to Harrar in the interior. it was Zeila. camel' also s Of Zeila. the first part sect. and gums. when Bur- ton wrote. and a foreground of the darkest indigo. which also at one time possessed much of the coast of East Africa (called the "Ausanitic coast" in § 15 of the Periplus). In the harbor were about twenty . a vessel of anchorage is difficult of entrance after sunset. honey. as is and fish. sandy flat. p. and when gales blow from Every ebb leaves a the west and south it is almost unapproachable. Vol. After bumping once or twice against the coral reefs. and small pearls. Their food is mostly habitants. The and apparently from the No craft larger than a canoe can ride near bosom of the deep. the last Makdashu. of the Shafia Their country is a desert of two months' extent. antelope horns. hides. are of the Rafizah sect. and after four days came to the city of Zeila. shoved it to shore. when performing through Abyssinia pass from the Fellatah country ' Red Sea." The Aminaean grape he describes in XIV. The 'Omphacium is a kind : — text is omphakion. Also the unripe grape divided into pounded dried in the sun. from South "of the various periods of history being referred to by their countrymen as those which our author has rendered into Greek 2& peratikos beyond). just before the rising of the when the size of Dog-star. cit. 330-1) says again. barbarian land. 7. barian" meant nations not of their country. acrid. 7. all as which he but goes on to explain \}s\zx. and pilots. 4 : also a lanata or . priests. sail in they reached the Salt Sea upon which Franks ships. The foregoing. Krapf relates a there is a remnant of the coast) and Shoa. bracelets and gold rings similar to those used as money by the ancient Egyptians. And it has lately been open from the Zanzibar coast to Benguela. The "Far-side" coast.' 75 native craft. I once saw a traveler descending the Nile with a store of nuggets. and then lozenges. in on the river Zaire in Congo learned the existence of the Abyssinian church. says olive still ( XII. the latter from the Aminasan grape. The verjuice a is put into earthen vessels. traversing till for seven months a country of pagans wear- ing golden bracelets. p.. Ajam means among Egyptians and Greeks 'bar' Barr Ajam. " just —According to Burton el {op. Western I India. coming from \^'est tribe to tribe through the heart of Africa. in a mortar. Pliny of oil obtained from the olive while and the vine — the former is produced by pressing the white. large and small. repeatedly heard at Zeila and at Harrar that traders had visited West. chick-pea. and dry to the taste. The is best is reddish. from great distances and South. namely that Guineh (the Guinea : Mr. 12 ) the Somali tribes called their country the translates as all nations not Arab. and were navigated by "Rajput" or Hindu pp. written before modern discovery had altered the trade of Africa. sinia. the Portuguese Travelers in Western Africa assert that Fakihs or the pilgrimage. the tribes who had crossed the gulf at Aden farther side. slave trade between Connection between the east the time of Joao I. indicates the same condition as that existing in ancient to the coast of the proved that a caravan line is history: a well-established trade to Egypt and South Arabia. 60) Juice of sour grapes. Arabia. tale current in Abys- and west formerly existed. Burton the far {op." {pera. and then stored in vessels of Cyprian copper. cit. they traded with Berbera. trade at The name seems to apply to the migration and Arabia. and quinsy. the humid such as the mouth. Noah. up in what is now Southern Russia. spitting of blood. Omphacium is heals ulcerations of etc. so far as known. 4) says again: parts of the body.gyptians to Osiris. of wild wheat in modern India. to the patriarch Hebrews. order seems to have begun in Asia Minor it and Syria. It was grown by the Swiss lake-dwellers about 1500 B." Villars. the P. Graminece. but within the period of written history to the gods: is almost uni- versal. Virgil." were mulberry trees were cotton. and has been found in a brick of one of the Egyptian pyramids dating from about 3350 B. and particularly Later a great wheat area was opened Egypt. each of which has independent and definite names for the grain. tonsillary glands. It shows that South Arabia. 121. I itacea. from India. 39. but the Periplus distinguishes between wheat and rice as coming from India. It is modified by the admixture honey or very useful. the the case of the Romans Bacchus. 7. ' ' (XXIII.. as a wheat country that time. prehistoric. Socotra and East Africa had wheat not only from Egypt but usually (. the former with silkworm cocoons bred on them. at which has not been considered p.) Velleraque ut Pliny depectant tenuia Seres.' 76 woolly grape — so that we not be surprised at the wool-bearing trees of the Seres or the Indians. than the most ancient languages. In the early Roman Empire vast quantities of wheat were raised in Sicily. cit. The Chinese grew it 2700 B. De Candolle. The Hindus might certainly have had the seed from Egypt and cultivated it. for dysentery. Linn. "The most useful of all kinds of oil (other omphacium. 1082) thinks wild rice {_Ory%a coarctata) Watt may have been intended. It is good for the gums. too. there of the whiteness of the teeth. C. introduction was ascribed to by the Greeks to or in Dionysos. nothing better as a preservative It checks profuse perspiration. — Tritkum says vulgare." in And than olive) is XXIII. Wine. order is Wheat. after Alexandria and Antioch fell into Saracen hands. latter f oliis These {Georgks. is The trade in wheat also as described in the Periplus interesting. The of powerful action of omphacium raisin wine. Gaul. Originally it was doubtless a wild grass which under cultivation assumed varying forms. The vine and the . for shipment to Rome. 7. C. II. but Watt notes the complete absence. cf. C. which finally supplanted Egypt in the markets of Constantinople.op. The fermented The culture of the vine It — juice of J'itis vinifera. and if kept from is time to time in the mouth. It is The older cultivation of wheat. North Africa. In the valleys of the Seine produced until the later days of the Roman and Moselle wine was not Empire. the Statanian. and stimulated exports by restricting viticulture in the provGreeks to southern Gaul. copper. of the Greek wines the best were Aegean islands and the Asiatic coast near Ephesus (Strabo. lead. coming overland from tin very soon they discovered the Spanish finally that of and traced to its source. others (§ 49). cinnamon and salt. in the vicinity of the modern Naples. kassiteros. gold. Greek. — Hebrew. this may have included grape-wine from Yemen (§ 24) but was principally date- Italian wine was preferred to wine from the Persian Gulf (§36). having was utilized industrially at after been It introduced silver. and Cornwall. besides its other respects." Sanscrit. the modern Latakia. The Laodicean wine was from Laodicea on the Syrian coast. 18). it The Phoenician traders may have tribe to it first on the Black Sea coast. VI. of Antioch. The Phoenicians carried the vine to Spain. some 60 miles south II. 15). all "the Romans procured their finest wines. This was from the plain of Campania. 1. Arabian wine was also carried to India. it having been lately discovered that it can be kept to ripen. is overhanging the 7. the popular taste demanded a wine highly flavored with extraneous substances. and the product appears in commerce from the earliest times. the Somali Coast. the ritory. fostered by the Roman republic. the product of Gahcia and Cornwall. South Arabia. of which the tain greater part exported to Alexandria. and mercury. city planted almost to its The whole mounsummit with vines. bedil. and the Calenian. Latin. and the It was unknown in early Italy. 13). ter- 9) says: "it is a very well-built city. That of Surrentum is now esteemed equal to these. whence Strabo tells us (V. At the time of the Periplus. stannum. This metal. made found tribe . requiring continued cultivation from year to year." Petronius ( Cena Trimakhionis) mentions a Falernian wine which had been ripened 100 years.77 olive. with a fertility in is good harbor. but was which restricted imports of foreign growths. The and India. Tin. the Falernian. The wine from the time of Ezekiel Damacus valley was an important export in the (XXVII. East Africa. such as myrrh and other gums. its appearance in the Mediterranean world soon after the migra- tion of the Phoenicians to Syria. inces. Strabo (XVI. Periplus tells us that Italian and Laodicean wines were im- ported into Abyssinia. kasthira. a comparatively late period. iron. of the XIV. almost dis- tinguish settled civilization of both industries from nomadic conditions. abounds with wine. The value of tin in hardening . stannum. it but to judge from Pliny's ac- count. build by the Pharaoh Taharka at mention of tin Xapata (688-663 B. to the and the establishment of their colony of Alassilia was largely due discovery of the British metal coming overland to the mouth of the Rhone. letters The Amarna from the King of Alashia f Cyprus). (Breasted. the damage from his government on returning home. IV). Suetonius VI.' 78 copper was soon understood. iron. lead. C. III f Egypt. as a is thrice mentioned in the Papyrus Harris. and of the shipment of the resultant bronze separate metal. here it appears with silver. finding himself followed by a Roman vessel on the Atlantic coast of Spain. Vol. well known. lead. 249) from the teros. According Lassen to the Periplus. their understanding of was vague. 22. The Romans ultimately conquered both Galicia and Corn- and then controlled the trade. (Fitell. the departed") was also applied to the metallic residue from silver-smelting Pliny. of stqne ornamented with gold. under Rameses in 1198-1167 B. indicate the possibility of the 15th centun. early references to this There because the is much confusion in the Hebrew iedi/ ( meaning metal. the Carthaginians. and tin. determining metals. The stela of Tanutamon describes a hall for the god Amon. anA basis for plumbum candidum. and stannum. distinguishes plumbum definite nigrum.X'XVII.) and sub- stituted aurichalcum tin. and double doors of electrum vv-as with bolts of tin. ran his ship ashore rather than divulge his destination. Ancient Records of Egypt. This stannum could not have been but rather an alloy of lead.' B. appearance was often the only guide. as coming from Spain. it v\ similarity between the Sanscrit tin kasthira and Oppert. wall. to kassiteros The same comparison Without any and stannum. 11) of the Phcenician captain who. carefully they guarded How the secret of its production appears in V. and lead. D. of cedar incensed with ). (69 A. in the Tell-eluse of tin there in the to tablets. B\ the Greeks the true tin understood and extensively used. and collected Strabo's story (III. for — a mixture of silver. C. and the trade was monopolized for centuries by the Phoenicians and their descendants. ( Indische Alterthuinskundc. of course. 192 J says that the Emperor Vitellius took away pure all the gold and silver from the temples. like pewter. seems probable that the' Sanscrit word was . to both Somaliland and India. C). By the time of Ezekiel (. tin was shipped from Egypt 1. with a tablet myrrh of Punt. example. This confirms the Numbers XXXI. arguing and the Greek kassibut a late addition to the ould transfer the earliest trade to India and Malacca. 12) it was. applies and occasionally copper and mercury. 79 language. borrowed from the stated by the Periplus in Greek with Vol. It is now the leading port of this coast. Beckmann.} From Burton: First Footsteps in East Africa.. op.. Ill. the capital of British Somaliland. to India from the west. Malao is the modern Berbera. . 8. as §§ 49 and 56. II. and the center of the caravan trade to the Glaser iShzze. See also Movers. 45° 5' E. cit. the metal itself. interior. BEHBJEHAH { SaunSmgs in ^hihonhs. which. 10° 25' N. 200-230. came Phinizier. — Concerning frankincense in general. of the stream of sweet water flowing into and of the interior trade and the great periodical fair. while Bulbar is on the open beach. and often superior to. " This gum or is resin dissolves and. Bahrein and Bassora. the Nabataean Troglodyta:'..) as a "large evergreen of the forests at the foot of the Western Ghats from Kanara to in Travancore. which Duaca is is identified appears in several Arabic inscriptions as a variety of frankincense. see under §§ 29-32. It is. ascending to 4000 turpentine or drying oils. a colony of the Nabataei." Indian copal. etc. by Dioscorides as the exudation of a (XII. like copal. Yet Fabricius (p.duakh. 8. Henry Yule identifies it with Indian copal.80 p. Macir mentioned by Dioscorides it as an aromatic bark. Alalabar tallow. the gum exuded from Vateria Indica. 197) w\th. thinks the 8. {Boswellia neglecta) ) was and that the Arabian \arieties (^Boswellia serrata. pp. possible that the true frankincense native here. frequented interior by caravans from the and by sailing vessels from Yemen.. . about 30 miles farther west. sheltering spit running out at Berbera. used to control fermentation. places it beyond doubt which has such a spit. which is mentioned by Pliny as a dye (probably in confusion with lac). but the description of the in from the east" just S 8. is feet. through Glaser iSki%%e. cit. the it. and beyond as as Bombay. he says. a duka. "Far-side" frankincense. 407-418) gives a detailed description of town and harbor. from the country that produces came is PHny cinna- mon. 8. at. 1105. trees. Burton i_op. The is bark also very astringent. —The text is kankmnon. cit. 196) would identify it with Bulbar. indeed. Burton i^op. and the Somali pine. trade-name in modern Aden for a certain quality of frankincense. 16) says that was brought from India." 196) positive that it is no Arabian product. of the text. ning parallel with this coast. chiefly used for in making and is varnishes. rich tannin. being a red bark . the same trade as that described in § 14. order Dipterocarpea. and used for incense. of Egypt at the earlier. the far South Arabian coast. the 8. Pliny (XII. It Somali frankincense figures in the trade time of the Punt expeditions. "4000 to 6000 wild feet. thickly covered with gum-arabic and frankincense p. 44) says that it wood like myrrh. the Arabian. Col.. Muscat. which is described by Watt iop. fig 416) describes the range of mountains runsome 30 miles inland from Berbera. 124) in curious disregard Malao frankincense was imported from Arabia! by Glaser (Skizze. Linn. were a later cultivation. or white dammar. p. and probably different much was from. so does the as "island close to shore" identify Hais I' Mundus. p. in Somaliland as mokhr. it 10° 52' with Berbera. and says it was much frequented by Arab and Somali with Burnt Island (11° 15' N. tribes. It is noteworthy Ocean begins here. they having found on the Malabar liquid coast. or of a decoction. 197) would identify is probably the Hais. oil. cit.. (11° 28' N. 45° 50' E. astringent. The text gives no help in the way of local description. Mocrotu was probably a high grade of frankincense.. ignoring not only that Pliny says the Atlantic the coast of Azania. as between Malao and more or less. ascending the lower Himalaya to 3500 and to a similar altitude this plant on the are hills of Southern India. 285) describes a small island protecting this little harbor. antidysenteric and is anthelmintic. terica. in dyeing.. 9. 640) as found throughout India and Burma. The preparation. 10. used much used for furniture and turnery. described by Watt a small deciduous tree. 46° 50' E. cit. generally in the form of a solid or is extract. feet. ' The seeds The wood yield a fixed is and the wood-ash carving. modern Bandar Glaser {Shzze. ) is less probable because that island too far from shore to afford protection to small vessels. and that the same word appears (Skizzc. Both bark and seed of among the most important medicines in the By the Portuguese this was called Hindu materia medica. Mundus text N. But the gives 'two or three days' sail' Mundus. or in Mahri.. or Aer ApocynacecE. between ' the "sheltering spit" identifies Berbera as Malao. Glaser is 199-201) notes that the Arabic name for the best variety mghairot. a remedy for dysentery. owing to its great it merit in the treatment of dysentery. Wall. was used in medicine as a specific for dysentery. ) many miles farther west. 9. p. but he does not identify the tree. much for And just the 30 miles. consisting of the root-bark of a tree native on the Malabar coast. as .' 81 growing upon a large root. This macir was doubtless the root-bark of Holarrhena antidysen(op. mghdr. 49° 35' E. Lassen (o/). 31) identifies it with makara. mixed with honey. 47° 15' is Miiller's identification E.. A decoction of this bark. altogether too Bulbar and Berbera.) Glaser prefers Ras Khamzir (10° 55'N. Mosyllum is placed by most commentators at Ras Hantara. He was ignorant of the tree itself. bearing the name of the tree that produced it.. is From this to the Greek of the text the change negligible. Vivien de Saint-Martin {Le Nord de Afrique dans I'antiquite grecque et romairie. herba malabarica. Ill. of a fine color. Cant. tamala C. pi^e^. in the 3d century B. and best sort is on the palate with a slight sensation of heat. culilawan C. a long description of is it it. IV. khinemon (Exod. C. bark. Cinnamon and cassia are the flower-tips. Die Naiiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. iromWchrcw kheneh. javaneum C. He says it "grows Arabia. Cinnamon was was used familiar to both the as an incense. meant 8. cassia C. but the bly. 23. 2. mention cinnamon wood as one of the "marvels of the of the . XXX. Cinnamomum Sect. XXX. and as a flavor in oils Greeks and Romans. Cinnamon. rather a Cape of Spices itself. Latin canna. 19. classify Engler and Prantl. The . the 24). 14). by the way. red. and and salves. was reputed to have been the eastward limit of the conquests of Ptolemy Euergetes. It is menDioscorides gives the best sort in tioned by Hippocrates. in the 15th century B. parthenoxylon Cinnamon anointing oil is mentioned as one of the ingredients of the sacred Hebrew priests (Exod. King of Egypt. This up into 2i usually. and wood of Burma and China. C. Tibet. bites straight. XLV. French cannelle. therefore. small pipes and was called kinnamomon. text is kasia. altogether prominent headland on the such as Ras Hantara. Camphora including C. long. \\\ 17. follows them as Lauracae Persoideae Cinnamomeas: 1. Theophrastus. almost like coral. XXX). and pipy. iners Sect. as disrolled tinguished from the flower-tips and tender bark. from Hebrew kma fPs.: : 82 described in § 15. country of Punt" which were brought back to Egypt. camphora C. This. zeylanicum C. Ezek. several varieties of laurel native in India. — The XXVII. 1. The Egyptian inscriptions of Queen Hatshepsut's expedition. wood split lengthwise. 10. Prov. Malabathrum including C. Mosyllum was probacoast. the modern which cassia. and Pliny. in Roman times. and this cinnamon is . ' ' And this cinnamon. to the country of origin. In India various barks and twigs are sold as cassia and cinnamon. and very fragrant. from sort is the different places like the casta that which is The cinnamon has where it grows. the former was valued 50 denarii. IV. Pliny (VI. to which Strabo and other Roman writers refer as the regio cinnamomifera in the same belief. naturally so. like a small twig or spray Roman latter at writers distinguish at between true cinnamon and cassia. and according to Watt (»/>. and there mixed with bark from the laurel-groves mentioned in § 11 The Periplus and by Strabo." which in Greek legend meant India. as well as the cassia. brought from India and the Far East to the Somali coast. he is says. 14) (XXI. p. as the Phoenicians brought He distinguishes cinnamon. where the requisite conditions of soil and climate do not exist. and the The Romans could not distinguish between species. But there is no sign of a cinnamon it tree in that region at present. notes also (§10) the "larger ships" required at Mosyllum for the cinnamon trade. and gives a fabulous story of its recovery from the nests of great birds in those countries in which The Bacchus was nursed. in its greatest perfection. As thence. something between the color of wine and of knots. This was probably the very midst of the Land of Punt" whence the Egyptian fleet brought cinnamon 15 centuries mon was before. Strabo came from the "far interior" of this it Pliny region. ' a dark ash. and distributed by them on solemn occasions. the split wood. classification was according to the appearance of the product as it came mentions to them. the The Periplus makes no distinction. and taken thence to Arabia and Egypt. . Herodotus (book III) states that it cassia was from Arabia. 1500 denarii (about $325) the pound. cit. which were reserved for the emperors and paCassia was tricians. over vast tracts of sea" to Ocelis who took five years Here are indications that the true cinnamaking the round trip. the commercial article. 29) indicates that (XVI. and that nearer the coast only the "false cassia" grew. many names. cassia" it at Mosyllum and Opone. and included the bark. of a dark color. 42) in says that was merely trans-shipped there. under the Empire. . Cinnamon. called Mosyllitic.. probably meant the tender shoots and flower-tips of the tree. and the "harder cassia" at Malao. But the best of Mosyllum. 313) it is still almost impossible to .' that called %igir. and their root. when full fresh. Periplus says that it was produced in Somaliland. says that it came from Aethiopia and was brought by the Troglodytes. with a scent like a rose. at. Little Nile River. first where Chini. evergreen. and Southern China. which they bought in India while still unable to obtain cinnamon there. 49° . cit. iners. is 131. torically the first to Cassia bark iC. I. and warns traders against the dark and badly packed" product of Malabar. trees are of fairly large growth. also suggest a Another reading Neilo- which might But in east. Ind. Comm. 389. op. from China to Persia.. D. The Malabar bark was less valuable. Marco Yule Ed. being from C. which it passed on its varieties: that of the Malabar mountains from C. perhaps a is reflection of ptolemaion. Burma. See Watt. . Persian records invariably refer to cinnamon as Dar "Chinese bark. The malabathriini of the Romans. of later months are not so delicate and are less valued. op. that it came usually from China. but the best quality is still shipped from Canton. connection with one of the is Ptolemies. Lassen. 555-561. —The text Neilopotamion . sea-trade in this article. or Cassia lignea) was his- be known. and C. It seems altogether probable that the true cinnamon of the ancient Egyptian and Hebrew records. must have been the hands through long journey to Rome. %eylanicum has been extensively culti\ated in Ceylon. and the best qualities came from China. was the leaves of three from China itself. the fruit ripens and the bark is full of sap in May and June. The tree flowers in January. Egyptian records there no mention of settlement 30' or conquest sn far Miiller identifies this river with the Tokwina (11° N.. 519-527. Soc). Ir. II. describes cinnamon as growing in Malabar. reached the Mediterranean nations from no nearer place than Burma. 310-313. Fluckiger and II. and for malabathrum or folium indicuin. 500) coarse. 279-285. and perhaps through the Straits of Malacca Many.. indeed.. when it is The strippings stripped off and forms the best grade of cinnamon. and Millburn (Or. These in April. native throughout Assam. Since the later years of the 18th century the variety C. Egyptian Greek settlement. E. tamala. Hanbury. (Ed. 701-16. %eylanicum. see Garcia de Orta. it is recorded about 2700 B. 3d II. Coll. Polo. ser. \'incent. of Herodotus and Pliny. 130. Cassia." there was an acti\e and between the 3d and 6th centuries A. in Chinese ships. Marco Polo and Tibet. 315. 1813. The British East India Company's records show II.. 409. rising to about 6000 feet altitude.. cassia. with a all that of the Himalayas from little from C. II. also Linschoten. 11. 56. also comment by Ball in Acad. 84 distinguish them. describes both bark and buds. Voy. I. 49. Hakl. Pharmacographia. pp. XXIIl. Roy. C. Ceylon. as perpendicular as it were scarped. is brought to Aden. there are ancient ruins here. Jebel Haima. A -river (Siizze. or Filuk." . cit. 16' E. feet high. 12° 0' N. Acannae is identified with Bandar Ululah. is But by placing Mosyllum 11. which touched here for that purpose on their voyage to Mocha. 4000 11. ) or the Tokwina (49° 55' E. empties into the gulf east of far east.. the promontory. scribes it Ras Asir. 50° 42' E. The "small laurel grove" he places at Bandar Muriyeh (11° 40' N. us. Saris. ' ' and the shape of just this headland suggests the name. Several sorts of gums. At daylight we found that The same marks on the shore remained the whole day abreast of 11. at Ras Khamthe "south{^ Glaser entirely too far west to admit of covering the remainder {> of this coast in two days' journey. about 40 miles west of Cape Guardafui.... ).). Glaser objects to the relatively short two days' sail between Ras Hantara and Guardafui . fixes Cape Elephant Ras el Fil. called here in 1611. of course. were still purchased by Indian ships from the Gulf of Cambay. where the winds are Scarcely had steadier. wind. as stated in erly And trend" of the coast at just before Guardafui.. and reported a river. a promontory 800 feet high. ). ) which empties below a mountain. 3800 feet high. The current comes round it is out of the Gulf (of Aden) with such Cape violence that S. below the Jebel Muriyeh. McCrindle notes that Captain an English navia bay. we had made scarcely any progress. modern Cape McCrindle deif it as a bluff point. Glaser and prefers Ras Hadadeh (48° 45' E.' 85 55' E. 50° 32' E. which would that vicinity than farther west. Salt (op. very sweet in burning. the Guardafui. The word thfe said also to mean elephant. Elephant River he identifies with the Dagaan (49° E. gator. Cape Elephant seems It is to be the modern Ras fil is el Fil. and during the W not to be stemmed without a brisk monsoon to the north there is a stark the moment you are past the calm with insufferable heat. 51° feet high. 12° 0' N. from which the modern fiusus frank199) thinks is too incense zir. 11° 50' N. but he fails to take into account the prevailing justify a shorter day's sail in calms north of the cape. mentioned in 12. The Cape or ' of Spices 2500 is. emptying into offering safe anchorage for three ships abreast. 12. 97-8) says: we got round the cape (Guardafui) when the wind deadened. 50° 25' E. 11° thinks the distance from N. is ) placed by iVIuUer at the Ras Chenarif. Cx^eGaxihifai(3}an//Wig^LaaAbnA£SaaSh^JS2ar^/utaa^. and another that of Also a lagoon which produce myrrh and frankincense." 12. and places Tabae just behind the eastern point of the cape. Nilus. Next The is latter more abundant in places far in the interior. and the port of Daphnus. compiled which the end of the continent is placed this Periplus. Mosyllum. and a valley called Apollo's.. This 14) is the Southern Horn" of Strabo. mon. Then follows another river. Notu Ceras (the 5' Southern Horn). : II. W. is he ignored completely the account The Market of Spices Strabo 's description is identified by Glaser {Skizze. in King Juba of Mauretania. Tabae Siizze. The There are many tracts in succession on the sides of rivers to the frankincense grows. so that if it he had before him gives of this coast. ( side of the as follows XVI. From Salt: J Voyage into Abyssinia. we have no more denothing is known of the sea- coast beyond this point. has a promontory and a is temple with a grove of poplars. because who says (. scriptions of harbors or places. then the large harbor of Psygmus. after doubling this cape toward the south. myrrh and cinnaand a creek. next tract bears the false cassia. 4 Imujum Jiftant. which is bears. the mountain Elephas projecting into the sea." Pliny prefers the account of from at earlier information. both of filled In the inland parts a tract along the banks of a river bearing the name of Isis. IV. 14) it "Next is country which produces frankincense. and rivers extending on which cinnamon country. a watering-place called that of the Cynocephali.X\'I. Cape. next the watchpost of the Lion. Glaser ( 201 Olok too great.i6 Ka« Frlnk }PtS. The river which bounds this tract produces rushes in abundance. 20) the with the modern Olok. with water from the mountains. and the port of Pythangelus. besides frankincense. . on the N. and the last promontory of this coast. IV. W. country abounds in the various species of the acacias. Opone is the remarkable headland now known as Ras Hafun. Cinnamon produced. 10° 25' N.87 13. from Ariaca. R. about 90 miles below Cape Guardafui. or malmal as to penetrate the it it known to the I called garron. but owing to the activities of the Mullah have never been able tain countries southern Dholbanta and Mijer- where grows. 51° 7' E. X). a little west of the from the S. tree The Somalis. the island Pa-anch of the II.." was any aromatic bark produced near Cape Guardafui it seems almost certain that it was adulterant added there to the true cinnamon. A map based on this description. he thinks. a modern village afFords shelter on the north side. — A S. is Pano is probably Ras Binna. 3 : And again. —The is antiquity of Hindu trade East Africa asserted by Speke {Discovery of the Source of the Nik. 51° 25' E. an If there and not merely trans-shipped there. March "I have never heard of the exportation of It is just possible that there cinnamon from this part of Africa. and mentioned is as the source of the Nile the "country of district Amara. January 7. the other to those of South Arabia and East Africa. 11° 12' N. and now 1910. Egyptians (Socotra).." which the native name of the north of Victoria Nyanza.") and the Puni or Phoenicians. . of varying which produce gums producing nor have commercial value. There which 1. . who. (author of The Mammals of So- at work on Somali Flora) dated Berbera. monsoon. letter from Mr. but it is not possible to venture so far owing to the hostility of the Mullah. Chaps. "Totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis arenis. The resins. divided as they left their home in the Persian Gulf (the islands of King Erythras in the story quoted by 139. that came from India. "The Horn aromatifera of Africa' was known to the Romans as the that regio on account of the large quantities of myrrh were exported. F. the Egyptian "Land of Punt" or Poen-at. is heard of their existence. . maliland. Pano and Opone. 14.?. Z. one branch going to the coasts of Syria. the V. E. point. G. Glaser finds a connection between these names. is producing myrrh. in Ships I. also certain trees "I have so I far not come across any trees of the cinnamon group. the incense-land Panchaia of Virgil {Georgics. 13. S. says: F. Drake- Brockman. R. The Puranas described the Mountains of Moon and the Nyanza lakes. might be some species of laurels in the Dholbanta country and south of it.. Agatharchides) . and they do so with as own country as much zest as our done their country-folk go to a this. from the Gulf of Cambay. slaves as far as we know. when they run up into the Red Sea. by blending the Victoria Nyanza. which they applied to the Nyanza and with the If'anyamuezi or missionaries. and thence to they cross over to the coast of the coast of Malabar. Tanganyika. The Hindu intercourse traders had a firm basis to stand upon. 103) traders is it The common they depart from the track pursued by the Arab as follows: Red Sea In in August (before which is dangerous to \enture out of the gulf). Islands. Barawa. possibly some time prior to the birth of our Saviour. Africa. and Nyassa into one. constructed a map of own. fair. who traded with the its east coast of Africa. —For is a discussion of the products of India imported into the Somali ports. sprang into existence the Mountains of the Moon. until the Hindus. from with the Abyssinians —through of the whom they must have heard of the country of Amara. Lamu. Merka." The products The of their own places. when. Men Moon. deduced from whilst to their the Zanzibar traders.' first This trading-voyage of the century by Indian vessels. triuned lake they gave the name of Moon. W'ilford. where they arrive in time to refit and prepare a fresh cargo 14. Lieut. and the to Querimbo Islands. 'Nothing was ever written concerning their Country of the Moon. because the Men of the Moon happened to less live in front of the central lake. that these vessels in Indian vessels. Vol. visit December direct Alogdishu. something on the same scale. they heard of the Tanganyika and Karague Two church Rebmann and Erhardt. for love of barter and change. see later. was in other respects similar to that of the Arab traders cit. and are the only people. under § 41. their course Malindi. 1801. for the following year. These Men of the Moon are hereditarily the greatest traders in Africa. without the smallest knowledge their of the Hindus' map.' : — drawn by Ill. who. although extended. or sometimes stretch down southward as far as Sofala this occupies them until after April. associated with their name. it As far back as we can trace they have and they still do as heretofore. was printed in the Asiatic Researches.. opened commercial dealings with people in and ivory. then proceed to Muscat. of a century ago as described by Salt (op. they then the Comoro and the northern ports of Madagascar. from whom mountains. p. important thing to be noted here that these ag- ricultural products were regularly shipped. exchanged their cargoes at Cape . Men of the A4oon. will leave their porters and go to the coast. . according to § 25. strong is certainly for communication with India. shared to quite recently some extent by Arabian shipping and by Greek ships from Egypt. beyond. and a settled policy in Rome of cultivating direct commercial understanding. but for centuries. and that. a later article of under the name of malabathrum. This . as a product of India and Tibet.Guardafui and proceeded along the coast. under the same in his hot climate of Somaliland. to word (Lassen and Fabricius especially) notes (p." substitutes. 130) thinks it would be very wrong this suppose that butter could have been brought from India. on the Somali coast they shared the trade in an incidental way. in hot chmate. article of is diet. Somaliland. monsoon to may have averaged 30 40 days. at the entrance to the was their terminus. this between Arabia and India 2000 years and probably much shown to be at the point of extinction. Ocelis. but the account given by Burton (First modern caravans take it for trips of six 136 and 247) shows that weeks or more. but still to be enough for the Romans to know the cinnamon-bark only as a commerce. as Therefore they propose The will noted under § 41. Red Sea. but in the days of the Ptolemies the Egyptians had largely taken over. As shown under § Footsteps. That it the Somali had learned the art of clarifying that of century by the same class of ships them from India in the 1st century. and that is it is The cream which stirring it it affords very thick. Some of the commentators object and Fabricius. in jars. and converted into butter by violently in a large calabash. owing to the conquest of Egypt by Romans. 41. the At the time of the Periplus. some southward. to the eastern coast of Africa. tells and Lieut. Clarified butter. (which had existed longer). probably along the Arabian coast. they knew (§§ 56. or alliance. A'lungo Park found the same product entering into the commerce the much more humid Senegal coast of West Africa: and exported it in the 19th had brought to "The not until Foulahs use the milk chiefly as an sour. the Arabs forbidding them to trade Between India and Cape Guardafui they apparently enjoyed the bulk of the trade. while the cinnamon-leaf. of the Berbera Fair. Cruttenden. 65) product of the Arabian tributary. of description modern Cambay ships laden with ghee bought in Somaliland for trade elsewhere. the establishment of the Axumite Kingdom. clarified butter keep in the tropics not only for years. is. which in former times the Arabs of Yemen had monopolized. butter. to the in his —The text is boutyron. but most westward . and they received their return cargoes at Ocelis and shared none of the Red Sea trade. 14. pp. voyage from India to Africa by the N. E. in India. Exchange Opone and their cargoes. order Graminea. and forms a part in most of their dishes. elsewhere. French German zucker. and seems have been cultivated and crushed 14. English sugar. when melted it over a gentle fire..90 butter. Linn. assucar. Chap. is — This trade of the Indian ships at so like that described on the same . Latin saccharum. Prakrit form was known Pliny as a medicine. Arabic sukkar. first in India. IV Honey from It the reed called sacchari European world of sugar to is the first menof is tion in the history of the as an article commerce." ^ {^Travels of Mungo Lon- don: 1799. Anam and Southern China. Spanish azucar. 14. The derived from Saccharum officinarum. on and arms. long to before found its way to Rome. liberally serves likewise to anoint their heads. their faces and is bestowed very Park. was produced it Burma. Grinding sugar in Western India The modern sugar It is languages reflect the Arabic form suc?-c. and freed from impurities. is preserved in small earthen pots. Sacchari the of the Sanscrit sarkara. — Portuguese. and the savage Gudabirsi. and influence soon distanced all competitors.91 coast by Lieut. which would infallibly be knocked off the instant he was seen wearing it. in conacknowledged. deeply laden. Sur. and by their superior capital. "By all the end of March and the fair sailing is nearly at an end.000 inhabitants. and the customs of bygone days are the laws of the place. anxious to have an opportunity of purchasing before \essels from the gulf could arrive. the coast. and During the height of the fusion as in languages. beyond bones of slaughtered . under a miserable mat spread on the beach. Disputes between the in- land tribes daily arise." (the quotation is from Burton. Cruttenden in 1848. hastened across. cunning. who. is By the first the place again deserted. and are settled by the spear and dagger. Mandavi and Bombay. Bagdad or Bandar Abbas. prudently living on board his ark. No sooner does the Small craft from season change than the inland tribes move down toward and prepare the ports of their huts for their expected visitors. or three el Khyma. 408-10). skin in lieu of a wig. elbowed themselves into a permanent position in the front tier of craft in the harbor. and Ras the valuably freighted hagalas from Bahrein. in may not disturb the trade. that his account deserves to be quoted in full: "From April to early October. rolled across in their clumsy kotias. until at a distance and departing day and night. Long strings of camels are alone. with his head tastefully ornamented with a scarlet sheepis seen peacefully bartering his ostrich feathers and gums with the smooth-spoken Banian from Porebandar. and with a formidable row of empty ghee-jars slung over the quarters of their vessels. fair is no chief there is a perfect Babel. and an occasional group of interior. Lastly. "the place is deserted. commence is their homeward journey. the combatants retiring to the beach order that they arriving at a short distance from the town. and locking up his puggaree. and craft of of three or kinds. escorted generally by women from town. followed two weeks later by their larger brethren from Muscat. exhibits but a small portion of his wares at a time. Yemen. and nothing left to week in April mark the site of a town lately containing 20. the fat and wealthy Banian traders from Porebandar. dusty and travel-worn children marks the arrival of the slave-caravan from the "Here the Somali or Galla slave merchant meets his corre- spondent from Bassora. Bassora. First Footsteps. generally in parties four. and Graen. . Cosmas Indicopleustes. p. 44° 5' E. Lyne. .. The "rivers and anchorages" are along the modern £/ Z). south of is Around them ran the ocean to ancient stream. coast. in readiness for the ensuing year." The Bluffs of Azania at Hazin. Sarapion the second Benadir. in his Zan-zihar in and Col. much of The name zibar (the Portuguese form of Marco modern ZanZanghibar). tending below the equator. The distinction ( supposed to have been based on temper- T oxer a(^u History of Ancient Geography. where there is a bird called pheng. and Marco Polo located Abyssinia in Middle India. but to the whole coast. black: the and it is popularly land of the blacks. 49° 40' E. Concerning the name Azania. derived from bar. 69) refers Assyria. writing in the 6th century A.. It can swallow a camel. and zang. — Europe. divided the dawn into of letters. ' ' W The lack of distinction in ancient geography between Asia and Africa goes back to the B. N. R. 2° 5' N." This is doubtless the Zanghibar coast. Nicon is." But name seems to be older. known as El The Small and great beach ending at coast. Sind and Zinj. (sunrisej and irih (darkness' frequently occurring in in- scriptions there. 7° 44' N. 47° 55' E. to a point certainly below Mogdishu. have Times. Asia. perhaps. which Marco Polo applied in his edition of survives in the • not only to the island. or may be the modern Mogdishu. Yule notes that the Japanese Encyclopaedia describes a 'country of the Tsengu in the S. 4° than the 30' is the Sif el Tauil or "low but this is N. the modern Barawa. sections. and the framework of a few huts. and its quills are used for water casks. as six days' journey. actually a longer course bluffs." desert coastex- coast into two Barr Ajjan (preserving the ancient namej. indicates that the whole Zingi" coast. was subject to the Abyssinian Kingdom. and to refer to the ancient Arabic and Persian division of the world into three sections. ocean. the first The Courses of Azania are the strips of The Arabs divide this called 'coast of harbors..«a/r or coast of islands. C. Hecataeus in the 6th century world two equal continents it. Henry Yule. the name and legend reaching Japan through the Arabs." Ras Aswad. Ras el are the rugged coast Kyi. which piled is carefully on the beach 15. whereas the Periplus rates them both 15. . 45° 25' E. north it of the Mediterranean. \° 10' N. wherefrom even European geographers in mediaeval times classified East Africa as one of the Indies.. Contemporary Polo." 92 camels and sheep. ature. ending 15. interest. D. Hind. which in its flight eclipses the sun. 93 . —This whole passage The first ). But in proximity. 38° 59' E. that a dependency of the conquered state should be exploited for the advantage of the Homerite 15. and included in his work hearsay reports from some seafaring acquaintance. was due Menuthias with Madagascar the discoveries of the Saracens. on account now known have been dug there 15. The Pyralaae Islands of which there coast. . name from an Arabian word rahta. 16.). back empty into it. a passage to the ocean between Manda to 40° 50' E. text —This location depends on the condition of the preceding If that be Pemba. some scribe may have omitted a whole section of the text. or if he (which suggested by the mention of the local fishing-baskets and the like). and the name seems perpetuated S. Manda. the farthest point in 'Africa known to to him.. Monfiyeh. is evidently Cape Delgado (10° 30' S. Glaser notes. Muza. port. modern Monfiyeh (about 8° Our author was possibly un- acquainted with this coast. much later. . is impossible. Ausanitic Coast.. which had been absorbed by Himyar shortly before the time of the hence the natural result. if Monfiyeh. ). Rhapta. 39° 5' E. a mutilated description of three islands last known to market-town of the continent" would naturally be below the southernmost island. Menuthias. and is impossible for Rolater identification of its The man times. Rhapta would be the modern Pangani (5° 25' S. material (at about 5° S. island south of Manda is is Pemba the But the topographic description perhaps in truer to Zanzibar (about 6° S." several rivers and there . 39° 38' E. if 57' S. \^incent's insistence very likely well grounded. 38° 50' E. the the distances given by Ptolemy between Rhapta and for the Prasum suggest former a location near Bagamoyo. —Ausan was a district of Kataban in South Arabia. 40° 30' E. 2° 18' with S. and Lamu. Rhapta.. it would be at or near Bagamoyo (6° 31' S. ). The Prasum of Ptolemy. Kilwa (8° that exist is. This is the "channel. at the mouth of the river of the same name if Zanzibar. is corrupt. ). and there are probably omissions. perhaps Dar-es-Salaam. . the only protected waterway on the whole and Lamu. ). three islands is in is which he may have lumped the describing places he has visited into one. has to bind. from the suggestion of the ancient the text close is upon Kilwa is name. is is are evidently Patta.. a thoroughfare. 94 15. (6° 42' S. j. ). the modern regarding the island Alenuthias. . Vincent's identification of the of a canal "channel" Mombasa. Periplus. 95 ^HlPI^'t . not knowing their strength any more than domestic animals. of strange temple-like structures northern Rhodesia. C. for the slaves. In Mohammedan times it returned to the Arab allegiance. are so superior foreigners. near the upper waters of the Sabi River and within reach of the trade . and until Zanzibar and the adjacent coast accepted the English protectorate they were dependencies of the Sultan of Muscat. op. happens. some of them irregularly elliptical in form. But as soon as these states became exhausted. it was Abyssinian. then Sabaean. II. they might send the Arabs flying out of the land. 16. activities in the were free to The early Egyptian records bear testimony to their second millennium B. East and West. D. cit. is ex- ceedingly strange. 20-23. then From the 3d to the 6th centuries A. in C. 209) ' . both in individual strength and in to the numbers.) 96 16." die Siidarabischen Reiche. Arab captains Mauch in who know the whole coast. intro- Sovereignty of the state that is become first in Arabia. having conical pillars within. then Arabia burst forth (See also Punt und irresistibly and overflowed the northern world. situated The largest of them were somewhat South of the present Salisbury-Beira railway line. — "The Arab whole system of slaveholding at by the Arabs or rather on the coast or Zanzibar. The ruins are loosely-built stone enclosures. —The in discovery by Carl 1871. if not earlier. that they are spell-bound. med was history. . they useful commercially to exploit Africa. ) (Speke. and so brought pecuniary loss on their owners. Previous translators of the Periplus have much misunderstood the meaning 16. when century B. but their stronger neighbors. of this passage in the text. Glaser has well expressed this undoubted fact of Arab dominion We must finally abandon the idea that Moham{Skizze. that if they chose to It rebel. which was not later than the 7th Later the coast became Katabanic. Great in stature. and ap- parently facing North. in Africa. led to a great deal of wild assumption as to their history." duction. the Arabs could expand in Africa only. the first to bring Arabia into a leading position in the world's So long as Rome and Persia (and Egypt and Babylon before them) retained their power. according to Homerite. —A vivdd picture is here given us of the early policies of the Prevented by superior force from expanding northward. however. the Adulis inscription and Cosmas Indicopleustes. and they seem to consider that they would be dishonest if they ran away after being purchased. The Au- sanitic Coast" mentioned that state § 15 was probably a possession of Ausan was independent. Arabs.. Professor 31° 10' E. and The Ruined J. Da\id Randall-Maciver made a careful investigation of the ruins in 1905. and the temple of Southern the capital of the ancient Sabaean kingdom Arabia. in the 1st century A. there is The whole argument was no reference si. this done by Dr. south of the Zanzibar islands. found in the the bottom of one of the structures. of A piece cement at Nankin china of the late mediaeval period. Cities W'ilmot. London. African coast within hundred miles of the port of Dr. and the land of Ophir" of was at once identified with the King Solomon's voyages. They were enclosures for de- fence. that the structures were the work of negroes. spoke the language of the natives and intermarried with them. the right was still so ancient as to be beyond and in coast (to about 10° the explanation of the merchant who described it. however. See for instance Ancient Ruins of London. Monomotapa.val times. D. . Rhodesia. ) Miiller {Burgen und Schlosser. Maciver in disproving the antiquity of Kaffir kraal did not. The coast was frequented by Arab ships in command of Arab captains who knew the harbors.x of course pure assumption. la g'eographie et le commerce de l' Afrique Orientale). II. probably Kaffirs. noted a resemblance between the at Zimbabwe iMarib. 1-2) of the probability of Arabian trade far at a very early age. London. 1894. and Dr. by T. earlier showed that they could not date than the 14th or 15th century. as the last settlement on the coast. Maciver may have known the Ptolemy describes Cape Delgado. 1906. the Periplus the statement S. 1896. by A. The ubiquitous appearance of the structures suggested the form of ancient locality Arabian temples. rudely built of loose stone. only through the account given by Guillain in 1856 {DocuPeriplus mcnts sur at all I'histoire. but events he ignores the detailed account given in both those works. of Mashonaland. was have been frequented by Arab traders in mediat once assumed that they were of Sabasan or Phoenician origin and of great antiquity. and proved conclusively in his account of that work. 1902. " that is. ously but uncritically written up. enclosure (20° 30' S .97 of Sofala. down this coast some distance The Periplus mentions Rhapta. of the so-called kingdom of Monomotapa. Bent. known It to a. The subject was volumin- by Hall and Neal. Mediceval Rhodesia. as in ancient literature to any knowledge of the Sofala. and their supposed orientation was found to be inexact and probably accidental. 20). need to be supplemented by his service The denial (pp. London. ) is definitely made that this whole was "subject under some ancient right to the sovereignty of the power which held the primacy in Arabia. lower Zambesi C18°-19° He gives a long comparative list of words in these so-called identical. and must have had a great bearing on early trade. transplanted 1500 miles down the coast to a The suggestion is rather that this branch of the Bantu race migrated south- ward within historical times. Torrend. Cizimba. argues that the language was brought from the Tana River to the Zambesi. evidently He quotes Dr. but rather and parArabia. assuming such is to have it is come from The assumption certainly far-fetched. of the Sofala-Ophir theory. analyzes the languages of the coast and finds a striking similarity empties below the island of between the speech of the Tana Ri\ er. suggests the which was known to them through the report of an adventurous youth. Krapf and other German philologists as the Pokomo is the aboriginal language of the coast. as hardly likely that any traffic. Father Torrend.. This rift-valley of East Africa is a striking feature of its its topog- raphy. and is modern Swahili is derived from it. 1905). S. and brought back word of a region abounding in rhinoceros. in a its paper read Proceedings before the Rhodesia Scientific Association. A good . \\'ho were the natives and what was their language. modern ticularly tribes are of peaceful disposition.98 This condition the is corroborated by the known Arab is infusion in the negro peoples on the whole coast. and he himself believes the Cizimba to e\en more primiti\ e. which Lamu about 2° 4U' S. modern dialect. the so-called A'lonomotapa of the medi«. which of far earlier origin than Mohammedan colonization. 8. Julius Alaternus. said to be speaking to-day the most primitive language. among other confederations. would have brought it this negro language and different tribe. included in (\'. and that it gives the key most of the modern full dialects of the southern coast. It seems not marched for four ( an unreasonable assumption that he did reach the head-waters of the Nile and found somewhere this in that great rift-valley the ancestors of Bantu tribe which later migrated southward and formed. I. and that the modern tribes of the lower Zambesi. and that of the S. 2.. ). J. as tioned in the Periplus? men- Rev. 5 J. Buluwayo. J. who months southward from the Garamantes (Fezzan). by sea-traders. ho\ve\er busy. not by land because the by sea. while those who remained on the Tana have had their speech modified more notably by later contact with the outside world. saying that that the that Pokomo and Cizimba tongues.val geographers. through the African rift-\alley. are their descendants. borne by the The name Agisymha of the Roman geographers. inhabited by negroes and bearing that name Ptolemy. folk-lore and religious and practices. and running almost to the Zambesi. Tanganyika and Nyassa. op.. The 236. to was of importance to the Hindus. medicine also it ripe fruit being moms. 349-363. too well attested to admit of denial. cardaform their narikela-khanda. This palm oil was from Cocos nucifera. 1896). to attempt to disprove the manifest fact of early Arab influence and infusion along the East African coast. M. might to some extent have found its way along this natural trade-route by exchantxe antiquity of the and it is entirely unnecessary. London. course a confirmation of Indian trade there. shore of the a natural depression beginning at the lower Red Sea between Massowa and straits. narikera. Neither is it necessary to deny the general infiltration of early Arabian culture in two directions from the head-waters of the Nile.. — is of I. that this valley While it is unKkely was ever at one time under the control of any Arabian power. Nyanza. 102. one of the most useful plants known. 267. that its more or it was a more important avenue healthy swamps. coins the Greek Linn. II. 248) as Indian (See also Watt.. ) (See Lassen. and the oil. order Palmea.. and westward through the Sudan toward the Gulf from tribe to tribe. and the appearance of the word on the Zanzibar coast "cocoariut. gold. in disproving the Mashonaland ruins. taking a south- westerly direction through Abyssinia to the British and German it East African possessions. Prakrit nargil. Latin cucifera. beliefs In fact this general is spread of culture. a specific for dyspepsia and consumption." 17. {The Great Rift the Valley. southward down the rift-valley. cit. and by Marco Polo nut. cit. etc.) . a word This is the Sanscrit narikela. probably native in the Indian archipelago. cumin. it is probable that the tribes inhabiting were and in less j. including lakes Rudolf. nauplios. of Guinea. Gregory. causes as well as is and carried by natural It Hindu activity to most of the tropical world. in the 13th century op. leaves for thatch and fiber for binding and weaving. the adjective koukio- phoros. Palm oil. aside As a from the food value of the nut. The word in the text. geographers. It is J. the pulp of the mixed with clarified butter.99 description is given by Prof.egular commercial relations with the North. § 19. The Greek word was koix. It is of trade than the sea-coast with broad un- indeed quite possible that the Mashonaland which lay at no great distance south of the valley. providing timber for houses and ships. fresh and dried. coriander. is corrected to which appears in modified forms in other Greek nargilios. nut was described by Cosmas Indicopleustes in the 6th century as argellion: (I. adjective koukinos. whence from which the Periplus. 100 C ¥.V -S V S -1 / 1 . . Wady-el-Araba. under the Pharaoh Necho." and the place is Arab name terranean. running from Yemen northward.' 101 18. which their did so about 600 B. 19. in Ptolemy. The Saracens seem to have discovered it in the 9th or 10th century. still The regular caravan route that led. bay protected white. 42 ) Herodotus gives an account. The distance and direction is more nearly right from named at the beginning of this 19. was not known to Europeans until the Portuguese discoveries in the 15th century. Berenice. and Ptolemy carried The actual southern extension of Africa the Madagascar Channel.. the great valley connecting the Dead Sea It was the great trading center of the with the Gulf of Akaba. Thus its it controlled the Eastern trade from both directions. —This section begins the account of a second voyage. —This reflects the settled belief of the Greeks that Africa was surrounded by the ocean and could be circumnavigated. appears as Juara.. from Berenice to India. The contribution of the author of the Periplus was to establish the southern extension of both Africa and India. and the junction of numerous important caravaneast of the routes. civilization. C. returning to Egypt in the third year of journey.) lay in the Wady Musa. W^hite Village {Leuke Kome) 7' is placed by most commentain a tors at El Haura. to the on the Medi- The words "from Mussel are Harbor. until the and held ferred advantage results of Trajan's conquests transthe sea-trade having been the overland trade to Palmyra. . D. " in are probably there only through an error in copying. Unexplored ocean. to a distance never before understood by his 19. N. and from the Persian Gulf eastward. or 'Erythraean Sea. Eratosthenes and Strabo placed the southern ocean . 25° island. 35° 31' E. northern Arabs. from Aden the text. immediately below Cape Guardafui Pliny thought shifts it it began even to the at Mossylum' ' west of Guardafui it . about 44 A. our author as far as Zanzibar Channel. paragraph. and leads. ble (IV. by no means impossi- of a Phoenician expedition. which the starting-point Petra (30° 19' N. 37° 13' E. The Guinea coast was known in part to the Carthaginians and Romans. and they supposed that it continued due eastward and thus joined the "Indian Ocean. already diverted to Alexandria. ' The current ideas of geography at this time are reflected by the accompanying map according to Pomponius Mela. itself by Hasani which lies The name Haura also means . but their knowledge did not reach Europe. To the left. as tlie ruins of Petra testify. 1) was Rekem. a place of refuge almost impregnable. the Edomites entered Palestine was taken by the Nabatasans. son of Ishmael. Strabo. an Aramaic tribe noted in an inscription of Tiglathpdeser III (745-727 B. One may suppose that a part. IV. helping Titus against Jeru- . is Petra situated on a spot which suris rounded and fortified by a smooth and level rock. 'hollow that " Isaiah. of Flinders Petrie and others. XI\'. that he found many Romans and also many other strangers residing there. frankincense. my who had been to relate with surprise. I. first. from Yemen. whose is habitation on high. Edom" (2 Kings. desert. and It seems to have been. It and a hold. which externally abrupt and precipitous. but. who migrated to the \alley of Edom probably in the 6th centuiy B. safe storehouse for the myrrh. Soon. 7. They fought hard to maintain and control the caravan trade against the competition of Egyptian shipping.Ant. hf)vve\er. 8. which the watchful its ancient inhabi- tants has erected in suitable defiles. this city. enclosure the country Judaea. 1. from the Ptolemies (Agatharchides. the for the most part a friend." and Obadiah. Sela. X\'I. but within there are abundant springs of water both for domestic purposes and for watering gardens." Ammianus forts Alarcellinus (XIV. of their trouble with Syria and Egypt was due to their commercial agirressi\eness rather than their predatory habits. Strabo (X\'I. according Josephus {. narrow and winding entrance. (Arabic Sal) means a between rocks. 13) describes the place as "full solicitude of of the most plenteous variety of merchandise. Here the Nabatairans were at first nomadic and predatory. being abandoned when it after the Babylonian captivity. X\'I. silver. and by sea on the Gulf of Akaba. inviting attack by land from Antigonus. C. while Glaser and others see rather Nabatu." The topography of Petra is well known through the descriptions was a fertile bit of valley surrounded by precipitous cliffs. tried to carry In their dealings with Rome they water on both shoulders. particularly toward used Athenodorus. The Biblical references show it as an coming Edomite strong. in order to repress the inroads cf the neighboring nations.102 The native district of Arabia Petraea has to its name from IV. at least. a city of Sela 3. whom Josephus makes the descendants of Nebaioth. IV. 36). and studded with strong and castles. 88. name. 21 j says apostrophizes Edom as is "thou dwellest in the clefts of the rocks. Jud. 7. C). they settled down to orderly commerce and prospered exceedingly. etc. The IVIusa. with a long. 18). referring to the variegated color of the rocks in the Wady The Bibhcal name was Judges. is Beyond at Petra. 19. King of Arabia. the Parthian emperor." which was certainly the same Nabataeans. likely to distinguish the there were kings having that between the name and name in what he called the as that of the "country of Arabia. this king of the Nabataeans is name might be accepted as a transcription of the Arabic word malik Hebrew melech. in the year 38 This same MalAlexandria (Aulus sent auxiliaries chus loaned cavalry to Julius Caesar for Hirtius.. was terminated in 105 A. and encourage direct communica- . be the one mentioned in the But Josephus {Jewish War. III. C. i) . is conveyed from Leuce Come to Petra. This conflict of interests reduced them to of the sea. After that the ship of the desert was blanketed by the ship and when the overland trade revived. who sent a thousand horsemen and five thousand footmen to the assistance of Titus in his attack upon Jerusalem. and this King Malchus can hardly him to See also Vogiie. and to Alexandria. 14).: ' 103 salem. of his father Aretas Philodemus. which appears in such Hebrew names as Abimelech" important in fixing the date of the Ordinarily the — and as a Melchizedek. This Malchus can not.— Strabo (XVI. " The policy of the Ptolemies. king. time Petra declined. D.. Malichas. I. LXVIII. and the Roman the Jews. his siege of J lex. 4. but supporting the Parthians against Rome as occasion offered. 2) mentions a King Periplus. before his case was taken up by Senate agreed to B. Malchus. thence and thence to other nations. These events were in the year 70 A. for which Mark Antony compelled pay an indemnity. and is then conveyed on camels to Coptus of the Thebais. situated on a canal of the Nile. —The mention of text. toward the end of the 2d century. who quotes inscriptions of this Malichas or Malik. make him King This occurred Bell. 24) is has the following account of this trade "Merchandise to Rhinocolura in Phoenicia near Egypt. who Jew would have been title. of Arabia. in seeking to free Egypt from to com- mercial dependence on Yemen. 1) he menbefriended Malchus. 14. or Hareth. Small vessels from Arabia. a contemporary of Tiberius and Caligula. 19. it was Palmyra which reaped the advantage. and subsequently to Pacorus. D." but according to the writings of Josephus. tions In his Antiquities of the Jews (XIV. But It is at present the greater part brought from Arabia and India to Myos Hormus. be other than the Malichas mentioned in the text. of course. just who had Herod and of who had loaned him money Mark Antony.. when Trajan subjection (Dio Cassius. and Syrie Centrale. transported by the Nile to Alexandria. IV. which offers many interesting details. on the rich trade Arabia. every other instance distinguished peninsula. that is. The caravan trade could not be reached same way. in § the 2. from the 25 per cent duty our author it tells us levied 20. 20. Similarly. but the text does not indicate At this time the kingdom of the Nabataeans was independent. Rome. rice is that the housewife cooks her slender mess of secretly. lest some would-be guest . Centurion. and took them away. and along the Red Sea the camel could always comThis remained in Arabian hands for another halfcentury." (Job I. in this § 20 and in § 49 refers to the entire peninsula. powerful and prosperous. — Compare voyage." TBurckhardt. this was a Roman as it officer. but men in all of Saba in Central Arabia. the below Berenice. of speech was Himyaritic. the nation tall and smooth" of Isaiah XVIII. 20. These are not the Sabaeans of Yemen.) its The Beduins have reduced robbery branches to a complete and regular system. and the asses feeding beside them upon them. to the opposite coast first described at the beginning of the 20. yea. The small vessels" of § 19 from Rome at the expense of the Muza to the Nabataean port are to be contrasted with the large vessels" of § 10 that traded from Mosyllum in the to Egypt. out of which has grown the modern the trading-posts of the true Minaeans. Rascally men. between Arabia and Rome. had been continued by Arabs. guage. on reaching Yemen. the Homerite-Sabaite kingdom as from the other kingdoms and political divisions of the Differing in their speech. it —Two to this word in in the text. means Yemen. we lightly to condemn the robber we must realize his sore According Doughty and other pastures fail travelers three-fourths of the Beduins of northwest Arabia suffer continual famine. when the Emperor Trajan reduced the Nabatasans to subpete with the ship.) : ' 104 tion with India. at dialects. they slain the servants with the edge of the sword. their to own lan- allied Hadramitic. observations other writers concerning these same Beduin robbers: The oxen were and the Sabeans have fell plowing. Aramaic . — In the north the NabaCarnaites' taeans spoke a dialect of the along the coast the spoke various Ishmaelite Arabic. was spoken. In the long summer drought when no milk and the gaunt camel-herds give then it the\ are in a very sorry plight. —Vincent assumes that it. 14-15. meanings are attached it might well have been. jection to 19. Before need. 105 The hungry gnawing of the Arab' s stomach is lessened by the cofFee-cup and the ceaseless 'tobacco-drinking' from the nomad's precious pipe." (Zwemer, Arabia the Cradle of Islam, should smell the pot. p. 157.) Thou thy affliction. shalt call his name Ishmael; because his And he all will be a wild man; e\ery man, and every man's hand against him; the presence of 20. his brethren." the Lord hath heard hand will be against and he shall dwell in (Gen. XVI, 11-12.) Garnaites. These wild tribes are called in the text Canwhich cannot be identified with any other contemporary record. Some commentators would change the name to Cassanites; and Fabriraiti-s, — cius, following Sprenger, substitutes Cananites. preferable {Siizze, Glaser's suggestion is certainly 165-6). He thinks that the n and r should be reversed, making Camattes; ern settlements of the ancient the neighboring Beduin tribes Kama being one of the north- kingdom of the Minaeans, to subject. which were nominally Pliny (VI, 32) and Ptolemy both mention this place as a city of the Minaeans; whom Pliny describes as the oldest commercial people in Arabia, having a monopoly in the trade in myrrh and frankincense, through their control of the caravan-routes from the producing regions. his He refers doubtfully to their legend of the relationship of Minaeans and this Rhadamaeans to Minos of Crete and is brother Rhadamanthus. Pliny need not have doubted, and to be thanked for preserving Arabian trade, evidence of early Arabian trade his testimony to the in the Mediterranean. this early Ptolemy adds wide extent of Purali, when he describes the east near the people called Rhamnae ' who dwelt in the extreme banks of the ' place called Rhambacia. no mean sphere of merchants of Sheba and Raamah, they were thy merchants: they occupied in thy fairs with chief of all spices, and with all precious : and who planted their capital at a From Crete to the borders of India was The activity. Compare Ezekiel XXVII, 22 stones, and gold. " Strabo also (XVI, III, 1) describes is "the Minaei in the part to toward the Red Sea, whose Sabaeans, largest city Carna; next them are the whose chief city is Mariaba. At the time of the Periplus the term Minaean" was no longer limited to the southern traders, but had been extended to include the nomadic Ishmaelites over whom their settlements along the caravanroutes exerted a varying measure of authority. The Minasan kingdom had long since lost its identity, having When Saba fell before Himyar its been conquered by the Sabaeans. transferred likewise; but we may assume that at the allegiance was 106 it was almost independent. When the Homerite became powerful, it asserted its authority over most of the Hejaz; when the Abyssinians conquered Yemen their rule was not acknowledged so far north. The insurgence of the Ishmaelites under the spur of Islam was a logical consequence of centuries of civil war date of the Periplus dynasty among their former overlords is in Yemen. by Ritter and Miiller with Jebel a volcanic island in the direct course 20. Burnt Island to Aluza. identified ; Tair, 15° 35' N., 41° 50' E. from Berenice Fabricius prefers Disan, the most northerly of the Farsan group, 16° 45' N., 41° 40' E. ; but this location is improbable, as being out of the course straight down the middle of the gulf," and in the midst of "foul waters." 20. Chiefs and Kings of Arabia. —The turmoil in South a Arabia at this time has already been mentioned. Within few years the Habashat had been driven to Africa, Kataban and Saba had suc- cumbed, and Hadramaut and Himyar remained. The Homerite dynasty was not yet firmly established, and the condition of the country was feudal, each tribe enjoying a large measure of independence. Such is the condition here described, where Mapharitis, nominally Homerite, le\ied its own taxes on commerce, and maintained its own colonial enterprise in Azania. 21. N. 43° 20' E. ). According to Pliny and Ptolemy, the market-town was some miles inland, probably and Pliny distinguishes the seaport at the modern village of JVlauza; Both names still exist (Glaser, Skizze, 138-40; 168j. as Masala. with the modern 19' , Muza, mentioned by Mocha (13° our author as a seaport, is identified In the Periplus the the port. 21. name of the city is, apparently, extended to include Twelve thousand stadia. It stadia. — The actual distance is about 800 miles or 8000 easy matter with may be a mistake in the text (a very Greek numerals), II, or, as Bunbury suggests (History of Ancient Geography, tance as so many days' 455) our author may have calculated the dissail of 500 stadia each. No calls being made in cal- on the coast, contrary winds might readily cause such an error culation. Where no would instruments existed for measuring distances, estimates 21. necessarily be rather general. Sending their own own ships, — to the Somali coast and the east Afri- India in competition with the Egyptian Greeks; down can coast to their possessions (§ 16) where they doubtless en- joyed special privileges. Foreign shipping was unwelcome at Muza, which preferred to supply the north-bound caravans. in Roman subjects, such as our author, had to pay dearly, the form of gifts to the rulers, 107 for permission to trade there; Hindu shipping was stopped at Ocelis (§25). 22. Saua is identified by Sprenger with the Sa'b of Ibn Mogawir, following Niebuhr, prefer (13° N., 44° E.). the Ritter and Miiller, 35' modern Ta'is,(13° 40 miles above Mocha. 11. N., 43 55' E. ), in the mountains about Mapharitis from his is the country of the Ma'afir, a tribe belonging chief or sheikh had, evidently, especial to the Himyaritic stock, privileges whose "lawful king" (§ 23) Charibael. Their location was in the southern Tehama. is 22. Cholaebus the Arabic Kula' ib. 23. Saphar, mentioned by Arabian geographers as Zafar, is located by Niebuhr about 100 miles N. E. of Mocha on the road to Sanaa, near the modern town of Yerim, some miles southeast of Zafar which, on the summit of a circular hill, its ruins still exist. was the Sabaean, in the capital of the Homerite dynasty, displacing Marib, D., a Christian church was built, that of the Timna of the Gebanite, and Carna of the Minaean. Here, 4th century A. following negotiations between the merite King 6th century St. Tubba it ibn Hassan, Roman Emperor Constantius and the Howho had embraced Judaism. In the one incumbent of which, was the seat of a bishopric, Gregentius, resenting a profanation of the church at Sanaa by certain of the Koreish, inspired the Abyssinian government, then ruling to undertake a disastrous expedition against Mecca. This is the Arabic Kariba-il, and means Charibael. "God blessed (him)." (Hommel, The Ancient Hebrew Tradition, Glaser has shown this to be a royal title, rather than a name, p. 84. ) and has edited numerous inscriptions of a king named Kariba-il Watar in Yemen, 23. — Juhan'im who ruled about 40-70 A. D., and whom he identifies with (Die Jbessinier in Arabien und Afrika, pp. 37-8.) this Charibael. 23. Homerites and Sabaites. — Both were of the Joktanite In the race of South Arabia, the former being the younger branch. Genesis X, we are shown their relation to the tribal genealogy in Semites of the North. Three of the children of Shem are given as his Elam, Asshur, and Arphaxad. Arphaxad's son was Salah, and These names are associated with Babylonia and grandson Eber. Eber's second son was Joktan, of which the Arabic form Chaldsea. Kahtan, which appears farther south along the Persian Gulf, in the Of the sons of Joktan, most are identified peninsula of El Katan. southern coast; two of them being Hazarmaveth (Hadrawith the is maut), and Jerah (cf. the Jerakon Kome o[ Ptolemy, north of Dhofar). The last-named the Arabs call Yarab: his son was Yashhab {cf. 108 the Asabi in Oman, § its 35), and his grandson "Saba the Great" (suris named Abd-es-Shems) to have begun great said to have founded the city of Marib, and dam, on which the irrigation of the vicinity depended. The Sabaeans are thus connected with this Saba, a de- scendant of Jerah, and not with Sheba, son of Joktan, rather to Central Arabia; who is referred whom Glaser and Hommel would make a colony from Yemen, while Weber would reverse the process, having the Sabaeans migrate southward for the conquest of the Minaeans. tain According to Arab accounts the dam at Marib was finished by a cerKing Zul Karnain, suggesting the primacy of the Minaean dynasty but from about the 7th century B. C. the Sabaeans were all at that time; supreme stations in southern Arabia, controlling the caravan-routes, and forcing the wild tribes into caravan service. Colonies and resting- were established at intervals along the routes. the Koran (Chap. and XXXIV) that the journey We learn from was easy between these the distances being so cities, travel secure by night or by day; short that the heat of the day might be passed in one, and the night in the next, so that provisions need not be carried. The number and and all of such settlements may be inferred from Strabo' s statement that the cara; vans took seventy days between Minaea and Aelana the Greek and Roman writers, from Eratosthenes to Pliny, testify to the value it, of the trade, the wealth of those who controlled their jealous hindrance of all competition. The their entry of the fleets of the Ptolemies into the its Red Sea, and estabhshment of colonies along If shores, dealt a hard in the the caravan-trade. of the of the we sift fact from homily Koran, we find that the caravan-stations, result blow to same chapter was abandonment of many in and a consequent increase the cost of carried; camel-hire and of the provisions which now had to be im- poverishment, dispersion and rebellion of the dwellers in the so that finally stations, most of the cities which were between Saba and its Syria were ruined and abandoned," and a few years later than the Marib itself, stripped of its revenues and unable to maintain works, was visited with an inundation which carried away Periplus, public its famous reservoir-dam, making the city uninhabitable and forcing the dispersion of its people. Many of them seem which was to have migrated northward and the to have settled in the country southeast of Judaea, founding the for generations a kingdom of the Ghassanids, bulwark of Roman Empire at its eastern boundary. The great expedition against Sabaea by rStrabo, the Romans under Aelius Gallus, XVI, IV, 22-4; Pliny, VI, 32) never got beyond the valley of the Minaeans; turning back thence, as Mncent surmised ; ' 109 (II, 306-311), and as Glaser proves (Skizze, 56-9), without reaching It along their route. inflicting any lasting injury on the tribes was the merchant-shipping of the Romans, and not their soldiery, that undermined the power of the Sabaeans. As the wealth of Marib declined, its power was resolved into its elements, and was reorganized by a neighbor of the same blood. The oldest son of Saba the Great, founder of Marib, was Himyar, whose descendants included most of the town-folk of the southwest corner of Arabia. Two sons of Himyar, Malik and Arib, had carried the Joktanite arms back toward the east again, subduing the earlier Marib, and probably without inhabitants of the frankincense region north of Dhofar. of the tribe The center some days' journey nearer the sea. Allied with the sheikh at Zafar was he of the Ma'afir, This combination was able to overcontrolling the port of Muza. was at Zafar, southwest of Marib, and throw the old order, Zafar supplanting Marib, and of its Muza stripping Aden Thereafter the the title trade and its privileges along the African coast. Himyarite dynasty of Saba — the Homerite kings —assumed first "Kings and Raidan." east, to This was during the century B. C. The subsequent policy of the Kariba-ils of Zafar was to expand regain the old supremacy over the ' both north and 'Carnaites' east. along the caravan-routes, and to control the shipping from the (See Prof. D. H. Miiller's article, Yemen, in the Encyclo; paedia Britannica, 9th Edition; Glaser, Ski%-ze znA Die Abessinier, etc. Weber, Arabien vor dem Prof. Islam in Der in alte Orient, III, Leipzig, 1901; Hommel's Phila., chapter, Arabia, Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands, 1903; Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia, N. Y., 1904; 23. and the reports of the Austrian South-Arabian Expedition.) Embassies and It gifts. —This wooing of Yemen by Rome Arab policy, was soon ended. was no part of the let whether Ho- merite, Minaean, or Nabataean, to Rome cultivate direct relations with India, and as the empire necessary. Petra, expanded stronger measures were to attack Fifty years later than the Periplus, Trajan had captured and Abyssinia was being subsidized Yemen. of the Emperors. Some commentators supwhen two Roman emperors ruled together, thus dating the Periplus well into the 2d century A. D. but The Homerite king, who there is nothing in the text to require it. began to rule, probably, in the last days of Claudius, was simply, 23. A friend — pose that this refers to a time , (in the mind of our author, writing early in the reign of Nero), the friend of both those Roman Emperors, this as he was list also of several others whose the 1st short reigns coincided with his. A of the Emperors of and 2d centuries confirms 110 Roman B.C. Parthian A.D. Ill plant, and it entered into the composition of many spirituous which retained the same scent. (See Pliny, XIII, 2. ) extracts, Lucan (Pkarsa/ia, IX, 809) refers to the sweet-smelling essence of saffron that issues from the limbs of a statue." Saffron also entered into It many of the scented salves or balsams. of other plants, such as was much adulterated by adding the stigmata tinctorius, officinalis, the safflower {Carthamus order Composita), and the marigold (Calendula Pliny order Composita). says. in it it (XXI, 81) Saffron is blended with wine or water It is and is extremely useful medicine. disperses is generally kept in horn boxes. Applied with egg all kinds of inflammations, those also for hysterical suffoca- of the eyes in particular; tions, employed and for ulcerations of the stomach, chest, kidneys, liver, lungs, It is particularly useful in and bladder. parts, cases of inflammation of those and for cough and pleurisy with Cimolian chalk for erysipelas." I, The flower is used locally op. ctt., (See also Beckmann, 175-7.) 24. fusion rush, among some Sweet rush. —The text is kypens. There is much conthe Roman writers between various species of aromatic including the calamus of the Hebrew anointing oil (Exodus a XXX), which was probably Acorus calamus, Linn., order Aroidea; semi-aquatic sub-tropical herb, useful medicinally and as a flavor. But Pliny (XIII, 2) distinguishes between "Syrian calamus" and "Syrian sweet-rush," both components of the Parthian "regal oint- ment;" thus, so that sweet-rush , may rather have been Andropogon schcenan- Linn. order Graminea. An account of its production is given 70). That by Pliny (XII, 48), and of its from near the temple of Jupiter most highly esteemed, he says, came Ammon in Egypt; the next best from Rhodes. It had an odor re- medicinal properties (XXI, sembling that of nard; ments, it and aside from as a diuretic, its use in perfumes and oint- was employed and with wine and vinegar for throat ulcers, or in liniments for ulcerous sores generally. It is possible, also, that the kyperos of the text may have been the Egyptian papyrus (Cyperus papyrus, Linn., order Cyperacea); used, according to Pliny (XIII, 21-2) for boat-building, sails and mats, cloths, coverlets and ropes, and the roots for fuel. He notes it as a product of Syria, growing in conjunction with the sweet calamus, and much favored by King Antiochus for cordage for his navy, instead of Again (XXXIII, spartum, which was preferred by the Romans. 30) he says papyrus was used for smelting copper and iron, being favored next to pine wood. 112 The suggestion in the text is, however, for an aromatic rather is than cordage or fuel, able identification. so that Andropogon schoenanthus the more prob- Zingiheracea) and galangal {Alpinia officinarum, beraceic) are not McCrindle's suggestions of turmeric (^Curcuma longa, Linn., order Hance, order Zingiborne out by Pliny's descriptions; and these are both products of the Far East, while the text indicates an Egyptian or Mediterranean product. 24. ury thought Fragrant ointments. fit to mingle all known them extensively, — Pliny (XIII, 1) says that "luxfragrant odors, and to make one single odor of the whole; hence the invention of ointments. and they quite soak themselves The in it, Persians use and so, by an adventitious recommendation, counteract the bad odors are which produced by dirt." His account of the manufacture of ointments (XIII, 2) throws light on numerous articles of trade in his time. There were two principal components. They consisted of oils or juices, and solids: the former known as stymmata, the latter as hedysmata. A third ele- Resin and ment was the coloring matter, usually cinnabar or alkanet. gum were added to fix the odor. Among the stymmata were oil of roses, sweet-rush, sweet calamus, xylo-balsamum, myrtle, cypress, oil, lilies, mastich, pomegranate-rind, saffron nard, and cinnamon. fenugreek, myrrh, cassia, The hedysmata included amomum, nard, myrrh, balsam, costus, and marjoram. Myrrh used by stacte itself, without oil, formed an ointment, but it it was only that must be used, for otherwise would be too bitter. The formula of the regal ointment," made for the Parthian Kings, included myrobalanus, costus, amomum, cinnamon, comacum, cassia, storax, cardamom, spikenard, marum, myrrh, ladanum, opo- balsamum, Syrian calamus and Syrian sweet-rush, cenanthe, malabathrum, serichatum, cypress, aspralathus, panax, saffron, cypirus, sweet marjoram, nus, lotus, honey and wine. ointment included resin and myrrh, oil oil The Mendesian mom, and of bala- metopion (Egyptian resin of terebinth. of bitter almonds), omphacium, carda- sweet-rush, honey, wine, myrrh, seed of balsamum, galbanum, Another included 24. in oils (the common kinds), sampsuchum, lilies, fenugreek, myrrh, cassia, nard, sweet-rush, and cinnamon. Myrrh, —a gum exuded from the bark of a small Oman, and It tree, native South Arabia, and to some extent in order Burseracea. the Somali coast of Africa; classified as Bahamodendron Ahyssinica Myrrha (Nees), or Commiphora (Engl. ), forms the underwood of 113 forests of acacia, moringa, and euphorbia. From earliest times it has been, together with frankincense, a constituent of incense, perfumes, and ointments. (Exod. It was an ingredient of the Hebrew anointing oil XXX), and was also one of the numerous components of the It celebrated kyphi of the Egyptians, a preparation used in fumigations, medicine, and embalming. was the object of numerous trading expeditions of the Egyptian kings to the Land , of Punt. " A monu80,000 f ment of Sahure, 28th century B. C. records receipts of measures of myrrh from Punt. century B. C. list ) The expedition of Hatshepsut 15th its again records myrrh as the most important cargo; of the marvels of the country of Punt" ebony, pure ivory, green gold of was as follows: All goodly fragrant woods of God's Land, heaps of myrrh-resin, fresh myrrh trees, Emu, cinnamon wood, eye cosmetic, apes, khesyt wood, ihmut incense, sonter incense, monkeys, dogs, skins of southern panther, natives and their children. The inscription adds: "Never was brought the like of this for any (Breasted, Ancient Records king who has been since the beginning. " of Egypt, II, 109; Flilckiger and Hanbury, op. cit., 140-6.) Pliny (XII, gum ' : 'Incisions are 35) gives a clear account of the gathering of the made in the myrrh-tree twice a year, and at the but in the case of the myrrh-tree the root as far as the branches the same season they are as in the incense-tree; all made way up from which are incision is able to bear it. The tree spontaneously exudes, before the made, a liquid which bears the name of stacte {stazo, to Second only drop) and to which there is no myrrh that is superior. of the wild or forest kind, in quality to this is the cultivated myrrh; the best is that which is gathered in summer." 40 denarii the pound; cultivated Stacte, he says, sold as high as myrrh, at 14. at a maximum of 11 denarii; Erythraean at 16, and And he continues: "They give no tithes of myrrh to it odoraria the god, because is the produce of other countries as well; it but the growers pay the fourth part of to the king of the Gebanitae. Myrrh is bought up indiscriminately by the common people and then packed into bags; but our perfumers separate it without any diiBculty, the principal tests of its goodness being its unctuousness and its aromatic smell. "There are several kinds of myrrh: ; the first among the wild and the next are the Minaean, which inmyrrhs is the aromatic, and that of Ausaritis, in the kingdom of the cludes A third kind is the Dianitic, and a fourth is the mixed Gebanita. the Troglodytic myrrh or collatitia brought from a city . a fifth again in the is the Sambracenian, which is kingdom of the Sabaei, near the sea; and a ) ) 114 sixth also city There is is known by the name of Ausaritic. which is produced in only one spot, and is carried (This is the same as the port of Messalum." See Glaser, Ski%z£, 138. ,) a white myrrh for sale to the of Masala or Muza. ' ' 'bitter. The name The ' myrrh is ancient Egyptian from the Hebrew and Arabic mur, meaning word was bola or hal, and the SanPersian and Indian call it scrit was 24. vola. The modern Miiller and in bol or bola. Gebanite-Minaean stacte. Fab ricius Sprenger's —The text is corrupt, having gabeirminaia : alter this to "Abiraea and Minaea, " which appear trict. map of Arabia, but not in the myrrh dis- Stacte has already been described as the gum yielded by natural exudation from wild trees, as distinguished from that coming from incisions jective on trees either wild or cultivated; while the qualifying ad- can hardly be other than Gebanite-Minaean, which was among the best varieties in Pliny's classification. (See also Glaser, Ski%ze, 88-9. 24. in Alabaster. the —Pliny (XIII, 3), says, "Ointments keep best boxes of alabaster, and perfumes all when mixed with it is, oil, which conoil duces more to their durability the thicker such as the of almonds, for instance. Ointments, too, improve with age; but the sun is apt to spoil them, for which reason they 3. are usually stowed away in a shady place 12; in vessels of lead." (See also Pliny, XXXVI, is Mark, XIV, 24. 7; John, XII, Avalites and the far-side coast. Fabricius translates —The its text corrupt, having Adulh; Adulis. ' ' aus dem gegeniiber gelegenen exports were quite But Adulis was not opposite Muza, different, and it is not mentioned that they went to Muza. The rela- Habash and Himyar, at the date of the Periplus, were not those of friendly commerce, and Adulis was distinctly an Egyptian tions of trading-station. articles carried sale On the other hand, the text describes, in § to Ocelis 7, the for by the Berbers from Avalites and Muza there; to which this passage refers as that already mentioned." We must conclude, therefore, the scribe copied "Adulis" instead of Avalites," which was what our author wrote. narrow strait. This is, of course, the strait of Bab25. el-Mandeb, or "Gate of Tears" (12° 35' N., 43° 12' E. j, so called because of 25. its A — treacherous winds and currents. The island Diodorus is the modern Perim (12° 38' N., 43° 18' E.). 25. Ocelis is the Acila of Strabo, Artemidorus and Pliny; the the name surviving in the modern Cella. Forster traces in this name — 115 tribe of Uzal, son of Joktan (Genesis X, 27) with whom he also connects Ausar (Ausal or Ausan) in the Frankincense Country which survives in the modern Ras el Sair. This is the district which at onetime held the 'Ausanitic coast" near Zanzibar, as stated in The ancient city of Uzal is the modern Sanaa. §15. Ocelis is identified by Glaser with a bay on the northern side of the promontory of Sheikh Sa'id (12° 48' N., 43° 28' E. ), a volcanic formation which juts out from the Arabian shore and is separated by a narrow channel from the island of Perim. that Indian He notes the probability this place, ships whence that it their cargoes were permitted went by land to go no further than to Muza. first The text says merely was not a market-town, but the landing for those sailing into the gulf;" critus, that but Pliny (VI, 104) states on the authority of Onesi- Ocelis was the most convenient port for those coming from India. He mentions two other ports, Muza (Masala) and Cana, which were not frequented by Indian for the travellers, but were only merchants dealing in frankincense and Arabian spices. is 26. Eudaemon Arabia ), the modem Aden (12° 48' N., 45° 0' E. from very early times an important trade center, where goods from the east were trans-shipped for the Mediterranean markets. It was, probably, the Eden of Ezekiel dynasties. XXVII, its 3, and the chief port in eclipse of the Minaean and Sabaean it While temporarily under the Homerite kings, tury A. had regained position by the 4th cen- D. when Constantius negotiated for a church to be built there; and the Arabian geographers and Marco Polo refer to its activities in terms almost as glowing as those of Agatharchides. The Eudamon to the right Periplus gives the port the like Felix, name ; of the entire district; being an attempt (as at translating Yemen, the country hand' ' one faces the east) the Arabic, hke the to the fight hand. Greek Eden and Latin, attaching the idea of good fortune had the same significance, of good fortune. 26. Charibael destroyed the place. It is having Casar. this quite certain that 1st no The text is Roman emperor title is — corrupt, attacked place during the century, and the equally suspicious, our author having more correctly referred as autokrator. to his sovereign, in Elisor, § 2,^, Miiller and Fabricius substitute to retaining the second syllable of the word, and suppose him have been a king of the Frankincense Country. But Schwanbeck {Rheinischen Museum fur Philologie, ports him by proving VII. Jahrgang, 1850) prefers Charibael, and Glaser supthat Eleazus, and not EUsar, was the name of the king mentioned in § 27. The indications are against a westward movement by the mon- the the Wadi Hadramaut." while Ba-I-Haf would be "just before. The "Island of Birds" is described by Miiller as 450 feet high. following Sprenger and Ritter. that of the latter. 10) between his Kane emporion and the neighboring ports. at Ba-l-Haf. Between But lay precipitous mountains. on two an attack upon the eastern slope. quoted under § 14. Cana farther west. 48° 20' E. covered with guano. 7. The Peri- plus indicates his control of the fertile frankincense valleys far beyond the account of Strabo. in the alliance of the destruction of Aden. his outlook was in the other direction. but this beyond the period of expansion within their respective spheres. From Hisn Ghorab the way to the interior leads up the Wadi Maifa. which empties into the ocean a short distance to the east. The Chatrait motitae had. 278) and Glaser {Ski%%e. ). and thus has its name from the same cause as the promontory Hisn Ghorab (Raven Castle). which Saphar and Sabbatha were not yet was in a later century. Fabricius (pp.116 arch at Sabbatha. tion. Cruttenden of at an annual as described in the Berbera. p. as described in the . The loss was not great. 141-2). From the Red Sea to the summits of the Arabian Alps was that of the ultimately pressed former. so that conflagrations by night were It common there. Muza The with Saphar we have the motive for at the foreign trade was centered and Cholaebus gained for his merchants the rights which those of Aden had enjoyed under the Sabasan kings. Topography and history alike discredit Aden by the Chatramotitas. text. to cope with an alliance of Homerites and Per- them on either side and engulfed them. this who knew Chatramotitis as a producer of myrrh movement followed the Habash migration. 158) tells us that the Homerite port. MiiUer (p. involved hardly more than the discontinuance account by Lieut. city was built mostly of reeds. Ibn Khaldun (Kay's edition. protected from all winds by projecting capes on either side and by islands in the offing. locates This seems not to accord was "just beyond the cape projecting from this bay. 11 Cana may be identified with Hisn Ghorab ( 14° 10' N. The modern town is called Bir AH. with the which says the port and fails to take into port." The identification depends too literally on the stated distance of the islands slightly text. fair. a fine harbor. of Here are numerous ruins and one famous Himyaritic inscripwhich a version is given by Forster. only. 174-5) support the Hisn Ghorab location by comparison of the distances given by Ptolemy (VI." This is true of account that they are described as "facing the Hisn Ghorab and not of Ba-l-Haf. . sians is true. pp.. the Minaean Jauf. and by merchants in such as the author of the Periplus. the Arabic Ili-azzu. dating about 25-65 A. owed their prosperity mainly to their position above the greatest of all the east-flowing courses. being a translation of the "Incense-Land" of the Habashat. interested country and not in its politics. apparently. The name given the kingdom. Beyond the mouth of the Wadi Hadramaut \i Ras laitak. sun-scorched and arid. turns to the south and cliffs waters are its the mouth of the valley being desert like the that line course. D. among and its This ancient object of contention Hadramaut and Parthia. The cut. now silted the streams from for peaks. trade The of Makalla. the nations was now divided between perhaps officially. by occasional ravines which bring down scanty rains during the monsoon rainfall to fertilize a broad strip of coast plain. On the western feet. nearly . however. the centers of caravan-trade bound north toward the Nile and Euphrates.117 The Cana Ezekiel of the Periplus 23. rising above 10. has shifted 27. he gives an inscription (Die Jbessinier. This was one of the best frankincense districts. Such were the Nejran. edge the mountains of Yemen. ally. "Frankincense Country. divided almost equally in climatic conditions." a name which Glaser and this Jalit. fertile sea. to King of the Frankincense Country—This "my God is mighty. and these three valleys. This great highest cleft in the sandstone rock. the product of the A glance at the topography of this Incense-Land will help toward its an understanding of dealings with el its neighbors. (originup). but on the upper levels the valleys are protected and fertile. shows have belonged to several kings of the Hadramaut. but certainly by the popular voice. more than 200 then it and productive its distance. already mentioned. and the capital of the country in like manner eastward to the modern city of Shibam. which last was made rich by the great dam that stored its waters for irrigation.). Eleazus. name was. the Valley of Hadramaut. On the eastern slope the water-courses are soon lost in the sand. of Eleazus he identifies with Ili-azzu whose reign. is which it formerly enjoyed passes now through the port some distance to the east.000 attract a good which waters the western slope toward the Red Sea. The southern coast of Arabia from Bab Mandeb to Ras el Hadd has a length of about 1200 miles. which gathers Bent believes an arm of the the miles. etc. runs parallel with the coast for nearly the entire lost." is notable. or Aethiopians. and the valley of the Sabaeans.. assumed by the king of the Hadramaut. western half is largely sandstone bluff. is probably the same as the Canneh of XXYU. 34. no longer checked by the African coast. and Pto!em\ At present we must be satisfied with such knowledge of the IncenseLand as may be had from these. These mountains. while the coast plains are narrowr and broken. and by giving the groundwork by Herodotus. in Assyria. north of Cape Guardafui. of intensive cultivation of a controlled product of great and cul- constant value. and the Dhofar and Jenaba districts. in Persia. which gradually rise above 4000 feet. for the treasured scraps of information preserved Eratosthenes. and had in which the in and the privileged their place the order given." The restricted area were by the steppe and the 'desert. in short. these sacred lands of we two thousand years its The modern Arab world takes it its little supply of frankincense from or the vessels that carry to Bombay Aden. The north- ern slopes of these mountains feed the water-course long. or on Mount Zion. world the Incense-Land was a true Eldorado. Strabo. by showing the complement to such records as those of Hatshepsut in Egypt and Tiglath-Pileser III phrastus. Agatharchides. cannot greatly to our store of fail to add knowledge of the surrounding civilizations. and recovering the records of their past. the Hadramaut valley. facing which lie the Kuria Muria islands. TheoPliny. India. were the oldest and perhaps the most productive of the frankincense districts of Arabia. while at the same time their local conof the Arabian incense-lands. — for a development of caste unusual tivator. or China. and from inscriptions found by . about 100 miles Muria Bay. slave. (known as the to our author as Asich. and it was always the ambition of the various powers of that region to extend their rule so as to include the Dhofar mountains. made for a peculiarly ordered state of society in Semitic lands. clothed with tropical vegetation. The archaeological expedition that shall finally succeed in penetrating these forbidden regions. 118 Here the climate changes. forming a frankincense trust.. the monsoon. bordered as they ditions. Of the age-long struggle for control of know today little more than the Greek writers ago. and the opposite Somali coast of Africa thus controlling the production and commanding the which enipties into the Kuria el fertile coast plains as far as — price. now known Ras Wadi § 33) Rekot. armies are sent to the conquest or defence of lands in other lines of productivity — of But to the ancient a Kimberley. a Witwatersrand. leaves its effect on the coastal hills. a Manchuria. beyond which are Hadd. the warrior. made them constantly subject to attack and control by different wandering tribes. sought by the great empires and fought for by every Arab tribe that managed to enrich itself by trading incense for temple-service on the Nile or Euphrates. Raidan. who work the salt motitae mines in the vicinity. whose rumblings were held ertson Smith : to be the groans of lost souls (^V. and a king of the Hadramaut whose title is expanded to "King of the Frankincense Country. and whose Masira. were dan. Habashat." the Hazarmaveth X.) 119 Halevy and Glaser Sabaeans. von Maltzan: Reisen in Arabien. Socotra and By the 4th century A. D. It lies in the Wadi Rakhiya. Journal of the Royal Geographical Society. Hirsch: . 1873." while the Abyssinian kings. Geographical AInhra-lMnd the works already cited of Glaser. Soon afterwards we find Marib ruled by Kings of Saba and Raidan. the Alinaans and During the 2d and 1st centuries B. Braunschweig. Pressure by the Parthians on the East forced an alliance. the greater part of the Incense-Land was held by the Incense-People. and Zwemer. Ba- Theodore Bent: The Hadramaut. C. L. and authorities there qjoted). some distance above the Wadi Hadramaut. —The native name of this capital of the Chatra- was Shabwa. p. the kings at Zafar had absorbed the whole. means Enclosure of Death. 1897 Hommel. between the Habashat. Weber. Expedition to u Journey. former dependencies of the Habashat. W. rule extends over the islands all of Kuria Muria. and the Austrian Expedition Reports. 1894. VII. save for a few Beduins. et les Colonies Arabes dans I' Archipel Indien. while the natives are now all in the lower Hadramaut . of Genesis Rai- etc. Hadramaut and Yem- en. : Le Hadramaut 1886. IV. to (See Wellsted: Narrative of a Journey the Ruins of Nakeb Hajar. against Himyar and Raidan on the This was not far from 50 B. and about 60 miles west of the present According to Bent {Geographical Journal. the 27. Reisen in Sild-Arabien." while after a couple of generations more the Periplus shows us a Homerite king who rules also over Saba and Raidan and the East African coast. 313. Nine- teenth Century." referring probably to the crater of Bir Barhut." and the Habashat gone into their African outposts. L. valley. Sabbatha. J. Robcl Religion of the Semites. Journal. Shibam. IV. 413: capital. in the homes of its neighbors. Leiden. being known as "Kings of Saba. the Aethiopians or Habashat. und Had/iramut. 1894) it is now deserted. 134. of w hich Glaser found the record at Marib. Hadramaut. Saba. Himyar. Hadramaut and Saba on one hand. H. C. ' ' known "Kings Axum. \"an den Berg tavia. 20. C. who as regained a foothold in Arabia of during that century. Hogarth. other. The name Hadramaut. B.120 This its is the Sabota of Pliny (VI. 29. 27 Frankincense. distinguishes particuB. 1871). Irankincense is thus closely allied to myrrh. Linn. and benzoin. XXVII. Arabic luban. Carthe last-named yielding the best incense. few references incense. is The Greek word meaning perfume. the Somali word for cream. laben. The expedition to the the trade in might expect. one commerce. bdellium. frnm the Punt Reliefs in the Deir dating- el Bahri temple at Thebes. Marco Polo which calls white incense. The inscriptions of the early Egyptian dynasties contain. exuded from various species of Bosorder Burseracea. a resin . native in Somaliland and South Arabia. yields a resin of less fragrance. as to we which was brought overland to the upper Nile by the "people of Punt and God's Land' and not sought out by the Pharaohs. Bhau-Dajiana (the mocrotu of § 9). from the 15th century B. thur'tfera. Soc. ' Another Hebrew name was Hommel would connect with the Ethiopic sekhin. is of the most ancient and precious articles of wellia. After Naville. and "milk- which it is the Chinese term for frankincense. Frereana. Bay of Sachalites" of § Frankincense trees. white". ' . larly terii." shekheleth. B. C. and B. from Hebrew lebonah. native in India. That incense was in use is sufficiently clear from the early ritual. cf. always '" libanos. 32) "with sixty temples within walls. much used as an adulterant. Birdwood (Trans. and the entire army was praising. when "a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead. royal attendant with tWo others. sea. ebony and ivory. for it (20th century B. with their camels bearing It spicery and balm and myrrh. and I found it. Behold. going to carry it down to Egypt. and-all the gods of this highland." followed a period of disorder and Arabian domination in Then Egypt. then prostrated himself "to Min. incense was put on the fire.) was a notable exception. Then all scattered in search. incense. but organized great to the "Land of fleets which went Punt" each season and brought back unprecedented treasure. bearing incense.'' was ended by a native reaction under the great Pharaohs of the X\'IIIth or Theban dynasty. apes. and one hide" nasty. according it to the Deir el Bahri "the people knevy not. dogs. Incense -trees were king who has been since the beginning. as a return for many payments. This land in former times. and brought back great store of myrrh. under whom the land increased in power in These monarchs were not content to remain in comall directions. C). under Pepi II (26th century B. mercial dependence upon Arabia. so the inscription continues. (as specimens). in the time of the the caravan-route from Coptos to Berenice. goats were slain. " led the Egyptian But Amon-Re. the kings of The marvels brought thence under thy Lower Egypt. another royal officer named Intef for stone to Hammamat along what was. was heard of from mouth to mouth by hearsay of the ancestors. none reaching them except thy carriers. in the Xllth dynasty. a royal officer Sebni. Great-in-Magic. clothing (probably cotton). in the Vth dynasty (28th century B. 25. monkeys. reliefs. under Amenemhet was sent Periplus. and since the time of the ancestors of the kings of Upper Egypt. to to them incense upon the fire. a record of the completion of a royal sarcophagus states that "Cattle were slaughtered. planted . eye-paint. it rejoiced with obei. how he "descended to Wawat and Uthek. until it army by land and came to the Incense- Lan^. C. sent to the Tigre highlands. gold. I gave praise to Montu. were brought from one to another. who were of old. and sent on the Iri. fathers." And ). an army of 3000 sailors of the it nomes of the Northland (Delta of the Nile) followed in safety to I Egypt. one tusk. sance. "Never was brought the like of this for natives and their children. the condition described in Genesis This was traveling XXXVII. during which Arab merchants controlled the trade. records C). In the XItu dyunder Mentuhotep IV (21st century B. He sought to eight days without success." any "heaven and earth are flooded in the court of the temple.121 Incense-Land under Sahure. panther-skins. In the Vlth dynasty. giving Mut. cinnamon. C. incense. onycha. oil.093 Incense House. when one of these sidered a sacrilege rooms was occupied (Nehemiah XIII. 21. galbanum. 4-9j. silver. II. and XlXth the setting aside of gifts ples. pour oil upon it." all while the court responded that Rameses himself was "the god of people. jars. forhisi-a —wine. odors are in the Great House. to Amon. myrrh. pure 34-5) was composed of pure frankincense. to be an offering made by rooms fire.' 122 with incense. with myrrh and incense for thy for the Pharaoh the Sand-Dwellers came bowing down to thy serpent diadem. ). to give offerings to the temples. as well as of dynasty 1292-1225 B. it seemed as if the resources of the The god opened were poured bodily into the lap of Amon. wine. compiled for ' that great record of his gifts his and tomb. Ancient Records of Egypt. jars. with a of each a like weight perfume and holy." and the heart of Anion was made glad. "founded for his father offerings cultivated trees. The sudden opulence of the in the dynast\' made annual ( possible a great enrichment worship of Amon. enormous endowments for the temprincely value. C. So Rameses II. that they may awake. and put shall frankincense thereon and the special priest burn the memorial upon the the Lord. sweet spices. lapis lazuli. j. will offer a shall shall be of fine and he meat offering (Levit. And in the Pa/ijrz/j ii/<7rr/. incense 304. fowl. the ways of Punt." are (1198-1167 B. precious stones. 26-30). in a special (The At quotations are from Breasted.) this time the Hebrews ended their servitude . Then followed a series of campaigns in Syria. stacte. garments oT royal linen.159 cinnamon 246 measures. in Egypt and migrated to Palestine and naturally among them also frankincense sacred incense of the priests (Exod. and annual remittances of great incense. and the "Genabti" of the Incense-Land came Theban direct.f. of the C. deben. was counted holy. of a sweet savour unto There were it in the temple at Jerusalem under priestly guard 'I Chron. to send And in the XXth dynasty. quantities of Arabian and Eastern treasure silver. there are such entries malachite. all fruit." stored of necessity. 1-3) it ' And when any flavor." meses III nation name" endowments copper. gold at and the Chief of Shinar" Babylon sent gifts of lazuli. as a dwelling. to give to thee incense.' various measures. precious stones lapis — —while even grain. under Rain incense before the god. resulting in the submission of that country." His successor set free multitudes who Merneptah was bidden by the AU^Lord to bound in every district. and it later. was con- The trade in the days of . offering their tribute. IX." for storing altar. every year as gold. growing for him.140 white incense 2. The XXX. 416. and his brother af Antiochus Hierax. 10.').) "The multitude of camels shall cover thee." and LX. ." spices as (1 Kings X.. gold the kingship. the myrrh the healing powers of the Child. altar to Bel at Babylon weight of 183). of Yakin. incense. tells The Nimrud Inscription of the great Assyrian monarch Tiglathhow 'fear of the brilliance of Ashur. Virgil. I. with gifts.: ! 123 Israel's prosperity the wilderness like pillars of smoke." and how he came and made submission. signifying. Lives') altars too lavishly." . dotus tells Hero- us that the Arabs brought a tribute of 1000 talents' weight every year to Darius (III. centumque Sabseo Ture calent arae sertisque recentibus halant. with all Who is this that cometh out of perfumed with myrrh and frankpowders of the merchant?" (Song of Solomon III. C." — And from the to the infant Saviour in east." precious stones.) talents' with 10 weight in 243 B. beams of ushu-wooA. the dromedaries of all Midian and Ephah gold and incense.) And there the Queen of Sheba "gave the king an hunstore. King of the Sea-Country. II. necklaces of gold. by Seleucus Cilicia. bringing as tribute gold the dust of his land — — in abundance.) Pileser III. Jeneid. frankincense. the frankincense the divinity. they shall bring and they shew forth the praises of the Lord. II. From the spoils of Gaza in Syria. and of spices a very great precious stones. — gold. the product of the sea (pearls. these which the came no more such abundance of Queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon. 6. sedesque revisit Laeta suas ubi templum illi. 97). dred and twenty talents of gold. spices of all In the Persian empire frankincense was equally treasured. according to a Persian legend quoted by Yule. "the 11). over' ' came Merodach-baladan. and that a similar quantity was burnt every year by the Chaldaeans on their great (I. (Isaiah they from Sheba shall shall come . King of The temple of Venus Paphos was fragrant with frankincense "Ipsa Paphum sublimis abit. who had rebuked him for loading the Macedonian until remarking that he must be more economical he had conquered the countries that produced the frankincense The temple of Apollo in Miletus was presented (Pliny XII. Bethlehem came "three wise men and myrrh" (Matt. was important: : 6. my lord. 500 talents' frankincense was sent by Alexander the Great to his tutor Leonidas (Plutarch. ellutu-vfoo6. party-colored clothing. King of Syria. vessels of gold. kinds. 32. they to us then even more favorable portion. so large a quantity of per- fumes as was burnt by the Emperor Nero at the funeral obsequies of his wife Poppaea. honor of the the vast quantities. however." Chron. by is shut out by tremendously high . let incense be heaped thereon. cit. to the I How large a should like to know. put . the capital of whose kingdom the is Sabota. that has rendered Arabia thus 'happy. XVI. nay. be ye not careless concerning any of . the altar with milk. even in the para- phernalia of death. assert that this country does not produce. in a whole year. that. known by name of Saba {. as follows: "There is no country in the world. apothecaries' and they made a very great burning for him. be ye pure. is as Pliny observes with disapproval the luxury which displayed by man. too. and indeed not the whole of that region are the Atramitae. And then let us only take into account the vast number of funerals that are celebrated throughout the in whole world each year. ye for me op. all less propitious. your rules. a Almost community of this is in the very center of the Sabsi. consisting me shoulders of beef. a place situate on a lofty mountain. they did not when men were in the habit of offershow themselves any the were than they are now. that are offered to the gods in single grains. the incense-bearing region. on the of gar- ments of give ye my statues. 571. them the salted cake. the At the time of the Periplus this was par- ticularly (VII. are likely to be the best acquainted with the matter. At a distance of eight stations from side. II. as the facts themselves prove. " in his offer ye to me all fruit.. rather." and which prompts him to bury with the dead what was originally underThose who stood to have been produced for the service of the gods. and the deities of the shades below. 42): "It is — fashion in Rome.Abasa'O. too." (forgetting. from which it bounded on the cliffs. "that produces frankincense except Arabia.) in the They buried him own sepulchres and laid him bed which was (II filled with sweet odours and divers kinds of spices prepared by the art. The to priests Amon under the XVIIIth dynasty were instructed be vigi- lant concerning your duty. the Somali peninsula). ing up to and yet. be ye clean concerning divine things bring ye up for me that which came of linen fill forth before.? The customs ruling the gathering and shipment of frankincense are carefully described by Pliny (XII. and the heaps of odors that are piled up bodies of the dead. while This it is district is inaccessible right because of rocks on every the sea. (Breasted. of these perfumes really comes gods of heaven. 30). 14j." 124 Likewise of in funerals were its virtues required. people through whose country single the sole transit for the frankincense. though that which upon the ground the heaviest in weight. and exThe intremely thin. no one is left to watch the to tree after the incisions are made. trees or gathering the harvest. I. when the heat is most intense. When is the nature of the locality this juice is received upon mats of palm-leaves. even placed upon workmen's aprons and a mask put upon the head. from being distended to the greatest extent. but nothing is removed.tree. less with very close meshes. that behold the incense. women or coming that the by these religious observances so enhanced. . that an unctuous foam oozes forth. is But. it is "The there yet at is forest and such is the mutual probity of the owners. for this reason these persons are called sacred. indeed. while the people are stripped naked before So true it is that punishments afford security among us than is to be found by these Arabians amid their woods and forests! "The incense which has accumulated during the summer is gath- *Cf. the Sabaei alone. . where the incense dressed for sale.) 125 The forests extend 20 schoeni in length and (A schcenus 40 stadia 4 English miles. that quite safe from all depredation. while pruning the to receive in contact any pollution. for not over 3000 families have a right to that privilege by hereditary succession. it is price of the commodity is "The a period natural vintage takes place about the rising of the Dog-star. And again. 57: India mittit ebur. on which occasion they cut where the bark appears to be the fullest of juice. and no other all people among the Arabians. The Minaei were the It is first who carried on any traffic in frankincense. = = 10 schoeni in breadth. which the tree gradually coagulates and thickens. or else a net they are allowed to leave work. a people of another community. either by intercourse with with the dead. is The frankincense that gathered falls former method is is in the purest state. by Hercules! Alexandria. 116-117: Divisae arboribus patriae.solis est turea virga Sabseis. requires it. along a narrow road. molles sua tura Sabaei. cision thus made is gradually extended. and are not allowed. Sola India nigrum Fert ebenum. the workshops a seal is can never be guarded with the sufficient care. allotted in certain portions. Virgil. and no one ever known plunder his neighbor. Adjoining are the is Minaei. Georf(ia II. the consequence of which is.* and not of them. though in the tree some places the space around made hard by being is well rammed down after the for the purpose. the to the south coast.' And of the storage of the incense of the country in the capital. a capital offense. to the payments still to be made farmers of the revenue of our empire. from a fancied resemblance tribe using them Asettee Axum. being the well-known kelck." at 5. of the at 3 denarii. that the expense for each camel before is arrives at the shores of our sea fthe Mediterranean) after all this. it whom is not allowable to dispose of it before this has been done. and for that a certain tax is reason paid to their king as well. a in general use it on the Euphrates. and of the third quality rafts. Pliny rafts. —This (VI. type . At this place the priests take by measure. and not they call by weight. Hence second quality 27. The second gathering takes place in the spring. is of a red color. and not to be compared with the other all i incense. indeed. lodging of the stations and various taxes and imposts besides. for the divinity generously entertains all those strangers who have made a certain number it is of days' journey in coming thither. too. there are certain 688 denarii. it is the purest of all. of which place a single gate is left open for it. he thinks. 32) . sent from Cana to Masira Island for tortoise-shell. Pliny gives a further account XII. 34) doubts the story of the inflated derived. at along the route. "There are certain portions also of the frankincense which are given to the priests and king's secretaries: the keepers of it. To Cana on as frankincense. and in addition to these. whence This is the migrating Arabs no doubt brought probably. which would naturally was the Dhofar. . or "Sachafrom that of the Hadramaut go by camel direct to Sabbatha. out of this tenth the public expenses are defrayed. the name given the African tribe Greek word a^/^w meaning "bladder. there is one place water pay another fodder. were from Asich (§ 33) and were the inflated raft is the founders of And still authentic. this. it. the consequence of it which is. distinguished valley. The incense can only this be exported through the country of the Gebanitae. at And to then befor. its admission. To de\ iate from the high road while carrying the laws have made Sabis. also. as already shown. a tenth part in honor of their god. litic" a pound of the best incense sells at 6 denarii. all their share as well. as well as the soldiers who guard the gate-keepers and various other employees.— 126 ' ered in the autumn. in the however." to the But the Ascitae. have sides. incisions being made bark for that purpose during the winter. cargo-ship" of § 33. and is of a white color. "The incense after being collected. is carried on camels' backs to Sabota. in tin. The outlook of Hadramaut. 322). Maltzan described the Hadrami traders lot. the capital full of Parsee merchants. and graven images for the household worship of king. whither they went the natives going to India. Imported into : this place. and toward Egypt by land. The word Parthia" our author avoids.127 Inflated raft. and cheap clothing for its the Hadramaut. Bent found the same conditions. which had recently been conquered by the Parthian Empire. and the Mediterranean products. and it is likely that this coast did likewise. which rebook on their country. then as now. was toward India by sea. copper. ernment. while an integral part of its the Arsacid possessions. these Chatramotitae. who may have been the dramaut Arabs. which. and returning when they had amassed a competence. coral and storax. knowing rather the independent sphere of influence of the constituent Kingdom of Persia. wine. comprising more details than Bent could gather on the spot! An enterprising and uncompromising people. the English protectorate accepted because of England's domination of India. maintained local government to an extent never allowed the 28. and Hadramaut shipping (§ 57). finding the islands of Java and Sumatra overrun with Hain Batavia. from a relief at Nineveh. along with the frankincense produced in the country. The neighboring the South Arabian coast between Kuria coast of Persia means that part of Muria Bay and Ras el Hadd. districts nearer- Ctesiphon. little —The list of imports indicates the nature of the trade a wheat. stimulated inquiries of them sulted in Van den Berg' s . in the face of the religious convictions of rulers and people {^Geographical Journal. in IV. where they were in demand (§ 49). After Layard. for re-shipment to India. the Straits and Java. Cairo as the keenest of the while the Dutch gov- and spoke of their activities in the East. 27. and exported. placed by Delitzsch south . incense gatherers from the ' a local use for storax in defending the frank- serpents" guarding the trees. squeeze the juice out. to shed blood for the purifica- tion of mankinJ. according to Fliickiger and Hanbury (^Pharmacographia. in and the unpolluted caste of those spirit which they were the mediators between the profane world who were able by propitiating the and gather its of the sacred tree. Coral. which the Chinese annals further name of the country producing the storax. and with a city called Usuu. It was an expectorant and stimulant. it (See §§ 39. further said that the inhabitants of Ta-ts'in (Syria) gather the storax (plant.128 active power in the Minaean dynasty and the Sabaean that followed it. see pp. both of whom subsisted mainly on the carriage of frankincense to the north. 28. as far as China. which would have had little use for an incense of less value than their own. These references Glaser notes the state to indicate that the tree. somewhat resembling benzoin. 271-6). and 56. Bary- gaza and Aluziris. was the resin of Styrax order Styracacece. Chinese su-ho may not have been the product of one particular have been the name su-ho. The Periplus does net distinguish between them. supposed to be the same as Rekam or which was a point of shipment. for reshipment to India in Arab or Hindu bottoms. of Liquidambar orientalis. or parts of itj. solid. the juice of kinds of which they boil into su-ho" —which he are identifies with storax. Liquid storax was the sap S. Storax in Roman times meant two different things: one. it thus goes through is many hands " before reaching China. 49. He compares this with the usu-vfooA mentioned in several Assyrian inscriptions a tribute received from Arabia. is more complete. order Hamamelidacea. —This was the red coral of the Mediterranean. destined for India and China. when arriving here. Storax it is made by mixing and boiling the juice It is of various fragrant trees. useful in chronic bronchial affections. not a natural product. city Li-kan. referring to the 6th century. pp. in at There was. a officinalis. and used in incense. they then sell dregs to the traders of other countries. and. not very fragrant. the Hirth in his China and Roman Orient quotes Chinese annals collect all covering this period. 131-2. ) As an import at Cana was intended 28. which commanded principal a high price in India and China. Later annals. which state that the Syrians fragrant substances. and was one of the Roman exports thither. but Fluckiger thinks that the storax dealt Cana was the liquid storax. nati\e in ^^^ Asia Minor. however. and thus make a balsam {hsiang-kao) its . being shipped to Barbaricum. and connect with the Petra. " same word that appears in East Africa as Sawahll. 48° 45' E. The word the Sachalites is Hellenized from the Arabic Sahil. like Hijaz and Yaman. 52° 12' E. in as applied in § 29 seems it to apply to this whole strip § 32 that part of lying east of Ras Fartak is subdivided Omana. of Sachalites. Aloes. where the strip of natives are called Swahili. which make Ras Fartak one of the most striking features of the whereas its actual projection is unimportant.) and Ras Hasik (17° 23' N. the sea —but Glaser bitter thinks it may have been farther north. 180) has the following account of this coast: "Ash-Shihr is. The Bay — surveyed. of a deep indentation in the coast-line between Ras el Kelb (14° 0' N. there tween which Ras Fartak.129 of Akko on 28. This is quite possible. times an important article entirely in Socotra. mediaeval form of the mediaeval port that word was Sheher or Shehr. one of .. than that of the ranges farther The name of coast. of the Periplus to but also as far as northern Oman. was from Aloe Hadramaut valley. but it many fields enclosed by walls. and the replaced Cana was Es-shehr (the Escier of Marco Ibn Khaldun (Kay's translation. Baker. and its height less east. 0' N. whose Shehr extended beyond as the district of Dhofar. p.. p. midway be29. both Bent {^Southern Arabia. the thick leaves piled up until the juice exudes of their finally own weight. order LiliaceiE. Until the Arabian coast was was an erroneous idea held by all the geographers. throughout the tropics. wild and cultivated. 55° 10' E. 381) found very the ancient little aloes collected in Socotra. This narrow coast plain was dif- ferent topographically and ethnologically from the Valley of Hadra- maut. as the island was subject to the Hadramaut. This accords with the Arabian geographers. but in § 33 the name is resumed. The failure mention Socotrine aloes is surprising. or Syagrus (14° the supposed gulf.. particularly in the demand. less in being the Another South Arabia. where scribes had formerly been produced.). ) bisected The error is very evident in Ptolemy's observa- coast. tions. then allowed to dry in the sun for six weeks and packed in skins for shipment. The Polo). from Aloe Perryt. hepatica. and was produced almost variety. coast. In modern times these and many other varieties are in use. near Tyre. a cathartic. unless the product of the island was monopolized in Cana. still He de- method used to prepare the gum. native in dried juice exuded This was from very early of commerce. The fate of Niebuhr' s s party in Yemen. and the camels called Mahriyah camels are reared is sometimes conjoined with Oman.Pharm. cit. as of the latter. The country is also known Ash-Shihr Mahra. it which was collected with religious precautions. W Robertson Smith {Religion of religious value the Semites. the sacred odor altar sacrifice." . and on the seashore found. Whether. 427) recounts independent of this belief as follows "The animal of tree.: ' 130 the kingdoms of the Arabian peninsula. p. Vaughn Always fatal. Hommel this 700-1) argues for a derivation of name from some word allied to the old Hebrew term have been is for frankin- cense. with which they also feed their beasts. But aside from the question of physical health. also Glaser. is 178-9. expressed in the faith of the people. and sufficiently the more recent tragic outcome of Bent' explorations. It is separate from Hadrapalm- maut and Oman. king. {. the Shihrite ambergris The ' Indian if Ocean extends along the south and on the north Hadramaut. op. trees in the country. was used in unguents or burned like an appears to have owed it its virtue. as yielding higher prices than that produced in Sachalitic frankincense" Africa. confirm the dangers from malaria. Their food flesh. to in use on the (See writers against him. Joum. and arising from the supposed divinity of the tree itself. neither are there The is wealth of the inhabitants consists of camels preparations of milk and small fish. of incense was originally sacrifice. There is no cultivation. spread by the earliest traders. and goats. which does not seem while the evidence of the Arab Skizze. shekheleth. 1853) speaks of the Shaharree from Arabia." which would luhan be quite redundant. dysentery and the scorch- ing sun. to the idea that was the blood of an animate and divine plant. 29. like the gum of the samora (acacia) tree. but it is conit tiguous to Hadramaut. a term exactly corresponding to the of the Periplus. as that of in it. the tapping of the frankincense tree was believed to be attended by special dangers. for frankincense was the gum of a very holy species therefore. south coast. have been assumed to be their device to discourage competition. It is has been described as constituting the produces frankincense. ) The Periplus in § 32 against him. Shihr were the sea-shore Both are under one (in Hilprecht. and shores of that country. by using the adjective &f^a/zftV as qualifying "frankincense. —The reports of the unhealthy character of this coast. XII. 8 2 Kings XIV. it The Jinn was believed slew them because they had set fire to their dwellingHere the spirits of the trees take serpent form when they place. They are driven from the is. persons who it died a gen- Mohammed. like And similarly the old Hebrew ff. 74). hence the . a. the Phcenicians import into Greece. . that the tree woman. a number round each tree. The same b. hence. which are conceived as animate and even as rational Or is again the value of the it is gum of the acacia as an amulet i. and re- Roman custom of keeping serpents in every household.' 131 And again (p. The Romans souls of the dead and Greeks. guard the trees that bear frankincense. because the spirit that resides in avenge the injury. such practices as that described Baccha of Euripides." That the wrath of the incense-spirit styrax-spirit. when nursing mothers entered the Dionysiac revels clad in deer-skins and girded with serpents. also. the which they suckled. These are the same serpents that in- vade Egypt. and act human beings (Judg. as Frazer has shown {Golden Bough. leave their natural seats. with the design to bring tion. e. The Arabians gather frankincense. 75) which have been laughed at as travellers' yarns. Herodotus refers to this same he belief in two passages (III. When these two men set fire to an uncultiva- trodden and tangled thicket. childless saint. . the serpent-worship connected with their god Aesculapius. or births of Such was the belief concerning the god himself. was appeased by the perfume provided by the says. as well as to those of whose by the Adonis in Syria. women paired that they might be quickened by a dead jinn. where they were met by the ibis Egypt through a narrow pass and defeated. in serpent form. small in great and various in form. and similarly in Moslem superstition the jinn of the oshr and hamata are serpents which frequent trees of these But primarily supernatural life and power reside in the trees species. IV. fables of trees that speak ." says. and the intruders died soon afterwards. the under demons of the place flew away with doleful cries in the shape of white serpents. 107 and II. it is well known. trees by nothing else but the smoke he of the styrax. themselves. idea appears in the story of historical Harb b. believed were incarnate in the bodies of serpents and in the that the revisited the earth in that form. these And every spring. IX. is connected with the idea that a a clot of menstruous blood. Omajfya and Mirdas eration before Abi Amir. 3d ed. 9) have ' their original source in the savage personification of vegetable species. which winged serpents. Hence. to shrines. size for "by burning styrax. winged serpents flew into near Buto. 133) : In Hadramaut it is still dangerous to touch the plant will the sensitive mimosa. Alexander of Macedon and the Emperor Augustus. Pausanias. Hues!" and according to Cicero {De natura deorum. op. 8 and I. Medicinal waters were guarded by similar powers.168). shipped Zeus lates Meroe (II. there is deities certainly truth in the Greek. 6). and the Bactrian walls. Now the invocations of Dionysus in the mys- teries were Evoe. and of the Salt t/ie happy Arabia. from a more purely Joktanite district.. Theophrastus has the same story of the tree guarded by winged serpents. except myrrh. but it was probably along some ancient desert trade-route at the such as that between Coptos and Berenice time of the Periplus. and the reptile was identified ' . 29) wor- (Ammon) 43 ). we are Protrept. its Here is evidently a belief that the it hovered over blood as the traders carried to market. Sabai. 131). Buto was also the name of an Egyptian deity." According the to Herodotus (III.s 132 veneration for the tree-spirit ibis in Egypt.. while the Semitic people of whom they called Orotal and Ahlat. the fragrant of the earlier races of Arabia. Attes. V. Hues. Robertson Smith. Attes. waters were protected hy Jinns (W. of Bacchus I. Bacchi. While Frazer some no doubt right in warning against indiscriminate assimilation of and Semitic.. 16) persons initiated had a serpent told by Clement drawn through t'le bosom of their robes. is disputed. and Bacchus (Osiris) whom Glaser assimidie Siidara- with the Katabanic gods 'Am and Uthirat {Punt und biichcn Reichc. and that the danger that threatened the Egyptians was averted by the The location of this Buto defensive power of their own sacred bird. The same of Isaiah belief probably appears in the fiery flying serpents" XXX. there having established my —and "every one of these foreign nations celebrates these orgies. 23) one of the names was Sabazjus. daughter of the Phoenician Cadmus) who came to Greece having left the wealthy lands of the Lydians and Phrygians and the sun-parched plains of the Persians. Egyptian words of Euripides' Bacchus (son of Jove and Semele. borrowed from God' Land" (Yemen. and having come over the stormy land of the all Medes. the only deities of Incense-Land were Dionysus and Urania. The mon faith of the Incense-Land presents many is features in com- with that of the Greeks. in whose mysteries at Alexandria. a dragon sacred to Ares protected the sacred spring above Ismenian Apollo while among the Arabs all medicinal «/. but refers it to cinnamon all {Hist. IX. less imbued with the animism According to Herodotus. iii. 60. ii. Plant. 43-5). gums of Arabia were which may suggest that myrrh was similarly guarded. and Asia which lies along the coast mysteries" Sea. (Frazer. expressed. the sense possibly antedates the language in which is An ). p. the home of the King of the Incense-Land. Here seems to be some to basis. Egyptian tale Dvipa Sukhadara.." a stopping-place for the voyagers between India How ancient the Hindu name maybe it is unknown." and Arabia. and Ludolfus in his Commentaries (III. ( recounted by Golenischef ists. and whose name appears also in the capital city.— 133 with the god (Frazer. etc. and in the spirit recognized the^Vn^ or of the sacred tree.' said to have been burst asunder by the prayers of nine ChrisTree tian saints. Dioscorida. Sabota or Sabbatha (Shabwa). also. Plutarch. 284) refers to the great dragon who lived at Axum. at least. IV. Report of the Vth Congress of Orientalit Berlin. "Wild Boar's Snout. cit. saivakir. (See also James Fergusson. C. continues 0' . asserts). This was an incense-gathering modern village of whose name Pliny assakr. . whom Pliny gives the name Sabis. for identification of the god of the Incense-Land Glaser {Punt. refers it Agatharchides as "Island of the Blest. the Yet II. 76). 30. according to Forster {op. on the top of which an ancient Latin poem describes the people offering incense to Formerly. 460). " Pa-anch. victims were sacrificed the celestial deities. cit. See Glaser. Frazer says. from root-form of saukar. 54° Both forms are corruptions E. There is a suggestive similarity in the legions concerning the crater of Bir Barhut in the Hadramaut. 30. 171). 15° 36' N. is This name. plural in appearing also Saukira Bay. visible for many miles along the coast. not in location as our author 30' name in the modern Socotra (12° of the Sanscrit N. p. Saghar. the Sabaean sun-god. De hide et Ostride and De Defectu Oraculorum. whom 46) thinks identical with Shams. of the Xlllth Egyptian dynasty (18th century B. a bluflf feet. probably a corruption of the Arabic tribe-name saukar.^ Syagrus is unquestionably Ras Fartak. The with Abyssinian Chronicle. and Aetna. Golden Bough. headland rising to a height of about 2500 52° 12' E.. Siizze. "Genius" maybe There is good cause . heads the op. tracing the descent of the monarchs of that people who migrated from the Incense -Land. and Serpent IVorship. 1881 ). (nearer its the Arabian coast than the African in if point of population and language. to .." the mediaeval Arabic geographers having possibly followed Ptolemy's nomenclature. and in the folk. the similates to the Greek for 'holy" sacros. 180. modern name Fartak. probably to appease the spirits who were supposed to dwell there. meaning wild boar" in Greek. ) meaning "Island abode of bliss. speaks of as "Island of the Genius. list "Arwe ' the Serpent" (Salt. has the same meaning. : 134 for believing that this is also the "Isle of the Blest. Nimrod is merely a personifistill Elamitic race-element of which traces are to be found both in Arabia and in Nubia. . pp." the farthest point reached by the wandering hero of that Babylonian Odyssey. translation. and dialects. outlined by Glaser (Siizze. "In the 9th canto we are told how he set out for the land of Mashu the (central Arabia). From its the Xllth dynasty (2200 B. god of the dead. This name was in Elam (Babyl. the narrative of Gilgamesh. and that the name Gilgamesh epic tells has an Elamitic termination. note that the Bible calls It is interesting to Nimrod a son of Cush. . p.0 onwards the Kashi new race makes appearance on the Egyptian horizon: originally applied to Nubia. which in present form he dates at about 2000 B. the India). II) : this Cushite-Elamite migration. . the gate of which (the rocky pass formed by cliffs of Aga and Salma). C. modern Khuzistan. wJio had to pass around Arabia on their way thither. Homer and Herodotus) must originally have been Elamitic Kasswho were scattered over Arabia and found their way to Africa. was guarded by legendary scorpion-men. we find grammatical principles analogous to those of the early totally dissimilar syn- Egyptian and Semitic tongues combined with a in Africa. such as the Galla. from this he argues that in very early times prior to the 2d millennium B. According of to this view. 39) "Egyptian records furnish us with an important piece of ethnological evidence. Somali. the KissiQi of Herodotus. C." the same book. the Elamite language belongs. (^Ancient The theory of vol. (Hence perhaps the name "land of darkness" applied to Arabia in . is thus recounted by Hommel Hebrew Tradition. which joins to the story of a search over the known world for the soul of a departed friend. kashu: cf. to which . its And in Hommel thus describes the references in the epic. but tax presenting no analogy with that of the Semites or with any Negro tongue resembling closely the syntax of the Ural-altaic languages of Asia. the much-discussed Cushites (the Aethiopians itcs. What the Nimrod us of his wanderings around Arabia must therefore be regarded as a legendary version of the historical migration of the Kassites from cation of the Elam into East Africa. a in cf. found in the end by •prayer offered to Nergal. 35-6. northeast Africa must have been colonized by the Elamites. central also Cutch and Kachh and according to Hebrew afterwards given to various parts of was and southern Arabia. Beja. the material record of an early migration around the shores of Arabia. This theory — — is supported by the fact that in the so-called Cushite languages of other allied northeast Africa. C. ) through dense darkness. A multitude of corsairs island. wilt thou cross the sea. the land of Punt and the Puni or Phoenicians. Phoenix. found still "a great deal of trade there. then." After cutting 120 timbers 60 cubits long it. "Then Gilgamesh and Arad-Ea embarked. of Egypt met the peoples of Arabia and Africa and the traders of India. Him he asks to ferry him across to the "Isle of the Blest. the Rann of Cutch (the Eirinon of § 40). who tells hitn no one since "Difficult is eternal days has ever crossed the sea. and extremely dangerous the way. who is in the forest felling a cedar. the hero. (surely not inflated raft) "oars. closed are the Waters of Death which bolt entrance. • A journey of forty and five And thus days they accomplished in three days.'" is But Gilgamesh directed to Arad-Ea. from the Gulf of Cambay and perhaps in greater numbers from the active ports in that ruined sea of past ages. its And How." as the translation has but rather logs for an and smearing them with pitch. The island Pa-anch of the Egyptian tale is obviously the same as I." . whose sacred bird was likewise conPliny gives the story (X. 213). conversion to Christianity. save Sha- mash. : "The eagle. great-grandfather of Gilgamesh. while the . to the natives. and they do to good the Christians of the island purchase knowing well that it is Saracen or Pagan gear. the crossing. Gilgamesh. for their plunder for sale. 2) nected with Panchaia. for sell Marco Polo (III. and the tale was an important center of international Here the occasional navies trade not far from the time of Abraham. and at the "Isle of the Blest" where dwelt Shamash-Napishtim. as already noted. that For 12 miles the hero had to make his way at length he came to an enclosed space by the sea-shore where dwelt the virgin goddess Sabitu. Arad-Ea arrived at the Waters of Death" which may have been Bab el Mandeb. from Cutch and Gujarat) frequent the they this it come there and encamp and put up profit. that famous bird of Arabia brilliant the size of an and has a golden plumage around the neck. a condition not changed at the time of the Periplus. the sailor of Per-napishtim. when the inhabitants were a "mixture of Arabs and Indians and the incense-land Panchaia of Virgil {Georgics itself indicates that Socotra Greeks. with such others as Pano and Opone. The names Pa-anch and Panchaia Glaser would connect. 32) many ships come from all quarters with goods to (called Bawarij.— 135 early Hebrew annals. ." noting its nor yet when Cosmas Indicopleustes visited the place. The ship tossed to and fro while they were on their way. and observing that the Greek element was planted there by the Ptolemies. and Glaser connects the legend with the hawk-faced Egyptian god Horus (Khor). Monitor. and then lays cinnamon and its body upon them to die.) tortoise-shell of Tortoise. just as the Greeks gave the same name phoinix to the date-palm. V. lish which by a mistaken resemblance into a popular Latin to the Eng- warn" has been rendered 30. (See the introduction Ueber die l^ilker und Sprachen Afrikas die in Nubische Grammatik. sprigs of incense. except the a roseate tail. SeyfEarth has supposed this to refer to the passage of Mercury 18: ev ery 625 years. It is sacred to the sun. and to carry the nest . lizard. order Laeertilla.) 136 rest of the body is of a purple color. The family Chelonida. native in that land. and a new cycle comes round again with the same characteristics as the former one. hence name from the people thereof. and attaining a length of more than five feet. of niloticus. in the seasons and appearance of the stars. whence nix" (^Khor or Khot). while somewhat larger. . his convulsions of nature. salvator. The name from the Arabic Ouaran. — are meant. eaten by the natives.30. and multiply my days as the PhcE- The bird came from an Arabian land. is with long feathers crest. When it old it builds a nest of which fills with perfumes. name. From its bones and marrow there springs a small the first thing that it does is worm. the throat adorned with a and the head with . which changes into a little bird to perform the obsequies of its predecessor. 542-5. is The flesh of all the although offensive to the smell. — These seems Var- are probably laranus family Varanida:. and there deposit it the altar of that divinity. Glaser. which is azure. to be native only in India anidce. and farther east. VIII. a tuft of feathers. entire to the City of the Sun near Panchaia. and J'aranus is considered equal to that of fowls. which may be assumed to have been the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. Seas. but sel- dom reaching a length of more than thirty inches. chmatic or political changes. Great lizards. the so-called found in all tropical waters. native throughout the African region. I shall die in Compare Job XXIX. hawks-bill" turtle. pleted with the life The revolution of the great year is upon com- of this bird. It is uncertain what species commerce is from Chelone imbricata. Punt und Sudarahischen and the reports of the Austrian South Arabian Expedition. {Cambridze Natural History. which the flesh is eaten. drove ants in opposite directions. Another species. carrying their culture with its inhabitdupli- them and cating Persian Gulf place-names continuously in the Mediterranean and Erythraean Lepsius' R£iche. said. I shall "Then I my nest. This is a "true . intermingled of hue. (XXXIII. and proposed a solution of the problem by calling the mercury earth minium. II. Being of similar texture and appearance. The land-tortoise" and the "white- tortoise" may include several species of Cinyxis. one of which had leaves the camels could eat. again. {Testudo grandidieri only recently in Madabe Chelone my das. was thus attributed to such combats. dead to the ground. as the Romans had no knowledge of chemistry. 450-1) noted the two Dracana. and VIII. while others. of prescribing the poisonous Spanish cinnabar instead of the Indian. were given the name kinnabari. the exudations of iron. but gascar)." found frequented islands. The to occasions were the continual place which were The dragon was said combats believed to take between the two. daudini. was probably the principal earth so named. is name given to the thick matter which issues from the dragon when crushed beneath the weight of the dying elephant. Pliny noted errors made by physicians in his day. 364-387. twined himself around the elephant's trunk." ' as our author puts it. like T. and the vegetable product kinnabari. (See Cambridge Natural History. and drained all the blood at a draught. Cinnabar. varieties of Wellsted {Travels in Arabia. the confusion is not surprising.137 sea-tortoise. that called Indian. the green turtle" (also a sea-tortoise). ) The confusion between dragon's blood (the exudation of a dracaena) and our cinnabar (red sulphide of mercury) absurd than it is of long standing. gigantea and T. the ochre miltos. earth (red sulphide of mercury). mixed with the blood of either animal. in his fall crushing the now intoxicated dragon. Pyxis and Testudo. — ( Dragon 's blood. Any the thick red earth kinnabari. Dracana cinnabari in Socotra and Dracana schizantha in Somaliland and Hadramaut (order Dracanece) and Calamus draco m India (order . VIII. are in less still 'mountain-tortoise. 12). and given name Originally red ochre (peroxide of iron J. fixed his teeth behind the when the elephant fell ear. 1838. he says. The story is given by Pliny The word kinnabari. ferred as a pigment to the Later the Spanish quicksilver was given the same name and preLater. Palmea). but he goes on to describe a which may is more likely one of the gigantic land-tortoises (family Testudinida:) which appear in many of the islands of the Western Indian Ocean. but usage did not now give the mercury earth the old Greek name We for dragon's blood. . of which most are now extinct. he have a passion for elephant's blood. and the dried juice we give the same name in English. properly the 38.) 30. follow him. the largest and with the thickest shell. but less seems at first sight. knocked and the nicely-broken drops fetch the best price. Pliny offers a ma- teriaUstic explanation. Persian zinjarf. to say Marduk and is Tiamat Babylonian creation-story. appear in the Mediterranean such were related of Apollo nothing of at the oracle of Delphi. twisted trunk and foliage resembling an umbrella turned inside out. held by Semitic people or borrowed from them. apparently dominant as far south modern Bombay at the time of the Periplus. of a sacred place. then prevalent among the Dravidian races farther south. the dried juice deing ofl the tree into bags. and had elephant signified many first mystic properties. 381.' ' 138 while the other was too bitter. between an elephant and a dragon. of Adonis in Syria (perpetuated in the in St. = Hindu is 'of shangarf. Combats with countries. But in all these legends. while the dragon or serpent. 379. with its thick. and light may be thrown upon blood it by Bent's observation {^Southern Arabia. in India it had also ceremonial uses. The members of the Brahman triad were Brahma. they were worshipped especially at a shrine on an as the — island in Bombay harbor. from Sumatra and South America having superseded of gathering is The method the simplest possible. triad. and destroyer. not to the Buddhism of the Kushan dynasty. Century Dictionary the word cinnabar According eastern origin: to the cf. which unconvincing because elephants are It is evi- not found in Socotra or in the neighboring parts of Africa. representing the which was pronounced beginning and the end of any reading of the sacred books. xinjafr. emblem of the sacred syllable at the AUM. the creator. the contender a hero or a god. or for the relief of a suffering people. The cobra. modern faith George in the in the same locality). in the form of the represented Siva the destroyer. gum was used medicinally and One must refer. called Elephanta (in constant connection commercially with the Gulf of Aden).' more particularly the person of the Brahma the creator. cin- nabar. preserver. but rather to the earlier faith Brahmanism overlaid upon nature-worship. ' In the Mediterranean world this as a dye. and an elephant's head was the visible triad. the cultivated product it. 'i79) that dragon's called in Socotra is still blood of two brothers. ' The bit of folk-lore quoted by Pliny confirms the Indian cona dragon or serpent for possession all nections of Socotra. that very little is He now exported from Socotra. while in Socotra is it is an elephant. 387) notes gives a good description of this peculiar tree. the blood from which was called "blood . Vishnu and Siva. dently a local faith rather than a natural fact. Bent (^Southern Arabia. and these combats of Pliny. Place Births. it depending upon the p. the frankincense. race and political allegiance Socotra has been joined to the district of South Arabia from rime immemorial. found jealously 45).. cit. (See the references in Yo't^hyry. Frazer's Pausanias and Golden Bough." indicating that the notable that the the mysterious its name from the Indian merchants who had "emigrated on trade there" (§ 30). but owing to the monopoly of the Chatramotitae these went to market at Cana. whom of they were hard pressed on namely. (See reports of the Austrian Expedition. Bent found many plentiful. aloe-fields deserted. writing in 1838 (op. p. 32." and Bent found the same. modern Kamar Bay. fruit. Abode of the Blest. Maurice. Abode of Truth. where it was in demand as far as Muscat and Zanzibar. The island seemed full of cattle. J. this island was particularly rich in natural products of commercial Aloes. ) Yields no value. . The Bay Omana. 450-3) mentioned as a dependency of the Sheikh of Kissin. which suggests. — By speech. especially in this legendary gum of the dracaena. and the Sultan kept a special dhow to carry the skins and jars of clarified butter to the mainland. it 1716 showed garth. is being that portion of the Bay of the Sachalites lying east of Syagrus. or sacred cord of the baptism in modern Abyssinian more than any Arab custom. two enemies of the either side: Chatramotitae. G. Garrisoned. Another survival of Hindu influence seems to be the mateb or island had to carry blue silk neck-cord. Subject to the Frankincense Country. the walled myrrh and dragon's blood uncollected. 31. the zennar Brahman priest. the badge of Christianity." seem to be a reflection of the perpetual tween the first and third persons of the Hindu triad.. . 26%.. Mahra La Roque's map of Kingdom of Fartach" (Ho- cit. de Jnt. the Homerites and the Parthians.) for defence against the formerly called King of Furtak. 346). op. Nymph. It is conflict be- among of of AUM Hindu name for Socotra appears likewise names of the seven manifestations of the power in their ritual: "Earth. also evidences of this early trade. (16° . Heaven. dragon's blood and frankincense were all myrrh and other gums. (Southern Arabia. but no present exploitation . Asiatic Researches. '\\'ellsted. Sky. also the numerous by 31. Y Mi. Indian Antiquities 30.139 of two brothers. and the energies of the people employed in the production of clarified butter. Middle Region. —This must be understood as referring to agriculture. and suggesting that the name is as old as the Xlllth dynasty tale and the Gilgamesh epic. The encircling mountains are the source many streams. and the mountains behind We J. ). King coast between of the Omanitae in the Frankincense Country. and (^Die Abessinier in Arabien soil producing crops of of all kinds. xxxviii) as a very good haven." The Ras Hasik and Ras Fartak. had fallen to the Chatramotitas in the recent partition of the Incense-Land. gathering in lakes on the upper levels and falling to . inof which seems to have for Isidorus of cluding much of the south shore of the Persian Gulf as well as the coast of South Arabia as far as Ras Hasik. a protected . confused by many mediaeval geographers with Saphar or Zafar. 53° 30' E. the capital of the Homerites in Yemen) lay probably in the western part of the plain. Marco Polo describes it (III. ). Saphar seems to dence. having a vivid description of the whole region. Gara. Saphar (whence the modern name ern part of the plain of Dhofar.. .000 The name to ' Omana. — is identified with inlet (now closed low by a sand-bar) into which empties the Wadi Dirbat. are the original. surrounded by the Gara Mountains." are the modern Jebel Kamar and Jebel feet. Southern Arabia^ with careful corrections by Glaser und Afrika." so that the calls it true mean no more than capital" or "royal resiname of the ancient city is unknown. which are of limestone. The harbor 2' Khor at It is a Reiri (17° tide called Moscha. Incense-Land of Arabia." 140 15' N. " It is. and high enough to attract the rains. the harbor of the Abaseni of Stephanus Byzantius. here is one large oasis by the sea. are fortunate in The Plain of Dhofar." at the the same as the modern Oman. writing in the time of Augustus. City of the Habashat. The plain is alluvial washed down from the mountains. likewise associated with the name Omana in the Periplus. The ancient capital. so that instead of the sandstone and volcanic rocks elsewhere on the south coast. 182-192 ). 32. no doubt. by {Geographical Journal. so that there is a great traffic of shipping between this and India. ' Ptolemy distance Abissa Polls. 109-134. inhabited by cave-dwellers. high and rocky and steep. but recently — Charax Spasini. The "mountains." abundantly v/atered the year round. all been subject to the Parthians. with a printed in his Theodore Bent re- map facing page 204. a ' ' of Dhofar. near the modern Hafa. speaks of Goaesus. cavernous. in the east- the coast between Ras Risut and fertile strip of some 50 miles along Ras Mirbat. VI. seems have extended time of the Periplus over a larger area. couple of miles east of the modern tpwn of Taka. 54° 26' E. and perhaps always the most important. reaching altitudes of over 3. it and for some beyond on either side. This N. Such a scene it reminded us more of the Sweet-scented air rich valleys leading up to the tableland of Abyssinia." the remains of walls. Coloe and Axum seeing which no doubt can be entertained that the same people them all. aloes. sits A round rock was shown us on which the chief magician jinni of the lake. in the center of which a natural hole 100 feet deep and about 50 in diameter. by the by a moat sea. a great cave hung with stalactites. cactus. still 'covered with frankincense with their bright green leaves like ash trees. . from Ad. sea. and the mountains above the lakes are clad almost to the we never expected to witness in Arabia. Near Hafa full are the ruins of the ancient capital. and their insignificant fruit. and in the midst a wooded lake. which over a remarkable limestone cliff." as these gained for Arabia ancient reputation And falls following up the stream leading to the an- cient harbor. and mimosa form on all sides a delightful forest. to which all tribe the Beduins of the Gara come and make merry. The ground is covered with the at remains of ancient temples. the center of the local faith jinnies live to in the water. with ancient capital. p. ' ' no doubt an ancient oracle. summit with timber. modern town. The fair of Dirbat is considered by them the great festival of the year. around this hole are gate. Limes. the architecture of which nects after built once con- them with that of the columns at Adulis. 218. feet in height. their small green flowers. trees. still around an acropolis some 100 of water. to exorcise the and around him the people dance. was the well of the Adites. just as depicted in the Deir Bahri temple. It is white jessamine hung in garlands from the grant with the odor of and the was fra- many flowers. "they affirm that and that whoever wets his feet here is sure Every November a fair is held here. below which is are the ruins of an ancient town.) its This plain. mentioned as such by Ptolemy. probable that a knowlits edge of such valleys for floral wealth. the natives told Bent. . while a large tract of country was trees.— " 141 the plain through densely wooded valleys. encircled still and is in the center. grandson of Ham) which having a included most of Southern Arabia and much of East Africa." (See later. connected with the but almost silted up." In Hafa the Bents found a bazaar with frankincense in piles el ready for shipment. and the columns of a large entrance This. Ibn Batuta and others. of the Gara tribe. . Saphar. the " the A short way up is mountain-side just back of Hafa. was the center of the ancient Cushite empire (or Adite. Bent found a broad grassy plain used for grazing. have fever. a tiny harbor. and Cruttenden the had found the villages of the plain fighting plain. from whose who had formerly visited the country in company with the Prophet He returned to the people of Ad and led them in ships to the Hud. pp. Haines." and he preserves a memory of the trade of the Incense- Land with India. and his brother Hadramaut over "Habassia. conquered by the at fault if The they were. exemplified at the annual reunion at the Dirbat lakes. men. They wrested it from the hands of its country and to its invasion. which is probably an interesting survival of the ancient For as the Mahri represent the Himyarite conquerors of faith." 142 ci\ilization and religion similar to and derived from the Chaldasan. by whom he was made ruler over Babylonia. " people it It is said Oman. migrated into Africa. the among themselves. AshAd. Later the Sabaean Banu Ya rub. Bent found a state of armed truce under the It is regrettable that local faith of the restraining influence of Aluscat. but they Makrizi varies the legend by making Ad son of Kahtan. Joktanite tribes entered and conquered South Arabia. Bent could not have learned more of the Gara tribe. concerning which the publication of the Egypt Exploration Fund formed. as pictured at Deir-el-Bahri. er the country. inhabitants. son of Kahtan (Joktan). Cushite stock. as of old. were themselves subsequently conquered by the Kahtan ruled o^. worship . About 1800 B. testimony of Arabia would be Cushites. a hint of the northern origin of the Adites. son of Kahtan. and establishing themselves six centuries f continued the ancient conflict for more. gatherers with the o\er- Bent tells enough. a Joktanite stock in from YeAbyssinia. so do the Gara represent to some extent the earlier inhabitants. after whom it was named. he says. according to the Arab historians. or Sabasan. but were largely absorbed by the as a result of in which the second. and it Banu Ya rub. whence he turned bearing seeds of the green pepper. the incense coast-land. however. Egyptians under the XVIIIth dynasty. Ad was seems a little too positive that the Land of Punt' ' could not be in Arabia because the faces of the Punt people were not Semitic. and to indicate the mountain folk fighting with the lords. of C. in the tale of a hero of that land who came by night re- to the land of the Indians in the form of a vulture. while the political and economic activities remained This was probably the power that dealt with the with the Cushites. Carter. empire which the Joktanites became the sacred and land-owning caste. originally belonged to was conquered by the Banu Ya rub. 179-80) gives The Shihr and account of Ibn Khaldun Kay's edition. was governed by his son Hadramaut. that the Banu Ad were led thither by Rukaym son of Aram^ Hadramaut. as proof of his journey. : 143 of the spirit of the lake, the waters of which might not be polluted by "chief magi- the foot of man; the propitiation of the spirit by the cian" at the time of gathering the frankincense, and the celebration tribal of the harvest by a dance' ' probably reminiscent of bacchais nalian rites; after which the product sent to Bombay for distribu- tion, that the rest of the world, in the words of Pausanias (IX, 30) that are re- may worship God with other people's incense." The name Moscha is another of those place-names identifies this port. peated along the coast from east to west, and survives in the modern Muscat, with which Miiller mistakenly to Forster {op. flated skin," cit., According II, 174-5) this is from the Genaba Fish-Eaters'' or moschos, calf. an Arabic word meaning "in" floaters on skins. The word word continues in the Greek commercial harbor, to be the same as Mocha, and to signify a and to the author of the Periplus, and to Ptolemy, it is probable that Moscha limen m&znX. Incense Harbor;" otojc^oj- meaning also 'musk,'' or in later the same idea was uppermost with Glaser supposes the " Milton: — Greek any perfume, even to that Camoes of strawberries; as indeed {Lusiad, X, 201) and with Now Fanning gentle gales. their odoriferous wings, dispense Native perfumes, and whisper whence they stole Those balmy spoils. As when to them who sail Beyond the Cape of Hope, and now are past Mozambic, off at sea northeast winds blow Sabean odors from the spicy shore Of Araby the Blest, with such delay Well pleased they slack their course, and many a league Cheered with the grateful smell old Ocean smiles —Paradise Lost, IV, 156-165. (See the works already cited of Bent, Wellsted, Glaser, History of the East, VII, 1-2; Hommel, of the Zwemer, and Hogarth; Lenormant and Chevalier, Manual of Ancient also J. B. Haines, in the Journal Royal Geographical Society for 1839 and 1845; actions H. J. Carter, in Trans- Bombay Asiatic Society, for 1845, 1847, and 1851; Makrizi De Valle Hadramaut, Bonn, 1866; Wellhausen, Skizzen und of the Vorarheiten, III, 135-146.) 32. The ship could not clear. — Compare the trading of the Egyptian expeditions with the "chiefs of the land of Punt" over these "heaps of incense," and again Marco Polo's description (III, xxxvii): ''A great deal of white incense grows in this country, and brings in a great revenue to the Prince; for no one dares at sell it to any one else; and whilst he takes it from the people 10 livres of gold for the 144 hundredweight, he is sells it to the merchants at 60 livres, , so his profit immense. ' ' And according to the Marasid-al-Ittila' an Arab geois graphical dictionary of about the fully same period, "this incense is care- watched, and can be taken only to Dhafar, where the Sultan keeps the best part for himself; the rest made over to the people. But any one put to death. 33. who should carry it elsewhere than to Dhafar would be Seven Islands Kuria Muria, about 17° 20' N. called Zenobian. These are now called 56° E., and belong to England, , — which acquired them from the Sultan of Oman. In the time of the Periplus they belonged to their western neighbors, the Hadramaut. The name Genab; coast. Zenobian is HeUenized from the Arabic Zenab or the tribe of Beni tribal Genab having possessed in the neighboring This same numerous Egyptian of Punt.'' name, the form of Genabti, appears in inscriptions as one of the peoples of the die Siidarahischen Reiche, p. Land 10.) (See Glaser, Punt und Concerning the portant. relation of these islands to the early frankincense trade, a bit of folk-lore preserved by Marco Polo is particularly im- Pauthier in his French text rightly connects the story with the Kuria Muria group because of it its geographical position; Yule and Cordier repudiate plus (II, as nonsense. Vincent, in his edition of the Peri- 347) refers the ' fable," without explanation, to these islands. known, has not been observed. About half-way between Makran and Socotra, Marco Polo says (III, xxxi), are the two islands '"called Male and Female, lying Its actual source, so far as about 30 miles distant from one another. In the island called Male dwell Every year April, men alone, without their wives or any other women. when the month of March arrives the men all set out for the the other island, and tarry there these for three months, to wit, March, May, dwelling with their wives for that space. At the end of three months they return to their own island, and pursue their . husbandry and trade for the other nine months. children As girls for the which their wives bear to them, if they be they abide with their mothers; till but if they be boys the mothers bring them up they are fourteen, and then send them to the fathers. islands. Such is the custom of these two The all wives do nothing but nurse their for their Polo, children and gather such fruits as their island produces; husbands do furnish them with Cordier' s necessaries. " (Yule's Marco edition, II, 404-6.) This story is a reflection of the belief, already noted from Pliny, that the ceremonial value of the incense depended on the personal purity of the gatherers, who were considered sacred. No man touch- ' 145 ing the tree, whether a proprietor according to the caste system of the Incense-Land, or a farmer or gatherer, slave or pollution through the presence of free, might undergo women or of the dead. The spirit of the tree of the dead. was If a woman, and the protecting serpents were the souls gathered without pollution, the incense constituted the most effective vehicle of prayer, and uses in purification after conjugal had also certain sovereign availed intercourse, of by both Arabians and Babylonians, Strabo as described by Herodotus (I, 198) and (XVI, i, 20). Pliny's account of the Ascitas, inflated skins, has swimming to the mainland on been noted. Stephanus Byzantius, writing in the beyond the Sabsi and the Chatramotitae whose land yields myrrh, aloes, frankincense, cinnamon and the red plant which resembles the color of Tyrian 4th century A. D., says dwell the Abaseni, purple (dragon's blood)." Pausanias in the 2d century {^de situ Grades, VI, 269) mentions a deep bay of the Erythraean Sea which were the home of these p. 230) describes the "Jenefa" tribe on these Kuria Muria islands, pursuing sharks on inflated skins, Beni Geneba" spread and Wellsted {op. cit., Ghap. V) found the shark-fishers swimall along the coasts of South Arabia and Oman, having islands, Abasa and Sacaea," Ascitae. same Bent {Southern Arabia, ming on under the Lieut. inflated S. skins, and pastoral retreating folk, -to living in skin tents, but as noted , W. monsoon (Trans. (J. caves," Soc. in Cruttenden Bombay Geog. VII, 121; § 32. 1846) and General Miles South Arabia "is visited every season Geog. Soc, 1872) observe that the coast of by parties of Somalis, who pay ' the Arabs for the privilege of collecting the frankincense. Here is obviously the foundation for Marco Polo's the tale. The wandering Beni Genab, whose islands and the coast north and locality included Kuria Muria east thereof, would act as fishermen and herdsmen during certain seasons, while during the remainder of the year they would engage in the more profitable occupation of incense gathering; in which they were subjected to the rigid rules maintained by the Sayyid or saintly caste of landed proprietors, themselves too dighified to do the work (Van den Berg, op. cit., 40-44). When the first rush of sap occurred in the spring they the white left their wives gum, remaining on the gatherings until the trees became dormant incense-terraces for later again when their work for that year was over and they returned home. perforce, to gather the best of would naturally remain with their mothers only during past which they would be under the same tabu as the childhood grown men, and would begin work as gatherers. And their sons ; 146 Far from being a fairy tale, it is quite possible that at the time Marco Polo wrote crystalized — the caste-system of the Hadramaut being fully under the rule of Islam — this story of the Christian dwellers earlier on the "Male and Female Islands" was literally true, as it was in the times in the race-conflict between Joktanite overlords and Cushite gatherers. The "Male tinguish 33. Island" was, of course, the coast, and the Female included the entire group of islands; the Arabic dialects failing to dis- between "coast" and island." Beyond Moscha. —The 'mountain range along the shore" is the modern Jebel Samhan, and the name Asich is preserved in the modern Ras Hasik, 17° 23' N., 55° 20' E., as well as in the westernmost of the Kuria Muria Islands, which faces it. 58° 40' 33. Sarapis is the modern Masira Island, 20° 20' N. , E. , the first syllable only being from the native name, which our author assimilates to that of the Alexandrian Osiris of the bull-worship, Osor-Hapi, Sarapis, or Plutarch, de hide in the Latin, Serapis. (Concerning ship, in high favor at the time of the Periplus, see Strabo, et Osiride, this worbook XVII, Maspero, Histoire Ancienne, pp. 30 ff., Frazer's Pausanias, II, 175-6.) is The tribe-name syllable Au-.f<7r is &r-apis or Ma-j/V-a or probably the same as the Ausan mentioned in § 15. This Seres. island curiously confused by Pausanias (VI, lb) with the silk culture, After describing the Chinese is he observes: the Sea. Sea, island of Seria known to be situated is in a recess of the But I have also heard that the island formed, not by the Red Red such but by a river named is the Ser (this being Masira Channel), just as the also, Delta of Egypt it surrounded by the Nile and not by a sea; is said, is the island of Seria. Both the Seres and the inhabitants of the neighboring islands of Abasa and Sacaea are of the Aethiopian race ; some Here say, however, that they are not Aethiopians, but a mixture of Scythians and Indians." are confirmations of the Periplus, as to the possession of to the Masira and Kuria Muria by the Habashat, and as activity of commercial the Indo-Scythians, then in possession of the Indus valley. The use of the Arabian language" (Himyaritic or Hadramitic, modern Mahri), noted in § ii, confirms the accompanying statement that the island was then subject to Hadramaut, represented by the and its trade controlled ' from Cana. Fish- Eaters ' ' Ordinarily the connection would of the adjoining so that be rather with the Genaba coast, subject at that time to the Parthians, the language spoken would have been Aethiopic or Geez. " 147 34. A barbarous region which now belongs to Persia. coast The Arabian conquered by the Parthian Empire, ble to the author of the Periplus beyond the Kuria Muria Islands, being now recently at war with Rome, was inaccessiand is described by him briefly and apparently from hearsay. His own to saihng-course carried him "well out at sea" from Kuria Muria Masira, and thence direct to the mouth of of the Indus. 34. Calaei Islands. These are the Daimaniyat Islands N. W. Muscat (23° 48' N., 58° 0' E. ), the distance being calculated from Masira. The name is obviously the same as the modern Kalhat, just — north of Sur (22° 35' N., 59° 29' E. as Acila ) an ancient trading port, mentioned by Pliny (VI, 32) Ocelis in dwellers, (not to be confused with Yemen), a city of the Sabasi (Asabi) a nation of tent with numerous islands. This is their mart, from which persons embark for India." On this coast, between Ras el Had and Muscat, are the modern 'are ports of Kuryat and Sur, which, in the words of General Miles jour- nal of an Excursion in Oman, Geographical Journal, VII, 335-6) the Karteia and Tsor, the Carthage and Tyre, of the race whom we know as Phoenicians, and who, earlier than the time of Solomon, Their conhad trading-stations along the southern coast of Arabia. venient and important position just opposite India must have led to their early occupation by the merchants of those times who were est. en- gaged in exchanging the productions of the East and \^ eastern migration of this tribe-name is An 34. strongly suggested in Kalat, city and district, in eastern Beluchistan. Very little civilized. —This that a follows Fabricius' reading of a doubtful passage in the text; that offered by Miiller, "who do in- not see well in the daytime," while less probable, recalls the fact noted by numerous observers in Oman, good proportion of the habitants suffer from ophthalmia or terrific total blindness, due, largely, to the heat of this coast; which wrs picturesquely described by Abdthe sr-Razzak, a 15th century Persian, as follows: The heat was so intense that in its it burned the marrow to coal. in bones; the sword scabbard melted like wax, and the gems which adorned the handle of the dagger were reduced the chase In the plains became a matter of perfect ease, for the desert ' with roasted gazelles. Question. ' ( Quoted from Curzon , : Persia 9. ^ was filled and the Persian See also Haklu3rt Society's ed. XXII, 35. Galon mountain. to — While it is the the name same has a Greek form, and was supposed mean fair," as that of the islands and is probably a tribal name: mountains of the Kalhat." 148 The range is the Jebel Akhdar, or feet in Green Mountains," behind Muscat, and about 10,000 gi\en by \\'elisted, altitude. Good descriptions are is Zwemer, and Hogarth, and of especial interest the account of the fertile and populous Wadi Tyin, enclosed by these cit.). mountains, visited by General 35. S. B. Miles (op. The pearl-mussel, Mekagrina margaritifera, Ham., is family Ocean, but particularly on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf and in the shallow water The pearl is a deposit formed around a between India and Ceylon. Jviculida, found in many parts of the Indian foreign substance in the mantle of the mussel, larva. generally a parasitic fisheries indicated Examination by Prof. Herdman at the Manaar that the nucleus of the pearl was generally a Platyhelminthian parasite, which he identified as the larval condition of a cestode or tapeworm. This cestode passes from the body of the pearl mussel into that of a file-fish and thence into some larger animal, possibly the large Trygon ("Watt, op. cit., pp. 557-8; Cambridge Natural History, III, or ray. 100, 449.) 35. Asabon mountains. — This cit., is another tribal name, "mountains of the Asabi," or Beni Assab, as still whom W ellsted described mountains; and the Bulletin of the living there (op. I, 239-242), a people very different from the other tribes of Oman, living in exclusion in their in whom Zwemer {,Oman and Eastern Arabia, American Geographical Society, T907; pp. 597-606) considers a remnant of the aboriginal race of South Arabia, their speech being allied to the Mahri and both to the ancient Himyaritic; who were probably not as gration," Zwemer thinks, driven northward by Semitic mi- but represent rather a relic of that pre-Joktanite southward preserves the name, being now the Jebel Sibi, 26° 20' N., 56° 25' E., continued at the end of the cape migration around this very coast. The mountain 2800 in the feet, promontory of Ras Musandum. 35. A round and high mountain Ritter, called Semiramis. with K6h-i), Fabricius, following Sprenger and identifies this mubarak, "Mountain on the of the Blest" (25° 50' N., 57° 19' E. feet, is of which, while not high, being only about 600 the shape here described and directly, strait. Fabricius (p. 146) suggests that the the Arabic Shamarida name Semiramis is probably held precious." Ras Musandum has been a sacred spot to Arabian navigators from time immemorial. The classic : geographers describe some of the practices of the ship-captains passing it, and \'incent tells of those in his time as follows (II, 354) it All the Arabian ships take their departure from with some ceremonies " and who received from Merodachthe dust of all Baladan. destroyed by inundations of the rivers.. ) whose arms were carried from — Bit-Yakin "as far as the river Uknu (Cynos. by subjects south of the Persian Gulf.O on the coast of the Lower Sea. Wadi ed Dawasir. at the date of the Periplus. shipping whose works. indicates how large a part in the ' affairs of the Parthian its Empire may have been played. stood near the shore and had a harbor of considerable distance from the sea. C. or Elam. striped clothing. spices of kinds. like a vessel rigged and decorated. " 35. by Spasinus. It was among the conquered places named in the Nimrud Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B. protected by three miles of embankments. but now stands a In no part of the world have extent than here. a tribute of "gold — it —precious stones. scribed as a satrap of whom " its Juba has incorrectly deFormerly. former position. Phny says (VI. which was an important port during Saracen times. Charax Spasini is the modern Mohammarah (30° 24' N. king of the his land cattle sea. This was the city known as Obollah. rebuilt by Anti- ochus Epiphanes under the name of Antiochia. 48° 18' E. The name seems derived from Obal. timber. on the Shatt-el-Arab. is if it is dashed to to be accepted by the ocean as an offering for the escape of the vessel. 14^ of superstition. 35. son of Joktan (Gen. and setting afloat a toy. and in the time of Strabo. it at its confluence with the Karun. pieces by the rocks. "king of the neighboring Arabians. again overflowed." gulf. 28)." location of Obollah The as a seems always to have given importance commercial center. and again restored. protecting trade. of Yakin. alluvial deposits been own . Teredon was the leading port. whose name bore. it King Antiochus. ). Under its the Seleucidae. which. Pliny says. include the Mamiones Parthkce. ApologUS. X. Charax was an its important stronghold of the Parthian Empire. in the land of Bit-Yakin" it figures in many of the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions. As "Ubulu. while in the time of the Periplus Obollah had regained. and from which caravanroutes led in all directions. written in the time of the Roman Emperor Augustus. and sheep. 31) that it was founded by Alexander the Great. imploring a blessing on their voyage. a detailed account of the overland caravan-route from Antioch in Syria that Isidorus and was the home of . the name of whose city he extends to the "Characene' district of Elymais.) formed by the rivers more rapidly and to a greater (At the present day it is about 40 miles from the Pliny's reference to the possession of the lower Tigris by an Arabian chieftain. " The spelling Ommana." as distinct from ' Omana.150 to the borders of India. our merchants say. ) Wadi Yabrin. 32) "the navigation impracticable on that side. according to Juba. and Khor ed Duan (24° distance stated. 51° 45' E.. description of the the same. on account of the rocks.O he says (VI. remaining under Persian control until 1741.) being perhaps more closely in accord with Ptolemy. pp. the out and he has omitted of the city of all mention of Batrasave. which maintains a nominal. probably. 189-194. ." it is due to Ptolemy. towns which at the present day. and Omana. and. days. The exact location of the port of Ommana is uncertain owing to the limited knowledge yet at it hand concerning important this coast. between the Peninsula of El Katar and Ras Alusandum. or 3000 stadia. from the indicates Abu Thanni the coast. six 17' N. to be a famous port of Carmania. an trade-route) and Glaser argues strongly for the bay of El Katan. Al- most any location between Abu Thabi (24° 30' N. 54° 21' E." and had only come under the Parthian control. Both are certainly modern Oman. as dominion over the whole coast-land from the a century ago a real. while perhaps incorrect for the Periplus. when his eldest son was about to set out for Armenia command against the Parthians and Arabians. A ' market-town of Persia much confused it called Ommana. iently distinguishes conven- the same as the between the two districts. as the author of the world" mentioned by PHny (VI. — The Roman geographers were by similar statements con- cerning this port.. Beyond the river is Cynos ( Wadi ed Dawasir. of Persia. ). (Siizze." and that the time of Hormus mentioned in the Periplus. a town of Omani." to take the 36. but the straits. 51° 27' E. After numerous alterna- between dependence and freedom the whole country submitted again to Persia in 1650. ) might be possible. instead of from the straits was eastward along the coast six days' sail" of Makran. This was no doubt the Spasini. this is was geographically. bay of El Katan to that of Kuria \Iuria. which former writers have made as also of Homna and Attana. or Sabakha. spots on El Mukabber on the Sabakha coast (24° N. re- dominion of that Goarsus mentioned by Isidorus of Charax in the "King cently tions of the Omanitae Incense-Land. by a river Ommano. at both of which there are fertile . Ptolemy confirms Pliny in locating (possibly the east of the peninsula. then a Persian or Parthian dependency. 31) who was commissioned by Augustus to gather all necessary information in the east. are by far the most famous ones in the Persian Sea. and supposed that politically. But Pliny better informed. and locates it on the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf. and Bhutan. through. It is notable that in his Gates of India. 299-300) he abandons this position and refers Chahbar ports the to the mediseval period. iron. port. or beyond. in §§ 35 and 36. The sewed boats" are such as as are still made along and the wine mentioned in § 36 as an export to India is referred to in §49 an import at Barygaza yrawz Arabia. N. 164-5) argues for Sohar. a trading center where King Solomon's tradingproducts of the East were reof ceived and reshipped. Fabricius. the ocean terminus of an ancient and important caravan-route. but the location does not tally with the statement in the text. During the suspension of trade between the Roman and Parthian Empires. Garhwal. and in fact the whole suggest such a trade as of imports in § 36. Miiller. Pliny ( VI. Miles (Journal of Royal Asiatic Society. this coast. Commercial Products of India. S. reckoning the six days' sail eastward from the Straits of Hormus.. Copper is here mentioned as an article of export from It is no longer extensively produced in was formerly smelted in considerable quantities in South India. But it is possible that this copper imported at Ommana included also European copper. that Ommana was six days Ommana was the caravan-routes. Rajputana. See the authorities cited in Watt. and McCrindle locate Ommana in the bay of Chahbar on the Makran coast (25° 15' N. this would have been a natural trade arrangement. but copper-bearing in Kullu. 1910. p. and at various parts of the outer Himalaya. or sent overland.). exported from Cana (§ 28) to the Indus mouth and Barygaza (§§ 39 and 49) and thence reshipped to the Persian Gulf. now centers at Bahrein. 26) speaks of copper. 60° 30' E. to the Mediterranean. Sikkim. India. on the Batineh coast of Oman. General B. center of an active and extensive shipping trade with India. and red lead. arsenic. as exports of Carmania. 401. 393-6). and Sir Thomas Holdich followed them in his Notes on Ancient and Meditxval Makran (Geographical Journal. owing to war. (pp. the Straits. 1896. where a killas-like rock persists along the whole range and is known to be India to the Persian Gulf. VII. conveniently located with reference to the trans-Arabian and Glaser points out the probability land of that this coast of El Katan was also the Ophir" the voyages . Nepal. list The "many and exports pearls" exported. whence they were shipped to Persian Gulf and Red Sea ports for distribution.151 Aside from the obvious linking of Apologus and Persian Gulf ports. the text gives Ommana as two further proofs. X. the activity of the S. . north of Muscat. indicating again that Ommana was no Carmanian . 36. pp. It is plentiful in Bombay and Travancore. Mysore. 287. A large deciduous tree indigenous is both peninsulas of India. the Sanskrit authors distinguishing various woods according to color. McCrindle shows that the text refers to the wood still known in India as sisam. both being derived from Santalum album. namely.. — tantalum album. in the Periplus seems to be the earliest It is Roman fre- reference to sandalwood. 36. Climatic changes since the date of the Periplus have probably restricted area. . under the name T%andana. srikhanda inferior. cit. the tree. — Tectona grandis. p. A small evergreen a cultivated plant.152 36. attributed p. and pitachandana the or yellow. {op. cit. and disposing of their cargoes finally to the Bagdad merchants. Sandal'WOOd.. distinguish sandal. Sandalwood has been Chandana is North India known from the most ancient times. at Cal- sandalwood a root-parasite on many For further references see Lassen: I. old. it to China. which resists up the pores and the action of water. stopping to trade in Ceylon and India. the most important building timber of the country. quently by the early Arab traders who visited India this Cos- mas and the Arabs points out {op. They two kinds of red sandal or raktachandana. the name for the series. 36.. order Verbenaceie. According cutta. particu- from Burma. C). Pterocarpus santalinus and Ccesalpima sappan. mistake arising. ascribed to the contains a large quantity of fluid resinous matter. ) mentioned by Cosmas Indicopleustes and thereafter and China. tree native in the dry regions of in South India (as the chiefly as in India Western Ghats. in . This mention (6th century A. sandal. The wood larly that chiefly exported is from India at the present time. and possibly very much Black'wood. D. The wood is not native of China. XealfWOOd. and Watt. —The text is sasamin. Watt mentions one structure in known to be over 2000 years its and the discovery of teak the Mugheir ruins indicates use there under Nabonidus (6th earlier. says that the western its Indian teak region has for hanadi rivers. Linn. quoting Gamble. Indische Alurthumskunde. as Watt 976) from the fact that Chinese vessels at this time made the voyage between China and the Persian Gulf. and Coimbatore). 1068). century B. which Fabricius alters and translates white mulberry. order Santalaceie. or white. Linn. northern limit the Narbada and Maits although it is occasionally found farther north. to experiments is at the Royal Botanic Gardens plants. its The wood owes fact that fills it value to its great durability. " from conjecture only. boat-building. B. 116-117) speaks in glowing terms of the Virgil {Georgics II. and states that the people of that country were in the habit of paying to the King of Persia. which it is Watt south. India has This in D. order Ebenacea. . Great in Asia. from which the Periplus says 36. etc. — Diospyros. fine black heart-wood (from the date plum tree) has been of civilization. native somewhat farther sissoo is Dalbergia D. has preferred ebony tree. at. sissoo. Herodotus. 8. mentions ebony as negro-land" on the Upper a product brought down from the Nile. by way of tribute.. '.. described as sub-Himalayan." in this case probably from the Abyssinian highlands. 97) to Aethiopia. Indian rosewood. torrential rivers. such as the Indus and Narbada. is distinguishes the true sisam or blackwood. they brought thee for a present horns of ivory and editor's identification ebony. pp. stony. from Barygaza to Ommana Pliny (XII. closely related. many isles were the merchan: dise of thine hand the . and statement of the Periplus that it was shipped and Apologus. Dalbergia order Leguminosa. where it appears as a commodity in the trade of Tyre men of Dedan were they merchants. It is very durable. does not warp or split." If Oxford of Dedan with . tomentosa. the south shore of the Persian Gulf be correct.benum it was exported. and the expedition of Queen Hatshepsut (XVIIIth dynasty. every third year. to ascribe it (III. and that the trade began after the victories of Pompey the He notes two kinds. this passage indicates a steady trade in ebony exactly confirms the from India prior to the 7th century B. the other ordinary.153 which Watt describes {. C. about 2500). favor since the dawn An Egyptian inscription of King Mernere. as peculiar to India. and is highly esteemed for all purposes where strength and elasticity are required agricultural implements. C. Linn. gregarious on the banks of sandy. one precious.op. melanoxylon are the leading also varieties producing ebony wood. 484-5) as one of the best hardwoods of the Panjab and Western India. carriageframes and wheels. to In Upper India the sisam takes the place of rosewood. The earliest definite Old Testament reference is in Ezekiel the XXVII. embryopteris and D. C. although it might have come from India. about 1500) brought it from the "Land of Punt. Vlth dynasty (B. together with a certain quantity of gold and ivory. as well as furniture and — — wood-carving. Diospyros Ebony. and D. 100 billets of ebony-wood. The latifolia. however. 9) says that ebony came to Rome from both India and Egypt. the 190 j shows this to be the Arabic "fastened with palm fiber. They beat this nut ships are wretched until it becomes like horse-hair. They have . and second. no iron fastenings. ' product of Sarapis or Alasira Island. The ships are not pitched. This latter is the fibers sheathing the base of petioles of the date. and from that they spin twine. OTWii'izrr^'fl^. The text notes that these sewed boats were exported and Hadramaut. what Marco Polo calls ' Indian nut. it and the Periplus does it not include among Arabian exports. Yemen Marco Polo "Their for they have (I. to meaning the South Coast. xixj gives a description of these craft. although noting in § 33 as a Arabia. not corroded by the sea-water. — Glaser {Skkze. and are only stitched together with twine made from the husk of the Indian nut. as follows: affairs. and many of them get lost.' 154 36. It and is with this stitch the planks of the ships together." which included. Sewed boats known first. as madarata. but it keeps well and will not stand well in a storm. those taken from the husks of the cocoanut." It was a later cultivation in Arabia than the date. p. but are rubbed with fish-oil. but only a when loaded. quoted by Capt. 294 Stiffe : W. Former Trading Centers of Geographical Journal.. friars a short distance north of Bombay)." Jase. 'Instead of nails. Frere writes (Yule' dier's Ed. perilous business to go a voyage in one of those Hence 'tis a and many of ' them are lost. ' wherein four of our were martyred for the Jase. and have no deck. for in that Sea of India the storms are often terrible. Relation Friar des Voyages. This cover consists of take to India for this and on the top of these hides they put the horses which they sale.) oil it. The lish-oil used to rub the ships was whale-oil. faith of Christ. LIII. They have no iron to make nails of. "are still used. I and then the planks with twine as have told you. which was mixed with other ing. and so it would draw the ship that should never depart from . one hides. "Sir John Mandeville" gives a legend arising from this method of construction (Voyage and Travel. and further join the planks with stick made of rushes. Gemelli Carreri. ' for oars. is Cordier observes. and for reason they use only stitch wooden trenails in their shipbuilding. I. for the adamant. by it its nature.' ': ' 155 one mast. A. and in the space of twenty-eight days arrived at the city of Thana" (on Salsette Island. the Persian Gulf: ' who visited this coast in 1693-9. draws iron to it. cover spread over the cargo and one rudder. The from Arab voyagers of the 9th century describe the fishermen of Siraf in the Gulf as cutting up the whale-blubber and drawing the 146. I. p. Chap. ' ) 'Near that isle (Hormus) there are ships without nails of iron or bonds. Cor- 117). Writing of "Ormes. and would perish. says "here also they use a kind of barque or ship called being com- pact together only with cords. I have seen them of 200 tons burden. Ashton's edition. a stout "Stitched vessels. s Afarco Po/o. ships. as iron gets cheaper. except where (as on the Malabar and Coromandel is coasts) the pliancy of a stitched boat stitched build in the useful in a surf. and with a little round plank attached to the end. For anchor. 125. they use pegs of strings bam- boo or cane. gives a similar description. Chap." of. the Arabic Djehaz. which they are without. stuff. And I them.fastened vessels. on account of the ro<:ks of adamants (loadstones). Odoric (Journal. sail. and used to rub the joints of ships' plank- (Reinaud. II)." But the old Gulf is now confined to fishing-boats." Sir B. but they are being driven out by iron. they have a large stone with a hole. XIII. for they are all-abundant there in that sea that if it is marvellous to speak nails it a ship passed there that had iron bonds or iron it. wherein I could not find any iron I went on board into one of at all. 60-63) family Muriddte. From the larger ones is extracted after taking off the shell. its —A dye derived from various species of Murex. {. it for when dies it spits out this juice. but holding their lustre better. It is The rest of the body fish is entirely destitute of this juice. For the rest. a great point to take the alive. consisting of boards of any shape. Meninx are After left to is taken the vein is extracted and salt is added. together with the shells. and Purpura. "In Asia the best purple is that of Tyre. all is of Bahrein manuwhich come from Bombay. . 101). while the others are rope- holders and oarsmen." 36. p. less than half of whom are divers. —This tint is said still to be the case. They steep for three days. upon which they secretion. but the smaller fish are eject this crushed alive. but until the color satisfies the liquor kept on the . long soft iron nails are Even the hammered out on the anvil one by one. of the tint of a rose somewhat it inclining to black. "Each boat has a the boat sort of figurehead called the kubait. being . and are then boiled is in vessels of tin. and Gaetulia. Purple. Pliny (IX. it in Africa that of . the Bahrein pearls being of a yellower the than those of Manaar 36. cit. Sail- cloth is woven at Menamah and ropes are twisted of date-fiber in rude ropewalks which have no machinery worth mentioning. Pearls inferior to those of India. while thus boiling the liquor time. and the oarsman always seats himself on the gunwales. . fisheries. facture except their pulley-blocks. and therefore always demand in India. and in Europe that of Laconia." Zwemer.156 Theodore Bent having shells. which is so greatly sought after for the purpose of dyeing This secretion consists of a tiny drop contained in a white from which the precious liquid used for dyeing is distilled. p. skimmed from time is still About the tenth day the whole contents of the cauldron are a liquid state. 8) describes these boats as very long-pointed bows. by to in moderate heat. family Buccinida. tells of use at the time of our author : The purple has that ex- quisite juice cloth. elegantly carved and decorated with When the wind is contrary they are propelled by poles or paddles. men — The This blood-sacrifice Islam has never larger boats used in diving hold from twenty to forty launched. vein. {^Southern Arabia.op.. further confirms the Periplus: the Sailor might recognize every rope and the odd All the boats have good lines and are well buUt by the natives of Indian timber. particularly in in tropical climates. "Even Sinbad spoon-shaped oars. tied to the end of the poles with twine. generally covered with the skin of a sheep or goat which was sacrificed when was first uprooted. \Vine.157 boil. The is tint that inclines to red is looked upon as inferior to. mentioned by Strabo and Dioscorides. 83. Augustus. according to Kampfer. quality It considered of the best is when it has exactly the color of clotted blood." tain valleys of This may. To produce its the Tyrian hue is is soaked in the juice of the pelagi'a state. and aromatic spices.) "Cornelius Nepos. P. § 49. is The wool carding it. date wine. the poor. two hundred pounds of juice of the buccinum and one hundred and eleven of the juice of the pelagia. a In the days of my youth which used to sell at 100 denarii. and not long after the Tarentine red was all the fashion. . Exot. 240).that which of a blackish hue. licorice and Persian absinth. E. was Frere {Jmoen. From this combination is produced the in admirable the wool tint known as amethyst color. and the Indus valley. who is says it was in his time made under the name of a medicinal stomachic. has left who died in the reign of the late emperor : the following remarks in favor. and blackish hue to the light. —This was probably India. Dates. have included grape wine also. fiber. It I. and fruit. to the sight. ambergris. while the mixture is an uncooked and raw after which tint is changed by being of a dipped in the juice of the buccinum. even. Cordier's edition. however. from prehistoric times to the from Senegal Indus basin. juice. the mounOman having been the region originally producing the muscatel grape.-" 36. for its wood. until has fully imbibed the color. left to lie in soak for five hours. 360. 36. Arabia.. This last was succeeded by the Tyrian dihapha (double dyed) which Nowadays could not be bought for even 1000 denarii per pound. it and then. the violet purple was pound of who is there who does not have purple hangings and coverings to his banqueting couches. ac- cording to Sir B. 750. but of a shining appearance when held up hence it is that we find Homer speaking of purple blood. 115) says "a spirit is still distilled from dates. The proper proportions for mixing are. it Achas cording to existed De Candolle {U Origine des in the Plantes Cultiv'ees. after it is thrown in again. order Palmea. quoted in Yule's Marco Polo. Linn.. for fifty pounds of wool. — Phoenix dactylifera. the rich added radix China (rhubarb root). Its destination. {Iliad. dry zone which extends principally between the parallels 15° It was an important article of cultivation in Egypt. and 20° Mesopotamia. warm. probably. phoinix. being truly. dates. herbs. the men took their weapons." supplied with every good thing: for the date.480 measures. and this involves a knowledge of the habit of the tree. the the name of the race. A dates comes from the southern parts. II. C. been derived from the of that race. 295. oxen. They exist to perfection around . Vlth dynasty. 785). and the pollination of the flowers. I. and every noble had his provision.500 measures. CDates appear zer. i. die Sildarabischen Reiche. Similar lists fruit. 66-9). in 336. including intense heat and drought during the fruiting season. (IV. and Queen Hatshepsut." the southern coast of Arabia. artificially The fertilized date-palm being dioecious. about 2600 B. including Movers himself {Die The Greek name the traders given — Phinizier. 241." in an inscription of the reign of Mernere. and regular cultivation. in favorable surroundings. whence numerous commentators. 1.100 cut branches. "offerings new feasts. under Psamtik II." 3. fowl. 15th cen- divine offerings to Amon-Re 159). 2.396 meas- Later. 244. These at conditions are only partially fulfilled on the Syrian coast. included wine. and Glaser. C. XXVIth dynasty. name of race and country to have which was one of the leading exports to noting that the date-palm was a symbol is the northern Mediterranean. from conquests during the same dates. and as offerings to the Nilejars. Ueber Punt und die Vilker und Sprachen Afrikas. beer. dates. 944) the Adoption Stela of Nitocris says: great "Sail was set." dried ures. he fully says the Arabian date was the best. among Under as Rameses III (IV. In the coronation inscription of Thothmes tury B. its Pliny (XIII. and describes the different sexes of the trees. and not all on the Northern Mediterranean." ascribing such a taste to the fruit. his account means no more.396 dates. 7) has a long description of the date-palm and numerous uses. again. 299. Ancient Records. ) an Abydos inscription of the reign of Khen(I. the flowers must be in order to ripen the fruit. for 347) the Papyrus Harris notes 65. which Pliny translates "wild boar. 1) suppose the date. C. III . bread. negro-land. but as he connects it with the story of the phoenix.871 measures. 17th century B. as food. 6th century B. than that the fruit came from specially fine variety of called Syagri. and dates (II. bread. vegetables." (So Lepsius in the introduction to his Nubian Grammar. 11. (See under § 30.) — 158 Date-wine Nile to the is mentioned as an Egyptian product shipped up the (Breasted. god. tree of the Phoenicians. XVIIIth dynasty. But this in itself better evidence that the tree received for Mediterranean peoples. the feasts and offerings appear reign. was the same as that from Sidon and Tyre Phoenicians Phoinikes. 27. According to Eiselen. (cf. ii. XVI. 34-5. where Sidonia and AethiStrabo. the later tending to the earlier.) The Old Testament from gives numerous accounts e. veteri cognomine dicti.. 12: (N. later migrations that quarter to Palestine. g. source When The the cultivation became important in Egypt is un- earliest inscription. according to the geneA later account {Chron. still the principal. who was a son of Raamah. would indicate for Phoenicia precisely the : same experience as that of Southern Arabia succeeding waves of migration. how whole legend changed according to the surroundings of the people. of 4. Sidon. Zechariah IX." and Josephus {Antiq. certain.. 9. The historian Justin : (XVIII. see T/ie WiUiam Simpson. but by the shores of the (Mediterranean) Sea. but to wine (made from the sap). Among cians the classical references to this home-land of the Phoenicited the Odyssey. 81-5." abundance of the fish. Erythraean. I. IV. Not until the 17th cen- tury does the Egyptian date-fruit appear as food. or in a larger sense Arabian. who left their own land. I. in the Vlth dynasty. This them from Jobab. 1907). 2) from Dedan.159 the Persian Gulf... refers not to is the fruit. whom that genealogy makes a son of Joktan. and probably the earliest. 6. Syncellus derives them from "ludadan. where they called Sidon because of the town which they for sidon is the Phoenician word for fish. iii. Y. and the time first centuries later than the Egyptian Punt-voyages. 54) derives alogy of Genesis X. It its is by no means impossible that Egypt with Southern Arabia (the that in turn owed this cultivation to intercourse Poen-land) whence it had come from the Persian Gulf. Pasch. Quos misit Arcanisque Dei celebratam legibus unam. and dwelt later some time marsh-land of Babylonia. Oannes. become absorbed by . Ezra IV. the word but Simpson shows udm means readily the to hunt rather than to ftsh. p. of supply. quondam mare rubrum laudibus auctos. Sea. being greatly distressed in the by earthbuilt a quakes. I. For the relation of this legend to the fish-god of Chaldaea. the 6. may be iv. Chaldaeo nimium decoratam sanguine gentem. original Phoenician. opia are conjoined. As to the race-origin of the Phoenicians. the son of Cush. and not until the 15th as temple-offering. Jud. both clearly Arabian. The connection is noted by the poet Priscian. 2) gives the reason for the earlier migration the people of Tyre were sprung from Phoenicians. 843-7: sed litora iuxta Phoenices vivunt. 3. Jonah Legend. the to "without fire. 50) assumes to be a Greek word. his firstborn. were probably the eastern Arabia Havilah" of Genesis ' (I Kings X) ." under the hills. and the Himalayas. the best fields Gold was an important product Dawasir. and to the modern Sawahil Shehr of South Arabia. a brother to Cush. and who "begot Sidon. and the Roman shipping out of Egypt had always The to go armed or under convoy. the Wadi ed Wadi Yabrin. of Eastern Arabia. Greeks and Romans the gold of Ophir" was known as which Diodorus Siculus (II. traders and pirates. and the being in the middle courses of the Wadi was er Rumma. being connected with the legendary hero Chna. Gold. 357-388). 36. So do the habits of the race survive in the puns of the Greeks. according to Movers. \oluminous controversy summed up by Glaser {Skizze. and Gates of India. this production that led the dust of the coun- Assyrian Tiglath-Pileser III to refer to gold as the try" of Merodach-Baladan. king of Bit-Yakin. 35). —The Periplus mentions gold coin as an export from Rome to India." and the name survived as late as an inscription of Antiochus Epiphanes. rests on the activities of that people as sea-folk. or in its attached to Cush. and the same meaning is Cutch. Glaser {Skizze. Hecataeus refers to "Chna. 11-12. means lowland. Kachh (Holdich. (bloody. murderous). but gold itself as an export from Ommana only. were probably the producing areas of the land of II. who can be no other than the Canaan of Genesis X. author of the Periplus (§ 33) found the dwellers on Sarapis Island anthropois ponerois.160 It is significant that even the Greeks knew Phoenice as Canaan. 347-9) locates It alto- gether ten Arabian gold-fields. of land of Ophir' of Solomon' s voyages richer yield. as Phoenice was formerly called. 11) are both acquainted with this apyron gold. The watercourses of northPersia. and to sian in make the Per- Gulf ports centers also for the gold produced farther to the east. while El-Yemama and the southern fields." and goes on roasting the ores." particularly a strip of coast This word. and Pliny (VI. and as a product of the Ganges region. 29) Into this the evidence Ophir was is a son of Joktan it is and therefore purely Arabian. the Sachalites of the Periplus. To apyron. Another derivation of "Phoenician" from >/4o«. explain that it was found in the earth in shining was not reduced by lumps the size Agatharchides and Pliny (XXI. not necessary to go farther. of East Africa.o/. Indian form. Carmania. and according to the tribal genealogy (Genesis X. but of chestnuts. 23) mentions also a river Apirus . which could readily supply caravans for Chaldaea or Canaan. (24° 45' N. as gold-producing. 37.. 200 miles. They dwelt on the inland hills. According to Holdich. and on eastern bank dwelt "an Indian nation called Arabians. including Carmania. all. while hardly 18' a separate bay at may be assumed to be that bounded by the strip of coast between Ras Nuh N. 21-2. Indka. The bay is the modern Sonmiani Bay (25° 0' N. under Parthian rule. Onesicritus. to Persia proper. and the ports of Oman were always active slave-markets. name ' whole Parthian Empire and refers to the recent conquests of that power in 'country of the Parsidae' ' is Persia proper. was the lineal successor. for that of Parthia. iii. accord. VI. The Country of the Parsidae. the cosmopolitan Ommana of the Periplus. il. ). Slaves. to the The author of the Periplus gives the East and South Arabia.) and Cape is 66° 40' E. Monze 66° 15' E. Oraea. XXV) under the name of Oritae or Oritians. was called Arabis. . ing to Pliny (VI. Persis. a vassal state in the Arsacid folstate.161 in Carmania. to the kings of governed by kings who are subject to Macedon in former times.). in a region previously described by Alexander's admiral.' but has long since changed name " Strabo (VI. as a of the empire. XXI. the and the river is the Purali.. of Parthia. in lowing. the Arabian spoils Ommana was subject 'Persia its is to the Parthian monarchy. while the "jutting cape" 64° 36' E." while the Oritae on the western bank were "dressed like the Indians and equipped with " similar weapons. 62° E. until checked by international agreement after European occu- — pation. not Pliny (VI. The river their country its being called Ora. 25-6). the JoktaniteI Ophir of Kings. ). or Persia. XXIV. but their language and customs were different. Arabian dominion along the African coast had this as one of its principal results. Their coast-line ran westward from the Arabis 160 miles or. This of another kingdom. which would not have shared. 24) observes more exactly. "at present the Persians are a other kings.. and now silted up to the coast lines. To the mixed Cushite-Joktanite Havilah of Genesis. The Arabs were inveterate slave-traders then as now. The Bay (25° 7' of Gedrosia.. — Purali at the time of the Periplus emptied into a bay running some distance inland. 36. Ras Ormara (25° 6' N. separate people. These are the people described by Arrian {Anabasis of Alexander. and the Cushite Raamah of Ezekiel XXVII. 28) says a country opulent even to luxury. but now to those 37. IX. Shabaka. Here are more echoes of the early migrations that radiated outward from the Persian Gulf. derived from the same The Oritas are represented by the modern Brahui. and Dedan. " who were similar Southern Arabia. reporting them "covered with hair on the body. being connected with the sun-worship that survived well into the Christian era. is Dravidian. 15-17). and the sons of Raamah: Sheba. like that of Makran into Mahi Khuran. The river Arabis and the Arabians are sufficiently reminiscent of Arabia. Alexander conquered the hiU-folk and colonized their capital. Socotra)." The country of Ora rather related to the Uru of Chaltribe left daean place-names. v) noted the strong racial similarity between the island of Beni Genab in South Arabia and the people found on the Makran coast. as witness the record in Genesis X. other things they cut Strabo with sharp stones. Pa-anch. having no iron. a center of the . both peoples being represented the Persian army. and Havilah." one in Greek and the other in Persian. under his own name (Diodorus Siculus. the Kesmacoran" of Marco Polo. " The Cushite name seems to survive in Kej. their nails like wild birds' claws. ii. used like iron for kill- ing and splitting fish. The Brahui are a Dravidian in earlier behind by their race on its way to Southern India. and both having presumably sprung from the the sons of same stock. VII. 2) describes made of the bones of whales and great shells. ch. Braho. in the valley of Makran. a name having the same root as Abraham {Imperial Gazetteer of India. etc. 388) finds the Haftalu off the Makran coast —the Astola of Ptolemy. The name 557) ' Makran. 104). Piankhi Katar. Cush: Seba. while "Brahui" thought to refer to the hero of the tribe.162 and along the shore. {cf. Pharaohs of the : XXVth or "Aethiopian" point to a like origin Kashta. as those called These people (III. VII. while the capital. of the The names dynasty in Egypt. and Sabteca. 70) as to the Aethiopians of in 94) "Asiatic Aethiopians.). Poen. "fish- eaters. Wellsted (I. Rhambacia. and cutting softwood.' and 'Aethiopians from the sunrise. Holdich {Geographical Journal." their dwellings." as shown by Curzon is {Geographical Journal. 7. the latter being distinguished as Fish-Eaters. and Sabtah. days the connection of both with the Persian Gulf was less broken. appears in Ptolemy as a city of the Rhamnae. ribs (XV. Rhambacia. and Raamah. is Ichthyophagi. Both source. are probably the same ' by Herodotus again (VII. while Nearchus fought the coast-folk. and Taharka {cf. names have the same meaning. the being used for beams and and the jawbones for doorways. but this is probably no more than a punning translation. XVI. rafters. "hill-folk. cius prefers Parsis. 146-161. Cham and Japhet Cham. and Japhet took Europe . its syllable. . the Island of the Blest" of the Babylonian like may these reflect a Cushite race-appellation. 33-117) 'Turanian-Hamitic. According to Holdich {Gates of India. or Cushite stock generally. Gilgamesh epic the "chosen people" of the Hebrevys. a name which last the Saracens the Sanscrit gave to Ceylon.^ 37. but the exact site is undetermined (150-1). Sir Thomas Holdich. Sarapis.? . 37. or coast. text. order Burseracea. "precious. that in Makran. which. Rhambacia. Geographical Journal." an Arabic Straits name for the mountain at the of Hormus. Shem. 'ill). xxiv) gives a legend which in some ways seems nearer the truth: Noah had three sons.. cit. the capital of Gedrosia according to Ptolemy. 66° 20' K). M. this place but was probably much farther west. island. 668-674. Sir is clept Asia. and of generations than of the other. . Haig. Lassen connects with the ramana. Holdich (^Gates of India. while possibly a mere pun. R. Cham was dered the greatest and the most mighty. Rhamnae. is 320. . happy. that began the foundation of. a small tree native northwestern India. op. See also Lassen. The root of So-co/r-a is evidently the same as El Katar peninsula. fills —The name of the capital is not given in the Fabri- but Miiller the lacuna with that mentioned by Arrian. took the greater and the best part. Sanscrit The tribe-name. toward the east. II. and Shem took Africa. But their Persian Gulf. may explain the Hindu name "blessed" for Socotra. apart from dv'ipa.. pp. Rhambacia was at no great distance from the modern Las Bela (26° 26' N. this whole neighborhood full of evidences of early Arabian occupation. Shamartda. for his cruelty. but which. 36) seems to have sembling African negroes as the original of the in ' mind a race re- ' Asiatic Aethiopi- ans" descent should have been from the John Mandeville " (chap. . 187-191. VII. adjoining Bahrein. And of his him came more son Chuse was engen- Nimrod the giant. seems be related to the island of Sera. and Gen. Gates of India. off the Arabian The as ' evident connection between both wings of this system generalized by Gotz iFerkehrswege im ' Dienste des If'elthandeh. is Masira. Bdellium is an aromatic gum exuded from in Balsanwdendron mukul.the tower of And of the generation of Cham be come the Paynims Babylon and divers folk that be in isles of the sea by all Ind.' " 163 sun-worship — locally known to as Serandip. which had been identified with Raamah. V.164 Beluchistan." Exodus XVI. crj'stalline of Mas'udi (Sprenger's translation. 22) the Indian Ocean. 400.. where the color was said to be The marginal note in white. Arabia. rather than by is distinguishing the ) to tree. " points to the true meaning. eye. 19) the best sort inferior says." and the bdellium. Ache cording to Pliny (XII. would have had the same classification. exuded through cracks in the bark. bdellium being brown. or through substantial incisions. op. tree-eyes" {Punt und die Siidarah- Reiche. 98) for the pearls of the Bahrein fisheries. p." the south shore of the Persian Gulf. The gum. however. cit. Hebrew. carried away. upon which emits a The price in Rome he states as 3 denarii more powerful odor. unctuous when subjected to friction. taste. came from and the from India and Arabia. Bdellium was particularly the product of the hills Hindu Kush and {Jnahasis. cit. p. and similarly employed from very early date. VI. Lassen. have been "like coriander seed." from which the Phoenician traders accompanying the army gathered the gum and 12. Glaser. and found its way westward through the Persian Gulf ports or overland through Babylonia. larger than usual. 1. contradiction to ' Glaser has already shown the anti incense of the Egyptian Punt Reliefs to be an isclien Arabian word. making it equal between the Arrian only to the poorest quality of myrrh. 324-5.' ' appearance thereof as the appearance of in The A. which were supposed to be tree-tears The Hebrews (§ 29) or the the tree-blood (as shown under § 29). op. of A passage in the Book Numbers (XI. 544). 364-7. 7 and to refer to the large lumps. a-a-nete. The manna of the Israelites there said (in the R. ) . so we nvy after the Exodus conclude that the author of Numbers meant to compare the small . has the "color as the color of bdellium. II. many myrrh It is trees. it though it is without the slightest When used for sacred purposes still steeped in wine. as distinguished from the small round drops. p.. and with the same meaning in the Meadows of Gold § Bdolach. p. Bactria. Media and Babylonia. the of Ommana is thought by some Hebrew authorities gem. V. the Revised Version. and East Africa. like myrrh. See also Watt. returning through the country of the Oritae.290. 31. while the same word is used in the Itinerary to be a of Benjamin of Tudela (Adler's edition." per pound. probably the hdolach of of Genesis 36. and bitter to the acidity. odoriferous. which reached the Hebrews from the "land district of Havilah. closely allied a to myrrh and frankincense. Skizxe. 7) is perhaps of interest as reflecting the ancient classification of fragrant gums by size and shape of the piece. tells how the army came upon it of Alexander. ought to be transparent and the color of wax. due south of the river mean mouths. in his Hibbert Lectures (pp. —The Sanscrit is Sindhu.. to the coriander seed. River Sinthus. —The Indus is exceeded by the Yangtse. This is the ^adtn of the Old Testament. argues on that basis for an ancient sea-trade between India and the Euphrates. (Reclus.165 crystalline particles of the tamarisk-root syrup. The sediment brought down is very great. some name With the of the steady silting of the Delta. The presence of great waterat the snakes is still observed along these coasts. from the word sindhu. III. mentioned in an ancient Babylonian list of clothing. The greatest river. the sindon of the Greeks. . cities resumed their former names with their autonomy. 38. and other places. Its discharge is greater than that of the Hoang-ho. Irawadi. 38. in the bays and mouths of rivers. Ganges. 136-138). Keti. now Shah-bandar (Royal Port). which survives in the modern Delta. the remains of this port are probably yards deep in the soft alluvium. towns have been abandoned. lies far inland to the east of the present main channel of the Indus. and Shatt-el-Arab (none of which had been seen by the author of the Periplus). 38. The delta projects little beyond the normal coast-line. Asia. and very likely quite away from any present branches of the river. white. familiar in the Levitical ritual. and and this form Sinthus is unusual in Greek. Sayce. Barbaricum." while the larger and coarser to the efflorescence was likened lumps of bdellium (or myrrh) with which he was 38. Since the opening of the Karachi railway most of these fever-stricken 38. or muslin. which this manna prob- ably was. forming in a single year an island 65 square miles in area and 1 yard deep. some Hindu word —one —This name is evidently Hellenized from suspects Bandar. while a similar fate has overtaken Ghora Bari or Vikkar. formerly accessible to men-of-war. Hindu names reaching the West in substitute h Persian mouths. Brahmaputra. Mekong.) Graae is the Sanscrit fr<?^a. and to the deposit of the remainder in a vast submarine trough 1200 feet deep and upwards. a Minnagara was name given temporarily to several cities of India during the period of the occupation by the Scyths (the Saka After the collapse of the Indo-Scythian power these and Yueh-chi). port. the river being generally generally drop the j- known as Indus. 139. or possibly such as Bahardipur. owing to the distribution of silt along shore by the ocean currents. Both races were called by the Sanscrit 'Min" or Scyths. who acceded about 85 A. after a disastrous defeat at Kuche by the pursuer of the Yueh-chi. Reclus {Asia. as the " living in the interior). " but his race was. and includes extensive prehistoric remains. this when a series of violent earthquakes ele- vated whole region considerably. By about 120 B. his son. Parthian princes. Bellasis the modern Mansuriyah. Kadphises II. C. 68 30 E.. He reports ruins at Nagar Parkar. D. Kadphises I. D. subject to Parthia. — directed his armies southward and rapidly overran the Panjab and the lower Indus. . The first horde from Central Asia overrun the Pamirs was the settled in the Saka. These changes may have been one cause from this of the great migration region to Java in the 6th and 7th centuries A. this text. Seistan (SakasteneJ. he thinks was a broad open arm of the sea running 25° N. Their king. brought down by the river and formed into great bars washed tides. approximately 26° 40' N. says that the facts to prove that the coast-line has advanced anywhere from 20 to 40 miles since Alexander's time. Vincent Smith locates of in Bahmanabad. The Rann of Cutch (EirinonJ. 68° 50' E. from Karachi until to the Rann of Cutch. . 25° 50' N. the Chinese con- quering general Pan-Chao —about 90 A. They Cabul valley. fleeing before the Yueh-chi. first Gradually the Yueh-chi pursued the Saka. has The Indus delta grown greatly since our author's time. all its and the courses of the Vincent Smith Indus and tributaries have changed repeatedly.. ' ' speaking. conquered Cashmere and the upper Indus. apex of the delta was probably about forty miles north of He cites numerous that place.. conquering Greek Bactria (they are referred to in 'very warlike nation of the Bactrians. their leader his fine Manes had established a kingdom at Cabul. showing their power . about six miles west The site was discovered by M. the metropolis of Periplus shows the Indo-Parthians ruling in the Scythia. over the —The to reference to the rule of "Paris thian princes" metropolis of Scythia" very interesting. now to Silt a salt marsh. with the eastern branch of the Indus emptying into it.s 166 This iVIinnagara may be expedition it identified with the Patala of Alexander' —the capital of the delta country. southward by the violent almost entirely. at 1854. indicating a large sea-port trade there. § 47. at the northeast corner. coast-line he thinks may have averaged 25° N." then at the apex of the Indus delta. 142-5) says the Rann was probably open sea about the 4th century. 38. D. has now closed the mouth of the Rann The III. roughly Scythian. and then reached the upper Ganges and interior points like Indore. and the lower Indus. was known as the 'Indo-Parthian. 6) "After Berenice is the island Ophiodes. Topaz. the Indian either chrysolite or yellow sapphire. kings of Egypt to guard and maintain the place where these stones It were found. and hence stuffs —The this polymita. and he adds that the best sort came from India. these cloths are c?i!\^A polymita Gaul that they were first divided into chequers. supposed to have occurred about After some years of anarchy and civil war. iv. text is Figured linens. 150) indicates that the Egyptian tissue was formed in a loom. Pliny (VIII. . and we are apt to be led astray by assuming that because we have borrowed the Greek or Latin name we have applied it to the same stone. and the "Western Satraps" in Kathiawar. Here is a confusion between two kinds of stone. being in an important item the east-bound exports of Egypt. the Saka power is This More distant southern raiding by the Indo-Parthians led to the "Pallava" dynasties along the west coast. the Romans in regard to precious stones The topaz. Babylon was very famous for making embroidery of kind have obtained the name of Babylonian. was cleared of the serpents by the king. Both these dynasties were at first tributary. the "Northern Satraps" from the Indus to the Jumna. 74) in difFerent says: colors. threads it The method of weaving cloth with more than two was invented at Alexandria. " Martial's epigram. This stone. and that the Babylonian was embroidered with the needle. chrysolithos mentioned in the text was almost certainly our which was produced in abundance in the Red Sea islands. which after a couple of centuries succeeded in gaining control of much of Southern India. powerful Indo- 51 A. on account of the topazes A body of men was appointed and maintained by the found there. and later subject to the Kushan power. like tapestry.. D. 167 in the Kabul ' valley to have been broken already by the Yueh-chi or Kushan' dynasty. . These in princes were thought by labricius to be the ones referred to as ruling in Calliena. Gujarat and Malwa. Bombay. the Red Sea gem being the true topaz and The knowledge of was vague. was again consolidated under two lines of rulers. was in 39. according to came from Aethiopia (Abyssinia) and islands in the Red Sea. Pliny. the Parthian ruler in the Panjab. " . under the Ptolemies and Rome. The text is chrysolithos. " Cubicularia polymita" (XIV. The political conditions described in the Periplus were probably last those that followed the death of Gondophares. near § 52 39. but their subsequent complete conquest by the Yueh-chi had not yet been consummated. and superintend the collection of them. Strabosays: (XVI. and also look well with a white garment. in his notes some its nations who (II. Haeckel. where it is worn as a protection also valued for uses as a against the evil eye. the Balearic Islands and the coasts of Tunis. some surprise (XXXII. which was one of the principal assets of Pliny observes with the Roman Empire in its trade with the East. xxiii) found the same conditions his time : in Europe. but after the Indian trade was opened and its export value increased. art. —This is the cut root of Saussurea lappa. Leghorn and Genoa. and the present day in Italy. — than they caught. order Com- posita. coral in There was black abundance in the Red Sea. II. it became extremely scarce the with them. a tall perennial. see Encyclopedia Britannica. 8. weighted. 39. and it is one of the most beautiful of nature's produc- tions. growing on the open slopes of the vale of at elevations of Kashmir. They may have fetched better prices in Rome than India. Coral. site as well as of the present appear- of Berenice. and the becharm continued through the Middle Ages. where they would have had to compete with the native ance of the beryls. family Gorgonidie. Algeria and Morocco. See also §§ 28 and 49. and bound with twisted hemp. Red coral is Corallium rubrum. ascribes the preference " for coral to "the way adapt themselves to set off a dark skin. swords. 291-7. Southern Arabia. Coral. It was its lief in even to its supposed sacred properties. shields and helmets with coral. now. Tavernier describes the method of fishing by swabs" crossed rafters. near Naples. 11) that coral was as highly prized in India The Gauls formerly ornamented their as were pearls at Rome. which were let down and entangled amongst the coral on the rocky bottom. but these were not prized so highly. and others See along the Arabian coast. were in Sicily. Western Mediterranean. and other high valleys of that region. There was a in large production from mines west of our author's home. CostUS. then as Sardinia and Corsica. For a fuller description. it Although coral does not rank among precious stones is nevertheless held in high esteem in the other quarters of the globe.' 168 It is remarkable that the Periplus does not mention emeralds also as an export from Berenice in the hills just to India. For a description of these mines. see Bent. breaking more principal red The coral fisheries. This was the red coral of 39. prefer it to precious stones.000 .' on Tavernier tints 136). Arabiiche Korallen. Tavernier in ( Travels in India. in Catalonia. so that there are Ball. 000 also B. 2 pounds. In the Roman Empire it was used as a culinary spice. I. 25) to have been 5 denarii per pound. Bombay. and aromatic. it is used by shawl merchants to protect their fabrics from The word earth. op. 1 talent. 10 talents. and shipped to Vincent describes the root as being the size both Rome and China. while from the stem. of an agreeable gifts resembling orris.000 feet. cortex is brittle. Lycium. costus. The smell. The root was dug up and cut into small pieces. a yellowish woody part within a whitish bark. 287-8. costus is from the Sanscrit kushtha. stated by Pliny (XII. and the other part as a face cosmetic. cit. 2 pounds. also as a perfume. at elevations of 6. and with a murca of olive is mixed with various bitter and ox-gall. and locally for dressing open wounds. 77). for shipment to China and Red Sea In Kashmir moths. asiatica. and suppurations.169 to 13. warm. in the —This was derived from aristata. the woody parts then re- moved. In modern Kashmir the collection of costus the product being sent to Calcutta and is a State monopoly. order Ber- From the roots and stems a yellow dye was prepared.. The froth of this decoction is used as an ingredient in compositions for the eyes. standing in the See Watt. cassia. B. ports. Calhnicus to the Milesians included frankincense. Chishull (^Antiq. vulgaris. as The price from nard. By in the Romans distinguished Rome is costus was often called simply radix. 980. Berberis lycium. Asiat. the leaf.000 to 10. extracts.. B. the root. fluxes. bitterish. and the decoction boiled again to the thickness of honey.. 130. fruit and root-bark was made an astringent medicine. and for the cure of corroding sores. The Revised Version gives as it as a marginal reading for Exodus XXX. for diseases of the throat and gums. "The the preparation of which is described by Pliny (XXIV. It oil. cit. " Many empty lycium pots have been found (See also Watt. op. for coughs. 24. in place of cassia. one of the ingredients of the anointing oil of the Hebrew priests. entering into many of the ointnlents. growing heridacea.. of a finger.) . 39. Lassen. Himalayas. 1 pound. op. are pounded and then boiled for three days in a copper vessel. though in less quantity than pepper and cinnamon. 71) notes that the from Seleucu? myrrh. which are intensely bitter. in the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. which was caWsA folium. varieties of the barberry feet. cinnamon. branches and roots. at. In China it is used in perfumes and as incense. Commerce du Levant au Moyen Age. From the root of this grass was derived an oil which was used in Roman commerce medicinally and as a perfume. —The to word in the text this to is sappheiros. from the country it we was not in suited for engraving because was intersected with hard crystalline particles. Beluchis- tan and Persia. Travels . from the mountains. It is C jwarancusa. native in the Western Panjab. where 653 I. 22): "This desert produces many odoriferous which the Phoenicians gathered. . Ritter. and a sweet perfume was diffused far and wide over the land by the trampling. II. and as an astringent in ointments." 39. Turquoise." Lansdell. no doubt the nard found by the army of Alexander on its in the country of the Gedrosians. A natural trade-route river. Tavernier. ) days' journey in two mines. from this locality its would have been down the Kabul thence by the Indus to mouth. 39. says {Anabasis. 92 Goodchild. Cymbopogon schoenan- order Graminea. which came from Media. Precious 284. xix "Turquoise is only found in Persia five Nishapur. The finest stones came from the mines near Maaden. in India.170 39.Asia. 515. native more to closely allied to the Ceylon citronella. Russian Lapis which lazuli. a totally different species). 39) the stone known Romans was an that is. the leaf or flower. is the root of the ginger-grass. 33). call Persia. This is homeward march. Yule's Marco Polo. It way." or description of the stone more definitely. 58° 50' E. (See also Heyd. and a natural inclination would be assume to the be the same as our sapphire. so great was the abundance roots of nard. as distingfuished from spikenard. f is also a product of India. thus. —The itself text has calUan stone. and the allied species. but according to Pliny as sapphire XXXVII. Stones. about 48 miles north of Nishapur (the Nisasa of Alexander. of it. of which Arrian VI. nardus. This can be nothing but our from a very early time for which has been also as a demand ornament and pigment. 325-330. ultra- . which occurs abundantly in volcanic rocks intruding into sedimentary rocks in that district. Erdkunde. Cordier's ed. India. opaque blue stone with golden in a general spots.. it Khorassan.. the author of the Periplus found the stones offered for sale. Nard This (the root. one near from it. the east and south. the other Centra I. lapis lazuli. II. C. but much of it was trampled down by the army. identifies with our turquoise. from the lowlands. 36° 30' ). same as Pliny's callaina (XXXVII. a stone that which seems the came from "the His countries lying back of India. N. 41) says. and to a lesser extent by the Epiphanius. 1. even to-day. 529) locates near Firgamu in Badakshan. Our sapphire seems to have been rather a product of southern India and Ceylon. 390. says the Tables of the Assyrians. but less than formerly. V. Orb. this statement in the Periplus. Their blue glass was rather cobalt. Moses were inscribed on lapis lazuli. 9. Epiphanius zemmis. Theophrast. 157." These passages opposed to are sufficient answer to those who have doubted I. the difficulty Russian sables . Inv. writing in the 18th century. p. Ultramarine was probably not the caruleum of the Romans. next to quality.) There no more reason why in the 1st furs should not have been sent overland across Asia century than in the 16th to the 19th. 11^ in who send is it to us with their tissues and skins. § 43. p. de Lapid. 71° W For a fuller description see Holdich. 39.— Pliny (XXXIV. all ferent is Seric skins. MzxhoAeus Tavernier. II. "the most valuable products furnished by the cover- ings of animals are the skins which the Seres dye. particularly at Kalab and Badakshan. 240). XVI. Gates of India. Miilier is 288. when the trade was most important. {Travels in India." which Bali {Economic Geology of India. also thinks that this stone was almost certainly the sapphire of Theophrastus and other ancient He says. . 507. Bishop of Salamis.171 marine. xii Orig. in getting Con- sider.. Desc. the Parthian iron. 467 J Lassen is of the same opinion. whom see Fabricius. II. being much used by the Egyptians. Beckmann {Hist. Stones.% 5. for instance.V. "of kinds of iron. 151. Dionys. de Lapidibus. says that the real lapis lazuli came from Bokhara. It has been known from very remote times. and from India to Europe. Goodchild {Precious writers. ) I consider it as the sapphire of the ancients" — a'^ quoting Pliny. " which seems to indicate lapis lazuli rather than our sapphire.. 1105.. 426. The Romans used it to some extent as a material for engraving on. (The first route corresponds via Orenburg. which. the palm of excellence is awarded to the dif- that which again made. 36° 10' N. that it was sent thence Some came also through Russia to India. which was rather copper ochre." And (XXXVII. 55. and would hardly have been exported from the Indus valley. which was so extensively used by the Egyptians in their public buildings. Dionysius Periegetes refers to the underlying rocks which gave birth to the beauteous tablets of the golden hued and azure sapphire stone which they detach from the parent rock. Law given to with the Periplus.. Isidori Dioscorides. (Vincent.by the Seres. xxv) speaks of a "mountain beyond Kashmir producing lapis. 664). countries grew more insistent. at this time as well as later. and quarrels over the silk trade were at the root of more than one war between Rome and Parthia. when a couple of Christian monks under Justinian succeeded guarded silk-worm' into s back from China the jealouslyeggs. at the Gulf of Travancore.. the famous Damascus blades of the to question this open whether rectly described in the Periplus as — middle ages being derived mainly from Travels. yarn. 25-7) : . China. 6. and the Mediterranean countries as a dye and a medicine. order Leguminosa . from which the silk culture was introduced in bringing Greece. the Roman traders found routes silk Cambay. and was shipped to the Panjab and Persia to be made into steel. Pliny says (XXXV. both being separate item. The principal highway for silk. It was valued in Western Asia. as noted If the latter. a dye produced from Indigofera tinctoria. the restrictions of the Parthian government became more severe. Linn.. and Sind. W. At the time of the Periplus. under §38 — would be muslin. the Concerning modern production see Watt {op. the sea-route was the only one open to the See also under §§ 49. at the —According to the Periplus.! 172 to market. This eflort of Constantinople to reach China direct. Indigo. Silk yarn. Roman silk traders. as or whether it is a seems probable. more corcoming from the Gulf of Cambay and Egypt It was produced in Haidarabad. and how much "most easier to get the various wild animal skins to the Indus from Tibet and Turkestan mouth As it is to the excellent iron of the Seres" mentioned by Pliny.) is See also under § 39- Cloth. cit. the s'lndon of the Greeks.. was not Indian steel. or later between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Persia. and imports from the East diminished. Egypt. this source. 157. and with the Turks. and allied species. Ball's ed. for the sea trade. whither it had been brought by various but no permanent result was reached until the 6th century. Rome and Parthia being at war. I. it with the following item. of which about 25 exist in ^^ estern India alone. a to the Somali coast short distance north of Golconda. 39. was As the demand in Mediterranean through Turkestan and Parthia. — It uncertain whether this should be connected silk. and in from N. 56 and 64. and about 300 in other tropical regions. long a staple product of the Panjab 39. for a route north of the Caspian . mouths of the Indus and Ganges. (Tavernier. led to alliances with Abyssinia. without dependence on Mesopotamia. it is exported to our ports. each. for ague . which is connected In the rainy season with the low-lying. is The guidance of stars and compass preferred. and becomes They then divide it into pieces of four ounces such as we see it. If used as a medicine. monsoon) the sea is driven through these channels by hills also the wind. and (after the roots have been removed) lave it put into great vessels the plant whole of which is tremendously hot there. and west of Cutch the northern Rann communicates through a second channel with the Rann. But the ground forming a sheet of stagnant water about 3 feet deep. on the southern coast of Cutch. one time flooded by the sea. and in that form 40. and reaching 60 miles from shore to shore. monsoon) it is It opens seaward by a dry and firm. but diluted it when exhibits a purple dye. even in modern times the port of Mandavi. traveling by night. The whole area was probably raised by some great earthquake. so that it boils and coagulates. When broken small it is wondrous combination of purple and deep azure. Nagar Parkar. We are here again reminded of the ancient Turanian (Accadian- Dravidian) sea trade. . " The Gulf of Eirinon is the strange expanse now known Rinn or Rann (Wilderness) of Cutch. and by the remains of vessels dug as Old harbor works are obser\ed up near the neighboring villages. in small vessels averaging 50 tons. the name coming from It is a the crescent-shaped rocky island bordering it on the south. torical carries on a direct trade with Zanzibar. with the I composition of which am unacquainted. until the is upon which they pour water and decomposed. indicum acts as a sedative fits and other shivering and desiccates it ' sores. a substance imported from India. 10 to 20 inches above sea-level. to avoid the terrible heat and refraction. as the (of the S. W. and the illusions of the mirages which constantly hover over the Rann. Marco Polo is says (III. on the eastern side of the Rann. which must have centered in these bays. which cross it at all seasons. xxii) is made of a certain herb is which gathered. and in the dry season (of the N.' 173 We have indicum. E. narrow channel. and is the scum of the of a black appearance. uniform saline plain about 140 miles long. and the rain descending from the flows into it. They then put this liquid in the sun.coast of the Gulf of Cutch. is so level that the Rann is never deep enough to stop the camel caravans. Within hisnear This saline plain was certainly at salt shown by the abundance of times it was probably the scene of an active sea-trade. of less than 10 feet draught. There is another kind of it which floats in the caldrons in the purple dye-houses. — This is word in the text is very uncertain. opening into the ocean below the Indus it. must have and starvation to multitudes of its agricultural and seafar- ing inhabitants. Geological considerations tend to confirm the tradition. it while the branch that watered no longer flows in that direction. According to Burns. with a branch of the Indus running into Now the Indus delta pushed very much farther south. Eirinon. The name irina.174 The upheaval is too regular to have occurred by ordinary causes." mouth. search for the most favorable seaward out- "Ancient.. and have changed In the year 1909 a city of 25. still During exceptional floods the waters of the Indus Other attest the incessant shiftits channels traversing the desert farther south ing of the main stream in let. it At and is the time of the Periplus shoal. a branch of the Indus known as the Purana. otherwise unsupported by historic evidence. ). and which led to the establishment of Buddhist kingdoms there (surviving in the tremendous temples of Boroboedor and Brambanan) may have been due even more to this cause than to the invasion of hostile Aryan The conversion of a navigable bay into tribes from the upper Indus. although delta.000 inhabitants. that the Indus was formerly deflected by the Rohri Hills directly into the it Rann of Cutch. the modern Gulf of Cutch. The many rendered the eastern regions continually more river-channels into salt-pits. almost blocking up the Rann. One is led to surmise that the great migration from Cutch and Gujarat to Java. who would have been forced to migrate on a scale unusual in history. is uncertain. river which was supposed to have formed a con- tinuation of the Sutlej and Sarasvati through the f now dried-up Hakra Wahind) still overflow into the eastern desert and even into the Rann. It seems to be the same as Bahlika^ which is associated with Surashtra in the Mahahharata. 41. Ariaca. is The Gulf the of Baraca Whether name sur\ives in the the Vishnu Purana. the Ramayana and 40. Lassen thinks that the name properly the Sanscrit Latica (pronounced Larica) . a salt desert. with a clear seems to have been open vy^ater. was almost annihilated by the Indus. and the scour of the its tides has carried alluvium along the coast. a Dera Ghazi Khan. where was joined by the canal. which occurred in the 6th and 7th centuries. 69° 5' E. Rinn or Rann is from the Sanscrit aranya or waste or swamp. spelled ruin and the diversion of the rivers that watered it. modern Dwarka (22° 22' X. or still flowed in 1672 about 120 miles east of the present constant shiftings of the river-bed toward the west have arid. gold. an old name (Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji. Just as The name. IX. and Africa. the modern Gujarat. in India is But the location of Ophir Abhira. Abhira. VII. 11. Ophir suggest the same Dravidian-Accadian activity be tween India. has a suggestive similarity. This probably the same 41. m Indian Antiquary. is kophi. I Kings. political and a great religious. Ariaca from Apardntika. not the southern. See under § 52. Lassen thinks. Lassen remarks. the products mentioned are sandalwood (. the Sanscrit sikhi. was the almug or algum. not a Hebrew word. X. we have Cutch. 165) both Cutch and Kathiawar islands. Saka ruler Nahapana.0. Abiria. and IX. ivory. " This word appears also in Syrastrene. the Persian Gulf. called in Malabar. of the In the account II Chronicles VIII. (Lassen. — also an asylum for refugees.) According to Reclus (Asia. Indian city Sophir (the Suppara of § 52). The word togei. III. silver. Apir. The word is translated ape. from which these products is came. precious stones. Later scholarship sufficiently sure in locating Ophir on the Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf. 10. Khuzistan^Kassites. argues must have been the Biblical Ophir. dealing in of India' s is impossible.but the Indian names for the products mentioned proved clearly enough that it was a trading center dealing with India. none of the products mentioned. derives to the Sandalwood. —This 17. apes and pea- Ophir trade given in I Kings. even if the land itself was not Indian. Kachh. which later gave way . is the native which Lassen (I. I. mixture of races 41. The word is noted under § 49." so Abhira. 259-263. which he Lassen also refers from the Sanscrit valgu.) Another explanation derives for the western seaboard. The land of and was purely an agricultural country.175 and included the land on both also gives the sides of the Gulf of Cambay. and is at the northern end west coast. text is and is Nambanus. and wretched Cush. — The as the Alamharus. Ptolemy Latica. An inscription of Asoka mentions The form seems to have been Rastika or Rashtrika. cocks. belonging to the kingdom. (Baraca and Syrastrene) were originally has been raised in historical times. 108. name Larica. tukhi-im. for ivory but derived from the Sanscrit word kapi. 538-9). The Prakrit form of this word Rdshtra survives also in the modern Maratha earliest {Maharashtra). too. This whole area The land connecting Kathiawar is with the mainland is not over 50 feet above sea-level and full of marine remains. 26-28. for peacock. Its position seaward made it early a centre of trade. Malabar valgum. to- gether with the opposite coast of Cutch and Cambay. particularly adapted to the cultivation of cotton. expressed from the seeds of Sesamum Indicum.. oil D. and Southern China. op. The species now most generally cultivated varieties. thinking that they are rather from the old Persian virinzi cides with the region through (Sanscrit vrihi). indicating an early connection before migrations had radiated 41. Sesame oil. is . was a native of Africa. and probably somewhat later in India. coides. — Sanscrit. . whence it spread to China. fringing is prosperity being largely due to the 60 seaports to the fertility of its its coast-lines deep black to soil. in large Horses. which owes its name to Arabic domination. perhaps. and — Gujarat is still one of the richest regions in India. riz. but it was regularly cultivated in India long before countries. (from which the modern rice. from the Tamil arisi. Syrastrene.176 to a Semitic. . which cattle. climate also forcing its wild habitat southwards. Surat. He thinks that coin- which the Dravidian invaders passed until they culminated in the Tamil civilization. 823-5). At the time of the Periplus this peninsula. Linn. Ory%a There are various wild one of importance being Oryza coarctata (Roxb. cit. riso. ) or 0. numbers Bombay and other 41. 41. It is the principal food of Asia. Surashtra. WdXX. sheep and grain are exported parts of India. — Oryza. was subject to the Saka or Indo-Parthian dynasties. Oryza iativa. reached the Mediterranean safe to At the time of the Periplus it is assume that sesame . etc. C. and doubtless was so at the time of the Periplus. This would have been a couple of thousand years before Solomon's day. an annual plant cultivated throughout the obtained from tropical and subtropical regions of the globe for the Originally. from Central Asia. according to Stanislas Julien. C. variety resembles wheat and seems to have been mistaken for it by Strabo and some of the Greek writers on India. nati\e Arabian activity. 41. He also cautions against the tempting derivation of the Greek word oryzji and the Arabic al-ruzz. is native in India. the changing and East Africa. as early as 2800 B. ). Rice. The name survives in the modern the modern Kathiawar. Burma. It when it was exported to Arabia was cultivated in China. and also This wild apparently in Mesopotamia (see Watt. order Pedalinea. India and Persia in the order named. order Graminea. thinks the cultivation began rather in Turkestan. tritiwhich was native in the Indus and Ganges valleys. A fertile its country. arroz. it the seed. saliva. the cultivated form. liable to oil.) deposited as a its The is butter thus loses about 25 per cent of bulk. moisture sediment.000 acres. If buffalo's milk rather than cow's. cit. Fabricius says that it could not have been transported from India to Africa under the tropical § 14). it a yellow without smell. 400 years and high price. According to the statistics given by Watt {_op. in the Deccan. of in the oil is which about 700. and not closely resembles olive become is rancid. It extracted by simple ex- pression in mills. while still hot. sun. But asafoetida was a product of Af- ghanistan and would have been brought to the Indus mouth rather than . following a mention of boutyros by tators. It is made from G/ii classics. by way of the Sanscrit bhutari ("the enemy of evil spirits"). is an adulterant of ^hi or oil. an Indian grain. and — would read bosmoros. all of Theophrastus.. and with the probability of its export from the rich agricultural region of Gujarat. and as a lamp-oil. in It is in soap manufacture. Mesopotamia of anointing the body with sesame 41. Oppert and others.000. Our author shows us that the oil was exported from the Gulf of Cambay to both Arabia and Africa. identify it with asafoetida.. also used as It is Cambay states. This word boutynn has been variously emended by the commenwhom had fresh butter in mind. speaks of tanks of ghi old. in 1672-81. but rather the Indian ghi. Fryer. but ghi stands long in journeys to-day and might very likely have been demand oil is in the 1st century on the African coast. etc. According to Watt {op. cit. largely used for culinary purposes. which produced no except from the cocoanut palm. during which the is driven off and the residue (casein. although Lassen should have been familiar with the durability of clarified butter. mentioned in some of the most ancient of the Hindu carefully enclosed in leather skins or earthen pots. 478) ghi is an oil de- canted after heating the butter about twelve hours. an oil reduced from butter.000 was In modern India the anointing the body. The text is boutynn (see also under This is not fresh butter made from cream. In many properties olive and similarly used where the in oil is not cultivated. of great value medicinally. salt it may be preserved for many years without requiring the aid of or other preservatives. Strabo (XVI. Clarified Butter. clarified butter. whence doubtless it was reshipped to the Roman in world. i. 982) the area under cultivation India in 1904-5 was over 4.177 tral was an important crop throughout India and the warmer parts of CenAsia. 20) refers to the ancient custom oil. Lassen. suggested by McCrindle. It is roasted after being threshed out. 13) "By the vapors which ascend from so which he does not many is rivers. rice and bosmoros are sown. and treasuring of this bosmoros and the prejudice against its ex- portation indicate the native millet. would not be probable articles of import there. as Eratosthenes states. 15). ' ' (XV. such . And again and other esculents with which we are unacquainted. and in the winter season. a large. barirdhan) p. The name given it in Benorder as bura shama. portant crops in modern India. are the African millets. which was regarded for temple-offerings.' : : 178 to Barygaza. Wild barley. which is extensively cultivated to-day in native China and Japan gal. as particularly was the grain most used Other grains which might suggest themselves. 18) "Onesicritus says of bosmoros that is it is a smaller between rivers. Panicum miliaceum. but were probably brought from Africa more recently than the date of the Periplus. 823. The common was native in in India. 843) Panicum Crus-galli. preferring wet ground. for description of its remarkable size and prolific increase) and Both are imPennisetum typhoideum (Hindu. barley.. as well as sesamum. and being native in Somaliland. Another possible grain tata is the Indus valley wild rice. is to Watt {op. Romans knew it more intimately as laser. During the rainy season. 10. and therefore not likely to have been imported. and the level country is inundated. India. coarse plant. flax and millet. was also native in Egypt and Somaliland.' The pure. McCrindle suggests wild barley or millet. XVIII. medicine as a remedy for fevers and tropical digestive disor(Pliny. while grown See Watt. 2l grain. Hokus sorghum ( Hindu yWr) or Kaffir corn (see Pliny. watered by the summer rains. pulse. XIX. which is the word that would probably have used. bajra) or spiked millet. ii. cit. According Gramineix. . as well as India. Oryxa coarc- (Hindu. ii. to prevent the seed from being grain than wheat. Egypt and the Mediterranean countries. It the author of the Periplus entered into Roman ders. and the men are bound by oath not to take it away before it has been roasted. Altogether the bosmoros of Strabo was mostprobabl\ "Poor man's millet. The following passages from Strabo throw some light on that question He says (XV. the text to read bosmons. and grown in countries exported." Panicum Crus-galli. wheat. might readily be Hellenized into bosmoros. millet. Fabricius needlessly alters identify. which has been confused with wheat. and by the Etesian winds. the While Theophrastus may have referred to it as boutyros. need only rinse out these cloths. and the other monache. The account given by Tavernier throws some light on the earlier production.. contrasting it with silk: "trees that bear wool. which is used The cheaper kinds are exported to the coast of Melinde in dyeing. ( grow- ing six paces high. because these people." Vincent's translation of sagmatog'enc by ' stuffing." The broad are lYi cubit wide. only 20 cubits kinds. The when cloths are 21 cubits long when crude. Hormus.179 borders of ponds and banks of streams. and attaining to an age of 20 years. Up to the age of 12 years. when the trees are stuff so old as that. cit. He molochine." 'the that is. not using soap. are taken uncolored to (the Azania of the Periplus). Their cotton trees are of very great size. but of a different nature from those of the Seres. because these two towns are near the place where the indigo is made. un- unspun cottons from Gujarat do not go to Europe. but only to quilt or beds withal. Pliny also (XII. xii) "White cotton cloths come to Renonsari (near Surat) and Broach. the cotton not good to spin. but are both bleached. for whom it is useful because ripens early and affords millets. or Agra and Ahmadabad. is however. ) It is Gossxpnim to be observed. being too bulky and of too small value. blue. and the The cotton cloths to be And again: 20 cubits dyed red. as in these trees the leaves produce nothing at all. the trees give is good spinning cotton. large fields. cloths. There broad and narrow piece is long. It It is most of India soils —on is extensively cultivated the Himalayas to 6500 thrives on light sandy and often cultivated when the rains are over. who says Bassora. and they are only exported to the Red Sea. Marco Polo (III. where they have the means of bleaching them in on account of the quantity of lemons growing in the neighborhood. that. on the banks of rich good soil. The by the yield is fifty fold in It is the is quickest-growing millet. but from that age to 20 years the produce inferior. harvested sometimes in six weeks. and indeed might very readily be taken . and they constitute the principal trade done by the Governor of Mozambique. II. arboreum. who sells them to the Kaffirs to carry into the country of the Abyssins and the kingdom of Saba. a cheap article of food before bajra 41. indeed. is supported by Tavernier. black. Cotton and the Indian — says {op. and spun cotton. silt deposited by rivers. 21) quotes from Theophrastus a description of the tree cotton. These were the and sagmatogene of §§ 6 and 14. and consumed it chiefly poorer classes. as a rainy-season crop over feet. 26) says of this locality: "They have also a great deal of cotton. they would attributing been quite equal to anything. on the Sutlej river. who is said it to have resided into the at Suklatirtha. supposed 'the plain of Bhrigu. what was traders him by some who would have distinguished Alexander from Asoka." capital 41. as now. 74° 39' E.. about eleven miles north the ofChitor (24° in it N. E. from the Prakrit Bharukacha.cit. Vincent Smith locates the ) field of his battle with Porus. Signs of the Expedition of Alexander. their hero Braho and their KacA place- names. tfie Under the caste system were not concerned with the outcasts." by sumably. for the moment. but quite conjecturally. out of deference to their Greek customers. princes.). of which the ruins still exist. is is Here he began probably quothardly The told author of the Periplus mistaken in supposing that the Alacedonians got ing beyond the Indus region. is is Barygaza. . about the size of a quince. bear a kind of gourd." which was for the Saka invaders. The name Minnagara means the Hindu name 41.— This was identified by Miiller with modern Indore. —This the modern Broach (21° ' 42' N.. (Early History of India. Alexande'r then penetrated to Gurdaspur. " who was Dravidian connection a local hero. army reached Jhelum (32° 56' N. . which bursts asunder of linen cloth They when ripe and discloses a is ball of down. to Barygaza. to place Kathiawar. 72° The Greek name Here is be a corruption of Bhrigukachha. and trader at Barygaza. to far Alexander. at least a suggestion of with the Brahui of Gedrosia. about 50 miles his retreat. — river.180 for those of the vine. mere ha\'e while even had they been informed. from which a costly kind made.. and those concerned with foreign trade were often. on the opposite side of the same name. 192-3) may be the ancient town of Madhyamika or Nagarl. ) on the river of the Somewhat above that place. 73° 47' E. were it not that they are of smaller size. 59'E. who were more interested in h. N. from Amritsar. After the collapse of his dynasty fell hands of the Saka who were in power at the time of the Periplus. but according to Vincent Smith Up.). 71-8. one of the oldes' sites in India. The district of Barygaza was an important part of the empire of Chandragupta Maurya. "\lcCrindle and Fabricius prefer. religious or political activities of the country.s exploits than any Hindu could be. but the text indicates the mainland in observing that 53' river pre- from Minnagara cotton cloth was "brought down. to "City of the Min. Minnagara. The Greek 41. ^__^^_ According to the Imperial Gazetteer. the modern Portuguese possession. as shown byMdUer (I. 75 Feet and upwards. 149-150. ao Miles. Point. as described in the Periplus. Vincent. 42. it is a reef of rock partly covered by brown sand. _^^__^_^. Island. . The promontory Another gulf. as shown on the following map. 290. XX. and is surrounded by rocky reefs To avoid the rising to the surface from a depth of 60 to 70 feet. chopping sea and sunken reefs. ). 80 i o 75 feet. of Papica is Goaphat.. or Gopinath — This is the Gulf of Cambay.181 41. 72° 21' E. preferred by does not conform to the sailing-course of the Periplus. Baeones is Piram Island opposite the mouth of the Narbada Diu (21° 36' N. boats have still to follow toward the Narbada. 42.) EofG to 30 Feet. the course tide-currents. 182 42. under at least which incoming were met in the 100 miles from Barygaza. The river Nammadus- -Hindu. of Ptolemy. —The maintenance vessels of this regular service of pilotage. ) 42. 408 j. the entrance to the to the N. emptying (22° 18' N. the This is. Jsia. and sailing traffic is in other rivers such as those of Burma. perhaps. and Cammoni would no doubt the long bar at the eastern side of the be at the end of the promontory that lies of the Tapti River. Anchorages and basins. 72° Cambay. into the The great river Mais is the head of the ^ulf. illustrates the difficulties. Narmada — is the mod- ern Xarbada or Nerbudda. W. The second suggests the modern craft from these waters found by Burton Somaliland ports (First Footsteps. such as our author describes. 40' E. travellers to this region. use of stations" still necessary here. \o\. the same as Camanes 44. indicates an active and regular com- merce. Fishing-boats entering Bombay Harbor 44. from Reclus. shoal is — The sketch-map on the preceding page. from trapaka.. at the city of modern Mahi. Hard to navigate. 539 —The in the first word Lassen dekotia. of the mouth prosperous mediaeval port of Surat. rives (II. where modern more . a type of fishinij boat mentioned by other a. 43. river is The active. Trappaga and Cotymba. Ill. Herone gulf. of the Cambay ports for Surat and. the Bay According to the at a velocity of at Imperial Ga%etteer of India. Bombay. 50. Gates of India.) its This people dwelt on both sides of the Cabul River. above junction with the Indus. The trade-route briefly referred to in the mention of Gandhara and Pushkalavati was that leading to Bactria. In earlier times they extended east of the Takshasild.— The vivid description of the tidal and the following paragraph. \% to 6 The inevitable to shipping. whence it branched westward to the Caspian and the Euphrates. the modern Peshawar district. 65° 43' E.oxPushkaldvaU. Gandaraei. Early History. Poclais. the "Land of This" of § 64. 46. "Through hoarse roar never remitting. bore. 47. is certainly the result of personal experience. rise and as much damage as 33 feet. — (Sanscrit. and elsewhere. a large Indus. modern Kandahar (31° 27' N. and run 25 6 to 7 knots an hour. 52. (See also Holdich. 88) says — Arachosia extended westward beyond the meridian east of Kandahar. 47. where their eastern capital was located and prosperous city. Very great tides. Along the midnight edge by those milk-white combs careering. it must indeed have been a wonder of nature. — (Sanscrit. Arattii. Ordinary tides reach feet. Notes sitr la geographie ancienne du Gandhdra. To a merchant familiar with the all but tideless waters of the Red Sea.—This is who were a people of the Panjab . \incent Smith. as Bay of Panama. and was skirted on the it by the river Indus. 54. fall in Burma. 185. a Prakrit form of the Sanscrit Arashtra. shallow of Fundy. 114. the and curving estuary.) — 183 45. Foucher.Ancient India. and was traversed by one of the main routes by which Persia communicated with India added greatly to its importance. 99.). "abound- . and eastward through Turkestan to China. On the north stretched to the western section of the Hindu Kush and on the fact that The province was rich and populous. under such difficulties. it 47. McCrindle {. called by the Greeks Taxila. 297. in name Aratta is often synonymous with the Panjab Hindu This people occupied the country around the 47. The same thing occurs in many places where a strong tide is forced in this into a narrow. 179.. was the cause of the desertion more recently. Pushkardvafi. 2>1. 43. The sea rushing in with a hoarse roar." Walt Whitman: Patrolling Bamegat. IX. Gandhdra." the south to Gedrosia. high spring tides in the Gulf of Cambay knots. in fact the literature. Arachosii. which was then populous and productive. In the years 155-153 a Greek King Menande. whose reign seems to have been very short. During his absence in India a relative. The mound known as Pindi. ) Its position marked by an extensive mound west of the is present settlement." Prakrit. " and Its yields large ancient bricks and numerous Graeco-Bactrian coins- position at a ferry rior gave it on the high-road from the west to the Indian inte- great commercial importance. IV. an Asiatic race akin to the Turks.op. in —This passage. on the Suwat River. C. and built up a military power which later absorbed the country beyond the Euphrates.. but the intervening country remained under Greek control for nearly 100 years IX. and threatened the capital. the modern Charsadda.) 184 This was the western whence the Peucelaotis of Arrian. Gandhara {.. The two northeastern provinces of Parthia and Bactria revolted. The Indian conquests were lost immediately. 62) with the modern town of Jhelum. Arrian. ^TZfl^ajw. re\'olted and Demetrius returned home but his name does not reappear.cf. set up for themselves. 26-8. is X) under Antiochus Theos. C. remained under the government of Greek princes. Demetrius conquered the whole Indus Valley and that part of Afghanistan lying around the modern Cabul. 17 miles N. presents a view of Indian history which does not appear rary work. one of his generals. Bucephalus TUexandria. 858. Jndica. occupied Mathura. the peninsula of Suras'ntra (Syrastrene) and other territories on the western coast. is § 41. Eucratides. its Warlike nation of the Bactrians. Strabo. to gain an outlet to the sea through In 190 B. besieged Wadhya- mika (now Nagari near Chitorj. The Greek monarchs in Bactria immediately set about enlarging their domains by the Indus Valley.lV. ing in lotuses. turies any other contempoduring the four cenis The sequence of events in Bactria between Alexander and the Periplus. E.. annexed the entire Indus Valley. apparently a brother of Apollodotus. —This is identified by Vincent (See under Smith {. which {op. cit. The Parthians. II. fully set forth by Vincent Smith summarized as follows: The Empire of Alexander was broken up at his death and the whole Eastern section from Syria to India fell to Seleucus. xxii. 47. of Peshawar. and its independence was finally recognized in 208 B. XV. with reference to Graeco-Bactrian coins current in Barygaza. the town. The Bactrian country. Patali- . capital of 47. From 160 to 156 there seems to have been anarchy in Bactria which ended in the assassination of Eucratides by his son Apollodotus. Pukkalaoti. Lassen.. cit. whose capital was Cabul. striving. where Saka princes ruled for more than a century under the Parthian power. originally at These Saka connected with the Parthians. C. seems to have been the last Greek king to rule north of the Hindu Kush Mountains. This phase of Asiatic history is reflected by the mention of the Greek coinage of Apollodotus and Menander. a nomadic Turki tribe in northwestern our author mentions as China and owing allegiance tars. overwhelmed the Greek Kingdom there and continued into the country known as Seistan. The coins must have been over 200 years silver coins in and the preservation of small is commercial use for that length of time remarkable. D. however. known as the territory Yueh-chi. Another rivers. very warlike nation of the Bactrians' which To understand the living in the interior under their own king. Sakastene. among them Gondophares. supposed to have been a convert to Buddhism. overwhelmed the Roman Empire. then called. and reigned in Cabul and the Panjab for thirty years. and has been immortalized under the name of Milinda in a celebrated dialogue entitled The Questions of Milinda. and long threatened to extinguish and migrated westward. ing in Cabul. modern Patna. old. from its conquerors. C. at and Indo-Parthian princes appear Cabul and in the Panjab about There is a long line of Parthian princes recorded as rul120 B. Thomas. tribes seem to have been Another section of the Sakas a later date pushed on southward and occupied the peninsula of Surashtra. that in the year 165 B. who had lived between the Chu and Jaxartes These tribes in the years 140-130 poured into Bactria.' . white civilization. and thus the great waves of migration were begun which inundated Europe for centuries. to the Chinese emperors. Chinese annals mention one must go to the history of central Asia. branch of the Saka horde settled in Taxila in the Panjab and Mathura on the Jumna.' 185 putra." The Sakas of India seem to have been subject to the Parthians. The Yueh-chi in their westward movement drove out a tribe known as the Saka. were driven out of their by the Hiongnu or TarThis displaced numerous savage tribes in central Asia. This is the same prince who is mentioned in the apocryphal "Acts of St. to Bactria. current in Barygaza at the time of the Periplus. founding a Saka dynasty which lasted for centuriesreferred to by the author of the Periplus in § 38 as ' This 'subject country is to Parthian princes who were constantly driving each other out. who acceded in 21 A. Heliocles. Menander had to retire. which is one of the most noted is which the is He books in Buddhist literature. who in turn moved westward. son of Eucratides. the route north of the desert was also thrown open. who had first expelled the last of them from the is. and 70 A. extending conquests Thus. An embassy was sent from China to try to Oxus River in the years 125-115 B. D. The to the Chinese emperors had never abandoned their assertion of sovereignty over the Yueh-chi. and was obliged for some years to send tribute to China.. but the mission subsequent revolutions kept Chinese interest B. trade and while communication was opened up immediately. and at home between 100 A Tartar army under the Chinese General Pan all Chao its reasserted Chinese supremacy over as far as the Caspian Sea. ruler Kadphises extended sent an his of the Yueh-chi... D. of Central Asia. still should be borne in mind that this route was the- policed by savage tribes only nominally subject to Chinese Empire.. 100 years later. Yueh-chi. until the third century A. was unsuccessful. century A. D. who had meantime delta. it represented a the from the savages who had overwhelmed his Greek Kingdom stan for of Bactria. . reflects the prominence with which his name was regarded in the history of The Indo-Parthian princes were gradually driven southward by the advancing Yueh-chi. I. D. — that at the time The trouble. C. with the submission of Khotan and Kashgar to Chinese armies in 73 A. C. The scattered tribes central power. C. D. under Kadphises different people so that when who began to Yueh-chi nation was unified 45 A.186 which. D. Punjab before the end of the of this work. With the reduction of Kuche and Kharachar in 94 A. Kadphises reigned over Bokhara and Afghanison Kadphises II. 40 years. whose in westward migration started all this had settled Bactria north of the Oxus River about 70 B.000 cavalry against the Chinese General Pan Chao. conquest into India but not yet as far as the Indus army of 70. and was succeeded by who extended his conquests into India. and their were gradually brought together under a wandering habits were changed for agriculthe rule in ture and industry. and was totally defeated near Kashgar. carried was not on in large volume until the time of the Roman Emperor in the Marcus Aurelius. the route south of the Central Asian desert was thrown open to commerce from end to end. and for the first time regular commerce between East and West was made It possible. II. although not composed the time. persuade the Yueh-chi to return to China. on In early times it was known the earliest Aryan settlements in IVIalwa. gustus. the Indus A'alley the Ganges to the In Southern which were then pouring into India in a steady stream. even Ujjain is one of the seven sacred cities of India. 75° 47' E. the chief city of IVlalwa. deep disdain. depredations of numerous savage Parthians had done what they could to control and orto it ganize and le\5' tribute on the not controlled to the eastward. Roman merchants." 187 About 95 A. India. except as led to the subsequent centralization of power author under Chandragupta Maurya. The river Sipra. quite untrue. Buddhist records. let the legions thunder past. Kadphises 47. to announce Alexander penetrated to the Ganges. where there was an active Roman maritime trade. "The She East bowed low before the blast In patient. not yielding In Hindu legend it was here that the elbow of to Benares. The place was important under which it is located. mass of India was is entirely unaffected by his inxasion. 23° 11' N. The great it —This is. Here. Ozene. the trade had been merely incidental and subject tribes. was dispatched by conquest of Northwestern India. on the dismemberment of her body by Siva. . of course. a kingdom which is described in Buddhist literature as one as As Ujjeni it is very prominent of the four great powers of India. one of in Satifell. And plunged in thought again. is "vic- torious. The Sanscrit form is Ujjayini. 48. The rapid growth of such trade is indicated by the coinage of the Yueh-chi Kings in India. Matthew Arnold.— This The Prakrit is is the modern Ujjain. is also sacred. Vjjeni. D. II. the Panjab having been the turning-point of his expedition." from which the Greek derived. but they had The existence of unified power in and Afghanistan made possible a regular trade from Euphrates. which offered in con- gratulations Rome to the his Emperor Trajan.. and Benares and Ghazipur on the Ganges Rive:-. which were imitated from those of AuKadphises II imitated the gold coins of the Roman Empire. there was no native gold coinage. he be^an his kintjdom reached as far as his further conquests of India. the It is Roman being sufficient. Kadphises I struck coins in bronze only. . its probable that the Indian embassy. having been the birthplace of Kachana. AvantI. Obermann. Our confusing Alexander with Menander. The it up the to commerce between India and as in Central Asia. the The Yueh-chi opened Roman Empire. 000 feet in Sikkim. its in the anarchy following the irruptions in the western provinces' of Surashtra and Jvlalwa had been themselves in power raided by Saka freebooters. whence distribution was made to the Ganges kingdoms. apparently. its By location it capital. 48.) 188 disciples. 279-280. the in Kshatrapa ruler of his time. XXR'. order I'alerianacea. Leaf nard varies the for that which is known by sells name of hadrosphae- rum. Uijeni was the Greenwich of India. "The little drug consists finger. and yields on distillation an In India largely used as an aromatic adjunct in the preparation of medicinal oils. and is popularly believed to increase the growth and blackness of the hair. 112-114. sur- of a portion of the rhizome. was stationed as viceroy of the western provinces of the Maurya Empire. Here also in his younger days Asoka. After their claims were recognized they probably ruled from Ujjeni. 26). Saka hands until about the 5th century A. and the greatest patron of Buddhism. the royal seat being at Minnagara. For a generation or so before the formal proclamation of the dynasty the invaders' stronghold was their capital. to Pliny fXII. were supposed to have flourished. sen.) in price accord- According ing to the size. the It is remains of the radical leaves. 17. as the who finally established 'Western Satraps. at of Vikramaditya of Ujjain. " the brightest geniuses of India. the tude of its first meridian of longi- was a trade center for all produce imported at Barygaza. this expulsion of the misbelieving foreigners" giving rise to the tradition of India.. the when it reverted to Brahman power under King Arthur Gupta Empire . the whose court the nine gems. on both sides of the Vindhyas. then the capital of the great kingdom of Kosala. I. and is sold at . This was the custom also in several subsequent dynasties. It re- mained. " The Maurya empire had broken up. Las- 116. called mesosphaerum. and northwest. aromatic and it is bitter. When the leaves are smaller. 792. at. D. At the time of the Periplus it was no longer a geographers. which Ptolemy describes as the capital of Tiastenos or Chashtana. while it was the principal stage on the route from the Deccan to SravastI. consisting of the larger leaves. for the Sakyamuni' s greatest as the Southern heir-apparent to act as viceroy in the western provinces. which extends eastward from Garhwal and ascends mounted by essential oil. op. VIII. A perennial herb of the alpine Himalaya.. Spikenard: to Nardostachys jatamansi. it is 40 denarii per pound." (Watt. later emperor." or Kshatrapa dynasty. about as thick as the a bundle of reddish-brown fibers. (See Imperial Gazetteer. Here was a Buddhist monastery known Mount. II. 44). Ear/y History. Alexander's successor. called .of the Kasyapa" (one of the According to the division of the Greek geogIndia proper. also XV. as But that which is considered the most valuable of all. 48. ) from the Sanscrit Kasyapamata {"ptohome. The story is given by Herodotus (IV. Rome among which tells the ointments of his day." It and Hecataeus calls 'a the Gandaraeans.) . Justin. Indica. Paropanisus was Hindu Kush. and that of Chandragupta Maurya. it All these varieties of nard have an agreeable odor. I. Vincent Smith (Ear/y but 32) doubts the connection of the name with Kashmir." Greek form of the Sanscrit The same word survives in modern Kashmir. Ixii. Arrian. held the place in 3-5. nounced pamara) raphers. from Gandhara points in the The fact that the Periplus dis- that direction. it while that its outside the present limits of that earlier extension it is not impossible tinguishes was wider." 53' could not have been far above the 15' modern Attock (33° History. 9. (Vincent Smith. Caspapyra. Gandhara was the country below Cabul. Strabo. it at sells 75 denarii per pound. Pliny observes that leaf nard. thus entered into possession of scientific frontier' sighed for in vain by his English successors. C. 20. by which the newly-established Indian empire received the provinces of the Paropanisadae. Arachosia and Gedrosia. and 17th centuries. of the cious. and never held in its entirety even by the Mogul monarchs of the 16th 113. i. Plutarch. is known microsphaerum." valued at box of ointment of spikenard very premore than 300 denarii. Gates of India. 10 and ii. Lassen. The first Indian emperor. It name given the mountain-range was made the boundary between the empire of Seleucus. 288-9. —This is is the Kasyapapura. his that Scylax of Caryanda refers to it began voyage of discovery at the command of the Persian king Darius.). the city of the Kasyapa. Alexander. I.' 189 at 60. Pliny. by a treaty ratified in 303 B. now Aria. Anabasis. XV.) It was from a town named Caspapyra." 132-4. 631. See under § 24: 48. and meaning ' 'previous Buddhas. district. 142. N. 5. 4. and consists of the very smallest of the leaves. See also Holdich. He the place as being city of in the Pactyan land. but old is when ' gathered that most powerful when fresh. alabaster Compare Mark XIV. which . (See Lassen. also. V. VI. or spikenard. 72° E.. If the nard is which is of a black color is considered the first best. more 'that than two thousand years ago. for further references. while Kasyapamata district in was ihe adjoining II. order Legiifor minosa. came from Cantabria in Spain.. from Chalcidice and Crete. its White boats he says came from Lusitania and islands of the Atlantic. Gaz. best sorts were from Campania in Italy. Bright-colored girdles. The Cabolitic country is. itself is it is (XXI. etc. a — Dravidian 101-4. and for cicatriza- in the treatment of ulcers. Bhils. weak This was the region which was successors of Gondophares.— This melilote' ' is Trifilium meliktus. used Pliny making chaplets and perfumes.' 190 48. It form of pipes and sheets. \'III. the modern Cabul above the Khyber Pass." Galicia. still wear a distinctive now. 36. while thin plates of lead a cooling and beneficial worn next the body were supposed to have effect. which it bears sufficiently proves that this plant was formerly much used in the composition of chaplets. It came also from Britain. 29) says the Cape Sunium in Greece. in the jaws and head." And again more fleshy the leaves. with the yolk of an egg. native always in rugged and wild localities. 48. covered with hides. "The name sertula. a related tribe. tion.000 denarii. D. ijmp. IX.' he says. 47-50) lead distinguishes between black lead and white lead. subject to the Parthian princes. 49. and had many medicinal uses. smell. garland. — Pliny (XXXI\'. and in eye preparations. As an import at Barygaza lead was required largely for the coinage of the Saka dominions.degalena. 87). closely resembles that of saffron. —See under § 41. as made into tablets in the antimony (see under as was used this §). who worked the carnelian mines then as The modern Coorgs.) Sweet clover. These were probably for the hill-tribe. whose reign had ended about 51 A. and medicinally. valley. . being within the present limits of Afghanistan. (XXI. the shorter and more highly esteemed. burns. as well as the flower. at and from Lusitania in the —where the Santarensian mine was farmed an annual rental of 250. Lead. 49. being used in calcined form. of course. and his. the of the Greeks and Romans. also The the though the stem white. scription suggests made of osiers. or mixed with grease and an astringent and repressive. doubting its reported origin in and transportation in Black lead. also the former being our lead. the latter tin (see under § 1). too. 49. Lead was used same way wine. effects the cure It assuages pains.. or else linseed. Scythia. "girdle-scarf" which is now made at Sirangala. or sulphide of lead and silver. "the meli- lote applied of diseases of the eyes. silver. about 380 B. For such uses the his II. flowers were added by the painter Pausias. — TibuUus. was used. this custom surviving in the laying of immortelles on tombs of departed friends. to be crowned its without fail. honor of the gods. (XXXIV. the still Manes. Realgar. '*Atque aliquis senior veteres veneratus amores. at Then came the "Egyptian chaplet" of narcissus. and on being carried to the tomb. has on fabrics. the rose chaplet. the Lares. indiscriminately worn. plaited chaplet. and various devices embroidered by hand. tree foliage Originally laurel and other Sicyon. and kinds of swellings or eruptions on the hands. and Pliny sepulchres and the Chaplets were used also in them was forbidden punishment for the offence. ivy. where it is not impossible that production existed at the time of the of arsenic. It and the more powerful odor the better it is . came of nard leaves unguents. and pomegranate blossoms. chaplets were not The use of chaplets by those not entitled to cites several cases of by law. made into use. plain or embossed. or else the plant beaten up raw.' ' " 191 applied with rose oil. or by and gave the victor that ' 'the and for his after death. and Pliny notes that in time there was a demand for chaplets imported from India. principally Periplus. ' On other occasions. 4. Chaplets were won by personal prowess parents. Rome." in the Concerning the use of chaplets Roman world. Annua constructo serta dabit tumulo. and then a durable article of thin laminae of horn. C. itself A decoction of it in wine. for himself in the games. and reached In modern times both realgar India from various Persian Gulf ports. and of leaves of gold. is from Persia and Carmania. and employed with all raisin wine. 1-10). or else of silk of many colors steeped in Such is the pitch to which the luxuriousness of our women ! at last arrived It ' would seem as if this sweet clover might also be intended for the manufacture of chaplets for re-exportation to 49. The chaplet was a crown of honor given the victors in the sacred games. is good for pains in the stomach. of slaves or horses entered by the winner. It was —The text is sandarake. or tinsel. 55) says "the redder its it is the more pure and in quality. while the body was laid out in the house. it is good for pains in the ears. and orpiment are produced in large quantities in Burma and China. right. This the red sulphide Pliny friable. Pliny gives many details (XXI. but its it is most remarkit able for antiseptic properties. Antimony. in medi- Pounded with frankincense and gum. as a cure for burns. it was valued as a cure for various eye irritations. 12. 99j agree in their description of preparation. dried under linen. quenched with milk or wine." dient in the kohl used by while it is the chief ingrePersia." Pliny stone (XXXIII. aureus and denarius were current throughout Western India. astringent. Tavernier also to trade for pepper. . the Lydian queen who capticine. also Rapson. of Khnum- hotep Benihasan (under Sesostris 1900 B. 30. survives in the modern gum sandarac from order Conifem. But its main use was for dilating the pupils and for painting the eyebrows. 122) says was its burned with resin and the smoke inhaled through a tube. produced in Algeria and its rocco. Theophrastus also describes properties. heating. burned in a furnace. was allowed 49. and beaten with rain-water in This being decanted from time to time. and divided into tablets. Omphale.C. The Greek word Callitris guadrivalvis. toilet. in the and is mentioned II. its silver mines. See under § 56. (II. and The wood in this sandarac tree was much valued by the Greeks Romans for furniture. the finest powder a mortar. "a being possessed of astringent principal use. 33-4) describes it as found in made of concrete froth. but this was not meaning in classical times. stibnite. MoThe word is of eastern origin. at an Egyptian inscription II. xii) found vermillion' ' brought by the Dutch 49. was made in into ointments and India and Egypt. Gold and silver coin. is represented by the poet Ion as using stimmi in her Jezebel. IX.— The Roman Indian Coins. in II Kings. being. to settle. the thyine wood' of ' Revelation XVIII. referring apparently to the color. probably used it when she "painted her face and tired her head. white and shining \^ and refrigerative properties. reversing the process in the case of cinnabar (§ 30). its women in modern Egypt and Pliny and Dioscorides (V. being for the eyes. tomb ). and mixed with grease. both in ore. — The It text is stimmi. asthma." vated Hercules. The ore came from Eastern Arabia and Carmania. or bronchitis. and strongly influenced the Kushan and Kshatrapa coinages. as a remedy for coughs. and corrosive.192 is detergent. perhaps. being brought by "Asiatics of the desert. It was enclosed in dough or cow-dung. and was extended from ore to gum because of appearance. This was the sulphide eye-tinctures." Dioscorides (V. III. The text is onychirie lithia kai mourrhine. in deep by three wide. agates are now cut is Cambay.311-315. The pots are then taken About out. cups. was the Arabic article el and the Sanscrit ibhadanta. and was imported.. . cat's eye." which is the word used in Amos. much used for ornamental and decorative purposes. but the industry exists also at JabbalThey are pur and elsewhere within reach of the Deccan trap. two feet dug round the a field. X. which. 'elephant' 'elephant. etc. which was the chief market for that Indian industry. row in the piled. applied first to the ivory and later to the animal. and the darker shades into chestnut. collecting the pebbles the miners divide primary classes — them into two those that are not improved by burning. the end of May the bags are carried to the Narbada and floated to Broach (Barygaza). The pebbles are gathered into earthen pots." 49. maize becomes rosy. V. s/ien From came teeth. 14. carnelian and the like. 561). While that are. 'tooth. this I.fA^. the stones are spread in the sun in an During the hot season. In ancient Egypt this word ibha became abu. and those Of the former there are three rori. for which even the bullion. the stones examined. were largely of agate. seals.z. Agate and carnelian. with their mouths down and a hole broken in their bottoms. generally in March and open field. The word used in I habbin. By this treatment the light browns brighten into white. and came from the Gulf of Cambay. is May. the murrhine vases and other which were so highly prized in Mediterranean countries." the ' word is ibha. are set in Round the pots. . and an intermediate shade becomes a pinkish purple. Can:. being made into brooches. 15. elephant's teeth." which the Hebrews shortened to . The stone is from the amygdaloidal flows of the Deccan trap. due latter to the superiority of the was still crude. to —See also under § 6. All other stones are baked to April. or rather the root form elephantos. and a yellow half-clear pebble called bring out their color. original Ivory-— For references see Lassen. According articles Watt (o^. Then. The most important place at which chiefly from the State of Rajpipla. whence the Roman and Etruscan ebur for ivory. Kings. (copper. and the whole kept burning from sunset to sunrise. cit. rings. 22. and the good ones stowed in bags. goat or cow-dung cakes are trench. The Greek elephas. orange deepens into red. a trench. Of yellows.s 193 The profit on the exchange was Roman coinage to that of India. 49. of base tin metal (bronze or lead). which lead). — on30c. native of the hotter parts of hills India from Nepal eastward to Assam. 8) says that murrhine was Romans after the conquests of Pompey the Great dear. which is the onyx stone" of Genesis 12. —See also under § It 6. stone. Watt (p. clear. westward to The Sanscrit Bombay. in II. and when of large size and good quality are much esteemed.000 ses300. like warts. name pippali was originally given to this plant. order Malvacea. all probability. 49. which reached first the ancient world through the 'land of Havilah" on the Persian Gulf. It was then. says is a perennial shrub. The hue nelian varies from the palest flesh to the deepest blood-red. as now.000 Pliny attributes the vessels to Parthia and of moderate size only. Mallow cloth. are of a deep. like the native cloth is made by drill. and southward to Travancore and Ceylon. supposed to be of a moist substance. an agreeable taste They occasion- contained crystals. and depressed spots that looked and smell. was fabulously valued at T. the The best and even red esteemed. Linn. p. and had only such information. seldom as large as a terces for a single cup. as the Parthians offered them. Carmania. Silk cloth. They were drinking-cup.— See under §§ 49 and 64. This burning of agates is fully described by Barbosa in 1517. which imitated by the Hibiscus modern blue was dyed with the flowers is of Rosa-Sinensis. often misleading. while Nero himself paid 1. it suggests agate more than any other substance.194 Pebbles in which cloudy browns and yellows were first mixed are now of the red car- marked by clear bands of white and red. an ancient Dravidian tribe which may formerly have possessed the Cambay coast. presenting shades of purple and white. the Khasia and Bengal. 49. the East African negroes. 7. known that to it in Asia. but had been driven to the hills by later invaders. This was a coarse fabric. It is this product. 629. color.. solidified by heat under ground. and only . having a great variety of wreathed veins. with fiery red between. Long pepper it : Pz>«r/on^z^ffz. with brilliant. a shrub which native throughout India and China. chiefly the industry of the Bhils. order P/>fra«^. 49. Petronius having broken one of Nero's basins sesterces. The larger and thicker the more it is White carnelians are scarce.000. ally Others were quite opaque. shining rather than colors. and seems to be of very ancient date. See Watt. They were said to have While Pliny's description is not very definite. 891). and the reference to Parthia and Carmania rather than to the Gulf of Cambay means that until the Romans discovered the sea-route to India they were dependent on the Parthian trade-routes for their Eastern treasures. the Pliny CXXXVII. SO. Greek and Roman India. The great powers of India were the Kushan in the far northwest. except to note the change in their oppressors... —This is the Sanscrit dah/iinapat/ias. 21-3. inscriptions of the 2d century B. Maurya in the Ganges watershed. 7) as well as the Periplus. This is the modern on the Godaveri River (19° 28' N. resources and industries. It was made up of village communities. it is Many populous — not unlikely that the population of the peninsula was as great in that period as in our own. and the least powerful politically. 75° 24' E. see Pliny. the richest in natural resources and production. The the sun." If this view is correct. the south. fruit is The mentioned by Pliny (XII. 294-306. at Dhanyakataka. D.195 within comparatively recent times was transferred to black pepper. the most highly organized socially. Petenikas. which recognized the military power only so far and they were relatively unconcerned as they were compelled to do so the Saka in the Cambay country. the seat of the Andhra monarchs having been in the eastern part of the kingdom. the remains of the . gathered when green." Prakrit dakkhindbadha: modern Deccan. in the Pitalkhara Ptolemy mencaves refer to the king and merchants of Pratisthana. C. and. The economic status of the country made it impossible that any one of these should possess political force commensurate with its population. ) . the most wretched in the poverty of its teeming millions. Paithan is one Asoka sent missionaries to the of the oldest cities in the Deccan. the most active industrially and commercially. An interesting account is given by T. VI. Paethana: Sanscrit. India was the most populous region of the world at the time of the Periplus. tions it as the capital of Pulumayi II. 80° 22' K). Paithan. the modern Dharanikotta. was probably the capital of the western provinces. pp. C. His conclusion is that "the Greek invader found there an ancient and highly organized society. According to the Imperial Gazetteer (XIX. in dynastic changes. on the Kistna river just but it above Amaravati (16° 34' N. as it was the most cultivated. and although there are no means of verifying the conjecture. the Andhra king (138-170 A.). Pandya and Chola in the South. . "the the way toward 50. in the Anglo-American Magazine for 1901. Pratisthana. differing little in its usages and modes of living from those which exist at the present time. the Andhra in the Deccan. 317). 51. and the Chera. For a contemporary account of the nations of India. Long pepper is. Dachinabades. and is preserved by drying in dried unripe fruit and the root have long been used in medicine. nations. Evans. xxiii. The 19' by Fleet with the modern Ter (Thair) (18° N. travel. 79° 44' E. in Journal of Sir the Royal Asiatic 1901. and Daulatabad. H. ). and you only see oxen and pack-horses for the conveyance of men.196 According textile industry. and at " less cost. F. Fleet. in Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency xvi. J. substantially with the distance and direction given in the is From Broach to Paithan the actual distance. as suggested its in § 52. through the tains. by road. and for the transport of goods and merchandise. for one is carried much more easily. and proceeding through Ter. and the second from Vinukonda fl6° 3' N. being a contraction of Tayara. 195. the It is g and y being frequently interchanged. being 20 and 9 days' respectively. and was at Calliena in Bombay Harbor. over the 100 miles to Broach. 82.) 51. 181. But in default of chariots. says of the Dec- can (I. Tagara: Ter. To-day Almost all retains a considerable manufacture of cot- traces of the ancient city are said to have disappeared. Here the main difficulties began. p. joining about 25 miles southeast of of Bengal. 537-552. 51. about 95 miles southeast of Paithan.. through the Western Ghats. 1902-3. to mounSo- Barygaza. and agrees text. natural terminus This was the great highway of the Andhra kingdom. 76° E. James Campbell.. . II. (See ciety. . tanks. to about 240 miles. Archaeological Survey of India. place is D. There are said to be some very merchandise from the regions interesting remains of the ancient city. appear- ing in several records betwreen the 6th and 10th centuries A. The obstruction of that port by the Saka power in Gujarat forced the tedious overland extension of the route. but from the Bay and Fleet traces briefly the routes the first starting at Masulipatam (16° 11' N. Imperial Gazetteer. . more quickly. I was obliged you have the convenience of much larger palanquins than in the rest of India. Annual Report. xi) wheel carriages do not difficult passes. identified 9' —The Sanscrit name had the same form. As pointed out by Campbell. Cousens. to the Periplus. It is —Tavernier and rivers. Ter 104 miles. pp. ). Xagara. it Paithan was an important center of the ton and silk. Paithan. 81° 8' E. ). Country without roads. — Haidarabad. and from Paithan journey of 12 miles. the along the sea-coast" was not from the west coast. and there being difficulty that many narrow and one takes a small with the greatest to take mine to pieces frequently in order to pass bad places. cart. to Markinda (in the Ajanta Hills). the roads being' too much interrupted by high mountains. There are no wagons. 284. who subsequently defeated the Andhras and annexed the Konkan coast. only to lose it to the .. Cosmas Indicopleustes. the in a former birth. D. C." and is at least reminiscent names on the western shores of the Erythraean Sea. and articles of See Imp. with varying success. in brass. (The text has Sandanes and Mambarus. Some Buddhist writings assert a few miles north of that Gautama Buddha.. 73° on the eastern shore of the harbor of Bombay. reconquered the coast-land. found it one of the five chief marts of Western India. with a trade clothing. ) Here are three important references. It was the principal port of the Andhra kingdom during the periods when it held According to Lassen. was Bodhisattva of Sopara. roughly between 18° and 20° N. is Calliena. 52. It is said to have been the capital of the Konkan between 500 B. Gaz. The western coast below the Vindhyas was a bone Bengal states of contention between the Saka archs. still largely used in India. or Saka Satraps. The provinces of Surashtra. both for fixing the date of the Periplus and for throwing light The tury B. Mauryas went to pieces in the 2d cenits C. commanders and at least the Andhra mon- who maintained the feud for a century. The ence as before. 87. roughly the modern Nizam's dominions.. and 1300 A. See Imp. Suppara. 72° Bombay. 41' E. in the 6th century A. valleys of the the Andhra country in the Deccan. dating A half-century later from 78 A. the name was also applied to the west coast. XXIII. the Saka and Kushan tribes. 10' E. Gaz. had resumed their local governments. D. were incorporated under a stable government by the Western Kshatrapa. . the capital of the powerful Chalukya kings. or Gautamlthe . the strip of coast on either side of the harbor. This is thought to have been the origin of the Saka era. D. as a very holy place. blackwood logs. Gujarat and Malwa. XIV. ). 322. putra Satakarni. added The elder Saraganus Sandares. of The word similar 52.. after years of warfare. Andhras under Vilivayakura II. Telugu peoples.197 52. In the south the other Dravidian kingdoms. retained their independNorth of the Vindhyas there was anarchy. kalyana means "blest.—This modem Kalyana (19° 14' N. leaving as its strongest successor Dravidian element. to which should be Nambanus of § 41. which comprised the the Godaverl and Kistna. great empire of the on a dark period of Indian history..—This is the modem Sopara (19° 25' N. the Tamil-speaking Cholas. while the West and Northwest had succumbed to the Asiatic invaders. It appears in the Mahahharata as Shurparaka. Pandyas and Cheras. ). whose short reign of a year.. he must be supposed to have closed. 7-15. and this supposed to be the Saraganus of § 52 (probably Arishta Satakarni. and the materials are not yet at hand for affirming. This is thought to be the same as the Mamharus of § 41. the least Nahapana. Calliena. D. these facts has been supposed that the Periplus this must be dated in the same year. 41 is Arabian. D. is who probably the same as Sundara Satakarni. The inference is unmistakable that the Periplus recognition of the Kshatrapa is. borne by many of these monarchs. it must yet be shown the same as the great satrap whose victories over the Andhras and conquest of the Konkan are cited as one of the numer- ous events thought to be commemorated by the Saka era of 78 A. D. which. but harried and dominated. "obstructed" as . succeeded by another of six months. D. At one predecessor. in that of the Satraps. his own port. pp. D. From 46 years. gaza. must have done this. an Andhra demonarch. be it observed. or denying. kings are enumerated in the Puranas. the Andhra was still "in his possession. D.). the port of his Saka rival and bitter for the port pendency. 83-4 A. formerly thought to be identical with that now been distinguished under the name of Bhumaka. and upon ample evidence 60 A. is affirmed by at least two of the Puranas. was reigned about 44-69 A. for Satraps after another generation. w)\i\& Sandancs Satakarni. in order that foreign trade might be diverted to Bary- enemy! He. monarch named Nahapana. though evidently not effectually." not.198 the Saka era of 78 A. but Its does not necessarily date is considered in the introduction. to- gether with the coinage. is describing a its state of things prior to the power and annexation of the Andhra coast. itself From follow. If —Roman. still A. has possibility of others. by whom the line of the Satraps was established. whose name should be written Nambanus. there are coins of a The Andhra ing them. D. the It describes clearly enough an Andhra subject to Andhra kingdom. And is if Sandares of § 52 is the same as Sundara Satakarni. prior. that to the Saka era of 78 port. and Parthian — is fixed at Nambanus that he is of § the same as Nahapana. afford almost the only information concern- A dynastic is name. there a great difficulty in the way its of identifying the Periplus with the single year of his reign. to The fixed reign of this Sundara (the text should be altered at Sandares) is by Vincent Smith and others it 83-4 A. in the so-called Kshaharata line which preceded the achievements of the Satraps. The Konkans were still nominally. at now that artistic it is on the throne and his sons have tried their hand the viceroy's post other. and ports. followed by Siva Satakarni. 1 year. of then. a succession of events like the reigns of the sons of Henry II. 6 months. him a long period of waiting as one of which. therefore. who is was satrap at Ujjeni. was his predecessor. Nahapana and Sundara? The doubt as to the as to the latter. followed in their turn by another long reign of sterner purpose . still struggling to obtain possession." and who. and Catherine de Barygaza he Medici in France. indivisibility of the former has already been suggested. coming between two long ones. has been an easy matter its for our to send down his ships and stop trade. or 124 A.. according to the Andhra custom. itismoreprobable thatoneof thatnameinoO A. reigns. Mandalaka. he When at (now ruling at Dhanyakataka) was viceroy made Calliena an active port. 5 years. D. 5 years. by the powerful navy of its northern enemy. one after the and it has been turned over Saka general to young Sandares. seem to suggest a quick succession of weak and impractical sons of a strong monarch. have been governor Surashtra before he . The same known to explanation is perfectly feasible for in Nahapana. "Since came into the possession of Sandares" indicates." Had said. This would account for the condition described to at : the author of the Periplus by some acquaintance the old king Saraganus Paethana. a more powerful ruler than the youthful Sandares. a date toas as ward the end of the reign of Arishta Satakarni. and Chakora. at least in part. But as the great satrap lived until the Saka year 46. and the length of that of his predecessor the shortness of his Arishta (25 years) indicate for the royal heirs. Then came Sundara. D. now struggling against greater odds to maintain the Andhra power on that coast." 199 the text has it. was spent. These live short 28 years. D. while that enemy was What.. exercised to all the functions of a monarch. Paithan. viceroy at Paithan. who is referred to the elder Saraganus. it maybe inferred. own reign and those of his successor and his immediate predecessors. Purindrasena. Between Arishta and Sundara the Vayu and Matsya Puranas are Hala (with whose name the adoption of Sanscrit as the literary language of Northern India is so agreed in placing three other monarchs: closely associated). had been. the story been written in 83 A. in the intervals of their literary finally and pursuits. Here he as viceroy at the western capital. who reigned 5 years. and his would be the all name it appear on proclamations issued on the western coast. the informant would have "our closed satrap has its annexed that country to his own dominions. Coins of the Andhra Dynasty. ruling as viceroy at Paithan. July-Aug. Rapson. The Western Andhra History and in Xeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenl'dnd- ischen Gesellschaft. compiled much later. in A. See also Cunningham. p. — Pandit Bhagvanlallndraji. D. Boyer. J. explanation based on the Puranic lists and the coinage has is inherent probability. an excellent paper. in NuS. (See A. in Journal of the Royal Asiatic 1890. British Museum. and refers to the Ariake Sadinon of Ptolemy. Society. the IVestem . and Kshatrapa the heir-apparVincent Smith. —Vincent Smith. p. 1899. the modern Chaul (18° 34' N. matter for criticism should be thought sinian is that the inscriptions of the Nabataean Malichas less trustworthy than the chronology of the Abys- Chronicles. two titles. and displaying in the Konkans the only show of Andhra authority which would have come under the observation of a Graeco-Roman merchant and shipmaster. The Chronology of India from the Earliest Times Beginning of the 16th Century. 190. ). B. the Duff.. Rapson. pp. Proposed identification the of the name of an Andhra king Asiatic Society of Bengal. Col. Biddulph. 357-404. except as to their sequel. about 25 miles south of Bombay. also J. \n Journal A siatique. Wilson. etc. through the medium of his heir-presumptive Sundara. supposing him to have been an Indo-Parthian successor to Gondophares. Catalogue of the Coins in the Indian Museum. in the Periplus. The But neither supposition is convincing. S.. observes that our knowledge of the Satraps derived solely from their coins. R. J. R.200 There alters are other explanations of these three names. 639-662.) 53. Sept. Nahapdna et F ere Qaka. June. McCrindle thinks Sandanes was a tribe-name. 1904. —This is the Symulla of Ptolemy. — Calcutta. ent. the Chimolo of Yuan Chwang. 1897. in Journal of with which the foregoing suggestions are in accord. pp. of s which the former that of the are undated his . a note to Mr. Book of to Indian Eras. that the dates overlap frequently. — E.-M. Kshatrapas. in his Early History. in which the only . The Coinage of the Mahdkshatrapas and Kshatrapas. 227. and confirmed by the description of if political conditions in § 52 of the Periplus. 120-151. Mahakshatrapa indicates the monarch. 1903. Kshatrapas. Chronology of Andhra Dynasty.).. Semylla. Ancient India. mismatic Supplement. Fabricius both Mambarus and Sandanes to Sanabares. that each ruler puts his father' name on and his coins as well as own. 72° 55' E. same author. — EJ. 1904 . the Saimur of the early Mohammedan travellers. Rapson' s is first article. The ancient Hindu name was Champavati. — C. A. the that be applied to the reign of Andhra king Arishta Satakarni (44-69 A.. J. Coinage. and was con- . being the principal port of the South turies ports.. Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediceval India. is 310. so Vincent. probably the modern Vizadrog (Sanscrit. X... but there It is .). the — which lies at the head of a tidal creek. The same name appears in the Male of Cosmas and our Malabar. (Nundo Lai Dey. Palaepatmae. Malaya-giri.. (S^e McCrindle. 16° 33' N." while Pari was a general term applying to the Western Vindhya mountains and the coast south of them. 161. the Melixegyris of JPtplemy. Lassen 6) assumes is to have been a colony of Byzantine Greeks. 73° 31' E. described as "a safe and beautiful landlocked .) This hills. 73° E. ar. It is not impossible that it may be the modern Rajapur (16° 34' N. ).) ) 201 nected with the reign Ancient India.) Palapatmce is The name suffix probably the Sanscrit Pdripatana — the meaning town. Vijayadurga. 53. —This probably the modern Dabhol (17° the Sanscrit Dahhileshwar. I..) S. 53. it —This is evidently a corruption. but now little more than a fishing-village. but in former times was a great center for the trade in teak and blackwood. though vessels of any size cannot approach within three miles of the old stone quay. the name being from Konkan. 184. 100. and for shipbuilding. From the 14th to the 16th cen- had an extensive trade with the Persian Gulf and Red Sea Here is the underground temple of Chandikabai. Melizigara.. western coast. I. VI. dating from the 6th century. Miiller. . (III.) This is placed by Miiller and McCrindle at 53.).^ (In Ptolemy the positions of 53. 383. and the following port is reversed. Byzantium. 73° 22' E.. a name it It is of considerable historical importance. Miiller and McCrindle. of Siva. of Krishna in Gujarat. Gaz. 73° 10' E. 295. 295. Gaz. XI. described as being one of the best harbors on the {. Togarum. formerly a port of some size. 68. 35' N. (See Imp.. —This ) probably the modern Devgarh (16° 23' N. and is the only port ohi this i Ratnagiri coast to which Arab boats still trade direct. . 72° 13' E.. Miiller. Gaz. q. Malaya name which covered the southern part of the Western Ghats. not the slightest evidence of the existence of such a colony. Ump. XIII. Imp. Gaz. modern Jaigarh (17° 17' N.—This is probably the modern 3' Banket ( '^ 17° 59' closed N. XXI. monsoon.) Mandagora... at the mouth of the Savitri Riyv^It is it rlT^^po'^ during the W.) The name this suggests the Sanscrit 4^<?. XXIV. 73° 20' E." a is the Sigerus of Pliny — . Ga%. now a fisliing village of no im- portance. The name seems to suggest the Sanscrit. 66. ). 379. 53.za'ara-^zV/. (See 7»2>.Imp. Ga%. Vengurla Rocks (15° Islands of the Sesecrienae. the roadstead of probably the Oyster islands of west of. at all times perfectly smooth. Ga%. ). ). and then they form call there go forth every year what they a sea cordon. 53. 307. the present Portuguese possession. XII. coast..Xl. cardamoms. XVII. cassia. more than a hundred corsair vessels on cruise. 74° 10' E.. which would have a similar meaning. 74 0' —This is perhaps the island of It Goa is (15 E. The average depth of water is 18 feet." 53. Gaz. Miiller text has initial it and McCrindle.. and stay out the whole summer. exporting fine muslins from Hubli and elsewhere in the interior. of historical importance.) salt The name Malvan is a contraction of Maha-lavana. 3' N. " (See Imp. — Alarco Polo (III. 251. but the location is The we assume the order in the text to be wrong. 20 N. and an active port as late as the 16th century. The ilmp. instead of Aurannoboas.) says of this Pirates. Karwar point. a group of rocky islets some 3 milfs in length and 9 miles out from the modern town of Vengurla. no doubt a corruption. so Aluller and McCrindle. following Yule.. is Island of the Caenitae.— This Rocks (14°49'N. entrance. "peninsula. — The It is a T J. good ore being found in the neighborhood. (^Imp.) identify it Imperial Gazetteer.. a cluster facing. iron McCrindle places at the modern Malvan (16° place of considerable importance.nS. Gaz. These are probably the 53' N. {Imp..) 202 harbor. J . and Karwar. xxv).. 70° 27' E. 73° 28' E. and the Greek Aurannoboas is perhaps intended for the Sanscrit Aranya-vaha. Chersonesus. 96. Gaz. — 53. only 3 cables in width... This answers for the projecting point at the from early times a trade modern Karwar (14° 49' N. SO Vincent. Island of the Aegidii." 53. Their method is to join in fleets of 20 or 30 of these pirate vessels together. ). 74° 4' E. also pepper. they drop off till there is an interval of 5 or 6 . center for the North Kanara. lies close to the fort point. is To the Marathas an is island in the harbor in the chief shrine. XV. and coarse blue dungar'i cloth. Sivajl' s cenotaph.— Greek.). prefers to with Anjidiv (14° 45' N. and his image worshipped marsh. . that is. (Imp. having been settled by Aryans at an early date. XXIV. and to refer to the grouping of this and the following island on either less satisfactory unless side of the 53.).. 74° 8' E. and appearing in the Puranas. These pii'ates take with them their wives and children. 65. which was a port of considerable importance during the Dutch occupation in the 17th century.) 53. {Imp. either side of the seems clear that a long stretch of coast on modern Goa was given a wide berth by foreign merchant-ships because of the of its piratical habits people. Muziris and Nelcynda. at Calicut. saying. it was due bound. abounds in white coral is and lime. 26). fall ! sights a vessel a signal is then the whole of them make for this. Sivajl replied to the pleadings of an English embassy. were a nest of pirates from a very ancient date until well into the 19th century. Island. so we have right to all your goods. and was stripped to the drawers. to wit. that they don' Still mishaps do befall them at times. (III. Gaz. will to us also But now the merchants are aware of this. and no merchant ship can escape them. so that they cover something like a hundred miles of sea. was ' But all if a ship came bound it originally to the place they receive with honor and give protection. the first markets of Damirica. and with such great ships. This is probably the modern Pigeon 74° 16' E.. that if a ship be driven it by stress of it weather into some other port than that to which sure to be plundered. It lies about about 300 feet high. having been bound for some other port. Yule observes. And this naughty custom prevails all over the provinces of India. In 1673. Abd-er-Razzak notes the same practices 53. made by fire or smoke. The northern part of Malabar. For when any one corsair plunder them. and because it produced no cargo of which they were in search. that ! it was against the laws of Conchon" (Ptolemy's ' Pirate Coast ) "to restore any ship or goods that were driven ashore. And they think it is no sin to act thus. visible for 25 miles. White 1' Island (14° N. they seize her and plunder For they say." fear the corsairs. and go so well manned and armed. these two have . the cargo. and that them mayhap go. and is — 10 miles It off the coast. . Yule notes.). and may It be the Nitra of Ptolemy. Naura and Tyndis. also known as Nitran. 136. and God has sent you hither to us. XX. 'tis if says xxiv) of the kingdom of Ely (near any ship enters their estuary and anchors there. Ibn Batuta fell into the pirates' hands. and the Southern Konkan. the stronghold of the pirates. You were bound for somewhere else.' ' ' t 203 miles between ship and ship. 53. Marco Polo Mangalore). and and seize the merchants and let After they have plundered them they get 'Go along with you and ' more gain. Kanara.) This probably the same as the Nitrias of Pliny (VI. In this same vicinity. when their occupation was destroyed by the British arms. Like the following ports. who threatened the Roman merchants. Dr. in the The infer- ence from the few words Periplus is that the South Konkan districts were those more particularly infested by pirates. pp. the Malayalam language is now spoken. and Travancore. and Satiya.. The latter place is known to have been an active port in the days of the and has yielded one of the most important finds in coins. is not in accord with the facts. within the four districts into : . name the Maurya and Pallava modern Cannanore would that answer equally The location of Tyndis. " and may be identified with the modern Ponnani N. These may be identified with the Satiya kingdom of Asoka' s inscripThe Tamil ports. Naura being then in North Malabar. as well as the petty while from similarity of well. 75° 22' E. within the modern districts of Malabar. which drains a rich section of the western mountains known as the Anaimalai Hills. of the It is Chera kingdom. may be identified with the 52' modern Cannanore (11° N. ) distance inland. others on the west coast. 2d Rock Edict of Asoka. Kerala did not extend north of the Chandragiri river (12° 36' N. all according to the Imperial Gazetteer is (XX. Pandya. produced there. p. navigable for small vessels some E. and carries down large . lay within the region where tions. rather than his Damirua. was held by the Pandya kingdom. ). .'75° 49 on the north bank of the river of the same name. This place lying at the mouth of the river of the same name.. ). are (Vincent Smith. while a tempting one. Smith thinks {Early History. 164).204 been placed too and Kanara far north by most of the commentators. as well as for the beryls of the Coimbatore This Ponnani unlike nearly for river. 340-1) that 115). of the reigns of Tiberius. E.). Calicut. Burnell prefers Kadalundi near Beypore (11° 11' N. It Roman trade. which is also navigable to the foot of the mountains. 75° 56' would have been a natural terminus for the pepper district. owing to Honavar lies the similarity of names. Mr.. at the time of the Periplus. rather within the strip of coast which was in dispute between the Andhra and Saka princes. Claudius and Nero. dynasties. Asoka. Cochin. Kerala. India of Roman seems clear that the identification of this place with the modern Honavar (14° 17' N. districts The Tulu. depends on (10° 48' of Muziris. that is. Kanarese and Telugu seem to be within our author's Dachinabades These four ports probably lay respectively which the Portuguese and Dutch found Cannanore. 74° 27' E. The all' four named in the Tamil states. strictly speaking. 164. Cochin and Trathe Kerala kingdom divided vancore of which the last-named.). Chola. described as a village in plain sight on the shore. w^hich as Kodungalur or Cranga- 14' N. situated close to Cranganore. Ga%. it Parur a busy trading center. and of which Mangalore is the The name of Kerala is still well remembered and there is center. . the Kingdom Konkans or lowlands between the Western Ghats and the sea where the Tulu language is spoken. VIII. It is said to comprise almost Jews first in Travancore and the settlement may date from the end is of the century." that is. 53. the — that is. contemporary with the Periplus. as well as the headquarters of the district. Vincent Smith {Early History 340-1) is confident that Maziris and Cranganore are the same. and since the Chandragiri Satiyaputra always been regarded as the northern boundary of that province. 76° 15' into the (XX. which represents Muziris.. when it known that there was a considerable Jewish migration to Southern India. Damirica means the country of the Tamils. Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Muziris. menthe — should probably be identified with that portion of tioned by Pliny and the author of the Periplus at the end of the first century A. have retained. Parur or Paravur (10° 10' N. 53. almost as Dimirike. The ancient capital was Vanji.) But the distance of 500 stadia between Tyndis and Muziris indicates Ponnani. known was in their own records as Dravida-desam.—The ." Vanji. the port for the pepper trade. at the modern where the Periyar River empties is still 21). Caldwell and Yule nore (10° times. He says The Kingdom of Satiyaputra river has must have adjoined Keralaputra. Muziris and Nelcynda placed them and Nileshwar (12° 52' N. While now in the district of Travancore. no doubt that the Kingdom so called was equivalent to the Southern Konkans or Malabar coast. including particu- Chera. D. accordingto the /OT/J^r/WGazrftor must be placed E. Qmp... also named Karuvur. formerly belonged to all Cochin. ). the Southfirst ern Dravidians as they existed in the larly the century. location of this port fixed by Burnell. or in other Roman correct accounts of and is clearly a corruption caused by the its scribe's confusing the Greek D and L. and 12° 16' Mangalore earlier identification of The at . in The name Ptolemy appears in form in the Xllth segment of the Peutinger Tables. 17. ). which previous in editions does not appear it India. the Karoura of Ptolemy. The That name it. was an important port in mediaeval Their argument was based on the 7000 stadia named in the as the distance between Barygaza and Damirica. to Chera or Kerala.— 205 quantities of timber. 76° 11' E. text at Muyiri-kotta. and there seems and no good reason for perpetuating the mistake. Danurica. Cochin back-waters. 74° 51' E. — text has Limyrike.. 206 . and is entirely impossible forNelcynda. This port. geography and politics of the Tamil kingdoms. according to the Feriplus. .. \'ol. Asia. which certainly never extended so far north. belonged to the Pandyan kingdom. 7/6-50 The Cochin Backwaters: from Rectus. E ofG . 75° 8' E.207 This conflicts with nearly all that we know of the N. III. j.12 Miles. eastern coast. opposite Kcralaputra." a name of Melkynda. a group of islands affords adequate shelter from the open sea. 53. leaving Kerala nearly coterminous with modern Malabar and Cochin districts. 'The singularly devoid of indentations. the Pandyan kingdom. while the southern end had passed to its neighbor. ' 'by river 500 stadia. from Cranganore. importance. Nelcynda. 1). or Parur. a little The only harbors except for light-draft vessels. are found way up the deltas of the chief rivers. however. or lagoons. ' 54. fers Xelcynda. sand-bars and islands. which he translates Western Kingdom. which in its greatest extension reached from Cape Comorin to Karwar Point. text tells us that Muziris was distant from Tyndis. Bains (AliU's International Geography. It was probably in the backwaters. the exact location being uncertain because of the frequent shifting of river-beds. Nincylda by the Peutinger Tables. nearly 7 degrees of latitude. j. The capital was at Karur. —This is a transliteration of Ch'eraputra or Tamil kingdom.. but cer9° 36' N. 160). and affording a safe and convenient waterway for small vessels when the season of high winds makes the ocean unnavigable. is The provided with little more than a few imperfectly protected roadsteads. 76° 14' E. and Nilcinna by the Geographer of Ravenna. or thoroughfares. a center of the whose church here and is still one of the most ancient on the west coast. —This port is called the city of the Neacyndi.' 208 The and sea. Syrian Christian community. routes from the Pirmed It is also the natural terminus for the tradea trade-center of considerable hills. is the Sanscrit 'blue neck. At the time of the Periplus the northern part had separated. p. 76° 31' E." and Nelcynda from Muziris. Melkynda by Ptolemy.XVI. . parallel with the coast. according to the Imperial Gazetteer (. coast is The southern portion of the west distinguished by a series of back-waters.. Cyncilim by Friar Odoric. sea. pre" is A 469). stadia. in particular. 1907 coast-line is ed. the western Muziris or Cranganore. Fabricius thinks (p. good account of the topography of the coasts of India J. is is Kottayam. by river and 500 " This can hardly refer to anything but the Cochin backwaters. given by A. Cheraputra brothers is son of Chera^" one of the legendarj' three in who founded the Dravidian power South India. Siva. Cerobothra. Caldwell. . by Pliny. The name Nilakantha. as at Bombay. except at the mouths of the larger rivers and toward the northern portion of the west coast. ). or 50 miles. which tainly very near the modern Kottayam ( is exactly 500 stadia. behind Cochin (9° 58' N. or where. down K. R. South Indian Palceog- Pandian. Padmanabha Menon. Early Chap. in J. Indische Paltsographie. word as the name of a king was incorrect. — Fleet. Vols.. A. Imperial Gaxetteer. i. the 6th century —Francis Day. The Pandyas. —Shanguni Menon. 1. Notes Society. 1879. II. Kielthe Archaeological Survey. in Epigraphia Indica. on the further bank of removed by them if they are satisfied with the exchange. introduction. C. P. Vol. states growing out of the original establishment at Korkai. History of Travancore. South Indian Inscriptions. 146.. — Biihler. — to Elliot. 1884. 22): their accounts agreed with the reports of our tell own merchants. see Vincent Smith. largely in native Dravidian craft. as shipped from India to Adulis. and Bhandarkar. silent trade. . B. is referred under § 65. and generally. iii. his Grundriss der Indo-Arischcn Philologie und Altertumskunde. The and Sketch in Journalofthe Ch'eras. The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts. Pausanias and Cosmas Indicopleustes (book II)- (III. Civilization Sir the in pp. of Inscriptions. v. Lists Southern India. on /Malabar and its place-names. Indian Ullage Folk. 20). —In these protected thoroughfares flourished a sea-trade. p. iv. " noted by Fa-Hien in Ceylon itself. inclusive. Coins of Tinnevelly Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency I. It is quite possible that Chera is also meant by this Pliny's Seres of XXXIV. in Loventhal. — Indian Antiquary. — horn. 54. Dates of Chola and Pandya Kings. For further references to Chera and the other Tamil History. 1902. S. Aug. The of 1-10. iii. . of J. are by the Seres. Abounds in ships. — —Wilson. The Chera backwaters seem to be referred to by Pliny in a debated passage on the trade of Ceylon with the "Seres" (VI. and again by Pliny (VI. but in the Persian Gulf. Grammar of the Dravidian Languages. also History Tinnevelly. the Ch and 5 being interchanged. Sewell. The — Walter Dakhan —Foulkes. LandofthePermauls. xii. Early History of the Dekkan. Coins of Southern India B. 3). which was of early creation and of great influence in the interchange of ideas as well as commodities. Madras. being a product of Haidarabad. — Caldwell. The to See also under Sarapis." Here Seres must be read as meaning Chera. in of the Dynasties of F. Royal Asiatic viii. —Dawson. Chaps. it and is also a dynastic name or royal title. . 209 Pliny's use of the applies to the country. who us that the wares which they deposit near those brought for sale a river in their country. xvi. ii. — Burnell. who sent the best iron to Rome. in Indian Antiquary. ix. 41. IV-VIII. raphy. not only in South India. 199. just as the neighboring Chola kingdom is always Soli in Sinhalese records. and referred to in § 6 of the Periplus.— . — — Hultzsch. 334. with which the trade was prinBoth Buddhist and Brahman writings testify to its existence in the 5th century B. C. and were largely sought by foreign merchants. from a relief on a sarcophagus in the Lateran Museum. . kingdoms. or KharosthI. and the coasts of Arabia and Africa.) elsewhere. as the articles of trade were from foreign. and to date from about 1000 B." (Vincent Smith. in Imp. the and the pepper of Malabar were not to be had C. The pearls of the Gulf of Manar. sources. completely secluded from and in touch with the outer world only through the Northern medium of maritime commerce. Hindu Period of Southern India. or Phoenician) original. but their evidence is late. safety ber\ls of Coimbatore. evidence given by the Dravidian alphabet. an inland race. error is The text has Ariaca. and not Hindu. alphabet was formu- lated after the conquest.210 Merchant-ship of the 2d century. cipally maintained. supposed to be from a Semitic (Himyaritic. j "Sent from Arabia and by the Greeks" were the ships found by our author in the Chera baci<waters. Sewell. No Aryan language had penetrated into these which lived their own life. C. whereas the Aryan. C. . Gaz. which had been conducted with from very early times. . activities who appeared Better South India after is its had been widely developed. . but the obvious. as early as the 7th or 8th century B. 322. about 500 B. (R. II. EarhHistory. India. as they are the product of the in Northern Aryans. whereupon the King makes himself responsible even for their property which they leave in the open unprotected. Travancore. There is an official who sits in his office.. Bacafe. ) can be no other than Porakad (9° 22' N. as in the Chera kingdom. The trees And when they have ' they place it in sauce-pans and pour boiling water over it it. 78° 7' E. that is all man can go out of his house because of the is sun. Here too. Pandian kingdom. turns black. When merchants come to them from distant lands and enter the harbour. it Then they take out of the water and ginger and dry it in the sun. an inlet of the sea. all Then they go forth and kindle lights in the market places and the streets. at This place. —This was Pandya. gives the following this coast: Thence sons of Cush. Tamil the southernmost. at extended beyound the Ghats and included Korkai (the Colchi of § 59. for the heat in that country intense. distant 120 stadia from Nelcynda. For they have to turn night into day in consequence of the great heat of the sun.211 Benjamin of Tudela. . and the owner of any lost property has only to describe it to him when he hands it back. three of the King's secretaries go down to them and record their names and then bring them before the King. while the distance from Kottayam Porakad was once a notable port. everybody remains in his all and from the third hour house until evening. may become and strong. of the city is They as plant the trees thereof in the and each man knows his are small collected so that it and the pepper it as white snow. which is perhaps the preferable reading. and then do their work and business at night-time. built a few miles farther north after a canal had been cut exactly in accord with the text. originally at The 55. — (Ptolemy ) gives Barkare. not as the name of any king. This custom preare honest in vails who in all that country.. account of trade on in the 12th century. fields. and traditionally the earliest. of the three districts states. for which is it a close transliteration. during the summer. are the read the stars and are all black in color. is seven days' journey to Khulam (Quilon) which These is the beginning of the country of the Sun-worshippers. the name is used for the country and as a dynastic title. They commerce. Cinnamon and many other kinds of spices are found in this land. which see) had been removed to Madura (9° 55' N. capital. no From Passover to New Year." 54. Pepper is found there. of the day onward. 76° is 22' E.). own plantation. Roughly it coincided with the modern the time of the Periplus it of Tinnevelly and Madura. but declined with the rise of AUeppey. and the location of the inlets. mentioned as on the Tropina (Tripontari) now on the mainland side of the backwaters. —The increase is in the size of shipping follow- ing the discovery of Hippalus referred to also in § 10. which led to the formation of new islands.) Here also is the mouth of the Achenkoil river. 241. in his edition of Tavernier. C. houses water. sea-coast" the town of 56. Ptolemy's three shore towns between Muziris and Barkare are likewise on the land side. and by Tavernier (1648) The sea. (^Imp. the settlements were nearly east of the backwaters at the Christian era. Pliny speaks . middle ages there was a period of elevation. the main highway between TravanAccording to core and Tinnevelly. according to local tradi- tion. XX. . Porakad. and subsequently the Dutch. During the and the present beaches existed only as tide-shoals. Large ships. built at .212 throuijh from sea to backwater and harbor works constructed. which rises in the Ghats near the Shencottah pass. It is had settlements as Porcai. mentioned by Varthema (1503) as Porca. the sea reached the hills. 188.. I. in the 4th century B. Gaz. Cochin a century ago now under About 800 B. (Ball. Menon all {Notes on Alalabar and its place-names). C. while floods from the mountains changed the courses of the rivers. At present the tendency being is toward subsidence.) at The Portuguese. remains of a being visible Portuguese fort and factory are at now covered by the low water. Megasthenes. rigged in the "was fornierly confined to. once provided the through the greatest market of Egypt knew it. manner familiar on the Nile. prows at either The there nels. Mast and sail can be reversed at will. p." he says CVI. Syria through the caravan-trade to Tyre from the Persian There is some reason for supposing that pepper was the more especially in demand in Babylonia and the Persian Gulf trade generally. and Dioscorides between black. used together three pungent subwith ginger and long pepper. The trade was by sea and not overland. Theophrastus. and and as being "situated very . Syria and Egypt. probably. hot. so that the craft can be sailed in either direction. indeed. xxviii. Herodotus knows the Dravidians (III.) [7th century A. 100) a complexion closely resembling the Aethiopians. 19. "The vessels navigation. notes that the Greek v^oxA hztin piper. Southern India. Record of Buddhist Praciias edition. distinguishes • stances. just as cinnamon was that more especially reserved for Egypt. VI. The D. Gulf. The Sanscrit writers describe it as a medicine for fever and dyspepsia. simply repeats the Indian name pippali. wild in the forests of Travancore in the and Malabar. Pepper. and that the most active demand for it came with the spice extension of the Persian empire under Darius. these were their century B.. The tonnage of the vessels is.. Piper nigrum. 1. Linn. see also I-tsing. made of rushes. damp localities of (I. it knows as a medicine. toward the south.— 213 ' of thesame thing in describing the trade between Malabar and Ceylon. There is no certain mention of it in the Egyptian a In the Hebrew scriptures is unknown. A perennial climber. " {Mahavagga. white and long pepper. 56.000 amphorae. It may also be surmised that a steady and never subject to Darius. chap. which is typical of the Indian Ocean generally. 24). the Gospels. and extensively cultivated from very early times. black and white. may 3. nor has of place arnong the mint and anise and bit cummin" it. and for it. peperi. inscriptions. Takakusu's Romans had it after their conquests in Asia at Minor." demand for pepper existed in China before it arose in Rome. C. vessels of recent times are built with end so that be no need of turning around while sailing in these chanwhich are extremely narrow. Lassen 278). Herodotus has no in the 4th of folklore to attach to .J. 135. pepper is The antiquity of the trade in not so easily it shown it as that in other spices.' only as having far from the Persians. sea-trade the Ptolemies. " (About 33 tons. order Piperaceic.) ' By double prows' Pliny probably means some such build and rig as shown in the accompanying illustration. so much into fashion. storax. which we it is sometimes and sometimes h:.' 214 that this v\ as one reason for the sailing of the junks to the Malabar In Marco Polo's 2d century B. of fine scarlet cloth. haven of The trade in pepper in the time of the it Roman Empire brought the merchants unheard-of profits just as did later the It was one of the most important articles Venetians. Fall. pepper that can plead as a nothing in its it recommendation to either fruit or berry. of 30.000 lbs.000 271-2. whereas.000 Rome: the immediate payment of silk.? And who. or about $2." (Gibbon. C. That 5. Ixxxii) coast in the pepper that goes to Alexandria or elsewhere." and the and Prices in England show Cape that in the years just prior to the Portuguese discovery of the route. cinnamon. including frankincense. Genoese and of commerce The is constant use of pepper in the most expensive its Roman cookery reflected by price. between India and Rome. of 3. indeed. the offerings by the emperor Constantine to the church Silvester.'' In medieval Europe the trade was highly organized. expresses surprise at the taste that brought it into so great favor ' XII. of 4.) weight of pepper. there come a hundred such. destined for Christentoo. III. and yet India! is for this that first we trial import of it it all the way from Who I was the to make satis- as an article of food. day the tonnage of the junks was calculated according to their capacity for one shipload of in baskets of pepper. and he found (II. Decline and Pliny. seeing that in other substances their sweetness. a pound of pepper brought pay for a carpenter! two shillings. above Amoyj. of silver. and probably earlier.000 pes. myrrh. wonder. to this dom. lbs. and of 3. aye and more Zayton" (Chwan-chau. saffron and pepper.000 robes of lbs.55 per lb. nard. were costly vessels and fragrant gums and spices. it continued in high esteem is shown by the terms offered by Alaric for raising the siege of of gold. 14j as 15 denarii. quoted by Pliny (XII. balsam. being four days' Yet the people preferred it above all other . the spice being handled especially by merchants called prices quoted in Rogers' History of Agriculture 'pepperers.s their appear- ance that has attracted our notice. Among under St. it only desirable quality being a certain pungency. 14) : It is quite surprising that the use of pepper has come use. was the man that was not content to prepare himself by hunger only for the fying of a greedy appetite. supplying perhaps three-quarters of the total bulk of the average westbound cargo. vermilion. p. P and K are interchanged here as in the case of Karur. the story Mandeville" (Chap. the modern earthen vessels. but on the merchandise which they give in exchange they gain 100 per cent. And some men say. . and the other Cyncilim" (prob"In the aforesaid wood pepper is had after this it manner: pepper first groweth in leaves like unto pot-herbs. One can get it it for the equivalent in in that of 28 or 30 reals cash." Indian Trees. as cotton. I ' ' Friar Odoric (Chap. which aboundeth (The proper form would be Polumbum. and it is 500 livres of it brings this pepper which is exported to Europe. called the "Pepper House." quod she' "glotown. similar to those of the frankincense and diamond. one called Flandrina. . The Some. but to purchase money way would be much more costly than the Dutch method. Flilckiger and Hanbury. the Latinized version of Polum or Kolum.) — 215 ' " spices. and quicksilver. Rome. and thus pepper made and kept. the modern Quilon. . and then the sun to be dried. opium. dis. . but exchange for it many kinds of merchandise. ). Encyclopaedia Britannica. came from Rajapur on the Ratnagiri coast. our vines do yield grapes. — — Bran- Vignoli. however. and being dried are put into is At the south Polumbrum. but being are of a green color. 310-13): hauegodeale. ably Nelcynda)." (I. 579. xviii) "In is better in the version of "Sir John : that country be many manner of serpents and of other vermin for the great heat of the country and of the pepper. and they bring forth ripe. xvi) a large He mentions also storehouse kept by the Portu" guese at Cochin. 896-901. end of the said forests stands the with merchandise of all kinds. Liber Pontificalis. xii. article "Pepper. A f erthyngworth of f enel-seed for fastyngdayes." Parur. the grains are laid in and are gathered as we gather grapes. "who purchase it from the Malaharis do not pay in cash for it. as we do our vines. it was the first thing asked for by "Glutton" in Piers Plowman (V. And in the said wood or forest there two cities. wiltow assaye ? Hastow aughte in thi purs' any bote spices?" I haue peper and piones. See also Watt. Ball's ed. 1724-55. Odoric also describes a propitiation of the serpents guarding the pepper." quod she "and a pounde of garlike. gossib. Tavernier found pepper sold principally at Tuticorin and Calicut. Dutch. which they they plant near unto great trees as in clusters. iii) describes the pepper production of Minibar" are as follows: the wood in which it grows containeth in circuit eighteen days' journey." he says (II. — Phamiaco- graphia. city of . only 38 reals. 56). "betel. (See Tavernier. has already been noted as attaching to frankincense appear likewise with the diamond (§ 56). again (XXIV. "a kind of giant fennel" (XII. where the substance is described as coming from the Himalaya mountains. and they But thus they do: they anoint their should never quench the fire. which was native there. and possibly from the Cinnamomum zeylanicum which in later times was cultivated in Ceylon and India was also from is under §§ 10. Cinnamomum incrs. 891) says this latter is leaf. leaf The . is 13). they make fire. smoke. and then they gather surely enough. 131-2. "the very touch of mingled with \'irgil and spondylium. by spirits in the form of serpents." Heeren. or the habitation thereof. prinPliny II. The word variety of rather from the Sanscrit "leaf. 415): "Galbaneoque agitare graves nidore chelydros. meaning " and it is very doubtful the betel of modern times entered petros is into international commerce />ff/rfl. Traveh. Vincent and McCrindle transand thereby accuse the Periplus of a blunder in — §§ 63 and 65. as of any and then they did themselves much harm. pp. state If ignited in a its pure has the property of driving away serpents by it." oil And III. For if they burnt about the trees that bear. sufficient to kill a serpent. cipally coming from the Himalaya mountains was from the Cinnamomum tamala. as explained cinnamon or laurel. of the which the serpents and the venomous beasts pepper should be burnt. The translation rests on an assumption that the petros of the text in § 65 hetle is the same as the Portuguese betre or meaning \A att (p. xii). in the Roman period. betel. 56. and that maketh them it flee before them." The frankincense gatherers depended on burning storax.216 that to when they will gather the pepper. This belief in the guarding of treasure. and will supposed necessity of appeasing or else expelling the serpents by the use pf other sub- was held strongly it in Rome itself. see under § 29. But save their grace all of that say so. rather derived from a Alalay if word vettila or vern-ila. 13 and 14. to burn about make the serpents and the cockodrills to flee." of the tamala tree which. Pliny ascribes this ' power galbanum. stances to The (§ 29). the it would dry up all the virtue. hate and dread the savour. is a The leaf exported from Southern one of the sources of our cinnamon. hands and their feet with a juice made of snails and of other things made therefor. and other thing. because of the smell. or of wealth-producing trees. late this Malabathnim." So also {Georgia. 87). ." dients of the ointments Malabathrum and spikenard were the two most treasured ingreand perfumes of the Roman empire. gives further confirmation of the absence of the cin- namon species It is from the Somali peninsula. Lindsay {History of Alerchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce. I. E. (See also Lassen. koronfol and karfa. refers to as follows: "Coronatus nitentes Malobathro Syrio capillos. they penetrated into the interior at which extremely doubtful. myrrh and gum arabic. is highly probable that both Strabo and Pliny were led to . both of which are imported. II. 89). all. The Periplus in no place mentions the export of cinnamon from India. Drake-Brockman. curious trade condition is Rocoming from the Somali coast of Africa. and cinnamon had existed they would have continued to export it up day as they do frankincense. I. (II. (See under § 13. could only have obtained his information about cinnamon from the merchants who traded along the shores of Malabar who kept the secret of its provenance as the suggested by the fact that the A mans knew cinnamon and cassia only as . he thinks. . while they knew the malabathrum as coming from various parts of India. but in §§ 56 and 63 describes the export of malabathrum. whereas they have had for go to the Arabic language for their names of They know two varieties. dated Berbera. the leaf from the same tree that produced a variety of cinnamon.' 217 says that the jnalahathrum which entered so prominently into Roman perfumes should have a smell like nard. 156-7)." Herodotus. Carthaginians kept that of British ' tin. also remarks on this striking instance of the secrecy with which the ancients conducted the more valuable portions of their trade. and yet the malabathrum was. 279-285. April 27. p. Another letter from Mr. This seems to indicate a trade monopoly of very ancient date and thorough enforcement. while the leaf was an open article of trade to India. is to the present A point which worthy of notice cinnamon. in at least one case. unlikely that the original inhabitants of this country its knew the anything of cinnamon until they had heard of commercial value to if from the natives of India or Arabs. who ha\e been known coastal people from the earliest times. 1910. R. and other Roman writers seem to have confused it with the Ganges nard mentioned in § 63. by which the bark only went for trade purposes to the African coast. 555-561J it Horace. "It is that the Somalis have to names for all the last three. would if have hunted for anything of any commercial value. vii. These same is traders. and who are represented there by the modern that the trees in that relief are Gara tribe. In the publications of the Egypt Exploration P'und {The it Temple of Deir-el-Bahri. the frankincense of the rich plain in Dhofar Southern Arabia. thorny. This and is frankincense where the trees can be cultivated on a shore. nor yet the almost equally leafless varieties of Somaliland frankincense. Cushite race whose domin- ions centered at Dhofar. the bare. 12). 141-2. a photograph of which was reproduced on page 120. There is by the no place on s the African coast which meets these conditions. the only place producing fertile plain is This of tree is clearly Boswellia Carteri. would not have been dropped unless the was of a very inferior quality and gradually lost marketable value. in '\scaAe. not Semitic. the Periplus. but is located Somaliland in the neighborhood of Mosyllum. concerning the Egyptian frankincense trade. There can be no question modern Shehri luban. the frankincense of Dhofar. the "Sachalitic frankincense" of the . in determining the character of the trees depicted on the Punt reliefs at Deir el Bahri. really in favor of such a belief. Naville' objection that the natives are e. a more positive statement may be made than was possible under § 32. in the midst of green fields cattle." /. 'There can be no doubt that the natives of these regions have less always been greatly feared by their Somalis and there can be their antecedents little warlike neighbors.. because of the sup- posed African appearance of the Punt people in who appear elsewhere the reliefs.ers they experienced collecting or their antecedents in the ' in the countries of the savage Gallas Horn of Africa. trifoliate but almost leafless myrrh tree. III." Through the courtesy of the same gentleman in gathering specimens of the various aromatic gums of Somaliland. cinnamon and spices pouring of Aethiopia and upper Egypt all kingdom came from and the same their place. Professor Breasted in his Ancient Records of Egypt (II.218 believe that the into the myrrh. calls this tree myrrh. Possibly traders in Aethiopia obtained a better price for if it myrrh and cinnamon they stated the difficulties dani. and translates it as myrrh wherever the records refer to it. they were the pre-Semitic. frankincense. pp. 263-5). and doubt that it the practice of collecting species here collected its if cinnamon ever existed in these regions.A frankincense. not Arabs. The have always been keen traders. Specimens of true myrrh sent from Somaliland show clearly that no sculptor could have intended to depict by the rich foliage on the reliefs. and in particular with that rage for jewels and precious trinkets. reform the taste for dress ? . C. may be is stops far short of the east coast. where must . enabled Rome change her coinage from copper to silver. repudiated. in fertile it the southern part of the Somali peninsula. D. Even the golden aureus in large quantities to become the basis of exchange in India. show a rich and fertile plain bordering the A great quantity of coin. D. C.?" iii. leading finally to its total repudiation. established by accumulations of precious metal resulting from in The to sack of the rich city of 272 B. 218 A. an alloy of 20 per cent copper being added to it. t\i& denarius had 50 per cent. Under about 1 to 9. Pliny. C. . The moneTarentum tary standard of Rome its was wars. Annals. seeing that in no year does India drain wares. How are we to deal with the peculiar articles of feminine vanity. Claudius the sea-route to India was opened. lower than ever before or since.9. sea. After the destruction of Carthage and Corinth in 146 B. and under Septimius Severus Finally. and sends. nations.. the aureus being worth 25 silver denarii. . —The drain of specie from is Rome bitterly to the East has already been referred to under § 49. become wholly copper and was Exported was tampered with. the supply at home was exhausted. Trajan the alloy reached 30 per cent. the money of the Commonwealth to foreign (Tacitus.Q00 sesterces (g22. it .3. after which came the marked by every form of wastefulness and extravagance.. "is one well worthy of our us of less than notice. are and might prosaid that the duce a better fertility foliage than the northern coast. this was A am made the subject of a letter from the emperor Tiberius to the If a reform is in truth intended. in exchange for baubles. and even to the enemies of Rome. reliefs which absolutely desert.) This extravagant importation of luxuries from the East without adequate production of commodities to offer in exchange. gold coinage came into general use. Under . which drains the empire of its wealth. . 5S0M0. under Elagabalus." generation before the Periplus. and condemned by "The subject. I to restore the simplicity of ancient times? Roman Senate begin. in 22 A. during which the silver denarius fell from 1-84 to 1-96 pound Under of silver. 53. 26). was the main cause of the successive depreciation and degradation of the Roman currency." he says (VI.? and how How shall we .: ' 219 To the possible objection that the Darror and Nogal valleys. and through the wars of Caesar gold became so plentiful that in 47 B.000. ' whereas the 56. its ratio to silver was as 1 to Under Augustus the ratio was 8. reign of Nero.000) giving back her own which are sold among us at fully 100 times their first cost. —The origin of the glass industry in India Antiquities . coins discovered in South India. Catalogue Madras Government Museum. 2. According in to Mitra. In the Madras Government Museum there is nearly a complete series of the coins of the Roman Emperors during the period of active trade with India. Nerva. 56. 101. and under Diocletian it weighed but 1-60. with a foil of lead and tin." glass. C. of Orissa. is uncertain. . The coins of Tiberius. Under Constantine of Civilization it fell to 1-72. in India. because pounded Mirrors. all of them excavated in southern India. to replace soon afterward to Byzantium. when tines. For a pp. (. full account of Roman No. It Law was this steady loss of capital. and Pliny I. Coin of Nero commemorating the opening of the harbor-works at Ostia. and Decay. and Pliny indicates (XXXVII. Brooks Adams. so far as Trajan and Hadrian are frequent. cation. Thurston. cate a cessation of trade due to political turmoil in Rome. Caligula. which no new wealth was produced. Claudius and Nero are numerous. A notable fact is that there are two distinct breaks in the series which may of course be supplied by later discovery. comes another break it Commodus. Crude Ceylon crystal. the coin was taken only by weight (Sabatier. see E. but which seem to indi. that led finally to the abandonment of Rome and to the transfer of the capital at the end of the 3d century to Nicomedia and 51-2. made in the 3d century B.220 Augustus the aureus weighed 1-40 of a pound of gold. points again to the dating of the Periplus during the reign of Nero rather than during those of Ves- pasian and Titus. very few of Vespasian and Titus anywhere lasting until the time of There are Those of then there Domitian. Monnaies Byzani. refers to the glass of India as superior to all others. 25-8). 1-47. it was 66) XXXVI. 'made of were largely used there at the time of the Periplus. This indi- has any value. xviij. "No wheat grows in this province. op. and they readily fabricate imitations of ornaments they have once seen. district. article of which have long been an the nation of the Ori and export from the Persian Gulf to India. The star Arcturus too. examine them. shall scarcely be discernible. appear- ing in the form of smooth shining scales. Coins of Southern India. suggests kadal. of which Cannanore and centers. mountain. tiquary. derives the name from Malayalam kadatta. Meni>n {Indian Antransport or conveyance." 56. Tellicherry are the Dr. They may be different. (Mitra. iron. as did realgar and lapis lazuli. artists is though like. W Ryder's translation." provost.— 221 ' 20) that "the people of India. they true. and red lead. So Pliny and lead. Burnell derives this from Kolatta-nadu. though like. Bishop Caldwell. and producing gold. Buchanan prefers Kadatta-nadu. or kbdu. The principal use of orpiment was as a yellow pigment auri pig- a durable mineral paint.. was not to be seen here every night. and never when it was seen. on either side of Calicut. sea. they may be different. 100. I canmay be imitations by some skillful artist. Lead was used for the mixed with a little tin in thin sheets. the dexterity of the no doubt very great. as a foil manufacture of mirrors. but exchanges precious stones and pearls for them. Aug. Wheat for the sailors. and . which he with North Malabar. 22. in such a manner that the difference 56. tin. 101. identifies — Dr. during the whole of it. Walter Elliot. have found a ' ' method of imitating various precious stones. As at (XXXIV. with an excellent at this spot the writers state mouth. see also A. that for the first time they caught sight of the Great Bear. Orpiment.) also. — Marco Polo also notes (III. ' Copper. cit. his Dravidian Grammar. p. 17): — Bai^gaza. 26) says. An early play. Up to this spot to extended the empire of the Achasmenidae. op. by coloring crystal. in domain of the Rajas of Kolatndd included both. Pliny (\'I.. 1905): Do you know these ornaments?" I "Have It is not said? not say more. —This is the yellow sulphide of arsenic. Cambridge. and in these districts are be found mines of copper. In mediaeval times the South Malabar. and nddii. 1902 J. the Mrichchhakatika or Little Clay Cart. p. gives a scene in a court of justice to this effect (Mitra. arsenic. they tell us. beryls in particular. cit.) 56. slightly alloyed with either copper or (Sir tin. "India has neither brass nor lead. Next to these is then the Hyctanis harbor at its (Rud Shur?) a river of Carmania. " The for the coinage." mentum — making 56. intended chiefly Indian coins were of lead. but rice only. Cottonara. district. In any case locality. Diamond. Topay. the term does not 56. mentioned in § 59.) varieties of Pliny's carbun- 7. (The carbunculus of Pliny. 3. This localization of the gem trade continued until is Portuguese period in India.)) " 222 kodu-nadu. and other stones. it and the Periplus shows on the contrary that uas imported . they were compelled to fix. seem to have been applied to an exact Great quantities of fine pearls. production in India at any place. 49 and 64. Ruby. (The adamas of Pliny. (p. both of those which came from the island of Bahrein in the Persian Gulf. whatever price they pleased There was also at Goa a large trade in pearls. —See under § Transparent stones. ) (The hyacinthm (Included among the Watt doubts its of Pliny. 25. the reason : stated by Tavernier Goa was in all formerly the place where there was the largest trade Asia in diamonds. violet. Ig^ XXXVII. Silk cloth. 4. from the sea-green aquamarine to the 2. 56. XXXVII. yellow. — From China. white. All the miners and merchants went there to sell the best which they full liberty to sell. rubies. Spinel. topazes. occurring in numerous colors.. had obtained at the mines. would accord with the facts while supporting the transliteration of the text. Produced mainly on the Southern Malabar in hills. principally the beryls in of the Coimbatore which there was a constant demand their principal foreign Rome. because they had there country. the meeting-point of Eastern and Western fisheries of the sold in the trade. the hill-country back of the sea-coast. Pearl. Sapphire. which were exported to every part of the civilized world. India and Ceylon were preeminently the source of production of precious stones of all kinds. XXXVII. in their own they showed anything to the kings to sell at and princes.—These were from the Gulf of Manar. 5. and those fished for in the Straits of Manar on the coast of the island of Ceylon. 556) classifies the production as follows: The Beryl group. sapphires. and which always found Malabar after the (II. if whereas. and brought to be Chera ports. various blues. green and white. XXXVII. for 63. by way of Tibet and the Ganges. 56. 41. xxi) market in the ports. culus. Wzxx. 20. 56. See under §§ 39. 15. (The beryllium of Pliny. 1. now rarely found in India but more frequently Ceylon. — These were Gangetic spikenard. 6. trade. {j:\\& crystal oi Pliny. o^a/ (Pliny. these stones have no liancy whatever. Sea. beryls. 11. which the Romans do 9-10. those of Rajpu(One of the 12 varieties. A product of Persia. Garnet. found mainly in Turkestan but also in is upper Burma. " (The crystals are naturally hexahedral. rubies. I. not occurring 33. sapphiros of Pliny. olive green. all from Persia. . (The 12. which deadened by a heightened by the reflection from the bril- they are cut in any other way. etc. because the color. chal- cedony. jasper. or ultramarine. For further discussion of the deposits and 229-43. sapphires. bloodstone. Largely in India. j> not seem to have distinguished from more precious stones. onyx. XXXVII. the red varieties being commonest in 29. carchedonia." says Pliny (XXXVII. while a serpentine from Afghanistan W^hile not produced in India. Jade and Jadeite. sar- sarda. including Rock crystals. Tavernier. XXXVII. murrhine.) in in reaching the northwestern ports of trade.) 8. varying from black through red. . angles.) in color The most esteemed beryls are those which of the sea. If is The lapidaries cut is beryls dull of a hexagonal form. carnelian." In the Mrkhchhakatika. Pliny. heliotropium . onyx.) 223 from the Red 42. donyx. used for decoration of kinds and in demand Egypt and the Mediterranean world from the earliest times. chrysoprase. topazes. astrobolos. (The XXXVII. XXXVII. s carbunculus. these their often find all is way to Indian markets. iaspis. (The chnsolithos of Pliny. (^Achates. 39. where skillful artists are pearls. chrysoprasus . Common tana being the best. lapis lazuli. 'are produced in India. many parts of India. ) (The II. 9. perhaps the ) alabandk. 13. coral . Quartzose. substituted.) Tourmalines. resemble the pure green The people of India are marvelously fond of beryls of an elongated form. The also leading market China. b. opal. all and are rarely to be found elsewhere. lychnis of Pliny. XXXVII. white and colored. of Pliny' 10. a. cat's eye. India but callaina of Turquoise. 20). Lapis Lazuli. dark blue. there is a scene which includes examining a row of jewelers' shops. and say that these are the only precious stones they prefer wearing without the addition of gold. and white. Agate. "Beryls. an early Sanscrit play. uniformity of the surface. XXXVII. India. see Lassen. Southern Group: — districts of Kadapa.) In shape it is turbinated. some string pearls.." p. and iron. —The text is adamas. marvelous to think a hazel-nut. not in a stratum of gold. some pierce shells. made to yield before . 224 and other jewels. notably Dana. etc. includes under adamas other substances. too. running to a point at either extremity. (^3) Chanda.. to have had no knowledge of diamond- its hardness is beyond all expressame time it quite sets fire at defiance. Bellary. districts of Sambalpur. emery. this indomitable power. such as those of "Bisnager" (Vijayanagar) and the Decam" full (Deccan). 450-461). and some cut coral. Garcia de Orta (1563). but in a substance of a kindred nature to crystal . etc.") (a privative. In size. Diamonds. Pliny observes. in his translation of Tavernier's Travels.) lapis cit. There can be 15) no doubt that Pliny in his description (XXXVII. two cones united " at the base. owing to which indomitable powers it has received the name which it derives from the Greek. Kistna. mentions various Eastern diamond mines. iron ore." to subdue. have doubted whether the Some commentators. Northern Group: still worked ' — Vindhyan conglomerates near Panna Pliny (XXXVII. Godaveri. lazuli. sion. India was long the only possessions. Pliny goes at the on to say that while After his description of the hardness of the diamond. '2' Middle Group: — Mahanadl ) valley. and damao.. which is closely resembles in its its highly polished hexangular and hexahedral forms. Tavernier was a diamond merchant and the first European (1676) to examine critically the diamonds and court jewels of India. some set rubies in gold. 11)0." (The true form of the diamond of.). octahedral.. quanz. (Golconda. gives diamonds (II. 556). but of all human Watt says (p. not only diamond possessed among the precious stones. of all the Indian sources of The (1 ) principal districts were. it is as large even as The Romans seem cutting.resembling. at naught the two most is violent agents in nature. but he also says that the the greatest value. and closely. which sets fire. and as source of diamonds known to European nations. Karnul. namely. it 15j describes the Indian adamas as transparency and 'found. some grind the (Mitra. op. 5b. some work with gold or- naments on colored thread. Romans ever knew the true probably diamond. particulars Ball. 460-1). men who go in search of the diamonds take with them as lean as they and these they cast into the bottom of a Now down as there are numbers of white eagles that haunt those mountains and feed upon the serpents. II. Travels. as outlined under § 29. insomuch any one going to that region runs fearful peril. a striking similarity to the beliefs connected with the gathering of frankincense. neither can we cut off aught therefrom nor break it. the eagles see the meat thrown it and carry up to some rocky hill-top where they begin ing to drive rend But there are men on the watch." (III. to offer up cattle to propitiate the evil spirits birds of prey. This myth is founded on the very common practice in India on the opening of a mine. while sufficiently iden- story (dxliv-v. For the . and soon as they see that the eagles have settled they raise a loud shout- them away. besides other vermin. warm. . to the these mountains there are certain great and deep is bottom of which there can get. and this owing to the great heat. tifying the stone Walking along celain the valley I found that its soil was of diamond. Now among valleys. no access. means of the leadstone. of prey assemble to pick up wjiat they for the remainder of the story. The pieces of meat with diamonds sticking to them were then carried to their nests by ' from whence they were recovered by diamond seekers. who myth.' where the diamonds could not be collected owing to the number of serpents. 2d voyage). must be fresh and " it. the stone. for many have been destroyed by these evil reptiles. must be well steeped in Ball (Tavernier. . xix) records in those Marco Polo Moreover more definitely this ancient belief: rife to a mountains great serpents are marthat velous degree. the stone wherewith they pierce jewels and precious stones and por- and (myx. valley. too. are supposed to guard treasures — these being represented by the At such sacrifices birds can. Wherefore the pieces of flesh.: 225 the blood of a he-goat. however. The blood. for that save by it is a hard dense stone. and find them full of diamonds which have stuck to the meat down' in the bottom. The serpents are also the most venomous in existence. whereon neither iron nor steel hath effect. And when the eagles are thus frightened away the men recover the pieces of meat. they pounce upon to it When it. quotes a story from Nicol Conti (15th century) about Indian diamonds obtainable only by fling- ing pieces of meat on the mountain. and pepper The Thousand Nights and One Night gives substantially the same Sinbad the Sailor." which is the foundation Here we have (§56). —The text is hyakinthos. if any cursed witch or enchanter should bewitch him." trans- 56. and it may be observed. who gave his in defence of Sita against the ibis at Raksha Ravana. And it venom or poison be brought in presence of the diamond. 226 abundance of diamonds down there ishing. and his word really might be translated as meaning all tints of sapphire from blue to purple. Pliny says that the hyacinth resembles the amethyst. Sapphires. and if one could it would be only incontinently devoured by the serpents which are so rife there. their limbs exquisitely tleek and smooth. but draws a distinction between them. 5. which has been is lated as jacinth. Aeneid. and the hair of their heads surpassing smooth and (McCrindle. 755. ruby and amethyst." be The life part played by the eagles profit of is that of other sacred birds. Nathles befalleth often time that the good diamond loseth his virtue it is by sin. Pliny probably had in mind a violet sapphire. shall turn to himself assail the sorrow and mischance through virtue of that And no healeth wild beast dare that if is And it him lunatic. and says that the principal source dark blue like the hyacinth. recounts it for his day. XVII). 183). mond still Connected with these beliefs was that in the efficacy of the diain warding off from the wearer all sorts of evils. for the defence and man. 132). which were derived from watered crystaline rocks. rather than India. also thinks that the sapphire was the hyacinthus of Pliny. but to in the depth of the valley is aston- nobody can get them. Jacinth a product of Africa Rubies are from Burma and probably never came from India. Compare the bird Jatayu. Ancient India. 188. X. his it giveth him hardiness It giveth and manhood. (Virgil. The ruby. Sir John Mandeville" {Travels. in great quantities Dionysius Periegetes refers to the "lovely land of the Indians where the complexions of the dwellers are dark. which is practically of the same . and at the time of the Periplus the natural market would have been on the Malabar coast. p. p. or travaileth. ) Goodchild {Precious Stones. . Pliny. and them that the fiend pursueth for to sweat. and for incontinence of him that beareth And it is then little needful to make it to recover his virtue again. his cause be rightful. anon it beginneth to wax moist and it. and keepeth the limbs of body whole. man that beareth it on him. if victory of his enemies in plea and in war. who fought the dragons. or else of value." W.. of sapphires in that part of the world was in the watered gravels of Southern Ceylon. in the Ramayana the Buto (p. and the eagles XI. He him that that beareth the it diamond upon him.j who defended Egypt against the frankincense-serpents. all And stone. " To plus assume that conditions were the same to at the time of the Peri- would be go beyond the evidence. Both rubies and sapphires are found in much greater quantities in of the Periplus these deposits Burma and Siam.i :ind . perhaps. 248-287) also thinks that the monsoons were understood before the time of Hippalus. ginger. carried by King Gama on his return coral. yet the records of the Chinese themselves point strongly to India to the existence of an active sea- trade at that time. Hippalus first discovered. a very notable fact. that they steered boldly out of sight of land. What I seek from thy country is gold. certainly to Malacca. to "that found along the coast. and precious stones. specifically mentioned §§ 60 and to great province of Malabar "from the Manzi. but doubts the beginning of any Society. indeed. which may be placed opened a new ocean to Roman shipping. Marco Polo ' notes particularly the ships the eastward. but at the time were probably unknown to western commerce. The evidence of both countries indicates. of interesting to compare it with the letter from the Vasco da from India fourteen centuries later: "In my kingdom there is abundance of cinnamon. — Fabricius objects to this it is reading. Kennedy in an article in the Journal of the Royai Asiatic 1898. and inconabout 45 A. (see 8J. this With Zamorin item ends the It is list of articles traded in by the author of the Periplus. being of the corundum group. and scarlet. regular sea-trade before the beginning of the ascribing ships all 7th century B. of Hippalus. 25). silver. ceivable that they should not have of the made use of the periodic changes most notable feature of their climate. whose time I"'i' were known come to Babylon from India and even from st-ii-tradc China. and less frequently. Tortoise-shell and alters it from Chryse." 57. by far the of it A-Ir." but prob- able that the text gives a correct reference to the active trade of Eastern shipping in South Indian ports. was found in the same place as the sapphire in Ceylon. in C. before records were written to tell monsoons.. at —The discovery p. pepper. Calicut to the of Portugal. but it is probable that Arabian and Dravidian craft had frequented that ocean for many centuries. (pp. Following he thinks between . and beyond. D. 56. on the contrary. which in is. cloves. 227 chemical composition. such trade to the to have this reign activities of Nabonidus. and was probably classified by Pliny under the carbunculus (XXXVII. xxv) that the ships from Aden and Egypt 'are not one to ten of those that go to 63." and says (III. Ptolemy. Malabar. Beyond India no discovery was made. He minimizes the impor- tance of the early Eijyptian trading-voyages. It while the Malay colandia carried the trade to Malabar. 2S7). and since the time of the anwho were of old. Prof. C. Lisbon and Canton. Rhys Davids. "No mouth to to Egypt.) Such opinions presume a continuous trading-journey without exBut primitive trade change of cargoes at common meeting-points. 432. considering local. in the Deir el Bahri reliefs describing tells The custom is stated in detail Queen Hatshepsut's expedition the queen. as a return II. 11. Babylonia and China." It (Breasted. W'. p. ' T. being mainl\' Dravidian but partly Aryan. knew of Cattigara through the account given by Marinus of Tyre. of 1500 B. Adulis and Berenice.: Babylon flourished for a couple of centuries. but such voyages were exand the majority of the Chinese ships stopped at Malacca. 10. At the time of the passes from tribe to tribe and port to port. where Amon-Re they were heard of from which the people knew not. but for freeing the new to the Roman Empire from it Arabian monopoly of lasting the Eastern trade by tracing to its source. the Kings of Lower one trod the incense-terraces. indeed. §i5 6. But whatever may have been Ezra's revision of the Hebrew books. mouth by hearsay of the ancestors. and leading to the settlement of Indian traders in Arabia. quotes an interesting Buddhist passage referring to early sea-trade as follows ." Like- wise Hippalus must be remembered. East Africa. centuries before Ezra's day. many payments. Society. Kings of Upper Egypt. Somaliland. Ancient Records. and they indicate a trade (See also under Indian origin to the Somali coast and overland to the Nile. between the ends of the earth. was the particular achievement of the Egyptian Punt expedi- tions that they traced the treasured articles to their source the land from the heavy charge of those and freed 'many payments. Periplus cargoes changed hands in Malacca. The marvels brought thence under thy fathers. were brought from one cestors of the for another. for the remained Arabs to complete the through line" by opening direct com- munication under the Bagdad Caliphate. and 12. substantially the same articles of records of Egypt articles of at trade are described in the in corresponding dates. ceptional. not for a discovery world. them purely while the numerous references to articles and routes of early trade in the Hebrew scriptures he passes by with the assertion that they are due to the revision following the return of Ezra. South Arabia. in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 1899. The Institutes of Manu include rules time commerce. knows also the course of ships. Just so. D." "Do off thou. SitzMngsberichte der Kais. whose countenance if is turned to ' ' all sides. merchants depending on shore-sighting birds instead of observations of the sun or stars. send our adversaries. gives the story of the merchant navriddhi. ' "May Ushas dawn harnessed at today. " returned home with a cargo of precious stones. No. in (See also Bilhler. And to West and If if would go the North. More significant is the Phoenician origin of the Dravidian alpha- . for the guidance of mari- The passages quoted above indicate a well-developed and not a primitive trade. d. B. (A remarkable Dha- prayer for safe conduct at sea. \) "Varuna. air. go. and to the East to the South and to the intermediate points. Akad. Kalidasa. and a story is given of a certain merchant. Lassen. but on the horizon it caught not it would come back sight of land. the excitress of chariots which are her coming. There are similar passages in the oldest of the : Vedas (see Gib- son's Rig Veda. The ' Hitopadesa describes a ship as a necessary requisite for a man to traverse the ocean. in pp. III. on board a ship. abiding in the ocean.) ' 229 ' In the Dialogues of the Buddha is Sutta of Digha — a passage in the says: Kevaddha 5th cent. The sea-trade was principally of Dravidian develop- ment. XVI. When to the the ship was out of sight of land they it would and set the shore- sighting bird free. as those who are desirous of wealth send ships to sea. thither to the it and would ship again. 1895. whose immense wealth devolved to the king on the former's perishing at sea and leaving no heirs behind him. who knows the path of the birds flying through the he. in the Saiunta /a. Agni. Indian Paleography. Cosmas Indicopleustes found this same custom in Ceylon in the 6th century A. brother. Do thou convey us in a ship across the sea for our welfare.. C. Foulke. to their race but old in the world. as in a ship to the opposite shore. while both the Vedas and the Buddhist writings are of Aryan origin. 81-2. Indian Antiquary. taking vvere wont to plunge forth with them a shore-sighting bird. Vol. Vienna. after having been twelve years on his voyage. Indhche Studien.) § 5." etc. 3. at last 'who. rise aloft. and refer to things new J-Vissenschaften. 7. 3. The Buddha Long ago ocean-going merchants upon the sea. and that this "the first that ever burst Into that silent sea. in long before the Aryan invasion of southern India. secured his best information {." which gave the correct position in relation to the Zanzibar islands. 27." those whom the invaders When Rama was dispatching Sita. from whose standpoint Hippalus was quite as great a discoverer as if he had really been the Persian Gulf and Arabia. to the in their own ships to the vales of it unknown and where has outlived the Oman. Wilford. Country of the Moon. Amara. 'All our previous information. Throw the Ship's head. confusion of the modern observer. in solving the mystery which enshrouded the source of their holy river. VII. and all those busy Egyptian geographers. pp. it messengers to the four winds in search of "flew' ' was the maligned Ceylon and dissails. 216. B. the river. 336. where monmemory of its found(Gen. who disseminated their knowledge with a view to be famous for their long-sightedness. Miles. when planning his discovery of the source of the Nile. ' ' through Cusha-dvipa. originated with the ancient Hindus. which is a wrestlers' term literall>' 'throwinir by the neck . The Hindu it traders had a firm basis to stand were so many hypothetical upon through ) their intercourse with the Abyssinians. 77. Hanuman who covered her. and the map correctly mentioned another native name. in Asiatic Researches. the It traced the course of Great Krishna. share at an early date. The name was from the native Unya-muezi.) Significant also is the fact that Lieutenant Speke. applied to the district bordering Lake Victoria Nyanza. while a passage the Rdmayana suggests ' the ships of contemptuously called his monkeys. and to carry the cult of the monkey- god Hanuman keys are ers.Journal. from a map reconstructed out of the Puranas. who told it to the priests of the Nile. III). from a great it lake in Chandristhdn. "concerning the hydrography of these regions. Altogether must be supposed that the navigation of the Indian Ocean began from claimed its that Western India community of interest Jong excluded their customers of the Mediterranean world. having the same meaning." 57." says Speke. meaning —The text is trachelizontes.230 bet. in Geographical Journal. S. humbugs. " (See § 14. who later turned and crushed them under the caste-system and Stern must have been established the dynasties of Dravda-d'esam the subjection that brought them to worship one of their own race that the Dravidians ferried across to '< under the guise of a monkey. across the Gulf of Manar to Who can doubt that the wings he used were or Ceylon a force of Aryan landsmen. in (U ^1> T3 -^ •£5 c •" o n> .231 o p4 B ho pa . which are sold among us fully one hundred times their Two The miles distant from Alexandria is the is town of Juliopolis. would carry a vessel along the Arabian shore as far as Ras Fartak. until at last a stiU shorter cut thirst for gain brought India even day voyages are made to are carried on board the pirates. The subject one well worthy of our less notice. and a safer who might happen to sail from the same promontory this route for Sigerus. of the steersman. to Patala. at gi\ than hundred and prime cost. thus describing a wide curve before making the Indian Boats were not handled as easily then as now on a beam wind. which is there known by the name of Hippalus.232 The word has led to much unnecessary' confusion in the translation is of this passage. At the present India every year. the Promontory. and the still nearer to us. upon information on which first may is be placed. three hundred and . with the type of would have required steering off her course the whole time. l^eyond which the coast gradually recedes. so without changing its would for the 'stand out to sea course. on the present occasion. — Pliny's account of the voyage to India (VI. as will not be amiss too. coast. and' is here published for the time. It was discovered by a merchant. seting that in five no year does India drain our empire of millions of sesterces. The one to those age that followed pointed out a shorter route. 26). 57. appended for comparison. and companies of archers those seas are greatly infested with \'essels. The same is course.of Arabia.ascertained fact that the \'oyage from Syagrus. fifty ing back her own wares in exchange. reliance to set forth the whole of the route from Egypt. trade-wind. reck- oned at thirteen hundred and thirty-five miles. distance thence to Coptos. Our author describing a sailing-course w hich is obvious by referring to the map. can be performed most advantageous!}" with the aid of a westerly wind. It will be seen that y its hile it agrees with the Periplus in of Arabia. particularly in is description description of the Indian coast not altogether the same: 'In later times it has been considered a well. which has been stated to us of late. from H-isn The straight course before the Ghorab to the Gulf of Cambay or the mouth of that the vessel the Indus. The quarter-rudder required a constant pull on the tiller by the hands rigging then in use. a port in India. A vessel bound Malabar ports and saihng before the wind. and for a long time was followed. its many points. which has been cited by most commentators on the Periplus. up the Nile. nor. The first of these stations is called Hydreuma distant (watering-place) and is twenty-two miles.. and next there another. vicinity. it is barcation. Muziris by called Sapphar. king Pandion used to reign. before in the region the rising of the Dog-star. night. is not a very desirable place for disembarcaits on account of the pirates which frequent in fact. from Coptos one hundred and eighty-four miles another on a mountain. the fourth on a mountain. 233 eight miles. to it from Coptos two hundred and thirty miles. called Hippalus. and a much more convenient one. in consequence of which it takes twehe days to perform the whole journey from Coptos to Berenice. that of Apollo. the port. with a caravansary that affords lodging for two thousand persons. called the is Old Hy- dreuma. tion. as only those touch who deal in incense and the perfumes of Arabia. however. the roadstead for shipping a considerable from the shore. however. dwelling considerable distance from . is at a distance of one day's journey from the last. it is There is also a third port of Arabia. the next to that distant is another Hydreuma. The greater part of this distance is generally travelled by on account of the extreme heat. merchandise. This. these pages. To those who are bound for India. when the Etesian winds are is blowing. it their passage to India. and the cargoes have to be conveyed in boats. in twelve days. after which. At the moment that I am writing for loading or discharging. the voyage is performed. name. and . the third at a second is Hydreuma is distant from Coptos is ninety-five miles. stations being arranged at intervals for the supply of fresh water. and in about thirty days arrive at Ocelis in Arabia. This the last it is distant from the to the New Hydreuma seven miles. After leaving we come city of Berenice. the residence of the king there is and there is another city known by the name of Save. or else immediately after. From Coptos the journey made with the aid of camels. Another name of the king of this place is Caelobothras. not. or else at Cana. More in the interior there is a city. or the Troglodytic. Ocelis is the best place for emIf the wind. happens to be blowing. where a detachment always on guard. at a there There distant is is then another station place called the New Hydreuma. Muza which bears by name. the second is situate on a mountain. Barace by name. possible to arrive in forty days at the nearest mart in India. used by persons on at. where they occupy a place called Nitrias. distance either is it very rich in articles of is Besides. situate upon a harbor of Red Sea and distant from Coptos two hundred and fifty-seven miles. frankincense. the days being spent at the stations. is that which lies in Here at a the territory of the people called Neacyndi. sail Passengers generally set at midsummer. backwaters. 76° 45' E. from which circumstance it would appear Travellers set sail that the localities have since changed their names. and have recently been pierced by a canal to complete the backwater communication between Tirur and Trivandrum. of a single tree (see illustration 212). By 58. and by the The Raja's tides still Malayalam translation of the Ramayana." a series of high sandstone and laterite headlands. around Cape Comorin. depth." 56). to the author of the Periplus. which abut on the coast at Varkkallai (8° 42' N. The district from which pepper is carried down on to Barace in boats hollowed out as Cottonara. which is now the chief port . 300. {Dravidian Grammar. is — Piedmont. These are the "Warkalli Beds" of the Indian geologists. is known None of these names of nations. an ancient local name for Travancore. and again below Anjengo (8° 40' N. at the beginning of the Egyptian our December. this country in general was Malayalam. the land at the foot of the mountains. from India on their return to Europe.).) we must assume his that the author of the Periplus The remainder of work. . or at all events before the month Mechir. set sail from India with a south-east wind. Balita. if they do this they can go and return in the same year. matters oriental." 58." The native name for include that of Puratisan. This is supported by Gundert in his Malayalam Dictionary. Paralia. 76° 43 E. ports. coast. cutting through a bluff the lachwaters have recently been connected with others leading as far as Trivandrum. this a translation of the is Tamil according to Burnell and Yule. — According it to Caldwell Karei. {Imperial Gazetteer. There Bluffs. and a place of considerable commercial importance. — The text "Red it refers to the is Pyrrhon. catch the south-west or south. Lord of Purali. usually referred to as the "sequel. which is sixth day of the Egyptian Sea.234 the mart in the interior. )." at represents Nelcynda or Bacare. and Bridge: Adam's comprised within the modern districts of Travancore and Tinne\elly. mountain.— This is probably the modern VarkkaUai (8° 42' It was formerly the southern end of the long line of j. and alam. at a city known p. and Paralia.. from mala. the same as our Ides of JanuThey ary. N. below the as far as the coast-line Travancore backwaters. Purali. and cities are to be found in any of the former writers. Beyond did not go. is what he learned by inquiring of acquaintances set down in writing toward lightening the all darkness of Mediterranean ideas concerning 58. can be no doubt that Dark Red Mountain. and upon entering the Red month of Tybis. as Modiera. this point XXIV. nearly 200 miles. . D. who had never embraced the Buddhist doctrine. which made in the bulwark of Buddhism middle ages. Both these were Buddhist. when the Andhra king Vilivayakura II. —This Cape Comorin. Gaz. . or Parvati. the Scythian Kanishka in the following century being the second great exponent of that faith. Early History. the Buddhist. springs in the make a favorite health {Imp. is 300. . has well said {Buddhist and Christian Gospels. and Pahlavas 23). 77° 33' E. 3d ed. virgin. the Sinhalese. the others passing through political transformation. and prevented the mixing of the four castes. set up a memorial at Karll telling how he properly expended the taxes which he Yavanas." (Vincent Smith. while the rice-migrations from the Hima- Burma and Indo-China. Comari. Tokyo. the two chief Buddhist powers were at war. while it numerous mineral resort.. India. was the most powerful on the planet.) 58. and of the Andhra in the Deccan. 188. the southern extremity of the Indian peninsula (8° 5'N..). In the one of the most important places of pilgrimage century of the Christian era in Southern India. with their Aryan dynasties and caste-systems. II. At Varkkallai visited is the celebrated temple of Janardan. Maurya Empire had been followed by the rise of the Indo-Scythian power in the northwest. In Ceylon the native race. had not taken place. 376). XXIV. " But it was no longer The disintegration of the the Buddhism of the Emperor Asoka. Parthia. and in 126 A. as in Asoka's day. p. the Southern Dravidians. the queen-mother Balasri destroyed the Sakas. and China were the four great powers of the world.' 235 of the district. cult of the Hindu gods. 882-3) that the monthly bathing her honor is still continued. were their neighbors and ancient enemies. of which the first and last were advancing. all an avatar of Vishnu. but the ways of the barbarian were not those of the Hindu. was the deity venerated by the . and whose primitive natureworship was included bodily within the especially. and according to the Imperial Gazetteer it is (X. levied in accordance with the sacred law ." Rudra of the Fedas. as Edmunds 1905. Of the world's religions. which was applied to the goddess Durga. The name is the Tamil form of the Sanscrit Kumar'i.) To the north the great missionary just movement through Turkestan and of those kingdoms a China had only layas into begun. by pilgrims from vicinity parts of India.' first Rome. the god of the storm. the destroNcr and reproducer. were heartily for the Law of Piety. or Gautamiputra Satakarni conquered. Siva "the auspicious. Yule observes (Marco Polo. the consort of in Siva.. but opposed to them racially and in matters religious. religion of India as seen at The by the author of the Periplus was satraps. with the Underlying the formal acceptance of the Brahman still faith there existed the earlier animism. And had left but wreckage. ( His symbol was the cobra." Durga. . which the Sakas had "obstructed. while the purer form at their still by the Andhras could not be found western port." is day by day to be praised by men who wake. forward. and in Nelcynda. Frazer. Calliena. ) while their son was Ganesa. the worship of spirits in the form of trees and serpents. the Mahabharata and the Ramdyana. the Puranas. hers the lion. Robertson Smith. For international trade began largely on a religious basis. until the Deccan and Bengal returned to the earlier faith. steadily displacing Buddhism in its home-land as it in turn spread outward over the great continent of Asia." In the south the earlier faith was advancing. as the southern kingdoms waxed strong. The serpent-cult in Rome . where some acquaintance related to our author the things he set down about the eastern half of India. W. while of the structure built up by Kanishka the \\ hite Huns elephant-headed. with all the train of associated beliefs described in such works as Fergusson. There was no reason per se for the Egyptian faith in myrrh as a purifying and cleansing agent beyond the gum of their own trees.236 Dravidians. ' had thought to replace by contemplation of the 'inner but were learning anew their lesson from the Katha Vpanhhad: ' "that lire oblation. so their religion was pushed. it was the great epics which supplied the information. tog-ether with his consort or "energic principle. . Tylor. and was continued as a means of elaborating worship. Reli- gion of the Semites. The Golden Bough. And to the activity and persuasiveness of the commercial peoples may be attributed the wide acceptance of their assertions regarding the peculiar efficacy and sanctity of the spirits of their own sacred trees. a therefore twofold: Barygaza under the Saka heterodox Buddhism had supplanted the Law C. Tree and Serpent Worship . observed at Ujjeni and Pataliputta under the Mauryas. or of the Romans in cinnamon. which continued to uphold the "southern sisters" in the use of that visible altar-flame which those of the north ' light. or for the trust of the Babylonians and Greeks in frankincense. Ernest Crawley. bejond their own pine-resin or the golden bough" of their earlier faith it was the result of the eclectic spirit which accepted that which was told them by strangers. the god of learning. and preached to the nations of the earth under upheld Asoka in the third century B. Primitive Culture. The Tree of The identity treas- of belief has been indicated by the legends attached to the most ured articles of early trade. The Life. faith was the common property of those trading and west.. Chola and Pandya. it persisted almost unmodified among the caste of those trading by sea. means monNo monkeys famous pre-Islamic idol. the demon afar king of Ceylon. and here was consequently a center of the worship of was carried in by the Dravidian sea-folk. but a temple stood here dedicated to that image. vida-d'esam. still addressed to their jinni by those whom Dhofar and Socotra. " and was the name of a exist in Oman. {_lmp. his leap across the sea Hanuman. — Geographical Journal. ruled in common it was one of the Pandyan kingdom. Two Cambay shrines of Hanuman are still venerated at'Surat on the which was also in constant communication with Arabia. According to local tradition. the legendary progenitors of the great dynasties. trade of this district passes through Tuticorin. he observes. This is the country from which made lon.. and it is the Bents visited in its the background of the the Dead Old Testament earliest devotees. it is it permeates the Book of and the Gilgamesh epic. became the ions were separated. a good II. which. defiled This formless east between beyond hope in Brahman eyes . map is given in Yule's Marco Polo. In the Hanuman. 522-537). XV. At present the Ga%." j-lcila of Pliny (VI. and in mediaeval times another nearby place. 78° 5' E. Kayal (the Coil of Marco Polo). India at the time of the Periplus. The funeral of Sabina Poppaea. 387. whose ancestors were among and carried it to the ends of the earth. Owing to the deposit of silt by the Tamraparni River the sea retired from Kolkai. ) By was the Dravidian power in before their domin- Southern India. Cordier's edition. but with its reflected the early faith in the existence of departed spirits in serpent form. VII. where Chera. which rich Wadi Tyin which passed through the port of Kalhat that from which persons embarked'for India. from the Mahendragiri mountain to Ceyto and so helped Rama the rescue of his consort Sita from Ravana. key. this was the original capital of Drdcoast. 32).J ' 257 was no mere extravagance. being more accessible to the capital than Nelcynda.— This tradition this is the modern Kolkai (8° earliest seat of 40' N. 59. and the birthplace of the dynasties ruling in Southern This dominion of the Pandyas' ." the trade of ( Oman. as told in the Ramayana. fabulous store of spices burned. was not mere show. Incorporated by Brahmanism. At the time of the Periplus chief ports of the port. Colchi. and the Koran. 373-4. but was intended to provide Nero's consort with a countless array of protecting spirits in the under-world. General Miles found a town Sibal. the monkey-god. states. C. 389. the "Coast Country" of § 59. years. among many sons. seceding kingdoms were larger and more powerful than the the most important being the Chola. The dominion brothers. "that the family born from him and her might supply kings to the Indians. this was 'the only daughter of Heracles.arly History. who. (See Imperial Gazetteer. p. Heracles made her marriageable at the age of seven and married her himself. C. or whether it was attached to the legend like the father of the Pushkalavati and Takshasila through Pushkala and Taksha.. 341-7. ' (XXXI). —\'incent Smith. he observes power exerted by Heracles in hastening the maturity of Pandasa might more naturally have been applied to the postponement of his own senility. as he says in another connection "I know. The that the story is not accepted by Arrian in entire faith. XVI. who reads In Greek literature concerning India. The dynastic succession of these in kingdoms forms the longest unat broken chain Indian history. of the Pandyas was divided among three reputed Chola and Pandya. The original. that it is a very difficult task for one the ancient tales to prove that they are false. VIII) gives another version of the origin of dynasty. ). sons of Bharata in the Ramdyana. sort appearing. covering a period of least two thousand years. Heracles tified is usually iden- with Vishnu. and over which she ruled. . however. . The capital 7' had been removed. in which form it appears in Asoka's inscription of the 3d century B. and Bacchus with Siva. is less important than the obvious Aryan descent of the dynasty in this Dravidian land. was named Pandaea after her. but. Those who would see in the northern spread of this dynasty a southern origin for the Dravidian race do not take into account the late origin of the dynasty. to Madura (9° great city. and in the Periplus. the land where she was born. probably the 5th or 4th century B. as Pliny E. and their rigid institution of the caste-system since which still prevaOs here in a completeness long outgrown in other parts of India. 78° which the Ramdyana describes as a gates being of gold inlaid with gems. and authorities quoted on 209.' 238 was was said to have been established by the descendants of Pandu. connection was real. " No worthy confrom Pandasa. ) F. Arrian {Indica. the heroes of the North Whether the dynastic Indian war recounted in the Mahahharata. Chera. who Pandava brothers. and its alien character among a people already settled and developed. he says. 55' its N. 36. after its opens its many struggles. by means of becomes impregnated. on other hand. shell. which too great a depth to be reached Ly the sun's have seen pearls adhering to the shell . and that at length it gives birth. the pearl is from all quite evident that the quality of the pearl state of the depends much it more upon a calm that it heavens than of the sea. just like the human body. When the genial season of the were. . in opposition to the native Sinhalese. The greater part of these pearls are tl. shuts its shell and covers up its treasures. in the shape of pearls. sharp edge of the shell. Pliny (IX. as and so receives a kind of dew. yawning. came into general use in first Rome but that they began to be used about the time of Sylla. Pearl-fisheries. I it is that those lie at which keep still their whiteness best are the deep- sea pearls. (See under §§ 35. and lose all their whiteness. the region of the pearl-fisheries. .e turned of a red color. according to . while. origin The and production of the influence shell. and in spite of whom they had extended their power effectually over the northwestern coast of Ceylon.e only to be found those that lie among rocks and crags. then the pearl of a clouded color also. 54-8) says that pearls after the surrender of Alexandria. —These were. been in a when if flowed into the but if it then the pearl prois duced is white and brilliant. being well aware that it is for them that it and if it happens to catch the hand it cuts it off with the is sought.239 The nists in Dravidians of Southern India were active traders and colo- Ceylon. and hence contracts a cloudy hue. when which is it it was generated. as soon as it even perceives the hand. the degree of serenity of the sky in the morning. ful that It is wonder- they should be influenced thus pleasurably by the state of the heavens. for which reason the shells were used as boxes for ointments. and 56. The island of first rank. shell-fish is not very different from that of the year exercises it shell of the oyster. Hence rays. . If this has which vary according perfectly pure state to the quality of the it dew. as at present. The most productive of pearls the Taprobane. it it which on the animal. . and the very highest position . 59. was turbid. it is said that. with whom they were in frequent conflict. among all valuis ables belongs to the pearl. in the shallow ) waters of the Gulf of Manar. out in the deep sea are generally accompanied by sea- . or a limpid appearance. seeing that by the action of the sun the pearls a. the sky should happen to have been lowering will be of a pallid color. "The lish. to the burden of its shell. or any solemn ceremonial. I say. he says. who served a meal in which each guest was given a pearl to swallow. all this and was done. by her fingers. and proceed into this gulf. but only at covered with emeralds and an ordinary betrothal entertainment — — pearls. but treasures which had descended It her from her grandfather. for all this. .' than this. The same thing had been done before. and of her dissolving a great pearl in vinegar and swallow- ing it. and on all to 40. Lollius was held so infamous presents which he extorted from the kings. as his royalty. great and small. that 'a pearl worn by a woman in Xa}-. that over the East for the the result of which was. the tenth part. by Clodius. And yet. of present day. and it is that. And they must also pay those men who charm the great . son of the tragic actor Aesopus. that his granddaughter might be seen. indeed she was prepared at showing the receipts and acquittances. and obtained by the spoliation of the prov- Such are the fruits of plunder and extortion all ! was for this reason that Al. Of the produce they have first to pay the king. her ears. upon her neck.240 dogs. till The pearl-fishers take their vessels. where they stop from the beginning of April the middle of May. delighted even with the pearls as they knock against each other. the wife of the Emperor Caius it was not at any public festi\'al. in Rome. not enough to wear pearls. and the value of which amounted in sesterces. but they must tread upon them. . he was denied the friendship of Caius Cassar. as people are in the habit of saying. by all by the glare of lamps. in her bracelets. in her hair. "I once saw Lollia Paulina. they put them on their all feet.000 once to prove the fact. not only on the laces of their sandals but over the shoes. Of and in the pearl industry. and took poison. covered forty millions of sesterces!" over with jewels to the amount of Pliny then recounts the well-known story of Cleopatra' s wager with Antony to serve him an entertainment costing ten millions of sesterces. and walk with them under foot as well. some places not more than 2 fathoms. Marco Polo says (III. xvij: "All round this gulf the water has a depth of not more than 10 or 12 fathoms.000. even more public is as good as a lictor walking before her. the poorer classes are even affecting them. a prodigal potentate. Nor were these any presents to made by inces. her wreaths. or two or three the rattling of at the them dangling from their ears. and now. in which shone in in alternate layers upon her head. the women v\ill not banish these gems from their ears! "Our ladies glory in having pearls suspended from their fingers. and \\Ae observed it still in force. the the third Dravidian states. ). the meaning being "ferrying-place. ). and they are still classified together in the modern Carnatic. Maahar. —This is country. different from. from which is from the native name. Chola coast. as it states. and beof the yond. Uraiyur. not to he confused with Malabar. were those of the Palk Bridge. 78° 42' E. or even the Vaigai (9° 20' N. and most prosperous of the three. ). which name they applied to both Chola and Pandya. the Pandyan kingdom. one of the Brahmans" exercising this ancestral office being a Christian! In the case of frankincense. the product of which was sold only north of the capital. roughly. . or from a time after the Aryan invasion of Southern India. The even though their relations with Madura were more important. By the Sarawas given another name. 59. the guardian spirits took the form of serpents and were appeased or repelled by spirits other or by sacred birds. boundaries were. at the time of the Periplus. may suppose the shark to have been a soulless that the industry dates and unimpressionable demon. from the Penner River on the north (emptying into the Bay of Bengal at 14° 40' N.' 241 fishes (sharks) to prevent them from injuring the divers whilst enall gaged in seveking pearls under water. for at night they dissolve the charm so that the fishes can work mischief at their will. now part of Trichinopoly (10° 49' N. Chola kingdom. Coast country. the Coast Country' largest. and were Argaru. one-twentieth part of they take." and referring to the By the Ceylonese it shipping-trade for Malacca and the Far East. which belonged administered from Madura. modern word Coromandel. that These fish-charmers are termed Abraiaman (Brahmans). the ancient capital of the Chola kingdom. ). richest." There can be little doubt that this kind of protection was sought by the divers at the time of the Periplus. and on the south the During Valiyar River (10° 3' N. and their charm holds good for that day only. kingdom conquered and absorbed its the mediaeval period the Chola the Portuguese derived our cens it progenitor. the Pandyan. so that the priestly caste could properly decline to stand aside for the benefit of the ser- pent-cults that had preceded them. 59.. ^\ e But sharks called for the else visible aid of the priests. — This is nearly a correct transliteration of Urai- yur ("city of habitation"). " Chola-mandalam. as distinguished from those of the to the Adam's Gulf of Manar. was called Soli. pepper and diamonds." pearl-fisheries at The Strait. belonging to this kingdom. Pandyan kingdom. A covered passage hewn out of p. tells of a tour of conquest of made by Raghu. Miiller. The location of three ports can be no more than conjectural. 60.). 79° 22' E. Kalidasa. 79° 49' E.' 242 Previous identifications of this name have failed to take into ac- count the fact that it v\ as inland. pp. the rock leads to them. —This is probably "fair may be identified with the modern Madras (13° Lassen 4' town. in the Raghuvamsa. 430.) 59. which nestles picturesquely at its foot.) 60. and there is no evidence that Pondicherry exall isted at the time of the Periplus. . probably both this and the Cawara not quite. at one of the mouths of the Kaverl River. India.). Walter Elliot. 79° 50' E. which rises abruptly out of the plain to a height of 340 feet above the old city. which were 60. the modern Pondicherry (11° 56' N. Poduca. little —The textile industry of both Trichi- nopoly (or Uraiyur) and Tanjore has been famous from early times. Ships from the north — that is.. such demand in the Saracen markets. "having ( conquered the Bangalis. Early History. either 542) doubts the possibility of identifying Camara or Sopatma. (II.i7.. and in a different country from the Pandyan kingdom. 130. in the middle ages." So Karikal(10° 55' — Bohlen.. India.. The capital grew up around a fortress built on the summit of the Rock of Trichinopoly. ). Coins of Southern India. the modern Kumbakonam of its (10° 58' N. which still retains traces former j. 342.^/-/. the great-grandfather of Rama. Sopatma. From this part came those gold-threaded embroideries Roman world came from in of India. —Ptolemy mentions if a Chaberis emporion. McCrindle and ^i^-^x^towi?. is now left of the old fortifications but the citadel and a pagodatemple. Yule. the capital was removed to Malaikurram. Benfey. ' (Furneaux." (Foulkes. 164.. 80° 19' E.. This is probably intended for PWW. ). grandeur. andafter other changes to Tanjore (10° 47' N. following Lassen. 1-10. Ritter. starting from Ayodhya the modern Oudh) he went eastward to the ocean. who trusted in their ships. "new 60. in Indian Antiquary^ 1879. prefers Pulikat (13° 25' N. Little like "The view from the frowning heights of the rock is very grand." and N. of the Periplus were nearly. 80° 15' E.. Vincent Smith.) After the destruction of Uraiyur about the 7th century A. Camara. Argaritic muslins. 79°8'E. D. from the Ganges and Bengal. There can be the doubt that some of the finest fabrics that reached this kingdom of Chola. Fabricius. (Sir j. town. identical with the modern N. 1-78). the craft Ships of the country: Sangara. Ceylon.. The first were. the larger type. on which a frequent a ship with symbol is two masts." derives it from the Sanscrit sangara. "a Benfey (art. to shipping. in general use in South India. in is still used on the Malabar Caldwell gives the forms changadam Malayalam. etc. . I.243 60. iii. how. The coast is comparatively large size of the shipping on the Coromandel indicated also by the Andhra coinage. no made of hollowed logs with plank sides and outriggers. jangala in Tula. and the Eastern Archipelago.. 543). of the sangara type. Taylor (^Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. a Malay ojiginal. — such p. were probably made of two such canoes joined together by a deck-platform admitting of a fair-sized deck-house. says that the ndimsjangar coast for these double canoes. 361) ascribes the word to This is quite possible. doubt. Dr. meaning trade Lassen. pp. Jan. ever (II.Ideen iiher die Politik. doubts the application of the word and found throughout the archipelago. 1847. 307) raft. on India in Ersch & Gruber's Encyklopadie. as are still used in South India and Ceylon (pictured on 212). sangara. ' ' and Heeren {. as the type itself is Malay. apparently of considerable tonnage. and samghadam in Sanscrit. Modem double canoe with deck-structure. to which the ship type bears witness. caulked with oakum. . 45 Plate I. 38 Kurumbar or Pallava coin of the Andhra coin. showing a two-masted Coromandel coast." (Eurneaux. showing a twomasted ship like the modem coasting vessel or if honi. if not imposThese masulah boats are flat-bottomed barges constructed of sible. shore to the vessels is carried on by jolly-boats from the pier. India. Coins of Southern India) Plate II. These latter are relics of a bygone day. is also attested by the large numbers of (E.244 The maritime traffic.e. and are able to withstand better than far more solidly built craft the shock of being landed on the sandy beach from the crest of a seething boats from the sho(. * Roman coins which are found on the the Coromandel Coast. breaker. J. Coins of Andhra Dynasty." Ixxxii). Rapson. fig. and the Persian ship at Ajanta. ship presenting details like those of the Gujarati ship at Boroboedor. and works will secure is immunity for landing and shipping operations from the tremendous surf which is so general along the Passenger traffic from the whole of the Coromandel coast.) . planks sewn together with rope of cocoanut fibre. . 254. fig. when Madras was an open roadstead and when landing through the surf by any form of jdUy-boat was a matter extremely difficult. The in the shipping of the Andhra and at Pallava coins doubtless survives modern masida boats" Madras: harbor (of Madras) can never be a harbor of refuge. Early South Indian Coins (re-drawn and restored from Elliot. or masulah all "The that the . prince were seeking. but finding in themselves mistaken. piloted merchants into Barygaza. which. The now his found that state. Histo'-x of Java. "In the year 525 (Saka a king of era. D.).245 Similar in a general rati way to the Andhra coin-symbol is the Guja- ship can'ed in bas-relief on the frieze of the Buddhist temple at Boroboedor in Java. re-embarked. it being foretold ta with about 5000 Gujarat that his country would decay and go to ruin.. Matarem. when him a reinforcement of 2000 From this period Java was known and celebrated as a people. sent . . men alone were wanting to make a great and flourishing He . He embarked followers in 6 large and about 100 small vessels. . D. While dating from about 600 A. kingdom. and the bay of Matarem was filled with adventurers father. ) . from all parts. Ships of type were doubtless included among the trappaga and cotymha of § 44. Gujarat! ship of about 600 this A. while the short broad sail with double yards is identical with those of the Egyptian Punt Expedition of the 15th century B." (Sir Stamford Raffles. C. he resolved to send his son to Java. 87 flF. delighted at his success. accordingly applied to Gujarat for assistance. an ejttensive commerce was carried on with Gujarat and other countries. = 603 A. from the Boroboedor frieze. this vessel was probably not different from those of the 1st century. . and after a voyage of four months reached an island they supposed to be Java. and the center of the island they finally settled at . II. D. shows Chinese influence. in general use on the Egypt. "ships for going to foreign shores. but.246 60. the higher-built Chinese junk." perhaps means no more than is Koleh panjail." But Rajendralala the San- Mitra scrit {. dug-out laung-go for river use. Chindwin River. and probably as early as the 12th This region. 166. Sketches text is The onta of Shipping and Craft. although the lines are tliose of ancient This type displays the stem-cabins differently arranged from those in See also Chatterton. C. 7.Antiquities of Orissa. 115) derives the word from kolantarapota. Chinese annals mention voyages to the to Christian era. early date. (without rigging) as the . kattu which made the voyage to Chryse and were of great similar to the Chinese junks or the Burmese The sea-trade of the Gulf of or Chindwin traders. Tonkin was of very Malacca prior to the century B. colandia must have been laung-zat. 31. known (2d century B. C. or south- Han dynasty The pointing chariot. and sailing ship. Chinese as Yix'e-chang. the participle I. C. The size. Colandia: —This name seems ship." was known in the 11th century B. The a carvel-built vessel on the same lines larger type. generally supposed to be corrupt.) kolandiophonta. Sailing Ships. the name for the fast fishermen entered in modern Singapore re- gattas. as indi- . Chinese boundaries under compass. was independent the until the extension of the )." Burmese laung-zSt. being the present of to be. (Pritchett." to be of Malay origin. .247 cated by Hirth Undent History of China. as told . by from the serial collection of models of commercial shipping. was probably used mainly for geomancy until applied to navigation by Persians and Arabs visiting China in the 6th and 7th centuries A. stars themselves steered by the nature of the sea-bottom. showing the individual cabins in the stem-structure. The came Arabian geographer Mas' udi mentions Chinese junks which his time. Philadelphia. D. 126-136). pp. to Bassora in and in the cave-paintings : t Ajanta. and by observing the Model Marco Polo ited in of an early type of Chinese junk. exhibthe Commercial Museum. The Chinese and the sun. each occupied by a merchant with his stock of goods. but one deck. II. 249-51. in severances in the interior. a smaller vessel. building. ship hath but one rudder. as a provision against damage or injury to the large one from the perils of men. —Yule. Burma. 132-8. one plank laid over the other. fig. The . for 200 mariners. for description of junks in for a full account of Burmese ship- and modern. large to carry some of 1000 baskets of pepper. of "Each of their them 300. and sometimes they have ship two additional masts. . laden on large ships which they sailing like mountains with the wings of the wind on the surface of the water. and the ucts of Hind and Sind. They carried provisions for 50 days. nearly 300 parasangs along the seacoast. (See Yule's Marco other mediaeval writers. . some one ship shall carry 5000 or 6000 baskets of pepper. . . s I) gives a detailed description of (Yule' edition II. plate VII. . Ferrars. but it hath four masts.'' So Fa-Hien left Ceylon in a merchantman. 40. Ancient Ships. Marco Polo (Book the junks of that day: ' Chap. (See Torr." Java-dvtpa. Imported everything. : in his 333). another large (^Travels. They have cabins.' Polo. . Every great big that to pull them requires four mariners to each. are of timber. ship has certain large barks or tenders attached to it. double. fastenings are all "The of good iron nails and the sides are . by a rope. kneaded together with wood-oil.' ) ) 248 commemorative of the visit of a Persian embassy in the early 7th century. "Maabar extends in beautiful prodcall Junks. which they and unship at pleasure. length from Quilon to Nellore. The curiosities of Chin and Machin. which also had on board more than 200 men. mayhap the ship should spring aleak. III. primitive 252-3. so than they are now. xi. he again embarked in merchantman. quotes from the Arab geographer Wassaf Marco Polo (II. ) And landing from this vessel where he spent five months. and carry 50 or 60 mariners them 80 or 100. "The case larger of their vessels have some thirteen compartments or strongly framed. are always arriving there. though each of them contains some 50 or 60 greatly at their ease. if not a junk. chap. . is manifestly influenced by that type of vessel. made with planking . on board of which there were more than 200 to which was attached.) to 'The ships in fir which merchants go and fro amongst the Isles of India. and caulked outside and in with lime and chopped hemp. and they used formerly to be larger And when there is no wind they use sweeps. 60. The wealth of the Isles of the . these are large enough apiece. every wherein the merchants abide man having one to himself. and in the navigation. They great ships requires at least are indeed of great size. a ship is shown which. also. it which yana. of Taprobane Ptolemy notes that the ancient name was Simundu (mistaking the two syllables of our author's word Palaesimundu for the Greek Cosmas palai). and Ceylon. as McCrindle notes. to unions (pearls) in all the world. The by the ancients" it — of interest. 'island of Ravana. " But there no harbor on the south coast of Ceylon. the name given to in the Rdma- The knowledge concerning Ceylon which reached the west through Onesicritus. Eratosthenes and Strabo. silver and precious stones. appears in the inscription of Asoka at Girnar. Sylan. the seaThe name means copper-colored The Pali form. is the Sanscrit Tdmraparn't. and where the best pearls are found.simundus (VI. from Irak and Khurasan as far as and Europe. 20." and calls "the most famous city in the island. which is so situated as to be the key of Hind. Dvtpa Havana. 24) but applies lies it to a it city "adjoining the harbor that facing the south. which is the best and noblest province in India. first through the Pali the true Sanscrit name for the island "island of the lions. (I. or Tamraparrii. is Indicopleustes called it Sielediba." the knows name Pala. the Dharma of Gautama Buddha. ' ' . : Sinhala-dvipa. xx) calls Chola "the kingdom of Maabar called Soli." Palaesimundu. and fairest and there be the 61. According word is the Sanscrit Palistmanta. port town at the mouth of the Ganges. it author speaks of religion." distinction is that This is the modern Ceylon. . in the time of its greatest devotion to the Our new which its neighbors the Dravidian kingdoms of Southern India never fully accepted. compare Tdmra-liptt. kidnapper of Sita in the Ramdyana) is thought by some to be the origin According to Taprobane." Friar the said region Odoric (chap. and Pliny seems to be confusing his city and . 249 Persian Gulf in particular. Another Brahmanical name." or lion-like men-heroes. the king's place of residence." (the demon-king. but in his own time Salike. 160). "abode of is. To this source may be traced Pliny its other names. McCrindle (^Ancient India.000. Tambapanni. the name was given by Vijaya." Marco himself (III. who led the first Indian colony into the island. and applied to the place where he first landed. Serendib. Lassen 201) this the law of piety. the country of the Salae. was of the island before its conversion to Buddhism under the missionary zeal of Asoka. which. is containing a population of 200. and in part the beauty and adornment of other countries.. Rum are derived from Maabar. iv) says of this kingdom: "The king of is most rich in gold. was called Taprobane. . and the whole service of the church. chap. in full view. and it lies beyond the pepper country. them. not human because racially opposed to the So Fa-Hien describes them in an interesting passage Aryan invaders. " "many Vaisya clans and Sabasan merchants. Persia and Aethia marvellous sight. and it ." Cosmas Indicopleustes Ceylon and its (Christian Topography. itself. is a hyathis island. brought silk aloe-wood. and the other the rest of the island. of whom one has the region of the hyacinthus. It is frequented by a great press of is merchants from far countries. the natives. In that island established the is Church of Christ. But and the kings. which is placed as it were midway between all lands. so its inhabitants are very close to one another. "From the inner regions. appended tells of trade in the 6th century A. cloves. and it sends ships likewise hither opia and thither other in all directions. where the hyacinthus stone is found. with which merchants of When inhabitants. are of other faiths. Many temples are to on the top of one of them. like a great spinning- cinthus. relating to their trade ( Travels. his is account amplifies for what is : said in the and a translation com- parison "This ii the great island of the ocean. is 300 leagues in length. they say. In the nagas. in and a deacon. of which some have fresh water. by the Greeks Taprobane. had no human various countries carried on a trade. which is called by the Indians Sielediba. sending out iiery rays almost like the sun From all parts of India. D. and there a presbyter sent from Persia. whose houses are stately and beautiful. at Cape Comorin. in which is the market-town and port. It has other small islands scattered around it in great number. and in breadth about 90 miles. Two kings reign in the island. Periplus. hostile to each other. be seen top. and sandalwood. Ramayana the Sinhalese are referred to as rakshas and demons and spirits. and other products according to the place. while the merchants made their purchases according to the And he found in the capital city and took the things away. of the sect of the Persians. They But that great island. in relation to the ancient now lost. book XI J. that are is. but was occupied only by trafficking was taking place. the spirits did not show themselves. sparkling and it shines brightly. the market-towns. xxxviii) : "the country originally spirits and nagas. from Tzinista and from cloth. and very great. come a multitude of ships to this island. and cocoanut palms. say. They simply set forth their precious things with labels of the price attached to price.250 harbor with the actual position of the island harbor. situated in the Indian Sea. after they had offered the proper homage. "How have I both kings here. is brought. But Sopater was silent. which all produces the hyacinthus. and Male which has about five five ports to which pepper Pudapatana. shipped. which empties into the PerThese are the best-known market-towns of India: Sindu. and Adulis. distance of is Salopatana. And then he how with your and commerce. examine them. where it. Taprobane. and sesamin wood. of trade one from our own parts. You and said." Then said the king. Parti. and those from Persia. then. If "What have I to say. the king. Then on the mainland. Now Sindu is the beginning of India. whom was among whom was an ambassador the of the Persians." is they said. 'And so itself placed in the midst of India. within which no other land. brought them before seated. And again. which sends silk cloth. Roman. markets and ships to being a very great market. Sibor. and there is is a market-town. and in return which it transmits to the inner regions. separates Persia from India. the greatest and the richest. to Male.?" "Excellently well. brass too. and then the country from which cloves are is and then Tzinista. where it happened that a vessel arrived at the and there landed together those from Adulis. in which and pepper grows. And so. shipping alabandenum. "You. at a days and nights from the mainland. Kaber.?' things? ' ' . and to Persia. and you will see which one is the most magnificent But the king was amazed at this speech. and of your kings. shipping conch-shells. have you nothing to say. Sielediba. the "Who. and spikenard . Mangarouth. to the country of the Homerites. and the most powerful. Replying.?" And Sopater replied. that is. Calliana. the greatest and most Without delay the Persian answered: he is "Ours is powerthe most and powerful. And asked trade being admitted into the presence of the king. the king of kings. Nalopatana. there ' Marallo. for the ocean encircles it on the east. among Sopater. the captains and tax-collectors receiving them. you have both kings here. where the castor musk all found. that is. Orrhotha. sian Gulf. ful. with own products likewise. to Calhana. to Sindu.' And he answered. when this man says such you wish to learn the truth. and various kinds of cloth (for a great market-town). receives goods from all.'"' king asked. he bade them be them: "How goes it with your countries. for the river Indus. as custom was. out in the ocean. it receives other things from its these places. who died about 35 same time from Persia. And there came thither on matters named Sopater. he has power to do whatever he wills. And his business took him to the island of Taprobane. this island Sielediba. years ago. is is is found.251 forwards them to those of the outside. ). that he should be seated upon an elephant. Bay of Bengal. Vol. The confusion may have been partly due to the grandiloquent descriptions left by the visited Ceylonese embassy which History of Ancient the Emperor Augustus. —This . is the Maisolia of Ptolemy. and led around This Sopater told me. ' And and those also from Adulis. compare the he. it At the date of the Periplus was. and then ' at the admiration. was never equal to the demand. thones. with world in general are similar to those of Pomponius whom 100) he was nearly contemporary. that to say. he observes. Siam. bright. which survives in Machhlipatana. so they say. and wise. probably the Kistna. made with a brush. and acclaimed. until the construction of the Bombay railway the chief port of entry for the Deccan. the Persian was greatly Almost touches Azania.) " 252 have the money of both. and the only place The text notes the s great quantitj' of cotton cloth for is made there. but exits aggerates size tenfold. retains the old idea of a balancing southern continent of the Antich- with the eastern end of which he identifies Taprobane. images of both. The Periplus does not indicate quite that extent for Ceylon. 215. Cochinchina. who voyaged with him to that island. fine. is. The supply. and well-shaped. king looked at both obverse and and held forth the gold coin with Truly the Romans are magnificent and powerful other. 61. bade that both be produced. and the drachma of the other. Masalia. saying. . approving will see the truth. xii) called calmendar. Sumatra. (See Bunbury. Mecca. XVII. " And Now the gold coin was and assenting. 62. these things happened. chintzes (II. And when ashamed. and Hormus. Arakan. who has a river Maisolos. — Our author's ideas of the Alela. II. or pen- cilled. as McCrindle shows. xi) the best anchorage in the from which vessels sail for Pegu. as also for the islands of Madagascar. In Tavernier' time it was especially noted its painted. the modern Masulipatam (16° 11' N. Bengal." He contrasted these fine hand-painted fabrics with the coarse printed goods from Bengal. and you you have the gold coin of the one king. for thus are the best exported thither. the greatest market of the Andhra it kingdom. The he commanded that Sopater should be treated with honor. In Sanscrit. that the milharense . no doubt. See also Imperial Gazetteer. 81° 8' E. and the Manillas. not to be compared with the gold coin. Tavernier found (I. reverse. the name is Mausala. " whose map (reproduced on p. Geography. the whole city with drums. and the miUiarense was of silver and I need hardly say. polygamous race." The name appears in the Vishnu Purana and the Ramayana. — (See also Mitra. This is the Sanscrit Dasarna. They were a warlike. as a populous and powerful country. and feet. still Dosarene.) Cirrhadae. They with marked Mongolian features as described. the sovereign. 62. 441-450) fully describes the Lassen Bhota race. pass them over to others. 'they have merely holes in their heads instead of nostrils. capital was at Mokwanpur in Eastern Nepal. as the most acceptable offering which the king of the Odras" could take to the Pandu Orissa. as indicated by the text. I. Their location is not on the sea. and whose neglect of religious rites caused the Brahman Hindus to reduce them to the rank of Sudras. ' we by a need only omit the words scribe. There are difficulties in connection with the roads. xxxv. but those who know how to manage such difficulties and wish to proceed should bring with them money and various articles and give them to the king. the modern Mahanadi. at show them the 62. who was a special enemy of the Kirata. The ivory from this region has long been famous. He will send men to escort them. called Brahman mythology there was a bird of Garuda. author's information correct. west of Sikkim. The Kirata were under-sized. 6. to ' easily inserted make our (I. the modern Holy Land of India.) 253 The difBculties of travel through the Andhra kingdom are noted under § 50. who will shortest routes.and powerful. whose name allied to the Tibetans. These will. They were and inhabited much of Bengal at the time of the Aryan migration. In the and by the Aryan Hindus were called "pigmies. and . survives in the modern Bhutan. uncultivated." ' them Scyrites (VII. but in the valleys of the Himalayas. was a Bhota the in and were formerly independent. " ( Travels. one being the Kirata. —This known as Kirata. whose descendants. like the body of a serpent. live are of Turanian tribe. race. The Mahabharata locates them on the Brahmaputra. Their native Lassen names ten different tribes. different stages. Fa-Hien also found the kingdom of Dakshina "out of the way and perilous to traverse. Hence the contemptuous description of Pliny calls their Mongolian and says flexible faces as "noseless. having provided a dynasty of considerable duration in Nepal. the course trending. 2). Morung.'' Vishnu." Ptolemy calls their country Kir- rhadia. Antiquities of Orissa. whose native animism yielded imperfectly to Brahman or Buddhist teaching. It is mentioned both in the Mahabharata and the Vishnu Purana. Ptolemy mentions also a river Dosaron. and their references to them are full of exaggeration and fable. wounded by these people. and is reproved by (XV." 254 Lassen (II." that is. in Journal of the Asiatic of Bengal. who nomads and ' raw who are called Padaeans. cit. first mentioned in the MaKiratarjuniya. but feast he denies that he not agreeing with him. but few among them attain this state. and This especially referred to in Arjuna. and even three spans some of whom are without with only two breathing orifices above the mouth. which are as large as geese. so Wilford in Asiatic Researches. by his book — The Aryans professed Tibeto-Burman races at their eastern frontier. whether be a woman or a man the men who if is are his nearest connections put flesh him kill to death. would he spoiled. men of five. between Siva in the guise of a Kirata. called which recounts the combat. alleging that if he wasted by disease his sick. these people collect and destroy the eggs of the cranes which lay their eggs there. 99. reaches old age. op. but Horse-faces and Long-faces. nostrils. Bargysi. The Vara Sanhita Purana mentions a people in the mountains east of India. any if it one of the community be a sick." one of the Kavyas. of our author. there mentioned as neighbors of the Kirata. Those by of three spans in height wage war with the cranes (described Homer) and with the partridges. Metrasthenes relates the story in some Strabo are detail. — Herodotus it notices such a custom are among eat the other Indians. living to the east. Remarks on the Sequel Society to the Periplus. 62. . 1847. or mountaineer. the greatest contempt for the called Asvavadana. and doubtless of like race. — horse-faced. in the hills on the Assam-Burma frontier." is (Ill. 57): "he then deviates into fables. i. . they. they sacrifice and feast upon. " (Taylor. and nowhere else are the eggs or the young cranes to be this found. in Hesiod and other Greek writers. and says that there in height. Jan. for before that they put to death every one that falls into any distemper.) 62. who spoke the Sanscrit writings.. in like manner the women who And whoever are most intimate with her do the same as the men. frequently a crane escapes from point of a country with a brazen weapon tribe is in its body. 657) thinks this story the original of the battle between pigmies and cranes.) When man. —These are the Bhargas of the Vishnu Purana. This is no invention was no doubt told him by some friend at Nelcynda. 62. VIII and IX. habharata. and upon him. flesh.) Said to be Cannibals. (Taylor. And if a woman be sick. river in the Bangalis. Strabo has been accused of ignorance for remarking that the (XV. and retain their sanctity. who trusted in their ships. The same practices were said by Dr. —The name By it. This ancient mouth. The name of which they appear 63. and to the island of This was the sea-port of Bengal in the Post-Vedic and Ceylon. the Adi Ganga. the modern Bikrampur. Padaeans" in the is probably meant for Purushada. until about the 15th river was the Sagar island were century. It modern Tamluk (22° Tamra-parnI N. Near here was Vikramapura. Buddhist periods.. Taylor. which gave its name Pandya kingdom. Here it was that Fa-Hien sojourned two years. But its importance does not seem to date from so early a period as that of the Periplus. 13) his Ganges " discharges its waters by a single mouth. and were preserved from the agonies of transmigration into the bodies of animals. "Ultima vicinus Phoebo tenet Arva Pai. i. . the ancient Suvarnagrama. ' 56).. more especially the Hughli estuary. 87° 56' E. the district same paragraph to meant Bengal. to the country of Singhala. 133-4). by the river. the Hughh still and the sacred places. one of the capitals of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. and at that time the principal." But . or Kuki Chin. quoting Megasthenes' account of ' Indian mountaineers 'who eat the bodies of their relatives. . island and not west of This. is Ganges. the chief port of Eastern Bengal under the Gupta Empire and in the middle ages. and went floating over the sea to the southwest . daeus. ). many scholars. silted up. its main channel is to that of the BrahmaGa%." and Strabo i.' 255 So Tibullus (R'. river and town. the to the By the town Ganges probably meant Tamra-lipti. under Vara Sanhka Purana. finally joined putra. ). emptying into the Meghna of 18' estuary as at present (/ot^. the sick and aged were killed and eaten because of the belief that by such means their souls remained in the tribe. largest mouth of the Ganges. which is supported by preferable to that of Tamra-lipti at Fergusson and Dr. seems who would place . estuary. XII. Taylor to be followed a couple of generations ago by the Kukis. and the river constantly tending eastward. a TibetoBurman tribe in the Chin Hills between Assam and Burma. while it is more likely that the name of Ganges would have been localized on the sacred. (XV." This identification. was the port of the who were conquered by the hero of Kalidasa' s Raghuvamsa. but east of Ganga-Sagar as at present. the modern Sonargaon (23° 40' N. applied in the is district. 90° 36' E. after which he embarked in a large ' ' merchant vessel. 45). being frequently mentioned in the great epics. in —This was probably the true spike- nard. ginger-grass. as noted under § 65. all These species. Grangetic spikenard. which. as well as its predominant size. Taylor remarks. 451." The history of cotton spinning in India goes back to remote antiquity. and valued sufficiently to be shipped it considerable quantity to Nelcynda. Pearls. and usually reddish. being associated with the Vedic gods or goddesses who are described and pictured as wearing such garments. as Watt remarks (pp. country of also. 792). oils. Pliny confuses this grass also with malabathrum. were names drawn through a finger-ring.. — These all are the muslins of fabrics Dacca district. in a way to show the organization of the a weaver who has received 10 palas of cotton thread like them back increased to eleven." of a Persian ambassador who took his sovereign. was a variety of Cymbopogon or Andnpogon. the most delicate of the of India. Muslins of the finest the sort. 63. or nebula. called Gangetic." 63. he re- marks f^XII. ostrich's egg. Pliny describes another kind from the Ganges (XII. yield aromatic until recently have been in the much confused. an ancient test of which was for the piece to be J'entus textilis. which the Romans knew of them. it bears the name of ozcenitis. from the Himalayas. he Tavernier who tells does otherwise shall pay a fine of V) panas. those of the Ganges streams are inferior. being small.256 information probably reflects the esteem in which that mouth was held. and emits a fetid odor." This. en- on returning home. etc. allied to the " nard root" and of § 39. by the rice-water and the used weaving. in his time 63. best —This is was from the Eastern Himalayas. says "the " malabathrum produced in the the Cirrhadae. 26) which "is altogether condemned. the lemon-grass. and when it was opened a turban fine that was you drawn from it 60 cubits in length. where the Romans fouftd (§ 56). The in both woven and tinted in patterns of design. noted under § 49. showing great skill woven garments. as Dr. the greatest source of supply. 462. probably Cymbopogon jwarancma. " is said to grow marshes like the lentil. Malabathrum. —These were not of the best qualit}'. Ptolemy. are abundantly reproduced from early temples Mitra {Jntiauities of . 59). as being good for nothing. a cocoanut of the size of an riched with precious stones. 63. citronella. often irregular. They are mentioned in under the Institutes of industry: give in let Manu. and of a muslin so would scarcely know that you had it in your hand. Ramanuja mentions a stuff from Nepal. and although Spinning and weaving. The Ramayana The mentions silken. or various kinds. gold. or of woven.'').: 257 Orissa. or of thread spun by patta fibres worms (silk. cloths not of cotton. the buffoon inquires: is who that gentleman dressed in silken raiment. and sumptuous carriages of every kind. however. Slta consisted of woolen and cotton stuffs of woolen stuffs. by Scythians. fine vestments of ornaments. and linen. the . The change climate of the of custom as the Aryans penetrated into the hot Ganges Valley is shown in the Laws of Manu. of course. Vol. blankets of various manufacture by the Abhiras of Gujarat. housings for elephants. some doubtless of fine still made in Kashmir. and rolling about as his limbs were out of (Act IV. fine muslin from people of Carnatic and Mysore. In the Rig I'eda the is material used in clothing not specified. trousseau of silk. this superlatively fine yarn is still proIn 1888 the spinners who supplied the duced in some quantities. tile from whence it appears certain that the cotton tex- industry at the time of the Christian era was far in advance of that of any of the western countries. by princes of the Eastern tribes. lower Bengal. which prohibited Brahmans the use of wool. II). the latter marten and weasel. cipally to quality. quality were said to be reduced to two elderly women in the finest ' known under such names as "Textile Breeze". — in the Sabha Parva —enumerates presents the former of wool and embroidered with and brocades. were both by hand. divers colors. glittering if with rich ioint. Midnapur and Ganjam. Aside from the priestly caste. shawls but of sheep or goat wool. little There can be ' ' doubt that the fine muslins of Eastern Bengal ' Aryan invasion. for example. the Mrichchhakatika. possibly have been spun it While cotton may seems more sula likely that first in Turkestan. furs. II). referred prin- such as are woolen cloth of various kinds. Turkharas and Kankas." Heeren supposes the woolen stuffs to have been Cashmere shawls.?" ornaments. were made there before Running Water or ' Evening Dew ". The early Fedas. In an early play. The Mahabharaia brought to Yudhisthira Cloths and skins. fine fabrics of all kinds were in use. Sc. princely precious stones. this industry was renewed by the cottons from Manchester and the starting of mills about Bombay. it has always been native in the Indian penincultivation and that the Aryan invaders found the and industry both well established. The Vegetable India: tures Bombay. so that a few months sufficed to destroy the earlier industry and to lay the way for the modern textile miUs of India. T. carried A p'ece of this muslin 10 yards in less than five long by 1 yard wide could not be the woven on months. It is number of said that grains and was valued at about S50. June. —This was gold in probably the gold of the Chota Nagpur mouth. (See Henry Lee. The Cotton J. however. chap. appearing in the Periplus as exports at the mouth of the Indus and at the Gulf of Cambay. or a little o\er 1-10 of a pound. At several places in northwestern India fine muslins duced. The river Son. Gold mines. S. was thought demand for in this An industry. writers Erannoboas. 43. published by the U. but was due to the direct importation of European fabrics.) 258 village of Dhamrai. The change from hand spinning and weaving to power looms and spindles was not gradual as in Europe. Alukharji.) from Tibet. 1899. Art ManufacPlant. Furneaux. 1884). which were . 63. and work could only be air in the rainy season when the moisture in the would prevent the thread from breaking.600 threads. ment of Agriculture. carrying gold. which formerly flowed into the Ganges capital at the site of the ancient Pataliputra. Ancient India. India. the modern Patna. p. often described by mediae\al and earlier travelers. the classical writers from Herodotus to As Ball pointed out {Journal of the Royal Irish Academy. were proThese also were shipped westward. There was the famous also a substantial supply cf the Aurannoboas of § 53. incredible amount of of patience testing and skill were required of to pass a One way the fineness the fabric. located from 75 to 150 miles west of the Ganges The rivers flowing north alluvial and east of these highlands have long produced considerable quantities. 1896. H. N. iii. of Also. was by the weight in proportion and 200 years ago a piece of muslin 15 yards long by 1 yard wide could be made so fine as to weigh only In 1840 a piece of the 900 grains. Depart- Lamb of Tartary. was called by the classical from the Sanscrit hiranya-vaha. but nowhere of quality equal to those of Bengal. the "ant-gold" was a Sanscrit small fragments of alluvial gold. this name for the name was passed on. which produced all ant-gold" mentioned by Pliny. about 20 miles north of Dacca. but it that the industry might be revived with any revival of the this fine fabric. to size 20 yards long and 1 yard wide through an ordinary The best test. being apalso referred to as plied to the dogs of the Tibetan miners. of was whole piece finger-ring." ' (McCrindle. plateau. same dimensions and texture could not be made finer than 1. on the Malabar coast (coming from the (p.) griffins. are. coin called thought by Benfey to be the Sanscrit "numbered. and these are probably the ones which gave the name of "golden" to the peninsula. which are also of the same tortoise-shell The Assam India. and others of sea and sea-shells. a South Indian coin cit. and perhaps as early as the 12th. McCrindle. yellow amber. but. in the Ganges" disposes mense gold mines State of of a long voyage in rather of ancient date have summary been discovered ImMalayan Pahang.. as Watt observes been mainly an article of import in India. The "horn of the gold-digging ant. xvi) that silk was of poor quality. made of a wild sheep' s horn mounted on a handle. xv). Economic Geology and the A lamgirnama of Muhammad caltis is Kazim ri663). C. Dacca. XV. The kalita. however. There can be little was meant the Malacca peninsula.259 as preserved in the temple of Hercules at Erythrae. the Indian Antiquary. 36." mentioned by Gold was also brought into India through the Tipperah country about 60 miles east of the Ganges delta. as Tavof in ernier himself states xvii). it Tavernier notes (III. mentions one of Bengal called Wilford (^Asiatic Researches. the size of our 15 with numerous round and square pieces of «/ coins. 231. to require their subjects to every year. coral. 565). of substantial See also yield. 4-7. while the legend of Buddha's visit to Cambodia is at least . Ball. Arrian. Pliny. although the location "just opposite the fashion. July. Strabo. washings (III. 102-5. 44. PUny was a gold-miner's pick. (See Herodotus III. Anabasis V. Ball notes. preferred the refined gold Pliny mentions gold called canden. however. tortoise-shell bracelets. quoting Stuckius. Ancient India. like the of that country. it exchange for In Assam. called kali (Elliot. 63. 269). V. It is known from Chinese records that ships from that country made the journey to Malacca as early as the 4th century B. 51. and that both were sent overland to China in silver. 1887. i. while Vincent. north of Malacca. 137). in Tipperah merchants trading (III. kallais." There was. XI. was formerly the custom for the rulers wash for gold a certain number of days while regular gold-washers were taxed. river-washings of coming chiefly from the Assam and northern Burma. op. according to Tavernier took back shells.axe. p. known to Ptolemy — Chersonesus. mines of Mysore). gold has always Chryse Island this doubt that by as the Aurea (the "golden"). venturing some curious : At Ezion-Geber.260 suggestive of the great influence exercised from India over all Indo- China. King Hiram greatly assisted King Solomon in preparing his navy. 1904. which belongs to India. . Clifford {Further India. Mr." And illustrating the state of knowledge in the Roman world in the 1st cen- tury. H. 20) professes to begin with the Scythian Ocean. China via the Straits of Malacca. was to the author of the Periplus a real country. a bay of Egypt on the Erythrasan number of ships. origin he mentions of the Attacori sunny hills and the nation on the gulf of that name. however. us only that it was situated opposite to the silk. The port is now named Berenice( !). . ideas of the Romans Of Chryse. eat human Here are also numerous wandering nomad tribes of India. the Promontory of Chryse a people of India. and the author of the Periplus Ganges. was no longer unknown to the mariners of the east." identifications Sea. He speaks.' situated whence we may gather that where the seacoast ends Chryse was conceived by an island lying not only to the east of the Ganges." . to fetch gold. We know that less than a century later the sailor Alex- ander. . yet vaguely correct. Clifford aptly cites Josephus (^Antiquities of the Jews. a people protected by their from all noxious blasts and in the interior the Caseri. and. N. . hut now the Aurea Chersonesus. formerly deemed to be in the Hebrew jurisdiction. vance in knowledge. Pliny has nothing to tells tell us. "^-that is. flesh. himself sailed to the Malay peninsula. from whom it Marinus of Tyre derived the knowledge subse- quently utilized by Ptolemy. and this may safely be concluded that the feasibility of southeastern passage had become known means to the seafarers of test China as long before an adventurer from the west was enabled to of its the fact existence through the of an actual voyage. . even though it that the sea-route to was not yet in general use. Y. and no Rumors must have reached him concerning mere mythical fairyland. pp. and is near the city of Elan. who conducted Solomon' s officers to the land that of old was called Ophir. for the isle of Chryse. sending him mariners and pilots. 6-7) gives an excellent account of the hazy. the Arctic and after some names of doubtful — . albeit still enveloped in a him as golden haze. on which he believed he could rely. and beyond. His account of Eastern Asia (VI. of Thina. the golden. the land of externally. and this would tend to prove it. 2) who recounts the Ophir voyages of Solomon. in the 1st and 2d centuries concerning the Far East. VIII. C. but also to This indicates a distinct adthe southward of the Chinese Empire. who look toward the Scythians. the king constructed a It is uncertain what knowledge Pliny had of Further India. and The A. The from 221 to 209 B. as the Periin greater vi'ith the Far East. . and the imperial power itself. their sovereign rights C. the ruins at Angkor-Wat origin. Ts'in. —This can hardly be other than the of great western state China. any place. plus states. C. Hienits known as Si-gnan-fu. his outpost. ' ' the confederation of eastern states. Ts'i and Ch'u. in the present province of Shen-si. China and Bactria is said to have begun in 188 B. which ruled from 867 to 255 B. Ts'in was for centuries the most powerful of the and a constant menace to the imperial power. then here to a strength and patience no whit we must add genius ' 64. Chou dynasty. C. greatest of the Ts'in Regular caravan communication with Bactria. D.' 261 The numerous that the ports of migrations from India into Indo-China. in Cambodia are no tively of ancient Hindu in Of these he quotes Francois Garnier: Perhaps never. and thus preparing the 255 B. was yang. later capital. less If we wonder at the Pyra! mids as a gigantic achievement of human strength and patience. and the city called Thinae" its (meant. probably. Very early in the dynasty. the states of Wei. found Chinese . Ts'in Chi Hwangti. and the princes of Ts'in. than those coming from Egypt. to. between way for direct travel . so that they The power of Ts' in grew until it overbalanced might devour them. have already been referred their and greatest monuments remain to us in the tremendous less distinc- Buddhist temples of Boroboedor and Brambanan. on the Wei river not far above confluence with the Hoang-ho. in con- sideration of his undertaking the defence of the frontier against the Tartars. This state of states. The itself harassed in the west by the Tartar tribes. has a more imposing mass of stone art been raised with more and science. as the annals put it. making Hami. C. the center of an active trade larger ships. great migration from Gujarat to Java in the 6th century and the resulting Hindu kingdoms. the Chinese frontier across the Gobi desert. give ample ground for the belief South India and Ceylon were in truth. and finally a Ts'in prince became Emperor of China in monarchs. This policy naturally profited Ts'in more than the empire. pushed under the Tian-Shan mountains. "like wolves or tigers wished to draw all the other princes into their claws. C. and who Chinese history. Chau. both before and after the Christian era. employing number. A Land called This. Han. as the genitive of This). As Tartar territory was conquered it was incorporated into the Ts'in dominions. perhaps in the 8th century B. is If Clifford's belief correct. and in the east by rebellious subjects. a portion of were resigned to the prince of Ts'in. is one of the brighest names in who ruled It was he who began the Great Wall. 262 But the success of Ts'in had brought itself it its own reaction. and the Han dynasty. by the first Han emperor. Washington. built a from Loyang to Singanfu. Philadelphia. all It was so gave much way to a Tartar state that it could not control China. . The political importance of the was emphasized. however. Kaotsou. and in order to make that state western location more accessible great high-road to the rest of the empire. who removed his capital from Loyang in Honan to Hien-Yang or Singanfu in Shensi. the ancient Ts'in capital. 1128 times enlarged from a portion of a film exposed by Bailey Willis. panel in the Commercial Museum. Carnegie Institution. Buddhist pilgrim in northwestern China: froma6-ft. which is still in use. next on the north and reachi ing the Yellovir River. mori.— Y{. order Lepidoptera. Silk is Raw — the cocoon-secretion of the mulberry-leaf moth. and dyeing introduced. with silk threads. Yu-chou. Anam. silk and silk yarn and silk cloth. and who defeated near Khoton the Yueh-chi king Kadphises. ivory. Ancient History of China. began the aggressive westward which led to the great conquests of the General Pan-chao. who led his army of Chinese and Tartars as far as the Caspian. Comprehensive China. — Boulger. It was in this region that Buddhism seems first over Turkestan. Ping-chou (the modern Shan-si) especially for cotton was noted and silk textures. worms and the invention of reel. Mingti. so that rank and position were for the first time indicated by the man's outward textile materials appearance. loom. dating from the 11th century B. Geography oj" the Chinese Empire. apparently. the modern Hu-naa. and embroidery. History Morse. C-). in the warm-temperate climate of northwestern China. silk and hemp.' 263 The Han made no dynasty soon lost its outposts beyond the wall. native. ) — Richard. that the detail. ' wife of the emperor Huang-ti (27th century B. traded in bamboos. and by policy his power and conquered policy toward the Yueh-chi reasserted sovereignty a military His son. China. C). It was this province which . The Trade and of China. who made China effort to recover until the Kwang Vouti. 64. while the northernmost. In the Chou-li. etc. and those of the higher Soon other were enabled to discard skins as wearing apparel.. were discovered. H. varnish. then established in upper India. are ascribed to Lei-tsu. were The same book describes already monopolized in different families. had in cinnabar. to this have reached China. C. it appears every Chinese government supervised the production of silk in and that specialties of design.— E. under the emperor Fu-hi. embroidered by the empress. This is the earliest correct statement of the under §§ 39. rather than through Tibet or Burma. See also 49 and 56. while the rearing of the . ornament. Chinese legends mention the making of musical instruments of wood. D. first family Bombycida. and reign of them 25-58 A. with Western Asia. (29th century B. and skins. B. known as the 'Lady of Si-ling. and from time China was always more or less directly in communication (See Hirth. trade the provinces of China: King-chou. source of silk and of the routes by which it reached the world's markets. —Douglas. Bombyx and cultivated. Cloth was woven classes of silk. Administration of the Chinese Empire. Parker. Anim. It has been supposed it that the Greeks learned of silk through Alexander' s expedition. while they cover same time rexeal her naked charms. Ancient History of China. early by way of the Brahmaputra in the Christian era.' fXI. Pliny mentions cates a steady importation of was first spun Plates. probably reached them previously through Aristotle {Hist. V. to silk: the The Hebrew scriptures contain at least two references dmeshek of Amos III. daughter of raw silk on bobbins before Aristode's The fabric he mentions was the famous Coa vestis. in the island of said that this Cos by Pamphile. and may be assumed that some trade at least it went farther west. Assam and Eastern Bengal. 375. meslii in English damask. parent gauze (woven also at Tyre and elsewhere in Syria). and was. The antiquity of the silk industry in India in favor of its is uncertain. at the art of making garments which. while mean a silken gauze. then a bombylius. indeed.. the Ramdyana. through (Hirth. pp. "It is a great first worm which it At its metamorphosis a chrysalis this produces a separate caterpillar. a silken fabric. The Egyptian records do not mention it prior to the Persian conquest. and six lastly — all these changes taking place within months. 10 seems to TXLIX. Cambridge Natural History. 117." This indi- Pamphile of Cos. and Mahdbharata. 22-3. and Attacus (feeding on the castor-oil plant) were silk. 26). Asia. but Persia. mcixx^in^ J ntheraa paphia modern all tasar silk). while the cultivation of native varieties. no doubt. not feeding on mulberry leaves (the — the Saturnidce. from foreign countries. xix. but the weight of evidence seems to be importation from China. through the empires of Darius and Xerxes that it first reached the Mediterranean world. probably stimulated by the value of the Bombyx (See Watt. VI. 12 seems to be the Arabic dimaks.264 was most in contact with the nomad tribes of Central whose hands silk first reached the western nations.) silk cloth existed in The soon gifts trade in silk yarn and Northern India as after the Aryan invasion. not from the cocoons) having discovered the a and spinning a tissue she ought not to be deprived of the glory of woman. Isaiah also Ezekiel XVI. "u-ho discovered the therefrom. Silk is mentioned several times. in the it the Institutes of Manu. 12) mentions the Sinimm a manner indicating extreme distance. Prom animal women It is and reel off the cocoons and afterwards spin them. 121-2). ' . 992-1026. valley. Anthercca assama (feeding on laurel species ricini principally). which came into favor in the time of Caesar and Augustus. 11) gives a reasonably correct has horns and so differs from account: others. 9. art of unwinding the silk" (from the bobbins. or transtime. 67). Pliny includes it in his list of the most valuable productions' (XXXVII. and that he neither used it. and Seric Pliny last to (XXI. the needle of the her white breasts resplen- dent through the Sidonian fabric. but the fashion early in the reign of Tiberius the was considered effeminate. kind were Silk fabrics of this much affected by men also during the reign of Augustus. they in VI. More recently again they have been imported from India. which. and so distant are the regions which are thus ransacked to supply a dress through which our the twofold task of unraveling their textures. or else of silk of many colors steeped in unguents. of the Seres. writers there tree silk both being called omits was some confusion wool. 4). ' ' Compare Lucan." II. 141. ladies salia. may in public display their charms. 33. which is spun into threads. or from nations beyond the countries of refined of all. So manifold is the labor. from learn that silk was worth its it weight in gold. 20. and has loosened the warp by stretching out the web. containing on the inside a silky down.' ' 265 He refers to the Seres.) The an account of the Emperor Aurelian wife to possess a garment of we was enormously high. 2). and describes the cotton shrub." and Fabricius. Phar- X. himself nor allowed his thereby setting an example against the its luxurious tastes that were draining the empire of resources. 8) speaks of other uses for silk: Luxury arose at all if it at such a pitch that a chaplet was held in no esteem did not consist entirely of leaves sewn together with the needle. Such is which the luxuriousness of our women has at last arrived!" Among both Greek and Roman between cotton and in his translation silk. altogether. who describes Cleopatra. India. raw material. After steeping leaves. But it is looked upon as the most the pitch to to present chaplets made of nard leaves. Annals. considering cotton. and Senate enacted a law ' Roman cost 'that men should not defile themselves by wearing garments of silk. yarn and cloth alike to be Turkestan But although these accounts err in some in his description of cotton. of the Periplus. so same fabric famous for the wool in water. Pliny is sufficiently correct He distinguishes the wool-bearing trees from those of the Indians (XIV. the tissue made from which is superior to all others in whiteness and softness" (XIX. of the Seres ' . details. with its 'fruit resembling a bearded nut. wrought in close texture by the skill workman of the Nile has ' separated. are nard "the most costly things that are gathered from trees tissues. it comb soft down that adheres to the and then to the females of our part of the world they give and of weaving the threads afresh. where he speaks of "the is that off a found in their forests. (Tacims. Textrinum An- The ing of reeling of silk down from the leaves. 21): nothing vine. Pliny has a curious mixture of Seres and Cirrhadas in his Scyrita . ) 25. and assume quite a thick coat against the winter by rubbing off the down that covers the leaves. sirkek. from the cocoons was confused into a combwhich had also a basis of truth. and pliable by the aid of water. have the men ashamed to make use of garments formed of this material for so greatly consequence of their extreme lightness in summer. II. thus forming a nest in roughness of their feet. Hence the Greek ser. found to be too heavy. being clothed with which they are sent to work upon another body. Latin sericum. III. a own day that so far from wearing a garment even is I. Sinim. — 'Velleraque Compare two Virgil. not ' The word silk. Georgia. by the aid of the This they compress into balls by carding it it out and hang it between the branches of the trees. last of all. It is in this state that they are taken. being unable to endure the cold. the Chinese themselves. That is the word was . have manners degenerated in our cuirass. trees that bear wool. meaning Korean sir. in fact. with their claws. for China proper. although not so near it as Aristotle' s "At first they assume the appearance of small butterflies with naked bodies. Prom this word the name Seres was applied to the peoples through whose hands the product came. and are then drawn out into threads by means of a spindle made of a reed. but soon after. at all. tiquorum. making it fine by combing it out as it were. but of a different nature from those of the Seres. they take and roll it round their body. and then draw which they are enveloped. loosely extended to cover most of Eastern Since. (See also Lassen. ut foliis depectant tenuia Seres. the\' throw out bristly hairs. but was the cause of the confusion with cotton. and A peculiar sort of down soon shoots forth upon the fed upon bran. by which must be understood. Yates. 317-322. after which they are placed in earthen vessels in a warm place.: 266 while his account of the silkworm is at least within sight of the truth. but rather the Turkish or Tibetan intermediaries. " Pliny finally distinguishes between the fibers in referring to Arabian cotton (XII. 121. Asia undeniable but Ptolemy distinguishes the Isaiah the This. while the Periplus gives nearly the correct form. as in these trees the leaves produce and indeed might very readily be taken for those of the " silk' is from a Mongolian original. even in felt Nor. on The cocoons which they have begun to form are rendered soft task. Chinese ssi. on western side border on the Scythians. as India toward the south they extend as far and the Ganges. whose flat-nosed Mongolian faces he describes as having merely holes in their faces instead of nostrils. or any other of their merchandise. price of the articles that. and spin into a kind of fine cloth. " down plucked from knowledge of the silk Here he shows some trade through Assam. . which the natives make into a delicate wool. is a ring of mountains which surround Serica. a country considextent and the fertility erable both for their of its soil. " and whom he con- nects with an allied race. and they cover themselves with a the leaves of trees. IVIalabar {Seri in Sinhalese see p. Marcellinus (XXIII. Ammianus Seres 64. . the Astomi. formerly confined to the use of the nobles. now procurable by the lowest "The natives themselves are the life. 209). on the eastern This tribe side. The Seres themselves live quietly. They have numbers of shining groves. but of the people without distinction. . near the source of the Ganges. over the ever-increasing success of the Christian monks who succeeded in bringing the jealously-guarded eggs to Justinian. And when strangers cross their river to buy their cloth. and quiet men. 68. 67. and pleasant to moderate give trouble to none of their neighbors. culti- vating a peaceful and shunning the society of other men. culminating in the romantic at Constantinople silk- with the Sassanid monarchs in Persia. 2). a people who have no mouths.: " 267 (VII. and even p. and they are so modest their own produce. vi) has more knowledge of the Beyond its the districts of the two Scythias. in a people as ages. see Beazley. The Cheras of with them. Dawn of Modern . rough and hairy. they never buy any foreign wares. Ausar and Masira Southern Arabia (see 140) were identified Concerning the long struggles of the emperors trade. the trees of which through continued watering produce a crop like the fleece of a sheep. thereby laying the foundation of the silkculture of Greece and the Levant. the breezes gentle and delicious. they Their climate is agreeable and healthy. hidden in a bamboo cane. most frugal of men. while selling they interchange no conversation. but settle the wanted by nods and signs. always avoiding arms as ease is and battles. the sky serene. on the north and the east they look toward snowy deserts. But to the ubiquitous as the subjects of Prester Graeco-Roman world the Seres were John in the middle mouths. who live their bodies are on the eastern side of India. — Edmunds. Mayr. This was the earliest route opened by the Chinese army under Pan Singanfu. Handelsgeschichte I. I. "^ iimenhsien. — Letourneau. Relations politiques et commerciales les de de r Empire Romam avcc T Asie Orientale pendant cmq premiers siecles I' ere chr'etienne. this was preferable some respects. Hutoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen et htstorigues sur la S'erique des anciens Lettris. —Noel. D. but was subjected to constant attacks by the savage Tartar tribes. and Kharachar. Ansichow. Vol. while another led (. History of A'lerchant Shipping Handelsgeschichte. Chao. Ruins of Khotan. and an important outpost for the defence of the main route." followed the same course from Singanfu to Tsiemo." the stages follows and to the Chinese the most imKhotan jade-field. § 16. Hami especially being a storm-center in the Chinese annals. meeting the above route in from Yilmenhsien to Hami. Through Bactria to Barygaza. . was the Nan-lu or of which may be traced on the map as Kanchow. Recherches geographiques (1768) xxxii. in M'emoires de T Acad'emie Rjoyale des Inscriptions et Belles- 573-603. 64. being close to the mountains. — Bunbury.: 268 Geography. first instituted. thence by the Hi River and . — Stein. — The overland travel from the Yellow River to Bactra. — I. thence over the Pamirs and westward to the Oxus and Bactra. followed two routes. 496-511. D. Thence a route led southward to Bactra. 565. 166. IS E'colution du Commerce. I. I. Lehrbuch der II. portant because it The earlier. Another variant led from Turfan through the Tian-shan to Urumtsi and Kuldja. Agf.\ler\-. The Nan-lu followed south of the Tarim River to Khotan and Yarkand. China. and then obstructed for nearly two centuries. The second route. C. led to the southern way. J erkehrsvcege des im Dienste Altcrtums. Lop Nor to Tsiemo (the Asminta of the Greeks) where the routes divided. chap. possibly. — D'Anville. Lanchowfu. Histoire du Commerce du Alonde. Buddhist and Christian Gospels. I . thence north of the Tarim through Kuche and Aksu and over the tremendous heights of the Terek to the Jaxartes and Samarcand. ed. 4th introduction.) southwestward more directly to Antiochia Alargiana This second route was opened by Pan Chao jV variant of the P'ei-lu led in 94 A. being cleared in 74 A. the PciAu or to Kashgar. des Sand-buried Jl'elthandels. —Lindsay. 281. Ancient Geography. A History of History of Ancient Geography. — Heyd. and Ancient Commerce. — Reinaud. x. See also Richthofen. northern way. 658. — — Gotz. early in the 2d century B. Turfan at Kuche. —Tozer. I. Speck. to Ecbatana and the Caspian Pass and Hyrcania. Asthrough Parthia syria and Media. Thence the route passed through the mountainous country of the Comedi. at the convergence of routes from See Stein. and on the west by the Tsung-ling (Pamirs). a passage from the Han Annals ( quoted by Richthofen {China. pp. who did not perform the whole what he learned of Turkestan from his agents" The route. Vol. and 1000 from south to north. but repeats . " the "City called Thinae" of the Periplus. 1846. This Central Asian trade-route was first comprehensively desome two generations later than the His account is preserved by Ptolemy. on the upper Yarkand River in the a fortified Chinese Pamirs. into Bactria. and that along the to (Tian-shan) of is called P'ei-tau. This did The general topography of these Turkestan routes is shown by I. " is And again : The land lie called Nan-tau. and is said to be based on the notes of a Macedonian silk-merchant named Maes. des giographes et des historiens chinois. " is.. the Indus and the Yarkand. les 460) tines from Stanislaus Julien Notices sur pays et les peuples etrangers. as follows: Hsi-yii is bounded on the east by the barriers of Yiimen-iwan and Yang-kwan. That Tibet and Sungaria had no part times. crossed Mesopotamia. // Hsi-yii extends 6000 // from east to west. which enclose the these district same ranges bound the districts of Nan-lu and on the north and the souths and P'ei-lu on the south along the Nan-shan (Kuen-lun) P'ci-shan and north. in Journal Jsiatique. thence through Aria journey. By too literal an application of this seven-months' journey" both Marinus and Ptolemy were led into grave error as to the longi- . Ser. Bokhara and Merv. and through the territory of the Sacae to the Seres "Stone Tower. in Sarikol. 67-8.269 north of the mountains to Tashkend. op. But the Tsung-ling is the trunk from which the great mountain-ranges branch out. says. Both these provinces the south Pei-shan. IV. he or trading associates whom he met at the Pamirs. not become important until later. VIII. in the transcontinental silk-trade in Roman scribed by Marinus of Tyre. Periplus. until after a seven-months' journey from the the merchants arrived at "Sera Metropolis. Thence to the Casii (Kashgar) and through the country of the ThaStone Tower" guri. 228-252)." the station of those merchants who trade with the ( Tashkurghan. to Antiochia Margiana (Merv). cit. rises town built on a great rocky crag that from the Taghdumbash valley. whose Roman name was Titianus.) the Oxus. began at the Bay of Issus in Cilicia. which it joined half-way between Lop Nor and the Bulunzir (the east of which all three routes were iden"river of the Hiong-nu" ) . which says far of the products carried by the overland route to Barygaza than of those coming to Barbaricum. crossing the Pamirs diagonally to Kashgar. the Khyber Pass and the Indus. Taxila the highway of the Maurya dynasty led through the Panjab to the capital at Palibothra. the Cabul valley. Sept. and map. and evidently found its way up the Indus to Peucelaotis — and Bactra. Vol. Stein. reaches. the white incense. or shehri luban. following westward through the Parthian highlands to the Euphrates. the yarn. after leaving Bactra. op. localized at the mouth of the Indus. . apparently. but then turning south- Thagura" took a ward through Yarkand to Khotan. Drake-Brockman writes again from Bulbar. the route same direction as the Chinese Nan-lu. Central Asia. 12. Yet a part of the Chinese trade was. 13. Vol. — — Stieler's chap. I. tical as far as Singanfu. the Chinese Hand-Atlas. of Richthofen's China. but the evidence of direct trade between was minutely described before our author's time. in return. cit.) At Bactra this overland trade-route branched again. where it was exchanged for a product always more highly valued in China than in India namely. with a branch from Mathura southward to Ozene and the Deccan. where fabrics it for to China. that the cattle shown in those reliefs are not the humped cattle peculiar to. R. 500.. E. plates II. Atlas of Chinese Empire. V. frankincense. 18. maps 61-2. Concerning the frankincense of the Deir-el-Bahri reliefs Mr. and thence Arabia. went to was used in making the embroidered and silk-shot which Arabia and Syria were so famous in the Roman market. and also a more direct route than the Nan-lu itself. p. This route of Maes the Macedonian followed very nearly the of Rome and China is The first part remarkable. on the Pei-/u. While the valuable silk cloth went to Barygaza. in the Mansiones Parthica of Isidorus of Charax Spasini. (See map to face 21. 19. or thread.270 tudinal extension of Asia. — —Stanford. went to Barbaricum. Lansdell. The silk yarn. which Marco Polo still found in extensive use in China under the name of "milk perfume." This is not listed in the Periplus among the imports at other Indian ports. and in passing more southerly. The route down the Indus to its mouth was more less important owing to the character of the tribes living on the lower This is indicated by the text. or southward From to Bamian. 1910. Philadelphia. Madagascar and which are bred in Southern Arabia and Socotra. as the much doubt hump is to these it is they ever existed in these dried-up cattle what the camel's hump to the camel. have travelled these regions and have never seen the if non-humped is breed. a sort of storehouse. cattle are rare in Somali- improbable they ever existed in greater num- were exported. or possibly to the south side of Socotra. Xlllth dynasty The localization of the island Pa-anch of the in tale. East Africa. and very parts. This its is one more proof that the Punt Expedition did not make terminus on the Somali coast. and bers or Besides if this. From the Madagascar collection in the Commercial Museum. The cattle of these regions and in fact the whole of Gallaland I and Southern Abyssinia fairly extensively in are all the humped variety. which was a depen- dency of Dhofar. . and the incense-land Panchaia of Virgil.271 Somaliland (and likewise to much of type. Western India) but the ordinary without humps." Vase of black pottery ornamented with figures of humped cattle. but must have gone to the Plain of Dhofar. land proper. Grandes tains.) See Ptolemy. — Geil. by Lhasa The route from Lhasa by the lower Brahmaputra was little used. and southwestward. voies commerciales de F Asie Centrale. for instance. to the Ganges. The Central Tian-Shan MounStein. —Vincent. de- Central Asian trade- To Damirica by route across the Tibetan plateau. Sand-Buri(d Ruins of Khotan. Asia. 281-312. les Sur les liaisons et commerce des Romains avec Tartares et Chinois: in M'emoires de ? Academic Royale des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.— Yule. is but altogether the scene on the more strongly suggestive of Dhofar. of the Ganges. it way — led to Siningfu. Thither. branching here. starting in the Turkestan routes. 573-618. I. itself. 1890. AI. xxiii.272 Socotra. best it: men who have ever traversed Thibet Hue. . — Bonin. —Remusat. VI. Recollections of a Journey through Tartary. 13-14. (See also pp. the — Keane. xxxii (1798) pp. the Sachalites of the Periplus. But natural conditions. or by following the upper Brahmaputra to the sacred Sutlej. a frequented route by the Arun River through Nepal and the Chumbi \'ale to Sikkim and the Ganges. The Indus Delta Country. CoL of 1887 along the route between Kashgar and Peking. was the beginning of winter and the wind . — Merzbacher. les —De Guignes. This was the same direction as the from Singanfu to Lanchowfu. R. It and went floating over the sea to the southwest. The Great Wall of China. I. Mar. makes reliefs that an interesting possibility. thence to Koko Nor. Recent Exploration and Economic Development Central and Western China (with map) in Geographical Journal. as stated these routes through § 66 the Periplus made Western Tibet great almost impracticable for commerce. 18U-46. Royal Geographical entire Society. ^fter this he embarked in a large merchant-vessel. S. in — Manifold. country of Tamalipti. 120. chap. China. (1825) Remarques sur extension de T Empire Chinois du cote de t Occident and AI. Haig. 355-69. the Way II. in Proceedings scribes his journey of 64. 1904. as. 11-12. le I. 11. — Gen. 141-2.519-660. owing to the savage There were numerous other passages into India. and 218. v. This was the route which described by one of the few white later became the highway of It is Buddhist pilgrim-travel between Mongolia and Lhasa. . 13. tribes inhabiting it. I. the capital of which .— Lassen. Bell. Cathay Vol. and China during The Chinese Buddhist monk Fa-Hien is spent two years in "the a seaport . l' Vol. or peak of Kailas and the source of the Gartok of to the continuing through in upper Indus. — —Richthofen. because the same monsoon that brought them would have taken him away. R. and seldom. Adventures (Smithsonian Report. China Branch. and with Tien. that is. Journey across Tibet.167-9. — Landon. The silver. and TurkCandler. They also manufacture very delicate and beautiful buckrams. and Ancient Tibet and its Frontagers. they was favorable came to the country of Singhala. They and also bring hither and gold. — and — of Northern Few men come from there. its —Sven — Rockhill. outlined by Kingsmill ( The Mantse and the Golden Chersonese. and sendels. the Country. and and of nuts of India. The routes through Tibet and upper Burma For were never so this. Younghusband. The of Lhasa. Unveiling —Crosby. Tibet. xxv. Lamas. subjugation of Turkestan by China. the Chera backwaters were a meeting-point for the trade Our author did not meet from the China Sea to the Gulf of Suez. Exploration Tibet Prjevalski. the Solitudes Sherring.) 273 and after fourteen days. Central Asia and Tibet. xxxv and xxxvii). —Waddell. and The Opening of — Chandra Das. Tibet estan. the Burmese form of Hsen-wi." cloths of silk also gold cloves and See Holdich. The Hedin. for a See Lassen. Tibet. Tibet. and — —Sandberg. spikenard. The — Carey. iMongolia. 64. also. . xxxvii. is in this kingdom of Melibar a great quantity of pepper. the name given by (See also Rocher. in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Lhasa and A —Deasy. F. The Geographical Results of Sarat Journey Central Chinese Tibet." (^Travels. Tibet the Mysterious. —Tsybikoff. or the Northern Shans. and Terrien de Lacouperie (in his introduction to Colquhoun' s Among the Shans). in Geographical Journal. Tibet. sailing day and night. Johnston. Lhasa and Central of Tangut and 1903). in In Tibet Turkestan. these vessels at Nelcynda. Littledale. racial actively used as those leading through the Pamirs. — most useful and detailed account of a recent journey along the littletravelled Burmese route. Alarco Polo tells us something of this trade in his day (III. 1905. chap. xxv) : There ginger. according to the text. and turbit. From Peking to Mandalay. Lhasa. to Land of the the Lhasa and Tibet Mysteries. Marco Polo La Province to the Chinese province of Yunnan. locates this entire traffic in upper Burma. JFestern Tibet the British Borderland. ships that come from the east bring coffee in ballast. identifying Thinae with Theinni. and cinnamon. and other fine spices. travel and trade overland were naturally hazardous. — Until the Mission. 1. ) Chinoise de Yunnan. Another theory. Kemp. and topographical reasons were alike responsible. But whatever may be the relation of Ptolemy' s &'«<s and Cosmas' Tzinista to Burma^ . 'To Damirica" came the eastern shipping. The Face of China. . never important in silk through Bactria Barygaza. separated Early Chinese Buddhist 9-storied pagoda: and Abyssinian tyjics. Singanfu. Philadelphia. 64-5." that Why ignore the ancient center of the of silk industry. on pp. . to find a fancied similarity name in a locality production. to was brought thence overland by the Turkestan route. 274 it may be asserted that the Thinas of the Periplus had nothing to do Silk is. From a compare illustrations of Hindu model exhibited in the Commercial Museum. with that region. 'country of the western part of the sea' ). As contrasting with the knowledge. the Chinese border. Kasyapa Matanga and Bharana. the following account of Roman Syria. (3) it contains over four hundred are several times ten. (10) wear embroidered clothing.. who arrived in 67 (Takakusu." partly written during A. (6) The postal stations and mile- on the roads are covered with plaster. D. (13) The precincts // of the walled cities in which they live measure over a hundred in . Introduction to his edition of I-tsing.): ANNALS OF THE HAN DYNASTY OF CHINA Chapter (Section 88 the 5th century to Hou-han-shu. which the Romans displayed concerning China. D. then as now the forerunners of commerce. D. it is known that the Chinese Emperor Ming-ti (who ruled from 58 to 75) introduced Buddhism into China by the invitation of two Indian Sramanas. natural that former home on Before such an invitation there must have been considerable activity on the part of missionaries. banners. The text seems to be describing conditions prior to the journey of the Sramanas in 67 A. p. ) A. or lack of it.. (12) when going in or out they beat drums. (4) de- and of dependent fences of cities are stones states there (5) The made of stone. (8) The people are much bent on agriculture and practice the planting of trees and cypress (9) They cut the hair of their heads. Hai-hsi-kuo. 25 220) detailed account of the this account describing based on the Roman empire contained in the Chinese annals: Roman Syria and its capital Antioch. A. With the rise of the Kushan dynasty and it their relations towards their was communication by the Turkestan routes should increase. to several thousand /i. and not certainly the Periplus? settled tribes until some centuries later than The theory manifestly impracticable. (7) There are pine trees and all kinds of other trees and plants. particularly the district of Antioch. D.275 from the silk-route by 1000 miles of the most by Shan is difficult travelling in Asia. and the rearing of silk-worms. 97 in is also called Lichien (1) The country of Ta-ts (Li-kin j and. (2) Its territory amounts cities. and being report of the Ambassador Kan Ying. While the military successes of China did not begin until 73 A. (11) and drive in small carriat^es covered with white canopies. is of almost the from Hirth. (Quoted Orient. same date as the China and the Roman of interest. (i. e. and embracing The first the period A. in the northwest. D. taken from Chinese annals Periplus. and pennants. D. as being situated ' on the western part of the ' sea. xvii. and hoist flags. of that country are tall The inhabitants like and well-proportioned. ten // distant from each other. chu-tan (cinna{ching-pi). (14) In the city there are five palaces. "jewel hsi. severe calamity is visits the country. are presented with golden to send money. (19) Their kings are not (20) When a permanent rulers. lang-kan (a kind of coral). somewhat in. (27) They make one of coins of gold and Ten units of silver are worth gold. vessels used in taking meals are also made. are always cheap. or untimely rain-storms. (23) and asbestos cloth. in 02) Their ' kings always desired Parthians) wished to for this reason that till embassies to China. rhinoceros horns. the juice of which they silver. and tortoise shell. An-tun Marcus Aurelius Antoninus) sent an embassy who. (26) All the rare gems of other foreign countries come from there. D. The one reheved from his duties (21) submits to his degradation without a murmur. (33) This lasted the ninth year of the Yen-hsi period during the emperor Huan-ti's reign {r= A. throw a petition into the bag. moonshine pearl. dates the (direct) From that time intercourse with this country. silver. After let days he has completed his round. silk-cloth of various colors.276 circumference. but they appoint men of merit." also called it is made from the Shu'i-yang-ts ui. (25) They collect all kinds of fragrant cocoons of wild silk-worms. green jadestone gold-embroidered rugs and thin They make gold-colored cloth They further have fine cloth. The list of their .'' the hsieh-cht- corals. into the rights When the king arrives at the palace he examines official and wrongs of the matter. they a man with a bag follow^ the king's carriage Those who have some matter to submit. (15) In the palace buildings they use crystal to make pillars. from the frontier of Jih-nan (Anam) ( offered ivory. the king deposed and replaced by another. but the An-hsi carry on trade with them Chinese silks. five (16) The king goes to one palace a day to hear cases. e. (29) They (30) are honest in their transactions and there are no double prices. and rare precious " the stones. that shines at night.') who conjointly discuss government affairs. (17) As a rule. and on arrival. The is based on a well-filled (31) When the embassies of neighboring countries come to their frontier. (28) They traffic by sea with An-hsi (Parthia) and is T ien-chu Cereals treasury. whence they are called Ta-ts tains (22) The country conespecially the much gold. down of the water-sheep). the Chinese. (18) The documents are under the control of thirty-six chiang (generals. they are driven by post to the capital.''). and it is they were cut off from communication. glass. (25) substances. (India). bar. boil into su-ho (storax). amber. 166) when the king of Ta-ts in. the profit of which trade budget ten-fold. (z. Eratosthenes says that the navigation of this sea was known to the Greeks. so that the Amu and Syr were in truth accessible to the Greek adven- . This was the belief of most Greek and Roman geographers. often stadia. where the map according to Pomponius Mela shows the Caspian directly connected with the Arctic Ocean. whence they are not (here) mentioned. Empty into the Ocean. you make a round at sea and. and Lake Maeotis connected by means of the Tanais. coming from the land-road of An-hsi (Parthia). as it advances further inward. (37) It is further said that." ridiculed. Mardi. 2400 stadia. See p. . mencement it is very narrow. they (40) They //. going over 200 days.277 tribute contained tradition. fierce tigers and lions wha traveling in caravans of a men or more. Ch' ien-han-shu (35) The from T' iao-chih west. //' (of a road) are marked by is ing. (38) The country a t' densely populated. (39) One not alarmed by robbers. 4800 This passage. of the particularly toward the extremity. thirty by a chih (resting-place). 64. is whence you proceed every ten li to Ta-ts'in. that the part of the voyage along the coast of the Albanians and the Gadusii comprised 5400 stadia. or Don. vi. there is no jewels whatever. river. the Himalayas). . becomes unsafe by and unless these be beasts. which fact throws doubt on the by some that in the west of this countrythe Jo-shai ("weak water") and the Liu-sha ("flying sands. taking a northern turn. and Hyrcani. there were none who came as far as T^ iao-chih. and thence to the Jaxartes. it widens. but the road will attack passengers. Under the Lesser Bear No part of China is in the zenith. The made of rare precious stones produced in this country are sham curiosities and mostly not genuine. western says (36) Former embassies from China all returned from Wu-i. and 64. one is near the place where the sun sets. is rather an indication of the strong probability that the Caspian and Aral Seas were joined together until after the Christian era. this —meaning — far to the north (of actually so far north as to it have Ursa Minor would require to be within the Arctic Circle." this does not agree with the present book. where the sun sets. 1): "The At its comCaspian is a bay extending from the ocean to the south. also say there is a flying bridge {jei-chiao) of several hundred (41) by which one may cross articles countries north of the sea. (34) It is said desert") near the residence of the Hsi-wang-mu ("mother of the king"). or may be devoured by these hundred to the be protected by military equipment. come out from the western part of the sea. and the part along the country of the Anariaci. So Strabo (XI. 100. as far as the mouth of the river Oxus. These errors were corrected by Ptolemy. Mackinder. allied to the Cirrhadae. on the east by the " same sea. and that part of the coast the Euxine which terminates at Colchis. The See Tozer. of Huntington. i. 367. thick Tibetans faces" of § 65. As to Lake Maeotis Azov) Strabo says (XI. The Desicgraphical Journal. June. xxiii. The Geographical Pivot of History. in GeoPulse of Asia. Besatae. 422-437. but subsequently revived." of § 62." the "Long-faces. In this group of modem the closing paragraphs of the Periplus: "Horse-faces" and the bodies and broad. History of Ancient Geography. 5) "Asia has a kind of peninform. —These were another Tibeto-Burman tribe. flat may be found all the types mentioned in "the men with flattened noses. Naga and Garo . — — — cation of Eurasia. as far as the mouth of the Caspian Sea. and the "men with short. as far as the confines of Armenia. on the north by the Ocean. Kropotkin. 1904. . April. 345. 65. and to the modern Kuki-Chin. 1904. ibid. crossing from the Euxine Sea. surrounded on the west by the river Tanais and the Palus : Maeotis as far as the Cimmerian Bosphorus.278 turers (the Sea of sular from Colchis. March. Ptolemy places them east of the Ganges. xxiii. Siam and China. —This description of a tribal ples. ) Pseudo-Callisthenes (III. who gather a li\'e caves They are a among the leaf. Siningfu and Singanfu. says they were a Our author locates them that "on the borders of the to China. feeble folk." (McCrindle. Routes in Sikkim. seeing the smoke. N. tifies Lassen 38) iden- the name with the Sanscrit vaishada.. Ceylon. In India the Dravidians resisted Buddhism on the south. March. Land of This. and with- . serpents. and then deposit gold that the inhabitants. Louis. smoke.' : 279 tribes. the Periplus as to their personal appearance. xxi. and men who inhabit it. Tibet. in Geographical Journal^ Jan. of very diminutive stature. 196) Carthaginians further say that beyond the Pillars of Heris "The cules there arrive set it a region of Libya. in They are small straight understand how to climb precipices through their intimate knowledge of the country and are thus able to gather the They which is men of stunted growth. Other passes through Nepal are possible. 1904. and they. O'Connor. with big heads of hair India. sea." indicating 20' Tibet was then subject The location of their annual fair must have been near the modern Gangtok (27° tier. and make a great come down to the exchange for the merchandise. and corroborates (III. Gates — — of Tibet." and tribe of Sikkim. I. 180. some They were worshippers of trees and in Bengal. when they among in order these people and have unloaded their merchandise.) above which the Cho-La or the Jelap-La Pass leads to Chumbi on the Tibetan side of the fronfrom which the overland route mentioned in § 64 led across the table-land to Koko Nor. they on the shore. Burma. while from Gyangste to the must be scaled higher by 3000 feet than to (See Freshfield. 13) says: Tibetans are a fragment of a great primitive population that occupied both the northern and southern slopes of the Himalayas at very remote prehistoric time. and The Highest Mountain in the IVorld. but the route through Sikkim involves the least deviation from the direct line from Koko Nor to the source of the Jelap-La. Ancient The Fergusson {^History of Indian Architecture. and rocks. p. "wretchedly stupid. The Roads Tibet. go on board in their ships. and market resembles many accounts of other primitive peoCompare the following from Herodotus (IV. 1903. have been the bulwark of Buddhism. and their descendants and connections. it and a revival of Aryanism abolished 65. ) and not cut.' Feast for several days. festival in the north.. and ibid. particularly that by the Arun River. 8) refers to the Bisada leaf. 88° 38' E. Arun a pass Ganges. they go on board their ships again and wait.280 draw to some distance from the merchandise. if that the Carthaginians then. the natives On a modem trade-route througfh the mountains of Sikldm. going ashore. they take it up and away. bankets and rrivfrs of mattinfr are easily distinguishable. but if it is not sufficient. examine the gold. and ficient for the the quantity seems sufsail merchandise. The shoulder- . Everest. at silent the Himalayas. 87. Cholas. the home-land of the Brahman faith. natives touch the merchandise before the other party has taken the gold. ( ' ' the tutelary guardians of the pre) cious articles of trade. the Brahmanas. ' of such a Tashkurghan. western curve of the great . and the Mahabharata.rtf. the "Stone Tower' of the Pamirs. is in great Cinnamon also grows there in great demand in this country and fetches a high it plenty. wise the description of the preparation of the tamala leaves being corroborated throughout by Pliny. xxxviii. Cheras. xlvi). ascribes it to the spirits and nagas. for they delight to hang round the necks of their women and of their idols. and the Pandyas dwelling by the southern sea. as he sojourned among "the sister nations three. — Our author the is misled by a fancied resemblance to is the Greek. while Fa-Hien. 66." impassable by reason of its great region beyond Sikkim. — The and Cinnamomum tamala trees. tells Ammianus custom in the passage already quoted. 89. 216-18. is Othercorrect. and including the mightiest peaks of the Himalayas. " The greatest of all mountains. with the cold. Travels. Influence of the gods. is native in this part of the Himalayas. viii. Great packs and baskets. who sumin marized the Ramayana in the 1st century his Travels.) 281 then approach and deposit more gold. Malabathrum. of Siva is associated the in the name of Gauri- sankar. 65. fiber." Pomponius Mela trade of (III. wrongs the other. 256. being the regular burden of the coolies of Nepal and Sikkim. Coral price. word the Sanscrit />«. being one of the principal lakes. a name and Durga. petros. neither party ever until they have satisfied them. 60) seems also to speak of the Marcellinus. chap. describing a similar custom in Ceylon. Petri. where silk passed from Eastern hands to Western. writings. was within the sphere of the Kurukshetra of the later Vedas. 82-4. in his account of Tebet: "It contains several quarters rivers which gold-dust is found in great abundance. —The same thing is in con- stant use today in this region. in So Marco Polo in (II. 65." (See pp. —This is still the geography of Brahman Like Tavernier in the 17th century. leaf. 65. for they do not touch the gold nor do the before it is made adequate to the value of the merchandise. so this merchant of Berenice came under the spell of the great epics of India. the Olympus of the Hindu gods. while the ending of the Periplus is that of the Sita-quest in the Ramayana "Halt not till you reach the country where the northern Kurus rest. the axis of the universe and the way to heaven.: chain is the sacred peak of Kailas. Utmost confines of the wide earth. home of Gods and Spirits blest!" . 283 . rest). (Imports) Juice of sour grapes from Diospolis Undressed cloth from Egypt Robes from Arsinoe Cloaks of poor quality. military cloaks. Malao. (Exports partly many forms Murrhine (glass imitation made In Diospolis) to Ocelis and Muza) Ivor)' Brass (for ornament and in cut pieces as coin) Tortoise-shell Myrrh (better than . and large Coin. Sheets of soft copper (for cooking-utensils. Ivory Tortoise-shell (Exports) The things also already mentionedj Rhinoccros-hom. Horn of Africa (The coast) "far-side" Ptolemais. also the sagmatogetie. rarely. assorted Adulis.oth Mallow-colored Muslins Lac. AVALITES. of frankincense) Indian copal monache). (Exports) Xortoise-shell Ivory. dyed Double-fringed linen mantles Flint glass. dressed and dyed Drinking cups Italy Wine Olive of Laodicea oil and Sheets of soft copper Iron Presents for the king : gold and silver plate. in Dressed cloth.. adzes and swords Also Tunics round Copper drinking-cups. Axes. (Imports) Flint glass. MUNDUS. thin coats of skin Myrrh (from Indian iron and steel Frankincense (the far-side) Ariaca) Indian cotton cloth (the broad Cinnamon (the harder) Duaca (var. assorted Wheat Wine Tin. (Imports) and bracelets and anklets) Iron (for spears) The things already mentioned. Gold and (Exports) silver coin. 2«4 ARTICLES OF TRADE MENTIONED IN THE PERIPLUS Enumerated according to the ports Red Sea Coast. a little Cloaks from ^AjrsLnoe. Slaves. (Imports) (Exports) The things already mentioned. perhaps -aw cotter Macir (medicinal bark from Girdles Malabar) Coats of skin (These exports going to Arabia) c'. . finely and polished cloth- woven ing. King and - in great quantity sumpter mules. Purple cloths. Elephant River. {Exports) Palm-oil. various kinds Iron. the Gebanite-Minaean also stacte Alabaster All the the things already men- Honey from saichari. Muza. bers in great quantity) Sashes of different colors Slaves of the better sort. but Mocrotu incense Frankincense (the far-side) Ivory inferior to that of Adulis) Rhinoceros-horn Tortoise-shell (the best that after Myrrh. in increasing for Fragrant ointments num- Wine and wheat Presents to the horses. or interwo\en with gold) Saffron Frankincense. the Chief: country producing both) Tortoise-shell. daggers and awls Glass. East Africa. styles. areio and moto. very Glass. Rhapta. (plain. Egypt. Fragrant the savages. Market of Spices (Cape Guardafui). {Imports) {Imports) The things already mentioned. with Cinnamon asypha. moto) gizir. from India) little. selected Myrrh. sleeves . fine and coarse {Exports) Clothing in Arabian (varieties. chiefly in MOSYLLUM. of frankincense). Opone. {Imports) Sweet-rush Muslins Cloaks Blankets. Menuthias. {Imports. sagmatogcne) Girdles Myrrh. reed called tioned from Avalites and the far-side coast. (not much. embroidered. also Arabian ships) Lances made little at Muza Silver plate Hatchets. gums and spices {Exports) Tortoise-shell Ivory (in great quantity. plain and in the local fashion The things already mentioned. Wheat Rice Clarified butter {Exports. for free in great quantity distribution to Cinnamon. {Exports) Cinnamon (the better sort. {Exports) Wine. good quality. magla. ordinary. arebo. products of the country) Sesame oil Cotton cloth (the monache. &c. a Frankincense (the best far-side) Arabia. a little Wheat. copper the vessels.: 28S Mocrotu (var. . [Imports) The things already mentioned. (Goods brought in Indian ships to this and the preceding farside ports) vessels of gold silver. Barbaricum (Imports) (at mouth of Indus river). various kinds Wine Rice Dates Bdellium. images. OR. Storax Pearls. (Imports) Frankincense \'essels of glass Cloth Wheat Sesame (Exports) oil. (Exports) Tortoise-shell. Costus Sarapis Island. WTieat DioscoRiDA Island. India and the Persian Gulf).286 Cana (which has trade with Egypt. as at Ommana). inferior to the Indian Purple Clothing. (Exports) Clothing in the Arabian style. in great quantity and silver plate. thin cloth- Gold Slaves (to ing of fine quality. . after the fashion of Other things such as go to gold Muza the place Presents for the king. at regular intervals) Bdellium Lycium Nard Turquoise Lapis lazuli Tortoise-shell. horses. Teakwood Ebony logs timbers the far-side coast. (Exports) Frankincense. Indian cinnabar (dragon's blood). a little. in large quantity. Wheat and wine Muza poor quality a little. (Exports. wrought Wine Dates. (Exports. (Imports. some spurious Figured linens Wheat Indian cloth Topaz a few Coral Storax Female slaves. Sewed boats (from Arabia) called madarata to South Ommana Copper Tin Cora.ffA. of ships returning from India) Rice Thin clothing. the native produce) both India and S. to Cana. MOSCHA. Aloes The rest of the things men- (Exports) tioned from the otherports. Silver and gold plate \\^ine. Arabia) Frankincense Makran Coast. Persian Gulf. brought by merchants from Muza and by chance calls Indo-Scythia. (Imports) Blackwood logs (from India) " ('from " Cana to Frankincense . Ommana and Apologus. (Imports) Seric skins Cotton cloth Silk Copper Sandalwood yam Indigo. the it) country not producing (Exports) profit on the exchange) little Ointments. 287 India (the kingdom of Nambanus). also through Po- India ( Chola kingdom (inland) from Caspapyra. thin clothing of the finest weaves. Wine: Copper Tin Lead Coral also (Imports) Laodicean and Arabian Coin. (Imports) Mallow-cloth Yam Long pepper Other things coming from the various potts. in great quantity Topaz Thin clothing. beautiful fine maidens for the harem. Everything made in Damirica and the neighboring countries and most of what comes from Egypt. . the choicest ointments. Camara. India (Chera and Pandya kingdoms). not costly. not much Figured linens Antimony Coral inferior sorts Topaz Thin clothing and of all kinds Bright-colored girdles a cubit wide Storax Crude glass Copper Tin Lead Wine. produced Ivory Silk cloth in Cottonara King of silver. but as at as much Sweet clover Flint glass Barygaza Realgar Realgar Orpiment Antimony Gold and silver coin a Wheat (yielding (for the sailors. Italian preferred. Fine pearls in great quantity Costly vessels singing boys. not much. Nelcynda and Bacare. Spikenard from the Ganges wines. through and from near-by Scythia. Paropanisus and Cabolitis) Costus Argaru (Exports) Pearls Bdellium Ivory Muslins (namedfrom the place) Agate and camelian (onyx and murrhine) India (East Coast). (Exports) from Chryse islands Spikenard (coming clais. (to Barygaza. Poduca and Sopatma Lycium Cotton cloth of all kinds (muslins and ordinary) Silk cloth (where ships come from the west coast. Malabathrum from the Transparent stones of interior all kinds Diamonds Sapphires Tortoise-shell. MuziRis. also from the Ganges and Chryse).: ) . a Presents for the Pepper. (Imports) which large ships come for pepper and malabathrum). Transparent stones Muslins Tortoise-shell. overland through Bac(Difficult of access. place has- a gold coin called caltis). (Exports) Pearls Chryse Island. formerly called (The Malacca. farther north) Masalia. medium- and the small-ball. Taprobane. the large-ball. Himalaya mountains. Muslins of the Gangetic. silk India (Ganges Ganges. the ball. come from there. {Exports) Thin^. Muslins. tria to Barygaza. few men and seldom) {Exports.ssimundu. pal. China. {Exports) SUk yam Silk cloth. . called . {Exports) Tortoise-shell. (Exports) Ivory. vfay of the Ganges to Da- mirica) Raw delta). in great quantity. India (East Coast. also by DOSARENE. Malabathrum Gangetic spikenard Pearls The Besat^. the best of all. {Exports) Malabathrurn finest sort. in three forms.288 Ceylon. XXXIX. Metal Indian steel (Haidarabad). Cotton cloth (Tibetan?) Capilli Indici(?) Amomum Galbanum Ginger Incense g'ums (5) yarn and cloth. Aloe Wool Silk. Lac Fucus (rock lichen or orchil). Frankincense. or medicine. Classified as follows (1) Precious stones. (3) Dyes. . 7. (4) Textile. (2) Vegetable products •valued for their Byssus (flax cloth?) fragrance: as incense. and pearl shell Tortoise shell Ivory. XV. Gum dammar Cardamom Caryophyllon Cassia (6) Animal. 5. per- Muslins fume. Arabian and African Diamond {adamas) Alabanda Beryl Malabathrum Sugar Ceraunium Alabaster (onyx arabicus) Lapis lazuli Myrrh Spikenard Nard Pepper Sarcogalla Stacte Sardonyx Emerald Sapphire Garnet (alabanda) Pearls Agallochum. (7) Costus Asafcetida Human Eunuchs.: 289 ARTICLES SUBJECT TO DUTY AT ALEXANDRIA FROM THE RESCRIPT CONCERNING EASTERN TRADE IN THE DIGEST OF THE ROMAN LAW. Tigers Leopards Panthers Cinnamon Xylo-cassia Lions and lionesses Babylonian skins. etc. list is surprising in view of the fact that he antedated two kings in the years. D. The second group depends on the identification of Zoscales with Za Hakale in the Abyssinian Chronicle. who are known to have had them and if so great a liberty can be taken with the monarchs of the fourth century. whose inscriptions indicate that he ruled be- tween 40 and 70 A. of "Soon after Claudius. Vincent. assumes the trade to have been that which existed under Nero. 209. whose dates were given by Henry Salt as 76 to 89 A. D. possibility that in his description of is Arabia The latest date possible under these suppositions the end of the reign of Malichas. 1799. it seems reasonable to suppose that one of the first century may be a score of years out of his proper order. D. little Nero" (which "Under Claudius or a later. "A little earlier than Pliny." Schrif- Mannert. i. II. The first. nearly contem- porary with Pliny. 59. I. This assumption entirely unnecessary. First group: In the middle of the first century after Christ. Geographic der Griechen und Rimer aus ihren ten dargesullt. and includes the quoted from or summarized the Periplus Felix.). on which Salt himself cast doubt. 1816. Geographic der Griechen und Rimer. AS DETERMINED BY VARIOUS COMMENTATORS The dates assigned fall into three groups. Weimar. . . Niirnberg. 835. ' Salmasius." assuming this to be a time when there is Roman emperors reigning jointly. which Pliny dates the Periplus before Pliny. 131. Exercitationes Pliniana. I.' 290 DATE OF THE PERIPLUS. about the tenth year would be 63 A. to bring (El Abreha and El Atzbeha) reigns of the more than 100 relations with them within the Roman emperors Constantine and Constantius. The were two third group of identifications depends on the reference in tne text to the "emperors." Ukert. The supposed confirmation of these dates by mention of to contemporary Indian rulers points an earlier date during the period of their viceroyalties rather than of their reigns. The dependence placed on these two dates. D." Vogiie. A little earlier than Pliny. Skiz%e der Geschichte und Geographie Arahiens. prior to 77 A. S^rie Centrale: Inscriptions Semitiques. D." p. 2b. 40-70 107. King of the Nabataeans. The Indus Delta Country. Akad. D. 538. " Glaser. p. VII. 371. Robertson. 7. 3. 27. (Paris. D. that is. ''During the reign of Ili-azzu Jalit." Schwanbeck. D. der Whsenschaften. D. Speck. who seems from it .. . Die Ahessin'ier. p." I. Indische Alterthumskunde. written before the dedication of the Natural History in 77 A." in Berichte der K. D. Dillmann. 28. 35. 919. 1891. Die Abessinier in Arabien und Africa. 90: Leipzig. pp. etc. etc. Preuss. pp. Fabricius. "60-63 A. III. Vol. D. article Indien in Ersch and Griiber's hncyklopddie. Nearly contemporary with Pliny. Unquestionably before Pliny's Natural History. in Ausland. D.. 413-429. 34. II. 1840. "Before 77 A." "56-67 A. 1869." Watt.) ' During the reign of Kariba-il Watar Juhan'im. 37-8. D. about 40-70 A.' " 291 "60 A. 1879. 'The author made his voyages at The work was 75 or 80 A. p. Miinchen." various times between 65 and written in the last quarter of Glaser. Lassen." Benfey. Sect. III. about 25-65 A. Next before ' Pliny. D. 45-6. 56-71 A. as shown by Glaser. Handelsgeschichte des Altertums. 164. in Rheinischen Museum. D. pp. II. Disquisition on Ancient India. the reign of Malik III. to quote 338." Glaser. II.. "During A. Haig. Commercial Products of India. p. King of the Hadramaut. the first century A. the Homerite King. depending Salt. Jfrig ue dans r antiguit'e grecque et "11 -m A. pp. 120-151. the Nambanus of §41)." Vincent Smith. C. 371. Early History of India. societatis Hudson' s Geographite Feteris Scriptores. "About 85 A.292 Second group: "80-89 A. 1793." Bunsen. Gottingen. "83-84 A.-M. "About 90 A. 1852. . as shown by Mailer." McCrindle. London. 11^: Cambridge." (referring of to Sundara Satakarni. 1897. also LeNordde romaine. I. lius later than 161. " F. Bunbury. D. in Journal of the Asiatic Society June. §52). new edition. la Geographie et des decouI' 1873. History ofAncientGeographyt'p. D. Third group. D. etc. July-Aug. article Epigraphy. The following belong to the curiosities of criticism. D. D. in Journal Asiatique. Bonn. "About 10 years after Pliny's death" (which occurred in 79 A. De Inaia Romanis cognita. C. J. D. xcvi." Geographi Greed Minores. Paris. II. "Between 77 and 105 A. Boyer. A. in Commentationes regite scientiarum.. p." (referring to Nahapana. the Sandares of Bengal. Histoire de vertes g'eographiques." II.) To-Ltr. 1897. Miiller. D. R. WUson. 1883. History of Ancient Geography. 76. under Marcus Aure- and Lucius Verus. . 85-105. in Imperial Gazetteer of India. VIII. Dodwell. Heeren. D. in on the doubtful dates given his Za Hakale by Henry rearrangement of the Abyssinian Chronicle in 1812. D. in " pp. 445 . all being based on the "emperors" of § 23: "In the 2d century A. Vivien de Saint Martin. D. Fleet." philologica. 1904. D. de Azania commentatio "80-85 A. XI. "Between 80 and 89 A. 101. "75 A. 108-151.. in Indian Antiquary. Kritischen Untersuchungen. 'A merchant of Alexandria who century A. in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenldndischcn Gesellschaft. D." in Biograp/iien. Berlin. Dillmann. . 315. pp. xxii. Reinaud. Geographe aus den Quellen hearbeitet. rather. under the emperor Philip and his son. Leipzig. Kiilb. 1865. Gottingen.. Weber. 173. Ritter. 1861. lived in the first half of the D. des Inscriptions et belles lettres. Vivien de Saint Martin. 1842. 1830. 'Of the 2d century A." Reinaud. II. 1846. Miinchen. den Verkehr V'dlker und den D. Le Nord de l Afrique dans F antiquitt et loc. p. Nouveau Recueil de I' Acad'emie des Inscriptions^ IX. " 1. Humboldt. 656. D. 266 (1869). D. iii. These views are vigorously combated by O. Erdkunde und der Entdeckungen also ." 1. D. vol. IV. 227-278 (1864). 226. the following Ritter. Heeren. Paris. 442. Erdkunde Asiens.. 1. 71. Blau. 1863. century. 'A ship's log of the 2d century A. 197. 124. 1861. VIII. A." auf Aegypten. O. Das alte Indien. Handel der 1824. or at latest of the 2d century A. cit. Ideen ilber die Politik. Lander. in Journal Asiatique. K5nigsberg. " vomehmsten I.293 'Apparently of the 1st. mit besonderer Riicksicht I. Forbiger. Alex. " Berlin. Geschichte der p. Letronne. 2d Bohlen. Christianisme de Nubie. 316. series V. pp. grccque Indisch'' Stretfe. Geschichte der Erdkunde. 18. xxiv. Erdkunde Jsiens. I. II. der atten Welt. 'Of the 1st or. 458. Memoires de t Academie vol. 47. 414-428. V. '200-217 A. '246-247 A. p. 'Of the 3d century. Peschel. romaine.und Volkerkunde 245. Handbuche der alten I." in Letronne. Kosmos. (Probably within the decade following the death of dophares. D. king of the people called Axumites. who possessed Calliena. then the Andhra king. as —but —who ruled as Andhra king in before his accession to the throne. king of the Frankincense Country. sinian not to be defor this reign more probable period would be 59-72 A. § 23. (Probably Sundara Satakarni 83-4 A. Probably ArishtaSatakarni. are . Eleazus. D. as he said himself. § 23. D..) § 52. 41-54 and 54-68 respectively. while at one of the ' heirs presumptive he was acting as viceroy Paethana. (Dates fixed by sions. D. (Inscriptions cited by Glaser fix his reign about 40-70 A. king of the Homerites and Sabaites. king of the Nabataeans. Zoscales. 2. Sandares. 4. Gon- D. Parthian princes at war with each other. scriptions cited Bell.) ) ) 294 RULERS MENTIONED IN THE PERIPLUS § 5. previously governed Calliena. and the was vested in the western viceroy. so that visible authority to the author of the Periplus. (Inscriptions cited by Glaser fix his reign about 25-65 A. he was no more than a name. § 27. ') . the Saka satrap that name —but —or a predecessor of led to the estab- before the victories which lishment of the Saka era of 78 A. Nambanus. . D. The Emperors. who ruled about 44-69 A. D. landing on the west coast. In- by Vogiie fix his dates as 40-70 A.) pended upon a " § 19. (Probably Claudius and Nero. capital. § 38.reign of Arishta Satakarni. the 'elder Saraganus. toward the end of ' the. king of Ariaca. The r elder Saraganus. Salt in 1804 as 76-89 A. his conclu- depending on an arbitrary arrangement of the AbysChronicle. which occurred 51 A. who had . D. Charibael. (Perhaps Nahapana. whose court was held at his eastern Dhanyakataka. lud. D.) § 41. Ill. § 52. (Mentioned also by Josephus. Malichas. 212 Acila (in S. 87. the. 59. 52. 66 Alaric. 29. 106. 209. 247 Akaba. 88. 187. 180. 85. 76. 229 Agra. (See Marinus of Tyre). 277 Alexander the Great. 200 Abyssinian Church. 4. 168. 66. 62. 5. 101 negroes of. island of the. 163 African rift-valley. Abyssinian Chronicle. 170. 192 Alilat Urania. 60. 119. 177. 66. 78 Albanians. 57. 222. 153. 164. 123. 58. 62. 217. 75. 132. W. 62. 67 Ajanta. Nathan. 224 Adam's Bridge. 240 Aethiopia. 75. 77. 135. 80. (See Geez) Aethiopians. 108 Aesculapius. 130. 59. 113. 218. 237 Ad. 98 Agni. 157 Abu Thabi. 223 Agatharchides. 146 Abaseni. 175. 140 Abraham. 96. 146. 175 Achaea. 23. 164. 10. 58. See Abyssinians. 107. 232. 145 2fl3 Aethiopia (continued) language. 3. 44. 29. 115. 150 dynasty Aetna. 42. Brooks. 16. 184. Persian. 109. 56. 87. 61. 141. 119. 22. 179 Ahmadabad. 133. 156. 115. 101. 109. 75. 99. 220 Aden. the sailor. 221 achates. 228. 118. Arabia). alabandenum. 67. 177. 163. 94.295 INDEX References to the text are in bold-faced type Abalit. 75 acacia. 63. 184. 166. 64. 255 Adler. 264 Aegean islands. 52. 87. 96. 39. 60. 190. 140. 51. 271 9. 66. 159. 147. 189. 23. 106. 42. 179 Aizanas (el Abreha). 71 Achasmenidas. Arabia). 29. 26. 142 adamant. 241 Adams. 172. 250 = . 118. 129. 227 Aden. 85. 162 absinth. 25^ adzes. 223 Achenkoil river. 76. 138 Adulis. 88. 69. 131. 51. 228. 214. 239 Alfragan. 141. 162. Habashat. 75. 257 Abissa Polis. 52. 114 (in S.158 Abyssinia (see Axumites). 133. 160 Agisymba. 149. 142. 164 Adonis. 196. 75 Arab slave trade in. 173. 146. 167. 5. 141. 202 Aelana. 131. 52. 210.. 50. 60. 218. 15. 73 . 129 Aksu. 118. 62. 55 Algeria. 167. 162 Afghanistan. 251. 134. 6. 7. 92. 260 Alexandria. 92. 162. 4. 85 Accadian-Dravidian trade. 101. 234. 62. 153. 67. 112 Aesopus. 223. 167. 150 Abu Thanni. 135. gulf of. 77 Aegidii. 102 Akko.63. 114. 223 Africa. 131 Acannae. 163 Abd-er-Razzak. 213 Asiatic. 230. 4. 193. 271 trade from interior of. 101. 65. 160. 117. Abd-es-Shems. 138. 186. 175. 226. 3. 69. 130. 147. Gulf of. 176. 73. to the notes in light-faced Abasa. 138 Adi-Ganga. 119. 8. 102. 103. 70. 98 agate. 74. 64. 101 Southern extension of. 145. 24 161. 96. 268 alabandic stone. 179. 62. 161 Abydos . See agate. 125. 74. 155 adamas. 5. 114 Alalaei islands. 124. 132 alkanet. 136. circumnavigation of. 31. 10. 77. 178. 32. 97. 108 Abiria (Abhira). 63. 134. 65. 244. 89. Adiles. 77. 108 Aelius Gallus. 39. 133 in Egypt. 61. 141. 116. 109. 131 Alexander. 41. E. 142. 83. 214 Alashia (Cyprus). 251 alaba-ster. 187. 99. 161. 61. 96. 82. 57 Ammianus Marcellinus. 153 250 apyron gold (see Ophir). 277 animism. 276 230 ambergris. river. 145. 39. 80. 14. 35. 109 Arishta Satakami. 234 Anjidiv (see Aegidii). 103. 198. 77. 158. 228. 102 Arabian Gulf. 30. 197. 160. 199. 124. 116 caravan trade. 113.296 Allazi. 31. 163. 111. 86 Alleppey. 147. Matthew. 33. Hebrew. 268. 198. 192 Antioch. 104. 254 Armenia. 45. 210 Arib. 70. 175 Apirus river (see Ophir). 202 107. 162 Arabs. Amphila. 259. 189. 96. 268 antelope horns. 97 Felix. 244. country Amaravati. 175 Apollo. 88. 245 Angkor. 228 down coast of East Africa. 201. 150. 44. 277 Arcturus. 160 Antiochus Hierax. 118. 217. 160. 214 96. 121. 70 Andhra. 160 aquamarine. 222 Arabia. 148. 164. 168. 87. 149 Sumatra and Java. 24. 182 Anaimalai Hills. 162 Arachosii. 109. 25. 118. 276 Anariaci. 253 -anise. 126. 4. 276. 183 Arctic Circle. 29. 25. 65. 244. 102. 89. 141. 88. 102 Aramaic language. 245 ship-symbol. 121. 177. 41. 28. 113 aloes. 134. 281 amomum. 106. 123. 211 almonds. 27 Antiochia Margiana (Merv). 267. 26. 103. 230. 97. 66 Annius Plocamus. 102 antimony. 97. 104 Arabis. 175. 195. 5. anchorage. 277 Amu Daria. 97. oil of. 200. 185 Arctic Ocean. 193. 150. 270 Sovereignty of the state that is 'Ain = Amon. Alps. 34. 16. 150. 189 Arad-Ea. 132. 24. 75. Africa. 158. 228 Amos. 252 Antigonus. 115 language. 59. 184. 105. 176. 105. 195 amber. 98. 135. 240 ants. 236-7. 104 Arattii (Arashtra). 180 Arabia Petrasa. 149. 40. 151. 71. 277 Aram. 586 Aparantika. 89. 161. 161. 200 Aristotle. 204. 121. 187 . 269 Antiochus. 157.Wat. 74 Antichthones. 243. 76. 243. 213 89. 261 An-hsi (see Parthia). 96 Arabic language. 130. 61. 142. 117. 78. 98. 174. 264. 152. 135. 90. 252. 129. 58. 121 amethyst. 130. 263. 210. 139. 109. 241 Aria. 132 Aretas (Hareth). 278 Arnold. 113. 196. 103 Argaru (see Uraiyur). 27. Amara. 8 anointing oil. 233. 63 (See Oxus). 146 sea. 63. 46. andante. 42. 183. 41. 28. 17 Apollo's Valley. 131-2. 132. 119. 96. 135 Arakan. 159 Arabian shipping. 99. 121. 132. 102. 142 Aramaeans. 122. 192. 147. 4. 104. 266 Arjuna. 142 in of India. 149. 66 Amritsar. 30. 275 Antiochia (Charax). 36. 123 Antiochus Theos. 112 Amon. 30. 124. 243. 115. 38. 145. 42. 131. 157 Amenemhet I. 141. 232. 133. 162. 149. 27 Ares. 235. 66 Antony. 3. 151. 27. 236. 125. 103. gold-digging (see Tibetan gold). 104 geographers. 199. 140. 132 of. 36. 83. 60. Anjengo. 190. 10. 204 Anam. continent of. 26. 138 Apollodotus. 31. 98 Anneslev Bay. 87. 184 Antiphili Portus (see Amphila). 14. 189. 169 Ansichow. 175 ( apes. 44. Amon-Re. 264 Arabia Amoy (see Zayton). 128. 277 anchors. 132 Araby the Blest. 101. 111 Antiochus Epiphanes. 132. 226 Amhara. 154. 198. 247 infusion with negroes in E. 123. 155. 127. 60. 221 areho. 253 coinage. 259 An-tun Marcus Aurelius Antonius). 62. 161. 143 first in. 127 historians. 64. 269 Ariaca. Apologus. 11. Book of. 4. Mark. 252 Aral Sea. 62. 103 AUM. 126. 233. 165. 268. 189. 236 Babylonian creation-story. 3. 52. 61. 91. Barkare. 160 Astabora river. 47. 46. 194. 132. 194. 238 Bactra. J. 213 Asiatics of the desert. 265 Athenodorus. 155 bamboos. 221 Arsinoe.297 Arphaxad. 29. 175. 112 Assam. 254. 114 Arun river. Aryanism ( Brahmanism ) . 138. 164. 211. 128. 161 arsenic. 254. 227. 102 Atlantic Ocean. 83. 270 Bactria.35. 186. 241. 26 Atbara river (Astabora). Balearic Islands. 46. 142. 58 Assyria. 85 . 259 balms. 270 Bandar Abbas. Sea of (see Maeotis). 73. 149. 157. 123. 57. 123 Asia. 128. 5. 168 Ba-l-Haf. 9. 112. 132. 164. 24. 67. 133. 74. 96. 64. 118. 236. 107 161. 151. 84. 268 Asoka. 181 Bagamoyo (see Rhapta). 76. 238. 92 A20V. Vincent. 41. 94 Bagdad. 261. 275. 202. seed bamboo. 230.. 81. 267 Asshur. 164. 166. 62. 225. 81 Bandar Muriyeh. 39. 255. 168. 215. 91 Bandar Hais (see Mundus). 159. 163. 40 Astaphus river. 177 asbestos cloth. 122. 63. 269. 191. 235. 96. 51. 48. 163. 252 bluffs of. 185 Assyrian inscriptions. 146. 67. 27. 235. 266. 189 atyob^ 62 Augustus. 56. 188. 274 Bactrians. 51. 43. 222 Bains. 138 Babylonian inscriptions. 65. Aurea Chersonesus (see 259. 74. 228 Babylonia. 260 Chryse). the serpent. 180. 223 Asvavadana (see Horse-faces). 176. Bamian. 235 Ball. 141 Ayodhya (see Oudh). 65. 108. 184. 259 Arsacid dynasty. 186. 114 Avanti. 59. 80. 123. 61 Avalites. 65. 150. 139 ( Aurannoboas 202. 59. 117 Straits of. 112 Aulus Hirtius. Arrian. 187. 127. 263 of. 249 aspralathus. 139 Auxumites. 3. 172. 253. 5. 81. 174 Bahmanabad. 228. 170. 267 Ausanitic coast. 187. 63. 242 Azania. 187 awls (or bodkins). 69 Artemidorus. 131. 250. 210. 66. 212. 136. 236. 160. 106. 152. 43 Babylon. 107 Assuan. 114. 92. 115 Austrian South Arabian Expedition. 264 7. 270. asses. 228 Bahardipur (see Barbaricum) . 133 Aryans. Aurelian. 272. 8. 151. 185. 119. astrobolus (see cat's eye). 166 Bahrein Islands. 185. 234. 213. 279 Asabon. 89. 92 courses of. Asich (see Axum). 214 balsamum. 279 Arwe. 130 Ashur. 34. asypha. 263. 61 Assurbanipal. 39. 163. 174. Barace. 259. 76. 11. 126. 156. 220. 260. 278 Bab-el-Mandeb. 6. 150 Attock. 228. 121 balsam. 224. 91. 116 Balita (see Varkkallai). 27. 109. 62 asafoetida. 234 Bacchus. 195. 5. 73. 265 Ausal. Ausan. city of the. 229. 59 Astacampra. 28 axes. 27. 62. 59 Astola. 164. 171. 123. 192. 167. 31. 212. 10. 238. 28. 267 74. 268. 260 Attana. A. 140. 219. 171. 183. 171. 126. 257. 23. 254 Badakshan. 74. 146 Asmirasa (see Tsiemo). 238. 264. 222. 258 Aranya-vaha ? ) . 63 235 Athenaeus. 112 Balasri. 204. 92. 61 84. 149 Bacare. 124 Attacori. 162 Astomi. 107. 62. 119. 190 Atramitae (see Chatraraotitas). 165 Bahlika (see Baraca). 184. 15 10. 269 baboons. 94. 148 Asachae (see Asich). 145 Ash-shihr (see Es-shehr). 28. 147. Ausar. 163. 92. 145. 276 Ascitae (see Asich). 57. 171 Baeones. 172. 115. 156. 258. 52. Asabi. 118. 24. 132. 25. 153. 15. 9. 58. 61. 278 Asia Minor. oil of. 149. 60. 36. 264. 96. 192 24 Axum. 44. 179. 63. 208 balanus. 8. 37. 56. 211 Bent. Bharana.26. M. 139. 254 barley. 22. 200 Bikrampur (see Vikramapura). 272 Bellary. 98 Baraca. 56 Berenice. 221. 255. 134. 88. 92 Barygaza. 15 baskets. 75. 253. 204 Bhandarkar. Boyer. 18 Boroboedor. 245. 165. 42. 56. 139. 142. 200 bracelets. 192 Benjamin of Tudela. 264. 114 Brahma. 259 Bengal. 118. 177 boutyros (see asafcetida). 40. 253 Biddulph. 270 Barbary States.. 196. 117. 39. Aoa/)'n)«( see clarified butter). 120. 92 Barbaricum. 185. 236. 190 hollowed from logs. 85 Bankot (see Mandagora). 91. 257. 75. 163-5 Beach. 36. 162. 69. 242. 18. 80. 55. 116. 81. 170 Belus. 119. 119. 281 Brahmaputra river. 237. 164. 174. 222 beryls. 79. 141 beef. benzoin. 268. 197 mountain of the. 22. 151 Batrasave. 182. Vll 178 Boulger. 132. 278. 261 bosmoros. 236. 123 Bell. 197. 169. 104. 34. S. 128 Blancard. 156. 184. 274 Basilis. 187 Benfey. 27 Beazley. 164. 210. 80. 79. 281 210. A. 16. 143. 237 Borheck. 243 Bodh-Gaya. 56 barberry (see lycium). 177. 188. 242. 80. 37.298 Bandar Ululah. 222. 38. 169 Barbosa. 201 Bhumaka 280 281 Bassora. C. 145. 128. 38. 188. 116 Bir Barhut. 123 Beypore. 19 Blandi. 190. 74. 279 Bay of. 242 Bokhara. 30. 138. 200. 149. 28. 153. 106. 275 Bharata. 139. 48. Island of the. 180 (see Nahapana) 198 Bhutan. 258 Benguela. Col. 241 Birdwood. 178 Berber. 180 . J. 171. 236. 41. 209 betel. 120. 252. 279 216 Bethlehem. Col. 48. 197. 194. 25. 281. 233. 97. 243. 45. 35. 43. 147. 163. 138. 194 Bargysi. wicker. 153. the. 267 Beckmann. 74. 60. Theodore. 63. 258. 75 Benmasan. 121. 257. 180 Bhils. 196. 226. 89. 166 Beluchistan. D. 178 Barr el Ajam. Bisadae. Brahmanas. 204. 16. 42. 175 Barawa. 123 Bel. 64 Bodhisattva. R. 41 sewed. 39. 156. 174. 264. G. 282 165. small. 178. 31. 182. 62 Bir Ali. 151. 101. 255. 193. 94. 194 Bhota. 272 Book of the Dead. 234. 223 Besatas. for fishing. 3. 28. 167. 133. 201 Bantu migrations. 152. 196. 253 Bhrigu. Bhargas. 197. 260 Brahman writings. 141. 31. 133 birds. 120 Bit-Yakin. 272 Braho. 135. 47. 39. 91... 253. 269 Bombay. 155. 66. beryllium. 253. 68 Benadir. 224 Bellasis. 140. 252 muslins. 75 217 91 Berbers (Barbari). 237 257 Bonin. 52. 138. 205. 105. 32.24. 130. 36. 87. 197 Bohlen. 89. C. 152. 111. 46 Batineh coast. 22. 186. 56. for shoulder-burdens. 245. 18 blankets. 176. 129. 29. 30. Land of. 194. 68. 190. 241. 154. 244 of osiers covered with hides. 150 bdellium. 23. 80. 235 Bharukacha. 160 Black Sea 77 blackwood. 151. 252. Ajjan. sacred (see serpents). 128. 168. 119.25. 127 bathing. 270. 148 "blood of two brothers.-M. 95 plaited. 183. 263 . 70 Bion. 38. meaning of. R.. 127. J." 138 bloodstone. 92 Benares. 247 Batavia. 27. 60 Berbera. 244. 178. 48. 198. 180. 151. 167. fair of. 259. 36. 171 Beduins. 104. 199. small and great.. 138 Brahmanism. 241. 221. 179. 223 boats. 228. 257 Blest. 255 Bilbilis. 32. 168. 59. 65. 41. 219. 74 Cammoni. 88. 221. 209. 112. 259 Camanes. 196 brocades. 237. Cape route to India. 106. 196 Cana. salted. 137. 209. 48. 227 carchedonia (see jasper). 152. 128. 143 Campania. . 182. 185. camel's flesh. 123 Cahfl Islands. 214 82. 221. 148. 196. 7. 45. Bishop. 210. 197. 47. 201. 170. 253. 58 135. 121. 115. a coin. 242 Cambay. 272 Buddhist writings. 176. 91. 85 Cadmus. 81 Burton. 78. 202 191. Burma. 190 Campbell. 197. 106 off Somali coast. 259. 183. 57. 64. 126. 226 butter. 199. 151. 126. 273 Cannanore (see Naura). 24. 137. Buddhist Monastery. 73 Bucephalus Alexandria. 35. 188 pagodas. 258 Cambodia. 36. 78. 177 Byzantine emperors. 80. 270 Bunbury. 93. 183.. 43. 231. 35. 182 Buto. 59. 205. 204. 7 caravan routes between the Nile and Red Sea. 183. 70. 182 Camara. 279 Bumell. 228 Bredow. 221 buckram. 228 callaina. 61. 234 Candace. 263. J. 32. 81. 177 Biihler. 30. 28. 161. 30. 108. 122. 85. Sir Richard Francis. 222. 274 Buddhist pilgrim route. 121 from China to Bactria. 111. Gulf of. 233 181. 172. 117 cannibals. 263. 255. Southern Mount. 69 Breasted. 189. 82. 251 Calon mountains. 141 connecting South Indian backwaters. 177. 243 Calf. 65. Canaan.23. 43. 103. 131. 167. 44.. 61. 202 Csesar. 90. Calliana). 228. 126 Carmania. 190. 220 Cabolitic. 233 Csenitae. 52. 220 Caliphate. 138. 182. 46. 251 Corinthian. 89. 273 cargo-ships. 122. 132. 234. 227 Caligula. 198. 112 Cappadocia. 56 Calicut. 182 Camoes. 193. 74. 81. 184 Calcutta. 58 Buchanan. 203 Broach (see Barvgaza). 80. 84. 261 carbunculus. 223 cardamoms. 197. 167. 12. 235. (see cotton cloth). 279 in Java. 188. 192. 229 Bulhar. 221. 218. 169 Caldwell. 205. 147 calamus. 79. 257 bronze. 259. Dr. 261 Biandis. 89. 227. Prof. 204. 268 Burckhardt. 243 Cantabria. 236. 160 canal between the Nile and 51 Red Sea. 254. 104 146. 150. 191. 194. 40. 11. 232. 197. 36. 236. 270 bulls. 132 Ca. 234. 255. 77. 204. 33. 273 Buddhism. 209. 324. 151. 203. 260 canoes of single logs. 233 Bulunzir. 249. 147 caltis. 175. 223. 38. H. 158. 187. 22. 143 Cape of Spices (Guardafui). 65. 64. 264 Cairo. 32. 115. 184. 223_ Calliena (see Kalyana. 185. 289 calves. 190 Cabul. British. 70. 229. 234 Bums. 189. 61. 113. 36. 180 Brambanan. 235. 273. 152. 75. 51. 19 Britain. 254. 179. 180. 91. 190. 65. 193 Bruce. 129. Dr. 34 cake. 174 Burnt Island. 190 Canton. callean stone (see turquoise). 264 Cambyses. 252. 215. 261 Cambridge Natural History. 221. 69. 215 brass. 208. 84. 12. 68. 59 Candler. 240 cake-dishes. 174 Buddha. 116. island of the. 174. 270 cactus.. 136. 127 Caius (Caligula). 59 camels. 194. 130.299 Brahui. Carey. 72. 226. 221 Canneh. 195. 162. 275.lobothras (see Cerobothra). 193. 160. 166. 104. 139.Eaters (Moschophagi). 228 Cape of Good Hope. 176. 172 Byzantium. 117. 170. 42. Sir James. 229 buffalo's milk. 221 99. 187. 259 Cevlon. embassy from. Charax Spasini. 219 Carthaginians. 97 281 Chersonesus. 266. 184 Chna. Nankin. 39. H. 261 Chou-li. 204. 191. 263. 42. 247. 235. 142. 209. 105 Camatic. 281 Chola-mandalam (see Coromandel). 264 Catalonia. 162 Chalukya kings. 30. 217. 139. 237. 64. 183. 269 caskets. Cassanites. 186. 180. 261 Chera. 208. 11)7. 263. 229. 142. 84. 185. Central Arabia. J. 190 Chaldiea. 197 Cham. 264. 228. 152. 109 Canraites. 188 Chatramotitas. 30. silks. 172. 108 Central Asia. 223 Carreri. 155 Christianity. 248. 149. 116. 230 chaplets. (See This. 208 246 Chinese. 259. 220. 223 Cattigara. 195. 263. 116 Chota Nagpur. 78 celibacy. 11. 246 trader. 225. 190. 171. 242. Kariba-il. 241. 270. 269. 152 sea-route to. 217 86 caste system. 222. 175 . 279. 186. 262. 180. 35 cedar. 42. 249. 118. the. 271 humped. 191. 264 Central Asian trade-route. 273 china. 190. 277 Pass. 155 13 Carter. 246.300 carmesin. 128. 238 castor musk. via Malacca. 227. 261. 48. 250 of. 166. 128. 166. 252 Chaberis emporion (see Camara). 180. Bay of. 123. 43. 104 Cerobothra. 271 ca\e-dwellers. 140. 270. 202. 184 Chashtana. 230. 44. 84. 9. 65. 202 Ch'ien-han-shu. 67. 255 Chandristhan. Chatramotitis (see Hadramaut). 185. 237. Charsadda. 186 Chandragupta Vikramaditya. 168 cat's eve. Syrian. 263 Christ. 176. 247. 78. 260 great wall of. 148. 257 Chandragupta Maurya. 235. 195. 281 Cho-La. 146 in India. 76. 183. Kingdom of (seeChera). 246 Chaul. 163. 223 Chalcidice. 10. 115 chariots. 101. 163 Champavati (see Sem^dla). 46 118. 152. 30. Chaldaeans. 197. 127. 187. 272 centurion. 162 Christians. 250. 263 Sea. 177. 112.bus. 276 Chlshull. 121. Chin Hills. 226. 52. (see Semylla). 276 account of Roman Syria. 135. 200 Chanda. 239. 276. sea-trade to Persia. 277 ships. 205. 277 Chin. 84. 273.) 277. 261. 206 in Ceylon. 238. 82. 194. 194. 268. 257 Casii (see Kashgar). Kula'ib. 107. 119. false. 255. 261. 280 Caseri. 227. Cananites. 186. 151 Chakora. 255 Chindwin river. 242 Chahbar. 209. 84. 230. 169. 235. 67. 279. 213. 160 Chola. 2(14. 241. 259. 260 Cashmere. 227.258 Chou dynasty. 222. Chronicles. 73 carmine. in the Hadramaut. 268. 178. 159. 260. Book 122. 275-7 annals. '145. 224 209. 227. 34 Caspapyrene. 147. 279. 243. carnelian. 228 149. 193. 218. 252. 8. 238. 197. 267. 143 Carthage. 14. 2110 Chau. 83. 90. 249. 105. 29. 276. 211). 11. 187.. 262 Washington. 44. 30. 204. 275. 222. cattle. 73 Chandikabai. 223. to Augustus. 9. 160. 176. 251 castor oil. 266. 199 Chalcedony. 279 Chola. 82. 241. 62. 213. 107. 228. 248 China. 176. 261. 275. 104. 145 Chatterton. Catherine de Medici. 273. 265 Carnegie Institution. 169 Chitor. 269 cassia. 170. 32. 247. 251. Geraelli. Caspapyra. 237. 269. 194. 199 193. 270. 189 Caspian Sea. 36. 216. 169. 139. 205. 150 Charibael. 124. 63. 201 Chandragiri river. 205 Cama (see Kama) Camaites. 172. 13. 76. 145. 275 embroidered. 132 Coimbatore. 69. 265. 45. 70 cobalt. 45. 214 Cicero. 48. 209. 60. 259-61 chrysolite. 271. 240. 69. 252 cochineal. 244. 7. 240 cloth. 207. 201. 25. 221. 77. 80. 263. 46. 276 cinnabar. with sleeves. 204. 89. 42. 223 Chu river. 155. 33. 24 cloths. 47. Henri. 139. 190. 31 scarlet coral. 192. 221. 16. 278 Cimolian chalk. 25. 269 46. 63. Commodus. 276. 136. 113. 37. 215 backwaters. 26. 12. 251 Congo. 157 Cornwall. 74. 151. 67. 220 121. 215. 190. 115 Conti. Cape and Harbor Coroedi. 237 coriander. Nicol. 267 Constantius. 132 Cleopatra. 212. interwoven with gold. 155. 39. 225 Coorgs. 169. 236 Cochin. 224. 197 Arabian style. sweet. 227. 24. 220 Constantinople. Cape (see Comari). 141 269 Cimmerian Bosphonis. 67. 170. 137-9 Commercial Museum. 132. 261 Chumbi Vale. 281 Cirrhadae. 31 plain. 71. 88 (in Chinese records). 78 Coromandel (see Chola). 55 of. 99. 274 cinnamon. 39. 44. H. 43. Africa. Corsica. 204. 46. 42. 6. ordinary. 34. 220. 60. 31 dyed in colors. 262. 168. 219. 144. 3. 42. 179. 163 Chwan-chau (see Zayton). 218. dressed. 68. 221 Clement. 264 Coast Country (see Chola). 99. 256 Cizimba language in E. 127. Philadelphia. 43. comacum. 33. 177. 214. 123. 264 260. 39. 132. 276 colandia. 251. 23. 123. chrysoprasus. 105. 172. 70 Coptos. 169. 69 ochre. 27. 103. 109. 276 127. 70. 197. 96. 202 undressed. 87. 213. 77. 234 . 249. 235 cinnabar. 246 Colchi. 227 Cos. 99. 127. 204. 36. 191 cloves. 31. 48. 235. 233 Egyptian. 216. 111 Cilicia. 25. 76. 135. transparent silk gauze. 6. 157. 227. 219. 152. 27. 154. 112 Comari. 25 asbestos. Columbus. 47. 254. 278 citronella. 219. 241 coats of skin. 177. 273 Coa •vestiJ. 89. 75 Constantine. 193. 42. 243. 44. 46. 42. 121. 80 Indian. 261 cloaks. 121. 160. 8. 149 Cornelius Nepos. 208. 278 collector of customs. 167 cocoanut palm. 185 Ch'u. 137. 82. 45. 168 cotton. 170. 128. 36. 273 its products. 135 clover. 42. 82-4. 111. in sheets. 196. 220 Comorin. 92. 223 chrysoprase. chrysolithos. 74. Clifford. 5. 276 Indian. 211. 75. 192. 78. 193. 55. 246-7 Comum. 279 Chuse (see Cush). 24. 228. 257. 252. 33. Indian (see dragon's blood). 209. 229. 68 gold-colored. 71. 72. 112. 86. 178 Claudius. 219 embroidered. C. 35. 24 Clodius. 236. 232. 171 soft. 253. 42. 171 cobra. 112. 25. 223. 234. 266 Cottonara. 250 Comoro compass Islands. author of the Christian Topography. 73 Indicopleustes. 80 copper. 4. 243. 112. 214.301 Chryse Island. 259. 250. 205. boutyron. 107. 31 striped. 222 coin. 272. 52. 208. 247. 237 Colchis. 250 coffee. 122. 266. 72. 212 Cosmas Cochinchina. 168 corundum. the. 227. 190 copal. 77. 245. 45. 250. 34. 29 Coloe. Cyprian. 98 clarified butter. 257 purple. 210. 246. 6. 4. clothing. 256. 31. 281 Cordier. 38. 273. 259. 25. 217. 46. 264 283. 172. 70 conch-shells. 273 costus. 122. 24. 214 37. 244 corsairs. 227. 99. 164 Corinth. 128 Curzon. 28. 175. T. 76. 176 Rann of. 66. 70 C^tesiphon. 234 Dedan. 173. 160. 143. 237. 71. Lieut. 253 Doughty. 166. 209 Day. 273 Cruttenden. 123. 51-2 Devgarh (see Togarum). 229 Dhanyakataka. Diu. 158 wine. 158 fiber. 172 DioJorus i^land. 182. 256 cotymha. 66 Daimaniyat Islands.302 cotton cloth. Dharanikotta. 273 De Candolle. 154. 200 cups. 126. 63 Djesair. 196 cow's blood. 34 Crosby. 215. 48. 101 Deasy. 181 Djadarot. 193. 41. 218. 106 192. 259 Dachinabades (see Deccan). 209 Dead Sea. 196 Davids. 252. 109. 241 Dillmann. 37. 142. 208 Crawley. 43. 7. 157 Deccan. 34. 211 Cusha-dvTpa. 224. 195. 116. 47. 32 Domitian. 158. 273 Dasarna (see Dosarene). 40. 125. 156 syagri. 121 Dog-star. 73. Dar-es-Salaam. 138 Demetrius. 226. 226 Dioscorida. 190 crimson. 112 C\'prus. 222. 142 Disan Island. 89. 33. Rhys. Lord. 64. 188. 179. 162 Cush. 199 Dhofar. 46. 27J Ctesias. 159 date-palm. 213 DiospolLs. 66 Cyeneum. 47. 256. 171. 223 Dawson. 215 Cynocephali. Delgado. 159. 235. 205. 70 millc. 177 cramoisi. 58. 76. 264 Damirica. 82. 5. 276. 213 Cunningham. 213. 253 dammar gum. Sarat Chandra. 94. 203. 23. watering-place of. 149. 160. 24 Bahri. 220 Dosarene.. 99. 162 Dionysos. 142. 220 Cyrene. El. 86 Cynos river (Wadi-ed-Dawasir? ). 197. 236 Crete. 225. 127 December. 220. 45. 224. 103 Diocletian. 157. 18 dogs. 224. 150 cypirus. 157. 145 crystal. 272 Dholbanta. 86 Dosaron river (see Mahanadi). 87 diamonds. 104 . 94 Darius the Great. H. 226. 184 Dera Ghazi Khan. 141.Elamite migration. 114 Diodorus Siculus. 45. 28 Dahalak. 85 daggers. 228. 268 Daphnus. 175. 205. 51. Cape. 146. 132 Dionysiac revels. 135. 80. 72. 159. 252 Damascus. 162 Deir el cummin. 68 Dirbat. 201 Dacca. 131 Dionysius Periegetes. 136. 245 Cousens. 157. 43. 177. 253 dates. 258. 121. 174. 189. 147 Dakshina (see Deccan). theory concerning. 147. 113. 92 damask. 162. 134 Cutch. 224 D'Anville. 73 Cranganore. 73 crocodiles. Francis. 133-6 DIoscorides. 171. 107. 233 Dome Island (TruUas). 219 Das. 158. Prof. 77 blades. 153. 204. 24. 256 thread. 270. 223. 27. 31. 35. 105. 271 141. 195. 221. 142. 58. 42. 4. 80 Dana. 159 Daulatabad. 112 cypress. 236.. 218. 61. 216. 69 Dabhol (see Palsepatmae). Kodungalur Kee Mu/iris). 61 Dio Cassius. 252 spinning. r)6. 174 designated ports. 258 Dhanavriddhi. 24. 173 Delphi. 263 painted chintzes. 91. 218 language in Africa similar to the Ural-altaic. 35. 204 Dagaan. 141. 39. 271. 161. 160. 23. 140. 38. 120. 711. 44. Ernest. 272. 201 Dhamari. 273 Dodwell. 22. 230 Cushites. 51. 195. 134 Cushite . 61 Cyncilim (see Kelc\-nda). 129. 118. 97 Delitzsch. 264 Darror valley. ^V. 252. 249. 187. 153. 57. 41 dragon. Elan. 281 eye cosmetic. 165. 131. 134. 26+ Exodus. 153. 77 Epiphanius. 115 Edmunds. 7. 104. 71 Elisar. 136. 118. 132. 226 of Siva. 57. 50-1. 123 Ephesus. 174 Eiselen. 166. 190. 138. 127. 204. 70. 138. 118. 60 Erythras. 83. 228 . 61. 121. 113. 249. 96. 193. 145 legend concerning. 184. 226 113 England. 235. 113. 171. 235. 65. 127. 5. 162. 264 shipping. 66. 189. 214. 209 Durga. Cape and River. 180. 125. K. 195 of. 185. Sir Walter. 215 Elephanta. 66. 102 Edrisi. 236. 127. 12. 240 emery. 129. 277 Eritrea. 194. 173. 192. 126. 7. 138 dragon's blood. 5. 54. 260. 120. 55. Eratosthenes. 96. 231 trading-voyages. 92. 185 Eudsemon Arabia. 4. 80. 237. 117 electmm. 218 Egyptian cloth. 232. 153. 172. 205. 71 egg. 89. 138 Elephantine. 123 duaca. 137. 183. 50-1 Erythras. 228. 237 drill. 178. 11. 42. 76. 212 Dutch. 113. 236. 215. 3. 167 geographers. 190. 115 EUiot. 244. 219 Elam. 132. 78 Elephant. 159 Elagabalus. of Ares. 233 Ethiopia. 82 Ephah. 27.. 184. 135. 158. 80 Duff. 36. 237. 261 = Egypt Exploration Fund. 192 paint. E. 139. 76. 227. 202 drinking-cups. 71. 230. 65. 121. 87. English. 226. 60. 157. 138. 48. 60 Er-rih (Ptolemais). 236. 229 sea-trade. 159. Etruscan.. 234. C. 89. Mount. 208. 161. 30 Emu. 260 Ezra. 135. 192 Ezekiel. 270 Euripides. 209. 225. 169 Everest. 197. 193. 174 eagles. 87. 102. 77. Albert J. 223. 145. 63. 143. 257 Elis. 25 dromedaries. 153 58. 137. (see Aethiopia). 68. 130. 23. 25. 221. 142 Etesian winds. 75. 32. 179. 114. 32. 163.43. legend concerning. 162. 238 Dravidians. 117. 281 Dutch government in Java. 3. 230 inscription. 235. 115. 149 embalming. 75. 86 82. 107. 111. 236 Eirinon. 108.an Sea. 51. 61. 7. 228. 193 Eucratides. 15. 238. 111. 205. 117. 224. 113 emeralds. 259 Erythra. 203 Elymais (see Elam). 269 Eden. 36. Book Ezion-Geber. 107 ebony. 142. 164. 260 Agatharchides on. 146. 32. 210. 175. T. or ParvatI. 192. 190 Egypt. the. 118. 82. 74. 33. 103. 62. 87 Esarhaddon. Euxine Sea. 192. 224 Emperors. 113 Euphrates. 173. 156. 243 Eber. 38. 61. 6. 263 drachmas. 83. 58 Es-shehr^Escier Ash-Shihr. 234. 270 Dravida-desam (see Damirica). 278 Evans. 176. 115. 228-30. 113. 279 alphabet. 101. 213. 144. 78. 132 Europe. 252 housings for. 209-11. 217. 31. 260 Eleazus. 64. 178. 228 60. 161. 258 213. the. 178. 59. 24. 22. 268 Edom. 159. 1J5 euphorbia. blue. 57 elephants. King. R. 12. 239. 122. Book of. 6. 171 Epiphi. 197. 51. 50-2 origin of name. 241. R. 73. 101. 167. 149 Egyptians. Dwarka. 26. 203 Engler and Prantl. 55. 123 Ely. 168. 27 Erannoboas Hiranya-vaha (see Son). 45. 249. 85. 246. 122. 3. 202. 213. 22. 68. 9 Ecbatana. 159. 132. 68. 160. 151. 228. 101. 47. 37. 259 ellutu-wood. 242. 258 — Eastern Archipelago. 194. 45.. Book of. 169. 69.303 Douglas. 58. 105. 78. 101. 230. 218. 4. 171. 138-9 Drake-Brockman. 29. 131. 60. 52. 115. 9. 47. 281 Fezzan. 75. 214. 233.116. 123. 122. 217. 78. 48. 256-8 178 Fleet. 62. 6. ISO. 43.. 17. 187. 33. 192. 143 Foucher. 139. 74. 248 festival. 249 Gautamlputra Satakami (see ViKvayakura). 177 Fundy. Zenobian). 117. 98 Garcia de Orta. : Froben. 16. 272. 259. 116. 131-2 trade in. 115.. 24. 162 Genabti (see Genaba. 225. 258 cf . 146. 76. 248. 141. 260 Gadusii. 161. 62. 279 Gangetic spikenard. 34. 118. 149. 195. 148. 197. Gaia. 184. bird of Vishnu. 145. 74. 84. 256 muslins. 130-3 far-side. 224 Garhwal. 216 fenugreek. 271 Gamble. tribal. G. 276 Genaba. 157 Book of. 189 Ganesa. 141. 29. 11. 140 Franks. dangers of gathering. 143. 151. 263 Fumeaux. men with..113. 189 Geez. 85. 236. 144. 128. 199 frankincense. 257 Fliickiger and Hanbury. 15. 146 Geil. 177. 279 Ferrars. 240. Gara. 244. 260. 35. 159. 141. 58 France. 80 Firgamu. 29 Gartok. 36. 167. 249. of the Besat« 51. 253 Gaul. J. 222. 151. 218 Gararaantes. 209. 105. 272. 132. 77. 121. 257. 139. 162 257 Further India (sec Chrysp). 37. 146. 131. annual. 115. 35. 146. F. 75 fennel. 5. J. 30. 107. 196. 152. 81. 84. 178. 265 Fa-Hien. 236. 113. 242. 31. 255. 112 Fergusson. 116. 4. 89. 80 spirit of the tree. 22. 227. 139 Fellatah country. 236 Ganga-Sagar. 255. 255. 258. 127. 23. 277 Gastulia. 17 fruit. 271 customs 125 affecting gathering of. 128. 125-6 Frankincense Country. 114.304 Fabricius. 75 Frazer. 131. 172. 280. 164. 11 Gallas. 107. 80 Fartach. 166.) 143. 223 Gamier. James. 168 Gaurisankar (see E\erest '. 20. 117. 86. 272 Garuda. 28 flattened noses. Francois. 183 Fu-hi. sacred. 242. 261 Garo. 215. 171 fish. 144 (Jenesis. 176. flax. 114. 123 Gebanites. 122. 217. 14. 190 Galilee. 279. 56. 279 Ganjam. 222. fishing. 80. 155 Fish-Eaters (Ichthyophagi). 167. 250. 26. 33. 156 galangal. 36. 120. 163. 143. 267. 139. 80. 229 Foulkes. 162 oil. 72. 281 Gautama Buddha. 112 galbanum. 112. 197. 209 flour. 222. 41. 34. 18 gems. 142. 60. 126 Gedrosia. 122. kingdom of (see Ras Fartak). 169. Kreshfield. 68. 191 Gandarasi {CanJhara). 119. 279 Farsan Islands. 256 Gangtok. 165. 124. 159. 170. 124. 19. 216 Galicia. 25. 143. 238. 255 Ganges. 158 Fryer. furs. 235 Gaza. 279 115. 105. 133. 45. Sir Bartle. 32.105. 199. J. 194 . 142. 13. 77. 32. 183 Foulahs. 171. 89 Fouike. 125. 133. 281 fair. 46. Beni Genab (see Zenobian. 63. 126. 256. 11. 106 "far-side" ports and coast. 47. 242. 242 Fourth Cataract. 122. 74. 162. 241. 32. 130. 278 6. 152 games. 183. H. 106. 155. 154. 253. Bay of. 145. 160. 27. 218. 237 Frere. 47. 190 garnet. 188 garlands. 68. 164. 41. 208. 13 pearls. 272 Gelenius. 133. 144. 183. 209. 163. 215 Forster. 98 fig. 32. 188. 147. 160. 216. 218. 161. 57.102. 72. 171. 25. 278 garrison. 140. ISO. 270. 151. 160. 27. 131. 66. 117. 63. 63. 13. 261. 86. 11. 113. 79. 66 . 2(10 Goodchlld. 257. 190. 135. 80. 37. 209 Haig. 25ft girdles. 116. 160. 280. 224. 69. 143. the. 25. 115. 201. 105. 190. 114. 161. 118. 196. 224 gold. 236 42 Gnhii. 162 Haidarabad. 76. 106. 196. W. R. 180. 60. 75. 152. 134. 199 Halevy. 277 literature. 131. 81. 4. 214. 31. 107. 46 Ghassanids. 172. 133. 140. 77. 154 116. 196. 35. 120. 122. 273 ginger-grass. 167. 189. 268 grar£. 219. 236. 63. 75.. 261 gum gums. 57. B. 28. 221 Greece. 46. 158. 75. 114. 63. 178 (ireeks. 245. 94. 213. 276 glass. 2i. 163. 45. 121 hammo-nitrum^ 68 ant-gold. 7 Handy. 80. 265. 4. 146.. 133. 272 Guinea coast. Ghazipur. 26. 78. 137. 24. 192. 214 Gilead. 62. 119. ISl goats. 34. 252. Ras. 105. 3. 174 Hala. 192. 188. 235. 218. 135. 58. 119 Hall and Neal. 175.176. 257. 71 Han dynasty. 51. Byzantine. 25. 133 Gondophares. 106. 273. 108. 119. 165 Gr*-co-Bactrian coins. 273 "golden bough" mistletoe. 193. 227. 97 Ham. 156. 221. 160. 118 Greenwich. 146 Hadramaut. 190.. 238 writers. 102. 264. 61. 262. 177. 117. 276 grape. 212. 99 Gujarat. 9. 61. 188 Gregentius. 85. 220. 62. 143 Hakra canal. 6. 185. 101. B. 134. 14. Hadramitic language. 33. 227. 281 62. W. 172. 26. 85. 217 74. 187 g/ii (see clarified butter). 121 Gilgamesh. 157 muscatel. 16. 86. 150. 144. 259. 179. 237 of. 130. 172. 36. 259 guano. 123. 167. 253. 143. arable. 107. W.. 18 U Gyangtse. 116 Guardafui. 265. 142. 33. 87. 108 Ghats. 246. 149. 60 Greek shipping. 197. 144. 224 classification of. SO. 14". 185 Graen. 121. 153. 141 Haini (Khamil). the. 268 Hammamat. 61. 263 annals. 130. 132. 142. 195. 258 embroideries. 172. 24. 255 Gurdaspur. 165 Gibbon. 51. 133. 261 Hanfilah. 6. 210. 175. 68. 211. 75. 91 grain.. 131. 44. 190 Girnar. 140. 157 Great Bear. 236 gods. 12. 275 Haines. 132. 59. 150 Goaphat point. 164 glass. 135. M.. 214 George. epic 163. 78. 64. 250. 195. 277 3. 101. Ernst H. 61. 267 Greek colonies. 128. 136. Habash.. 191. 63.. 77. western. R. 197. 109. 184. 141 Haftalu. ginger. 213 Glitz. 276. 236 — Golenischef. 8 Hammurabi. 258. 170. 34. 118 Guillain. 203. J. 279 Gobi desert. Eduard.. 24. 201 Egyptian. 272 Hai-hsi-kuo. 202. 85.. 69. 68. 9. 99.. 132. flint. D:-. 116.305 Genoa. 183. St. Ghora Bari. 164 Gundert. 168 Hafa. 25 Jhser. 238. 140. 177. 38. 211. 269 state. 58. 261 river. 48. 87. 191. 163. 135. 171. 214. 281. 10. 279. 89 geographers. 106 Syrian. 170. Godaverl 224 goddess. de. 4. 129. 201. 70. 122. 126. 96. 130. 142 Habashat. 68. 138 Gerrha. Genoese. 174. 164. 176. 249 fizir. 282 God's I^nd. 226 Gospels. 31. 104 Hadrian. 66. St. 121. 64. 119. 132 Golconda. 139. 106. 113. 62. 82. 61 Goa 'see Aegidii). Gen. 101 gulf of. 127. 107 griffins (see Tibetan gold). 42. 76. 108. 205. 168. 97 Guignes. 222 Go«-sus. 49. 220 Haeckel. 89. 223. A. 42. 234 Gupta Empire. 249. 117 . 43 Hyksos dynasty. 7 Hejaz. 101. 191 Horn of Africa. 129. 142 Ibn Mogawir. 151. 216. 251 65. Homna. Homerite Kingdom.'106. 233 hyenas. 264. 227. 118. 179. 87. 277 Hsi-yH. 183. 160. Abbe. 262 109. 279 Herone. 33. 143. 217 Hormus. 233 Hipjjocrates. 61 Harrar. 45. 163. 170. 142 Himvaritic langTiage. 176. 213. 131. 82 Ibn Batuta. 157. 264 Hecataeus. 146. 119 Mirth. 169 Hercules. 74. 129 Heliocles. 134. 104. 122. 116. D. 112 Heeren. 119. 232 Hitopadesa. Hindu 185. 262 Honavar (see Naura). Leuke Kome. 161. 261 Hogarth. 148 Herod. 109. 76. 272 Hud. 63. 228. 221 Hydreuma. 109. 58 Hyrcania. 31. 18 Hughli river. 107. Sind and Zinj. (protector of Egypt against in- cense-spirits in serpent form). 226. 62. 252 Pillars of. 158. 229 Hoang-ho river. 74 Hudson. 140. 223 ibis 210 inscriptions. 10. 253 Heyd. 263 Huns. G. 26 J Hirsch. 83. 189. 269. 235. Sven. 81. 269 Huang-ti. 108. 182 Heroopolite Gulf. 163. L.. 222. 116. 202 Hue. 165. El. 263. 109. 164. 6. 250 Hien-yang (see Singanfu). 223 hemp. 58 iiionkev-god. 194 Ha2armaveth. 101 Havilah. 261. 253. 13. Horus. 11 11 Herodotus. Herodias. 65. 92. 153. 3. 105. 247.. 253 Hiong-nu. 63. 216. 185 heliotropium (see bloodstone). 150 Ho-nan. 119 Hommel. 263. 74. 164. 188. land of. 88. 254. 119. 278 hyacinthus. 153. 189 traders. 273 Hsi-ivang-mu. 257 Heidelberp. 259. 199 Heracles. 60. 13. Ellsworth. 243. 273 hedyimata. 237 Hasik. 51. 229. 107. 94. 277. 169. 74. 259 — Hiram. 256. 130. 115. 105. 47. 119 Hazin. 212. 276 Hubli.. 8. 139. 9 White. 191. 183. 116. 107.306 Haiiuman. 39. 125. 107. W. 73. 268 hibiscus. 119. 62 Hebrews. 84. 94. 228 Hauakil Bay. 193. 11. 160. Prof. 82. 260 scriptures. 275 Hisn Ghorab. Queen. 141. 136 Hou-han-shu. 159. 84. Himalayas. 68 145. 169 Horace. 160. 73 Homer. 281 Himyar. 69. 104. 249 Hindu Kush mountains. 263 Henry II. 114. 62 hatchets. 113. 70. 75 harvests. 230. El Auara. Sir Thomas Hungerford. 279 horn. 30. 217. 163. Hyctanis river. 148 Holdich. 123. 106. 112. 162. 270 Hippalus. 179. 151. 279. tl\e Harkhuf. 161.. 139. 81. 106. 213. 275 Hsen-wi. Chinese annals contemporary with the Periplus. 131. 118. 273 holm-oak. 268 Ili-azzu Jalit. 236 Huntington. 96. 238 Herculaneum. 185. 277 iaspis (see jasper^. 107 Hi river. 148 Hilprecht. Hermann V. 162. 132 Hindus. 160. 142 Hesiod. King ot Tyre. 6. 258. 73 hides. 116 Hind. 134. 232. 254. 189.. 196 Herdman. 71. 53. 204 honey. 92 Hbsti. 92. 228. 189 Hedin. 248. 230 164. 230. 248. 209 Hu-nan. 51. 255 Hultzsch. 28 Hatshepsut. Straits of. 143 . 150. 254 Homerites (see Himyar). F. 278 horses. 103 Herod Antipas. 218 Horse-faces. 109. 171. 130 151. 120. 76. 192. 128. 203 Ibn Khaldun. 66 Haura.. 155. 29. 77. 140 Jebel Haima. 164. Irawadi river. 69. 59. 178. 143. 153. 253. 25. 127 Imperial Gazetietr of India. 208. 25. 105. 265. 177. 183. 214. 4. 213. 153. 49. 261 Indo-Aryans. 87. 167. 184. 251. 119. 175. jade. 176. 237. 164. 223. 176. 228 Indian. 245. 45. 193. 89. 40. 126. 61 Jabbalpur. 24. 155 jasper. 61 Italy. 122 jase. 4. 180 Indus (see Sinthus). 181. 188. 66. 74. 183. 166. 88. 173. 248. 170. 183. 185. 264. 125. 148 Jebel Gara. 1i>. 187. 237. 249 121. 63. 39. 269. 121 iron. 152. 50. 130. 213. 234 Japan. 127. 169. 175. 150. 127. 232. 273 traders. 171. 111. 261. Issus. 78. 57. 155. 235. 52. 268. 259. 145. 270 Isis. 186. 99 made of. 224. 275 ludadan. 210. 176. 78. 153. 156. 164 of. 77. 233. 276 Jaigarh (see Melizigara). 193. 8. 3. 128. 165. 63. 185. 160. 24. 71. 277 Jebel Akhdar. 213. 279. 155. 76. 228 travellers.307 images. 125. 261 Jaxartes river. 265 indigo. 195. 233 house. 236. 4. 255 Indian Ocean. 88. 162. 63. 32. 63 coinage. 122. 174. 101 Indian embassies. . 201. 70. 192. 63. 75. 115 Indians. Ishmaelites. 113. 165 Iri. 104. 260. 223. 11. 144. 13. 137. 124. 225. 249. 123. 120. 105. 90. 201 Janardan. 232. 189. 180. 24. 195. 270. 137. 115. jadeite. 150. 178. 133. 71. 251. 235. 77. 14. 61. 204. 172. 79. 117. 102. 242. 70 Isaiah. 106. 217. 6. 66. 168. 222. 83. 172. 146. 221 empire. 86 Islam. 156. 146. 3. 156 Island of Birds (Orneon). 194. 23 5 Januar)'. 63. 238. 26. 132. 80. 84. 13. 221. 136. 122 ihmut (or anti). 263. 255 incense (see frankincense). 5. 115. 209. 157. 109. 134. 99. 172. 258. Ides of. 191. 113. 151. 88. 145. 128. 187. 28. 253. 219. 257. 13. 22. 166. 90. 102. 166. 85 Jebel Samhan. 171 Isidorus of Charax Spasini. 196. 61 southern extension of. 238. sources of supply. 143. 272 Ion. 137. 32. 121 Ishmaelite dialects. 227. 252. 23. 276 articles 276. 135. 204. 76. 226 Jauf. Gujarat! immigration into. 9. 70 Incense-Land. 116 Ismenian Apollo. 106. 142. 179. 82. 62 I-tsing. 150. 132. 185. 41. 61. 250. 165. 121 270. 26. 147. 233 Jatayu. 264 Ishmael. 197. 250 Indian shipping. 147. 101. 196. 234. 178 Japhet. 104 Isidore. 170. 258. 193 jacinth. 163 jars. 208. 133. 118. 6. 146. 10. 82. 166. 16. 80. 165. 202. 154. 234. 205. 256. 202. 171. 235 Indore. 168. 103. 104. 154. 85 Jebel Kamar. 228 nut. 140. 151. 70. 8. 151. 226 130. India. 212. 148. 62. 281 sea-trade from. 118. 162. 159 ivory. 36. 63. 105. 221. 58 Israelites. 87. 47. 33. 235. 225. 188. 174. 200 Indo-Scythia. 38. 192 Irak. 190 Itiopva^an. 209. 248. 254. 205. 113 224. 272. 45. 180. 146. temple of. 140. 148. 261 Indo-Parthia. 254. 167. 189 mountaineers. 132 Israel. 140 Jebel Muriyeh. 203. 117 Java. 146 245. 136. 163. 157. 260. stitched ship. 230. 184. 70 Indo-China. 113. inflated rafts. 167. 9. 133. 70. Bay 269 Isy. 177. 140. 164 sonter. 62 inflated skins. 42. 190. 248 bright. 10. 123. 171. 268. 226. 34. 121. 106. 29. 145 Intef. 186. 121. 135. 71. 142. 173 161. kingdom of. 149. 81. 271 terraces. 250. 267. 101. Book of. 7. 58. 150 Khor Reiri. 57. 149. 197 Khnumhotep II. 131. 94 Kimberley. Kachh. 232 Julius Ca?sar. 163 Judaism. 75 Julien. 224 Kadphises. 132. Jerusalem. 202. 229 Kharachar. 210 Khartum. 257 = Kashta. 269. 180 Kadalundi (see TyndisI. 80. 176. 148. 209 Kilwa. 9. Stanislaus. 204. 129. 272 Kej. 150 Judica. 142. 147 Karun river. 106 Jelap-La. 162 kelek. 270. 268 KharosthT alphabet. 115. 126 Kemp. 107. 103. 189 Justinian. 160. 176. 276 131. 70 Chaberis emporion). Karuvur. 189. R. 88 107 Kariba-il Watar Juhan'im. 63. Book juice of of. 229. 169. 223. 192 Khorassan. 224 Karteia. 242 Karli. 149. 237 xKalidasj. Karoura. 102. Joktanites. 227 Kenrick.308 Jebel Sibi. 205 Jezebel. H. 132 Katan. 159. 149 Jobab. 108 jeraki'm Karague. 122 jewelrv.. 277 Jfivs. 279 Jeniiba. 190. 165 Ke-vaddha Sulfa of Digfia. 86. 167. (see of. 165. 10. 192 jhelum. 134 Kashmir. 251 Kachana. 262 Karachi. 151 Katar. Kiratarjuniya. 162 Keti. 208. 107. 172. 246. 103 Julius Maternus. 109 Karikal. 249 Khor ed Duan. 141. 98 July. Khuzistan. 67. 180 KaverT river. 150. 102. 157 Kanara. 282 ' Kaber kermes-berry. 132. 118 Jerah. 123. 105. 132 Juba II. 247. 215. 166. 25. 102. 272 Kashi Kashu. 148 Jebel Tair. 254 Kay. 166 to Genaba. 273 Kennedy. Kan Ying. 202. Kissioi. 272. 171. 134. 1 1 j Kalat. 104. 70 Kerala. 175. F. 9. 68 Kome. 11. 75 job. 219. 273 Joktan. 193 Book . 236 kankiini'in (Indian copal). Khyber Pass. 80 King-chou Kings. King of Mauretania. 59. 187. 139 Khotan. 186. Gospel of. 158 khesyt wood. 186. 248 Jupiter Ammon. 204 Kadapa. King of Portugal. 235 Kama. 142 Kayal. 142 Kailas. 184 Jih-nan (see Anam). 275 Kaotsou. 237 ]oao I. 103. 162. 235. 59 Khasia Hills. 27 Jumna river. 183 K''iiu'ho\\'. 159. F. 161 Josephus. 180. 268. 263 K:inkas. 11. Coil. 94. 214. 159 John. 111 Justin. 175. 194 Khenzer. 136 itnni. El. 175 268 Kandahar. 116. 168. 107. 161. 263. 275 Kataban. 10. 109. 257 102. 270 Kielhom. Keralaputra (see Chera). 140 Kamar Bav. 106. 160. 2ll^ 204 Khuzistan. 147 Kalhat. Hu-nan). 107 Karnak. 107 Kariba-ils of Zafar. 160. 263 Kahtan. 225. 237 Keane. 186. 187 Kachh (see Cutch). 66. 147. 70. 208 Kashgar. 205. 208 Kerman. 185 junks. 114 Johnston. 107. Karnul. 175 260 ]o-shai^ 111 Jove. 162 Kassites. 224. 268. Chinese ambassador Roman Empire. 25 5 Kalvana 'see Calliena'. 71.. 116 Kanishka. El. 145. 242 Kavya. 270 Kiinipfer. ](12. 11. 74. 167. Book of. 267 Kathiawar. 175. 215 Karwar (see Chersonesus). A. 242. 170. 73 Kesmacoran. Jihlam. 159. 150. sacred peak of." 108 Kasyapamata (see Caspapyra) Kasyapa Matanga. 118 Kane inipunoii. 133. 108. 96. . 192. 186. 131 sour grapes (omphacium). 107 Judges. 269 Juliopolis. 112 Louis. 265 Lenormant. 197. 151 Kumbakonam. 108. HI. 266. 195. Book of. 157 Li-kan (see 112 limes. 237 Kosala. 87 Layard. 163. 29. 265 Ludolfus. the. 278 Kshaharata line. 190 lychnis (see tiiirmatine ). 240 LoUius. 118. 175 laurel-grove. 167 Linschoten. 43 Lepsius. 264 laurels (in Somaliland). 69. 166. 200 coinage. 244 Kuryat. 184. 273 Lansdell. 221 leadstone. 279 l. 205 the. 26. 209. 163 178 Lassen. 25? Knft. 189. <7. 122. 107 Korkai (Kolkai). 236. 191. 192 Koko-Nor. 272. 268 Leuke Kom'e. 128 Limyrica (see Damirica). 78. 114. 205 Lindsav. 225 red. 273 ladanum. 188 kotias. . 169. 23. 75 Krishna. 175. 61 K6h-i-mubarak. 273 Kirata (sec Cirrliadie). 86 Liu-sha. 101. 168 Lei-tsu. 136. 179 lemon-grass. Prof. and Chevalier. 198 Kshatrapa dynasty. 56 Lollia Paulina. 113 24. 61. 124. 230 Kropotkin. 152. Terrien de. 136 loadstone. 170. 37. 198. 77 Latica or Larica. 62.309 Kingsmill. 158 Lesser Bear. 275 licorice. laser. 143 lentil. 141 lilies. 112 Lamu. 42. 177. 9. 273 Little Nile River. 192 Kwang lac. Lubim. 187. Rekam = Petra). 197. 208. 220. 216. 174 256 Leonidas. Konkan. 122 Lhasa. 279 254. 61. Watchpc}. 77 lapis-lazuli. 198. 272 Landon. 277 Lion. 278 Kuldja. 193. 86 Lisbon. 224. 170. 133 Lusitania. 68. Marcus. 275 coinage. 45. 89.oventhal. 8. 127. 268 linen. 188. 98 lances. 277 lizards. 186. 28 I^anchowfu. 262 road from. 171. 26. 52 Koliaito (Coloe). 253. 99. Henry. 282 Kuni'mbar. London. 263 hp/ii. 278 Lop Nor. 127 lead. 270 lotus. 60. 147. 242. 204. 267 Leviticus. 146. 190. Long-faces. 174. 91 Lee. 240 Kushan kingdom. 139 Kistna river. 201. 193. 48. 217. 155 Locust-eaters ( Acridophagi). 45. 217. 151 78. 77. 262. 268 Kuen-lun mountains. 156 Lacouperie. 103 Levant. 243. 191 La Roque. 229. 144. 188. 84. 14. 270 Laodicea. 213. 194. 209 Lo-yang. 138. 273. 258 Leghorn. 150 Kurukshetra. 249. 281. 269 Kuki-Chin. 255. 84 linseed. 164. 197. 211 Krapf. 203. 73. Kurus. 201 the Great (the Nile). 223. 237 Koreish. 85 laurel in chaplets. 254 Kissin. Vouti. 253. 192 Kuche. 272 Libya. 80 Laconia. 81. 263 lemons. 197. 38. 268 Kulhi. 7 122. 88. 221. Colchi. 22". Koran.. 24. 34. 174. Kottayam (see Nelcvnda). 272. 145. 167. 148 kohl. 201. 139 Las Bela. 268. 224 Lares. 254. 197. 182. 200. 279 Lichien (see Ta-ts'in). 123 leopards.st of. 242 Kuria Muria. 257 figured. Henry. 223. 211. 277 Letourneau. 228 Littledale. to Singanfu. 279 Latakia. 268. CO Lucan. Chr. 70. 192. 190 lion. 84. 119. 42. 253. 11. 84. 236. 252 Matarem. 114. 28. 174. Roman coins in. 164. 220. 201. 251 Male and Female Islands. 187. 163. a Macedonian silk-merchant. 201 Mandalaka. 200 Malik. (baptismal cord). 248. 134 Masira Moseira. 267 Maspero. 203. 88. 71. 70 mallow-cloth. Gulf of. 109. 256. 25. 169 Lydians. 109 Marallo (Camara?). 205 manganese. 173 "Mandeville. 228. 10. 256. 6. 92 Manar. 118 Mandagora. 146. 241 Mieotis. G. 245 matib (see zennar). 34. 97 Mat-kinder. 247 masula boats (see Andhra coinage). 126. 152. 119. 244 Museum. 48-9 Malacca. 117 Marbodeus. 175. Modiera. 161. 217. 175. 132. 139 . 234 Malchus (Malik). 196. 226 macir. 111 Malabar. 264. 142. 252 manna. 166 mantles. 162. 230. 208. 252-3 Mashonaland. 89. 241 Maabar. 197 ( marura. 4. 202 Malwa. Maha-Iavana (see Aurannob. 43. 281 MahanadT rivei. 146. 251 Manifold. 107. 191 Mangalore. 80. 155. von. 227. 150. 281 method of preparation and sale. 239. 253 1 238. 144 Maratha. 151. Laws of. 106. Ma'afir. 167. 204. 146 Massilia. 114. 238. 45. 103 Male. 81 Maciver. 47. 277. 192 LyTie. 211. 196 marten. 248 Manchester. 184 Madras. 14. 260 malachite. 189 Markinda. 115 Masai ia Maisolia. 11. 137. 139 Mathura. 166. 112 Mark. 197. 43. Mausala). 79. 142. 99 mastich. (see Mai. Mauch. Gospel of. 119. 212. 184. 6. 222. 148 maidens for the harem. 147. 154. double-fringed. the. 279. 257 Martial. 112 Mas'udi.. 277 Marduk. 60. 278 Madajjascar. 83 Malay Peninsula. 47. 221. 123 Mambarus (see 198. Gospel matting. 264 Manzi. 167 122 Malacca. 203. 205. 272 Manillas. linen. 25. 200 Nambanusi. 234. 24. 242. 171 Marcus Aurelius. 220 Madura. 194 Maltzan. 70. 109 Malindi Melinde). 246. 96 Maurice. N. 39. 252. 269 marjoram. 143 marigold. Ma/ia-zrii^i^a. 257. 156. 216. 144. 138 Mariaba. Sir John. 66. 148. David Randall. R. 202 Maliabkarata. 62. 88 Malli. 123. 170 Macedonia. 228. 259. 2 3 Mahendragiri. Marinus of Txre. 201 Malavalani. 186 Mardi. 188. 68 Mangarouth (see Mangalore). 180 Xffichin. 254. 280 of. 217. 119 Makran. 42. 201 Mandavi. 62. 241. 213. 197. 278 Maes. 101. 112 Masala. 105. 139. 130. 237 Miihi ri\er.s Mahra. 24 Manu. Carl. 30. 257 Manchuria. Dr. 229. 112. 227 Mapharitis. 249 Maaden. 94. 180.." 155. 244 Masulipatam. 88. 260. 199 Mandara-giri (see Mandagora). 42 Mai^ river. 182 Makalla. 260 Malaya-^nri (see Melizigara). 153 Madhvamika. land of. 78 Massowa. 103. 2(14. 226. 227. 228. 29. Sarapis). 241. 241. 84 MaLio.310 Ivriuin.u^l. 108. 84. Lake. 81. 38. Marib. 257. 163 Makrizi. 210. 271 jnadarata^ 36. 270 < I Matthew. 106. 107. 222. 90 Mashii. 251 yiarasid-al-lttita '. 44. 91. H. 232. 259. 164 Mansuriyah. 78. 73. 97. 270 ma^luy 26 Manes. 201. 243. 163. 81. 267 malabathrum. 127 Mah'an. 48. 131. 269. 144-6 Malichas. 210. 224. 215. 214. 80. 221. 143. 230. 230. 152 Muhammad Mukabber. 26. 3. 256 20. 67. Dr. 226. 173. 201. 149. 114. 87. 107. 115. 161 Moon. 22. Magadoxo). 143. 230 men 58. 172. 61. 10. 113 59. 257 Mugheir. 12. 35. Morocco. 213 mirrors. 94 Mongolia. 192 Morse. 70. 8. 259. 4. 27. 158 Merodach-Baladan. 159. 272 monkeys. 130. 252. 85. 237 Miletus. 230. 213 Mediterranean. 81 Mogdishu (Makdashu.311 Mauryu Empire. 83. 39. 215 Minnagara. 221. 259 El. 193. 23 Mount Zion. 224. 187 Menilek. 67 Meninx. 7. 128 Min«ans. 85. 165 Melibar (see Malabar). 145. 178. 234 Medes. 221 Mitra. 101. 121 Menuthias. 267. N. 180. B. 223. 216. 56. 190. 106. 6. 117 Mingti. 152. the. 105 mint. 184. 176. 81. 164. Kazim. 212. 180 Minos of Crete. passage of. 200. T. 169. 141 Minasa. 107. 149 Mohammed. 202. 126. C. 167 Milinda. 6. 92 Mogul monarchs.. 94 monach'e. 87 Miles. 27 Mountain Island [Orine). 84 millets. 258. Mauza. 156 Menon. 107. 157. 140. Melizegyris. 171 Mosyllum. 258 mulberry. 132 Cushite kings in. Mountains country of. 59. 123. . 105. 253. Eduard. 270 mimosa. 220. Gen. 178. 255 Meghna. 147. 166. 176. Shanguni. 85. 146 Moselle. 223. 88 (Wanyamuezi) moringa. 91. 60. 253. lake of. Mocha.. 72. 101. 264 Megasthenes. 50-1. 112. empire of. 69. 113. 98 200 73. S. 178. 88 of. 257 Mijertain country. 10. 218 82. Menander. 98 Mentuhotep IV. 88 88. 151. Kingdom of. Memphis. 104. 158. 58. Midnapur. 64 monsoon. 178. 143. 28. 77. 233. 115. 96. 113. 14' mocrotUf 26.'88 Merneptah. 43. 116. 81. 263. 107. 3 Mombasa. Questions of. 109. 128. 7S. 253 Moscha. 74. the. 168. B. 94 mercury. 156 42. 121 Monze. 165. 160 Mozambique. 112. 24 milk. 70. 63. 179 Menamah. 185. 179 MrichchhakatikTi. 252 Mechir. Messalum. 104 Jauf. 131 Mohammedan conquests. 204. 179 Melinde. 60 Merv ( see Antiochia Margiana 268. 15 8. 230.. 132 Media.. 253 OTo/of^zn^ = mallow cloth. 114 metopion (oil of bitter almonds). 170. 86. 234. 84. 172. 185 military cloaks. 86. 273 melilote. 143 148. 71. 212. 87 Miiller. 79. 123 63. 268 McCrindle. 190 medicine. 160 Meroe. 192. 73. 119. 57. 104. 57. 72. 5. 264 Mullah. 249. 269 111. 115. 209 K. 235. 263 Morung. 150 Mukharji. 37. Movers. 237 Monomotapa. 172. John. Padmanabha. 209. 197. 151. 272 ). 177. 138. 106. H. Rajendralala. 88. 201 Mokwanpur. Cape. 24. 153. 246. 173.. 123. 60 Midian. 105. 254. 151. 77. 220. 152. 189 Mohammarah. P. 58. 118 F. moto^ 26. 125. 195. 236. 121. 15. 263. 195. 221 Monfiyeh. 242. 76. 234 Mercury. 70. of. travellers. 136 Merka. 145. 123. 188. 106 Mayr. 168. 136. 279 Mecca. C. 147. 108 their language. 77 Mesopotamia. 192 Millburn. 183. 179 Milton. 255 Mekong river. 127. 122 Mernere. Montu. 269 Merzbacher. 179 Melizigara. 275 Minibar (see Malabar). 232. 269 Moses. 170. 112 Meyer. 84. 97. 19. 137 Monophysite Christianity. 237 Nerva. 191. 109. 220 Nicon. 201. 197 Noah. 117. 59. 106. 152. 258. 116. 30. 14. 62. 103 Muyiri-kotta (see Muziris). 32 North India. 86. 60. 113 Gebanite. Noel.. 257. 164. 180. 23. Melkynda). 158 Nehemiah.44. 188. 158 Nitrias. 51. 153. 259 mysteries. 114. 115. 163 No-Amon. 242 Miiller. 4. 270 Nan-shan (see Kuen-lun). 98. with silk threads. 143. 97. 265 139. 50 Muza. 163 Nimrud Inscription. 112. 26. 28. 26. 25. 122. 268 69 Nahapana (see Nambanus). 107. nature-worship. 193. 199. car- nelian). 38. 68. 203. 237. 257. 151. 128. 113 stacte. 197. 232. 27. 194. 202. 205 Nimrod. 230. 97. 29. 170 Nishapur. 104 Nabatu. 57. H. 194. 94. 25. Pharaoh. 189. 182. 170 Nitocris. C. 220. 134 Nero. 112 mvrrh. 55 Naville. 113 Minsan. 248 Nepal. 46. 278 Nagar Parkar. 205 22. 151 musical instruments. 227 Naga. 91. 78. aromatic. 207. 233 Myozasus. 210. 122 Nejran. Indian knowledge of. 76. 213. 208. 263. 169. 113 Erythraean. 123. 120. 59. 163. 92 Niebuhr. 30. 112 Mysore. 60. 218. 12. 11. 102. 158. 215. 57 iiivrtle. 80. 204. 7 Necho. 233 Muziris. 44. 39. 102 Xabonidus. 235. 199. 104. 233 nitre. 132. 219. 44. 30. 105. 166. 194 "negro-land. 272. 273 Nellore. 205. 223 Muscat (Maskat). 256. 113 Sambracenian. 181. (see Nahapana). 265 sources. 77. 152. 29. 254. 212. 203. 60. 101 negroes. 113 cultivated. 75. 175. 43. 3. 111. 104. 279. 120. 60. 113. 198 Nammadus river (see Narbada). 203. 203. 113 Ausaritic. 193 nard. 56. Book nf. 12. 116. 233. 80 Nabatasans. 163. 113 odoraria. 127 Nisaea. 69 nails. 113. 58. 172. 145. Turkestan. 220 Nicomedia. 187. 181. 214. 165. 120. 202 Argaritic. 24. Troglodytic. 51. Nalopatana 156 Xelrynda). 33. 103. 109 182 Naii-lu. 31. 68. Nebuchadrezzar. 52. 29. or Mundiis. 34. Nambanus D. 219 nomads. 251 ( Nogal Valley. 180. 269. 112. 162 Nebaioth. 42. Nitra Island). 269 Nan-tau. 109. 214. 16. (See agate. 109. Narbada river 263 muslins. 118. 142. 59. — continued. 58. 68 Nitran. 96. 117 Nelcynda. 218 Nearchus. 47. 230 Nlleshwar. i 114. Neacyndi. 101. 113 white. 151. 170. 217. 58. 102 myrobalanus. 146. 198. 77. 132 Nabatjean TroglodytiE. 47. 200 their import duty. 228. 149 Nineveh. 234. 168 (see Nammadus). 236 123. 4. 138 Naura. 169. 80. 175. 195. 130 Nile. 256-8 165. Dionysiac. 99. 155. 205. 134. ( see White Nizam's dominions. 147. 103. 211. 281 57. 88. 15. 194. 78 Naples. 253. 47. 98. 102. 217. 184 nagas (see serpents). 197. 152. 81 "Northern Way" across murrhine (glass). 281 Nergal. 268. 113 Dianitic.24.312 Miiller. 152. 80. Stela of. 29. 204 Navarrete. 52. 153. 204. 25. 236. 3. 113 Sabasan. Mussel Harbor (Myos Hormos). 87. Carsten. 139." 153. 269 Napata. 171. 264 . 113 myrrh-country. 113 114 collatitia. 31. 238. 242 Gangetic. 208. 200 Nahum. 173 Kagarl. 250. 166. 169 Oxus river. 149 obsidian. 160. 193. 270 Palk strait. 271 Panchao. 27. 202 Ozene. 215. Island of. 189 Padasans (see Cannibals Purushada ) 254. Palestine. Omphale. 140. 90. 225 opal. 114. Ubulu). 57. J. 153 ox-gall. 220 ostrich feathers. 209 Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji.. 63. 75. 241. 102 Obal. 253 cenanthe. 161. 15. 70 Oyster Rocks (see Casnitas). 43. 211. 217. 45. 145. 277. 35 palm-oil. Oppidum Saax. 162 Orasa. 140. 187. 31. 251 Osiris. 158. 271 packs. 161. Book of. 249 trees. 57 Oudh. Omanites. 150 Ommana. 161. 34. 112 Panchaia. 132-3 Orissa. red. 200 Pandu. 195. 132 orpiment. 274 : Olok. 111. 237 Omana. 82. 71. 102. 4.i4. 47. 48. 313 Nubia. 4. 269. 69. 25. 99 Oannes. 135. 115. 256 = (see Hormus). 66 Ora. 185. 62. 3. 281 Pamphile. 139. 196 Oxford. 112. 66 Bay of. 146 Ostia. 270 Panna. Hindu. 86 Olympia. 237. 233 ochre. 172. 178. B. 221 61. 97. 142. 167 Ophir. 29. 58. 63 opsian stone. Bay of. 238. 58. 87. 191. 97 opium. 187. 122. 46. Oritas. Dionysiac. 83. 112 oil. 150. 194. 253 Pandya. 186. 201 Nyaiiza lakes. 263. 137 89. 223 Palmyra. 268 Pandaea (see Pandya). 92. 144. 42. 177 Panama. 159 Obadlah. 208. 259 Pahlavas. 223. 65 Pahang. 32. 170. 233 Pandian. 32. 78 Orenburg. Friar. 264 Ophiodes. 237 olive. 129. 94 Panjab. 162. 88. Lake. 241 2. 268. 200 Palajpatmas. 175. 167. 77 olive oil. 29. 169. 151. 87. 99 fiber. 9. 75. 205. 101. 278 ocean. 4.. 277 OxyJracas. 279 Odoric. river. 132. 260 supposed location in East Africa. 122. 204. 148. 238. 268. 115. 160. 31. 186. 215 opobalsamum. 242 oxen. 150 76. 146 Osor-hapi (Serapis). 161. 208. 164 Nundo Lai Dey. 270 ozcenttis (see spikenard). 164. 162. 195. 170. 43. 133. 129. 270. 151. 269. 71. 147. 78. 230. unexplored. Ommano. 153. 122 onvx stone. 112 omphacium. 273. 11^ 166. 238 Pandian kingdom (see Pandya: Pandion). 161. 221 Orrhotha. 13. palm-leaves. 74. 110. 191. 183. 134 Ormes Numbers. Orotal Dionysus. 87. harbor-works at. 54 Olympus. 199. 175. 169. 135. 281 Pangani. 161 oreichalch (aurichalcum). 83. 103 Pamirs. 157. 192. 216 ointments. 65. 78. 101 Ocelis. 130. 57. 154 130 onycha. 211. Palaisimundu. 66 ocean-stream. 24. 59. 34. 161. 6. 12. 159 Palibothra (see Pataliputra). 136. 56. 183 panax. 235 paint. 189. 196. 42. 199 pagoda. 44. 155 O'Connor. 36. 75. 64 Chinese. 244 ondaniqite^ 70 Oneslcritus. 167. 4. 133. 201 150 151. 253 242. 255 Paethana. 171 orgies. 149 Obollah (Apologus. 114. 150. 249 Odras. 177 Pa-anch. 197. 23. 37. 255. 13. 251. 88. 265 Old Testament. 281 Pacorus. Buddhist: Abyssinian. 99 Nyassa. 249 153. 164 Oman. 192 Pallava dynasties. 62. 224 . 74. 76. 87. 196. 103 Pactyan land. Pandava. 135 Oppert. Ori. 282 112. 166. 60. 195. 155. 221 Paithan. 107. 207. 112 Opone. 147. 239. 130. 113. 184 Petenikas. 237. 147. 14. 234. 279. 223. 278. 249. 169. 151. 217. 167. 194. 210. 161. 146. 170. 16. 63. 22-49 Periyar river. 161 ) . 37. 149. 222. 189. 153. 106. 8. 58. 270. 251 Persians. 87. E. 14. 123 Papica. 143. 68. 249. 194 Peucelaotis (see Poclais). 70. 71. 250. 67. 204. 71. 147. 209. 32. 252. 284-8 bibliography of. 228. 109. 112. 94. 35. 113. 124. 184. 4. 150. 225. 121 Paphos. 258. 172. 270 Romans at. 84 Persian Gulf. 178. 241. 270. 220. 240. 261. 290-3 articles of trade mentioned in. 102 Petronius. Parsis. 161. 150. 187. 36. 164. 236. 90 Parker. 250. 75 perfume. 251. 185. 166. 175. 156. 15o. 195 Petra. 63." should be /a^a. 152. Mungo. 206 Peshavfar. 185 236. 77. 160. 5. distances in. 197-200. 168. 247. 205. 219. 205. 160. 13. 201. 208. 101. 119. 277 Parthian kings. 234. 122. 61 panther skins. 224. Patta. 142. 57. 114. 138. 252 Pei-lu. 151. 115 Periplus of the Erythrasan Sea. 103. 211. 191 Pauthier. 148. 213 peratikos. Justus. 121. 71. 146. 119. 107. 112 226. 216. 194. 4. 241 Pepi II. leaf). 154. 163 Parthia. 175 pearls. 116. 188. 155. 195. 189. 164. 184. 234 201 Paripatana (see Palaspatmae Park. 218. 46. 194. 89. 113. 200. 269. 8. 59. 195. 145. 132. 194. 50-1 Patala. 275. 270 P'ei-ikan (see Tian-shan). 213. 148.314 Pano. 94 Pausanias. 235. 128 269 Peking. 213 embassy to the Deccan. 214. 172. 213. 65. 108. 122. 252. 101. 206. 46. 62. 144 peacocks. 221. 191. 255. 140. 70. 117. 231. 222. 79. 174. 209 Pausias. 6. 16. 150. 268. 208. 129. 190. 167. 97. 140. 143. 7-36. 189 Parsees. 162. 207. 233. 270 Peutinger Tables. 162. 217. 216. 166. 63. 3. 135. 230. 232. 205. 114. 176. 250. 149. 83. 176. 199. 239. 115. 211. 94 Penner river. 74. 77. 40. 250. 111 Papyrus Harris. 205 184. 191. 190 kings. 42. 73. 251. 210. 215. 192. 78 . Manda and Lamu. 153. 232 Pataliputra (Patna). 89. 272 Pemba. 198. 241. 161. 147. 185. 197. 294 Pasargadae. 102. 105. 140. 72. 209. 102 >f/?7 ("fibers. pepper. 265. 51. text of. 251. 282 Periplus. 256 pearl-mussel. 54-5 rulers meaning of. 169. 151. 179. 6. 50 mentioned in. 143. 61. 276. 170. 213. 158 Paralia. 64. 59. 87. 47. 37. 14. date and authorship of. 223. 96. 76. 204. 74. 7. 163. 248 sea-trade from China. 272. 227. Paravur (see Karuvur. 204. 251. 101. 61. 221. 3. 273 long. 240. 45.. 127 Parsidae. 144. 123. 269 264 Perthes. 114. 118. 77. 166. 168. 202. 185. 160. 128. 103. 264. 29. 269. 9. 17-21 251 _ Parur. 208 pewter. 84. 256. 132. chronological list of. 180. 171. 65. Muziris). 14. 183. 242. 227. 184. 136. 159. 258 Patras. 241 Pegu. 135 panthers. 45. 70. 183. 47. 139. 71 Persia. 274. 86. 152. 127. 123. 6. H. 74. 148 -fisheries. 166. 103. 116. 281 Petrie. 171. 153. 191. 123. 70. 12. 109. 110. 44. 42. 124. 11. 170. 96. 181. 248. 15. 39. 266. 267 Persian Empire. 15. 6. 36. 110 Parthian princes. 269. 36. 196. 215 Parti. 149. 12. 127. 27. Paropanisus (see Hindu Kush). 165. 111. Perim. 181 papyrus. 238. 92. 50. 78. 172. Flinders. 198. 263 Paropanisene. 146. 128 in Chinese annals. 222. 130. 192. 35. 239. 132. 260. 121 P'ei-tau. 48. 117. 241. 77. 16. 62. 156. 10. 81. 238. 60 Ptolemies. 120. 118. 253. 158. 2(3 Ptolemy Euergetes. his map of the world. 205. 159 Pritchett. 132 Piankhi. 160 Phoenicians. 80. 228. 227 Portuguese. 72. 69. 120. 149. 242 Ponnani (see Tyndis). 75. 249. 97. 194. 225 Philostratus of Lemnos. 120. 178. 101. 234 Purali River. 254 pine.315 Pharaohs. 115. 118. 247. 76. 245. 223. 181 pirates. 111. 240. 87. 208. 51. 139 Portugal. 229 expedition around Africa. 82. 101. 191. 82 Psammetichus (Psamtik) II. 82. 164. 103. 61 Ptolemais of the Hunts {Ptolemais Theron). 137. Marco. 267 Priscian. 221. 253. 241 Porus. 108. 48 of. 272 Purali (see Paralia. 214. 159. 145. 135-6. 68. 92. 101 phoenix. 4. 164. 5. 63. 7. 147. 195 plate. 105. 256. 167. 94. 150. 203 pigmies and cranes. the.68 Ptolemy (the geographer). 253 Matsya. 220. 195. 143. 258. 83. 273 Prasum. 97. 123. 265. 188. 168. 281 Pondicherry (see Poduca). 120. 116. 284. 254 Purindrasena. 126. 61. in E. 199. 115. 237. 277. 52. 264 Pliny. 226. 78. T. 59 Philip. 204. 4. 62. 4. 241. 140. 121. 264. 82 Ptolemy Philadelphus. 100. 221. 162. 227. 174. 91 Port Sudan. 14. 202. 237 Porakad (see Bacare). 227. 143. Proverbs. 160. 215 pomegranite. 249. 269. 235. 279 Pudapatana (Poduca?). 112 Pompeii. 106. 190. 224. 212. 86 Ptah. 143. 161 Land 86. 178 98 150. 8. 99. 15. 239. 281 66. 209. 155. 154. 5 2. 216. 172. 223. Travancore ) . 156. 253. 171. 199 . 22. 123. 169 Pompey the Great. 10. 225. 189 Poclais. 159. 214. 129. Pulumayi II.^202. 230. 111 Ping-chou (see Shan-si). 266.. 44. 132. 13. 51. 213. 211. 183 Poduca. 201. gold and silver. 203. 227. 211. 142. 221. 195 Puni (Phoenicians). 194 Pomponius Mela. 68. Philic. Pollux. 256. 162 Piers Plo^wman^ 215 Pigeon Island (see White Island). 217. 66. 24. 59. 184 Pulikat. 135. 4. 212. 236. 84. 123. 208. 41. 263 Piram island (see Basonesj. 158 phoinix. 145. Puranas. 158. 87. 102. 205. 222. 112. Africa. 153 Punt-people. 180 204. 212 porcelain. 135. 170. 153. 167. 201. 90. 73. 105. 135. 133. 146. 9. 55. 144. 232. 149. 257. 141. 205 Pontus. 108. 62. 81. 273. 120. Book of. 222. 80. 179. 53. 105. 106. 158 Pseudo-Callisthenes. 113. 153. 212. 86. 147. 175. 254. 222. 122. 133. 277 Prester John. 270. 71. 114. 3. 135. 135 Punt Expedition. 203. 233 Pirmed Hills.' 7. 144. 66. 271 Punt. 61. 179. 198. 260. 131. 200. Book of. 248. 232. 129. 175. 203. Polumbum (see Quilon). 242 pulse. 249. 151. 228. 173. 60. 58. 94 precious stones. 225. 101. 133. 140. 278. 60. 71. 158 Phrygians. 160. 229. 63. 70. 281 Plutarch. 38 Plates. 214. 189. 26. 77. 62. 52. 164. 276 "sham curiosities" for Chinese trade. 103. 199 Fishnu. 105. 161. 80. 210. 260. 3. 60 Porphyry. 146. 78. 200. 242 Poen. 251 Pukkalaoti (see Poclais). 170. R. 121. 163. 69. 169. 22. 208 Pitalkhara caves. 259. 218 reliefs. 144. 69 Phoenicia. 68. 84. 71 Polo. 157. 273. 122. 68. 272. 83. 107. 255 Vayu. 78. 192. 83. 182. 249. 246 Prjevalski. 12. 3. 82 Psalms. 46. 168. 170. 113. 124. 237. 138. 162 Poppsea (Sabina). 215.' Porebandar. 242. 162 Pckomo language. 279 Psygmus. 202. 203. 123. 259. 188. 240. 162. 159. 135. 11 3. 42. 218. 199 yara Sanhiia. 84. 202. 143. 252. 89. 14. 101. 256. 316 purple, 13, 36, 73, 156, 157 Tyrian, 145 Pushkala, 238 Pushkalavati (see Porlai^), 183, 184, realgar, 42, 45, 191, 192, 221 Rebmann and Ehrhardt, their map of E. Africa, 88 Reclus, Elisee, 165, 166, 175, 182, 238 Put, 69 Pj-ralas Islands and channel, 28, 94 207 Red Bluff.; Red Men, ( see Pyrrhon, Varkkallai), Pyramids, 76, 261 Pyrrhon mountain, 46, 234 P>'thange!us, 86 quartz, quartzose, 223, 224 Querimbo Islands, 88 quicksilver, 137, 215 234 red lead, 221 Red 3, 51 Sea, 3, 5, 7, 8, 50, 51, 52, 57, 59, 60, 66, 75, 88, 89, 99, 104, 105, 108, 116, 117, 146, 151, 167, 168, 169, 179, 183, 201, Quilon, 211, 248 Raamah, 105, 159, 161, 162 radix ChinrE^ 157 Raffles, Sir Stamford, 245 Rafizah sect, 74 rafts, 223, 233, 234 Regio Cinnamomifera, 83 Reichard, 19 Reinaud, 155, 268 Rekem, 1112, 128 religions of India at the time of the Periplus, 235 25, 32, 50, 126, 127 Remusat, 272 Renonsari, 179 resin, 112, 192, 2ill, Raghu, 242 Raidan, 109, 119 Rajapur (see Melizigarai, Rajpipla, State of, 193 215 236 of, Retenu, 61 Revelation, Book 13, 192 Rajput pilots, 75 Rajputana, 151, 223 Raksha Ravana, 226, 237, 249 Rama, 230, 237, 242 Ramanuja, 257 Rhadamasans, 105 Rhadamanthus, 105 Rhambacia, 37, 105, 162, 163 Rhamna?, 105, 162, 163 Rhapta, 28, 94, 97 rhinoceros, 23, 73, 98 rhinoceros-horn, 24, 29, 73, 276 Rhinocolura, 103 Rhodes, 111 Rhodesia, 96, 97, 98 Rhone, 78 rhubarb, 157 rice, Ramayana, 174, 226, 230, 234, 236, 237, 238, 249, 250, 253, 257, 264, 281, 282 II, Rameses Rameses 122 III, 58, 61, 78, 122, 158 Ramusio, 17 Rann of Cutch, 135, 166, 173, 174 Rapson, E. J., 192, 200, 244 Ras Asir, 85 Ras Aswad, 92 Ras Binna, 86 Ras Chenarif, 86 Ras el Fil, or Filuk, 85, 86 Ras el Hadd, 117, 118, 127, 147 Ras el Kelb, 129 Ra^ el Khvma, 91 Ras el Kyi, 92 Ras el Sair, 115 Ras Fartak, 117, 129, 133, 140, 232 Ras Hadadeh, 85 Ras Hafun, 87 Ras Hantara, 81, 82, 85 Ras Hasik, 129, 140, 146 Ras Khamzir, 81, 85 Ras Mirbat, 140 Ras Musandum, 148, 150 Ras Nuh, 161 Ras Ormara, 161 Ras Risut, 140 Rashtrika, 175 Ratnagiri coast, 201, 215 27, 34, 37, 39, 178, 221, 256 76, 104, 176, Richard, 263 Richthofen, F. 272 von, 268, 269, 270, rift-valley, in E. Africa, 98, 99 Ritter, 106, 107, 116, 148, 170, 242 roads (in India), 196, 253 robes, from Arsinoe, 24 Rocher, 273 Rockhill, William WoodviUe, 273 Rogers, J. E. Thorold, 214 Rohri Hills, 174 Roman Emperors, chronological list of, 110; coins of, 220 Chinese account of, 275-7 coinage, 192, 193, 204, 276 in India, 219, 220, 234 compared with in Ceylon, Persian, 252 "embassy" to China, 276 Empire, 12, 76, 77, 108, 151, 168, 169, 185, 187, 191, 214, 217, 228, 275 geographers, 150, 277 republic, 77 senate, 103 , 219, 265 Raven Castle, 116 of, Ravenna, Geographer Rawlinson, 14 208 317 Roman shipping, 160, 231 Romans, 63, 68, 76, 78, 82, 89, 102, 106, 108, 109, 111. 137, 152, 160, 167, 169, 171, 172, 178, 187, 190, 193, 194, 204, 205, 213, 224, 236, 251, 252, 256, 265, 269, 275 sail-boats, 35 176, 197, 101, 31, Saizanas, 67 Saka, 10, 170, 192, 223, 260, 165, 166, 167, 175, 180, 185, 188, 195, 196, 198, 199, 204, 235, 236 Rome, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14, 63, 65, 84, 89, 90, 96, 102, 103, 104, 109, 124, 128, 147, 153, 160, 164, 167, 168, 169, 172, 177, 187, 189, 191, 198, 209, 213, coinage, 190 era, 197, 198 Sakastene, 166, 185 Sakuntala, the, 229 Sakyamuni Gautama Buddha, 187 Salah, 107 Salamis, 171 Salik'e (see Ceylon), 249 214, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 235, 236, 239, 240, 242, 270 roses, oil of, 112, 191 rosewood, 153 rubies, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227 rudders, 231, 248 Salmasius, 71 Salome, 11 Salopatana, 251 Salsette island, 155 77, 156 Sah, Henry, 9, 10, 66, 67, 85, 88, 133 salt mines, 119 Samarcand, 268 Sambalpur 224 Samnium, 66 sampsuchum, 112 Sanaa, 107, 115 Sanabares, 200 sand, 68 sandalwood, 6, 36, 152, 175, 250 Sandanes (see Sandares), 197, 200 sandarake, 191, 192 Sandares, 8, 43, 197, 198, 199, 200 Sandberg, 273 Sand-Dwellers, 122 sangara, 46, 243 Santarensian tin mine, 190 Saphar, Zafar, Sapphar, 30, 107, 109, 116, 119, 140, 141, 233 salt, Rudolf, Lake, 99 Rud Shur, 221 Rudra (see Siva), 235 rugs, gold-embroidered, 276 Rukaym, 142 Rum, 249 rushes, 86 Russia, 76, 171 Ryder, A. W., 221 Saba, 59, 63, 104, 105, 106, 108, 119, 124, 179 Saba the Great, 108, 109 Saba-ans, (Sabaites), 10, 11, 30, 51, 62, 63, 68, 71, 96, 97, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 115, 116, 117, 119, 124, 125, 128, 142, 143, 145, 147 in Cevlon, 250 Sabakha, i50 Sabatier, 220 Sabbatha, 4, 32, 116, 119, 126, 133 Sabeans, 104 Sabi River, 96 Sabis, 126, 133 Sabitu, 1^5 sables, Russian, 171 Sabota (see Sabbatha), 120, 124, 126 133 Sabtah, 162 Sabteca, 162 Sacas, 62, 269 Saca;a, 62, 145, 146 saccharic 1,1 ^ 90 Sachalites, bay of, 33, 120, 129, 139, 45, 167, 170, 171, 222, 223, 226, 227 sapphiros (see lapis lazuli), 38, 122, 170, 223 Saracens, 59, 76, 94, 101, 149, 163, 241, 242 Saraganus, 43, 197, 198, 199 Sarapion, 27, 92 Sarapis, 35, 146, 153, 160, 163, 209 Sarasvati river, 174 sarda (see camelian), 223 Sardinia, 168 sardonyx (see chalcedony), 223 Sarikol (see Serica), 269 Saris, Capt., 85 sapphires, sasamin wood (blackwood, sesamin), 160 152, 251 sashes, 31 Sassanids, 7, 172, 267 Satakarni (see Saraganus), 198 Sati, Country, 35, 272 frankincense, 126, 130, 218 safHower, 111 saffron, 31, 110, HI, 214| Sachalitic 187 112 Sagar island, 255 Saghar, 133 sagmatogene, 24, 27, 72, 179 Sahure, 113, 121 oil of, Satiya, Satiyaputra, 204, 205 Satraps, Northern, 167 Western, 167, 188, 200, 236 197, 19«, 318 Saua, Sa'b, Save, 30, 107, 233 sesamum, 178 Sesecrienae islands, 44, 202 Sesostris, 51, 192 Saukira Uay, 133 Savitri river, 201 Sawahil, 160 Savce, Prof. A. H., 71, 165 scarlet, 13, 73, 214, 227 schoeni, measure, equivalent of, 125 Schwanbeck, 115 Scylax of Caryanda, 189 Scvrites, Scyritae (see Cirrhadae), 253, 266 Scvthia, 8, 32, 37, 39, 42, 45, 166, 190, 267 Sewell, R., 209, 210 Seyffarth, 136 Shabaka, 162 (see Sabbatha) Shafia sect, 74 Shah-bandar, 165 Shamash-Napishtjm, 135 Shabwa Shams, the Sabaean sun-god, 133 Shans, the, 273, 275 Shan-si, 263 sharks, 145, 241 146, Scythian Ocean (Arctic), 260 Scyths, 165, 166, 257, 260, 267 sea-trade, 228, 229, 245-7, 259, 261 Seba, 162 Sebennytic mouth, 68 Sebni, 121 Seine, 77 Seistan, 166, 185 Sela, 102 Seleucidae, 149 Seleucus, 184, 189 Seleucus Callinicus, 169 Seleucus II, 123 Semele, 132 Semiramis mountain, 36, 148 Semites, 107, 176 Semylla, 43, 200 sendels, 273 Senegal, 89, 157 September, 31 Septimius Severus, 219 Ser, river, 146 Sera, island, 163 Sera Metropolis, 269 Serandip, Serendib, 163, 249 Seres, 70, 76, 146, 171, 172, 179, 209, 265, 266, 267, 269 Seria, 146 Serica (see also Sarikol), 267 serichatum, 112 Seric skins, 38, 171 tissues, 265 serpentine, 223 serpents, 37, 38, 43, 44, 131-3, 138, 145, 165, 236 charms against, 241 Shatt-el-Arab river, 149, 265 shawls, 169, 257 Sheba, 105, 123, 162 Sheba, Queen of, 67, 123 sheep, 13, 30, 71, 149, 156, 176, 259, 267 Shehr, 129, 160 Shehri luban, 218 Sheikh Sa'id, 115 shells, 224, 259 shellac, 73 Shem, 107, 163 Shencottah Paa., 212 Shen-si, 261, 262 Sherring, 27? Sheshonk I (o- Shisnak), 58 Shibam, 117, 119 Shinar, Chief of, 122 ships, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 35, 36, 37, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 75, 209, 210, 212, 213, 230 Andhra, 243-5 Arabian, 28, 44, 106, 128, 227 Carthaginian, 279, 280 Dravidian, 46, 227 Eastern, 46, 227, 273 Egyptian, 51, 52 from the north (Bengal), 46, 242, 255, 272 Greek, 43 Gujarati, 244-5 Hadramaut, 127 Hebrew, 260 guardians of cinnamon, 132 of diamonds, 225, 226 of frankincense, 128, 131-2 of medicinal waters, 132 of pepper, 215, 216 of various gums, 132 in the Indian Ocean (see gracz), 37, 44, 165 progenitor of Abyssinian dynasty, 133 serpent-worship, 131, 236, 237, 241, 279 souls of the dead, 131 tree-spirits, 131 winged, 131 sesame oil, 27, 35, 39, 176, 177 Hindu, 27, 107, 115, 128, 229 Malabar, 227, 243-5 201, Malay, 246-7 Burmese and Chinese, Persian, 244 Persian Gulf, 154-6, 227 Roman, 78, 227 ship's head, 230-1 shipwrecks, 29, 38, 41 type used by author of Periplus, 52-3 Shea, 75 Siam, 227, 252, 279 Sibal, 237 Sibor, 251 , 319 168 Sicyon, 191 Sidon, 158, 159, 160, 265 Sidonia, 159 Sielediba (see Ceylon, Sinhala-dvipa) 249, 250, 251, 252 Sigerus (see Melizigara), 201, 232 Sikkim, 151, 188, 253, 272, 279, 280, 281 silent trade, 250, 267, 279, 280, 281 Si-ling, 263 Sicily, 76, silk, snakes (see serpents), 34, 44 Socotra (see Dioscorida), 4, 62, 63, 76, 87, 119, 139, 129, 133, 135, 137, 138, 144, 162, 163, 237, 271, 272 Sofala, 88, 97 Sofala-Ophir theory, 98 Sohar, 151 Soli (see Chola), 241, 249 Solomon, 13, 146, 172, 179, 196, 214, 259, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 274, 281 58, 61, 67, 160, 176, 260 of, 82, 97, 147, 151, Ophir voyages of, 97, 260 tasar, 264 wild, 276 silk cloth, 42, 45, 48, 171, 172, 191, 194, 222, 250, 251, 257, 263, 264, 265, 270, 273, 276 silk, raw, 48, 263, 264 silk-route, 172, 263, 268, 269, 275 silkworm, 76, 263, 266, 275 eggs of, brought to Constantinople, 267 silk yarn, 38, 48, 172, 264, 270 silver, 123, 193 Somali coast of Africa, 52, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 83, 88, 89, 106, 112, 118, 120, 124, 137, 145, 172, 178, 182, 217, 218, 219, 228, 271 Song 13, 24, 25, 26, 31, 33, 42, 61, 69, 77, 78, 102, 122, 175, 191, 192, 214, 219, 227, 249, 252, 259, 273, 276 Son river, 258 Sonargaon, Suvarnagrama, 255 Sonmiani Bay, 161 Sopara (see Suppara), 197 Sopater, Roman merchant in Ceylon, 251-2 Sopatma, 46, 242 Sophir (see Suppara) South America, 138 South Arabia, 6, 9, 11, 14, 51, 52, 58, 61, 62, 63, 75, 76, 77, 80, 87, 94, 97, 106,- 107, 108, 112, 214 Simpson, William, 159 Silvester, St., Sins, 266, 273 Sinbad the Sailor, 156, 225 Sind, Sindu, 172, 248, 251 sindon, 165, 172 Singan-fu, 11, 261, 262, 268, 270, 272, 274, 279 road to, from Lo-yang, 262 Singapore, 246 Singhala (see Ceylon), 255, 273 singing boys, 42 Sinhalese, 235, 239, 241, 250, 267 Sinim, the, 264, 266 Sining-fu, 272, 279 Sinthus river, 37, 38, 165 Sipra river, 187 Siraf, 155 Sirangala, 190 Sita, 226, 230, 237, 249, 257 SIta-quest, 282 Siva, 138, 187, 201, 208, 235, 238, 254, 281 Siva Satakami, 199 Sivajl, 120, 127, 129, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147, 148, 154, 159, 160, 161, 162, 218, 228, 267, 271 South Countries, 61 Southern Horn (Notii Guardafui), 86 Cerai, Cape South India, 152, 162, 167, 171, 187, 195, 205, 208, 209, 210, 213, 216, 220, 221, 227, 230, 235, 237, 239, 241, 243, 244, 259, of, 221, 243-5 Spain, 68, 70, 77, 78, 190 261 coinage J. H., 87, 96, 230 spices, 3, 4, 6, 25, 26, 105, 115, 121, spartum. 111 Spasinus, 149 Speck, 268 Speke, Lieut. 203 263 skins, 32, 257, seric, 38 122, 123, 124, 149, 157, 169, 211, 214, 218, 237, 273 Spices, Market and Cape of, 26, 33, 45, 82, 85, 86 spikenard, 42, 45, 112, 170, 188, 189, 217, 251, 273 Gangetic, 47, 222, 256 slaves, 13, 25, 27, 29, 33, 34, 36, 58, 74, 88, 91, 96, 161, 191 166, 180, 183, 184, 189, 198, 200, 204, 205, 209, 210, 235, 238, 242 Robertson, 119, 130, 132, Smith, Smith, Vincent A., W. snails, 236 216 222 spondylium, 216 sponge, 74 Sprenger, Aloys, 105, 107, 114, 116, 148, 164 Sramanas, Buddhist missionaries to China, 275 spinel, SravastI, 188 320 stacte fGebanite-Minaean), 31, 113, 114, 122 various units in 112, stadia, and equivalents in surement, 54-5 Roman use, modem mea- in Persian schoeni, 125 Stanford, 270 :>Tatues, 66 steel, 24, 70, 71, 172, 225 steering, method of, 230, 231, 232, Syagrus dates, 158 Sylla, 239 Symulla (see Semylla), 200 Syncellus, 159 Syrastrene, 39, 40, 175, 176 Syr Daria (see Jaxartes), 277 Syria, 5, 58, 61, 71, 76, 77, 87, 102, 108, 111, 122, 123, 128, 131, 138, 149, 158, 184, 213, 264, 247 270, 275 Syrian Christians, 208 M. A., 268, 269, 270, 272 Stephanus Byzantius, 62, 140, 145 stibnite, stimmi, 192 Stieler, 270 Stiffe, Capt. A. W., 155 stones, transparent, 45, 47, 222 Stone Tower, the (see Tashkurghan), 269, 281 Stein, storax, 33, 37, 42, 112, 127, 128, 214, Taba;, 26, 27, 86 tabu (on frankincense gatherers), 145 Tacitus, 219, 265 Tagara, 43, 196 Taghdumbash valley, 269 Taharka, 78, 162 Ta'is, 107 Taka, 140 216, 276 Strabo, 7, 16, 52, 51, 68, 69, 77, 78, Takakusu, 213, 275 Taksha, 238 Takshasila (see Taxila), 183, 238 si, 86, 101, 102, r03, 105, 108, 114, 116, 118, 145, 146, 149, 157, 159, 161, 162, 167, 176, 177, 178, 184, 189, 217, 249, tamala ( see ( malabathrum, cinnamon), ro-»20-//-/0 216, 279, 281 Tamalipti (see Tamra- 254, 255, 259, 277, 278 straits (of Bab-el-Mandeb), 52 of Malacca, 127 lipti), 272 Streubel, 19 Stuck, 18, 259 st)mmata^ 112 sty rax, 131 buakin, 66 Sudan, 56, 6U, 61, 74, 99 Sitdras^ 253 Suetonius, 78 Suez, 52, 68 Gulf of, 273 sugar, 90 !u-ho (see storax), 128, 276 Suklatirtha, 180 Sumatra, 127, 138, 252 sumpter-mules, 31 Sundara Satakami (see Sandares 199, 200 Sungaria, 269 tamarisk, 165 Tamil fsee Damirica), 176, 197, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 211 Tamra-lipti (Tamluk), 249, 255 Tamrapami Tana river (see Taprobane, Tambapanni), 237, 249, 255 River, 98 Tanais river (Don), 277, 278 Tanganyika, 88, 99 Tanjore, 242 tannin, 80 Tanutamon, stela of, 78 Taprobane (Tamra-pami, Dinpa-RS-uana), 47, 239, 249, 250, 251, 252 Tapti 1, river, river, 182 Tarentum, 219 198, Tarim 268 Tartars, 185, 186, 261, 262, 263, 268 Sunium, Cape, 190 sun-worship, 162, 163, 211 Suppara (Shurparaka), 43, 175, 197 Sur, 91, 147 Surashtra, 174, 176, 184, 185, 188, 197, 199 Surat, 176, 179, 182, 183, 237 Sutlej river (Satlaj), 174, 180, 272 Tashkend, 269 Tashkurghan, 269, 281 Ta-ts^in (Chinese name for Roman Syria), 128, 275, 276, 277 routes to, 276, 277 Tavemier, 168, 170, 171, 172, 179, 192, 196, 212, 215, 216, 222, 223, 224, 225, 252, 256, 259, 281 Taxila, 69, 185, 270 Taylor, Dr., 243, 254, 255, 256 teakwood, 36, 152, 201 Tehama, 107 Tehenu, 61 Tell-el-Amarna tablets, 78 Tellicherry, 221 Telugu, 197, 204 Ter (Thair) (see Tagara), 196 suwat river, 184 language, in E. Africa, 98, 129 sweet rush (cyperusj, 31, 111, 112 sweet wood, 13 Swiss lake-dwellers, 76 swords, 24, 70 Syagrus (see Ras Fartakl, 33, 34, 129, 133, 139, 232 Sivahili 321 terebinth, 112 sea-trade of, 246 topaz, 37, 42, 44, 167-8, 222, 223 Tordesillas, treaty of, 55 Torr, Cecil, 248 Teredon, 149 Terek Pass, 268 textile industry, 196, 256-8 Thaguri, 269, 270 Torrend, Rev. of J., S. J., his theory Thames, 6 Thana, 155 Tharbis, 59 Tharshish, 61 Thebais, 103 Thebes, 3, 52, 58, 6:, 68, 120, 121, 122 Theinni (see Hsen-wi), 273 Theophrastus, 71, 82, 118, 132, 171, 177, 178, 179, 192, 213 Thina;, 48, 261, 269, 273, 274 Thina (see This), 260 Thomas, Acts of, 185 This, Land of, 11, 48, 183, 261-3, 266, 279 Thoth, 31 Thothmes III, 158 Thousand Nights and One Night, The, 225 throw-sticks, 61 Thurston, E., 220 thyine wood, 192 Tiamat, 138 the history of E. African dialects, 98 tortoice-shell, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 45, 47, 48, 73, 126, 136, 137, 227, 259, 276 tourmaline, 223 Tozer, 92, 268, 278 trade - winds, navigation dependent upon, 53 Trajan, 101, 103, 102,109,187,219,220 trappa^a, 40, 182, 245 Travancore, 80, 152, 172, 194, 204, 205, 211, 212, 213, 234 tree-blood (frankincense legend), 128, 130-3_, 145, 164^ tree-spirits, in serpent form, 131 tears, 33, 164 worship, 236, 279 tree-wool, 75, 179, 265, 266 Trichinopoly, 241, 242 Trivandrum, 234 Troglodytes, 58, 83 Tropina, Tripontari, 212 Tsengu, country of (Japanese Encyclopsedia), 92 Tian-shan mountains, 261, 268, 269 T'iao-chih, 277 Tiastenos (see Chashtana), 188 Tiberius, 11, 103, 204, 219, 220, 265 Tibet, 82, 84, 89, 172, 222, 258, 263, 269, 272, 273, 279, 281 Tibetans, 253, 266, 278, 279 Tibeto-Burman, 254, 255, 278 gold of, 258-9 trade-route across, 272 Tibullus, 191, 255 tides, 40, 41, 183 Tien (see Yunnan), 273 Tien-chu (see India), 276 tigers, 43, 261, 277 Tiglath-pileser III, 102, 118,123,149, 160 Tigre, 57, 62, 63, 121 Tigris, river, 149 timber, 4, 149, 156, 205 Tsiemo, 268 Ts'in, 11, 261-3 Ts'in Chi Hwangti, 261 Ts'i, 261 Tsor, 147 Tsung-ling (see Pamirs^, 269 Tsybikoff, 273 Tubba ibn Hassan, 107 Tulu, 204, 205 tunics, 25 Tunis, 168 Turanian-Hamitic system, 163 Turanian trade, 172 race, 253 turbit, 273 Turfan, 268 Turiasso, 70 Turkestan, 8, 11, 172, 176, 183, 223, 235, 257, 263, 265, 269, 272, 273, 274 trade-routes, 269, 272, 274, 275 Turks, 172, 184, 185, 266 Timna, 107 tin, 33, 42, 45, 77-9, 127, 193, 217, 220, 221 Tinnevelly, 211, 212, 234 156, 190, 191 Tipperah, 259 Tirur, 234 Titianus (see Maes), 269 Titus, 11, 102, 103, 220 tobacco, 105 tobe, Somali, 72 tinsel, Turkharas, 257 turmeric, 112 turpentine, 80 turquoise, 38, 170, 223 Tuticorin, 215, 237 toga, Roman, 72 Togarum, 43, 201 Tokar, 60 Tokwina, 84, Tonkin, 246 85 Tybis, 234 Tylor, E., 236 Tylos, 71 Tyndis, 44, 203, 204, 205, 208 Tyre, 129, 147, 153, 156, 158, 159, 213, 264 Tzinista, 250, 273 188. 221 White Island. 201. Venetians. 193. 241. 127. 264 Wa-wat. 42. 230 Upanishad. 209 "Wilson. C. 44. 29. 151. 148. 33. 135 W. 55 vessels. UjjayinI (see Ozena). 259. of 73. 119 Wadi Rekot. 214 Venus. 227 Vaughn. 259. 73. 197. Wadi Maifa. 22. 224 153. 177. 18. 235 Vincent. 27. 103 Voltumus. 157. Walt. 31. 88. 81. 57. 262 Wilmot.322 Ubulu (Obollah. 171. 271 Vishnu. Bikrampur. S. 160 Wadi Hadramaut. 268 Ushas. 236 Uknu river. 80. 178. Death. Melchior de. 37. 194. 111. 111 Vaigai river. 258 Waddell. 150. 28. 38. 66 vulture. 123 vermilion. 148. 181. Katha. 230. 261 Wei. 220 Vespucci. 8. 158. 199. 152. 108. 119. 143. 132 Wadi Rakhiya. 229. 188 Vikramapura. 216. 263 Varthema. 101 117._165 Vikramaditya of Ujjain. 205 Varkkallai (see Balita. 201. 188. 69 Wilford. 224. 240 winds. 192. 84. 172. 144. 215 Vespasian. 10. 149 Obal). 160 Wahind canal. HI. Waters Watt. 229 Vasco da Gama. 241 Van den Berg.. 170. 162 . 187. 123. 119 Wei river. 153. 142 Byzan- ultramarine. 77. 13. 235 varnish. Indian Etesian. 148. 119. 122. 164. A. 215 Vijaya. 150. 148. 257 Weber. 200 224 vine. 13. 259 Willis. 155. 253 Virgil. 45 wine. 35. 135. 261 Wellhausen. 191. 87. 172. 81 192 Arabian. 248 water. 74. 45. 176. 152. 94. 83. ) 202 Venice. 99. 13. 104. 137. Uganda. of Agriculture. 28. Lieut. 121 weasel. R. 75. 235. 139. 33. 188. 238. 145 Vanji. 128 Usuu. Vitellius. 13. 34. 12. 197. 229 ushu-wood. 42. UjjenI. 242 Urania. 108. 145. 273 Unya-muizi. Bailey. 222. wheat. 237 Wadi Yabrin. 179. 143 Wellsted. Vikkar. 271 whale-fishery. 151. 31.Martin. 97 Wilson. 68 votive offerings. 76. 171. 140 Wadi ed Dawasir. 249 Vijayanagar. 70. 178. 153. 76. 121 Wadi Dirbat. 202. 214 Victoria Nyanza. 76. 112. Apolo^s. 196 123. 77 Calenian. 115 Osiris. C. 87. Dept. 109. 223 U. 3. 149. 266. 169. 128 Uthek. 203 White Village {Leuk'e Komi). 255 Vilivayakura II. 236 Uraiyur (see Argaru). 118 Wadi Tyin. 169. 192. 212 Varuna. 216. 39. 57 Ujjain. 132 Uru. 197.. 215. 230 Vignoli. 250 Valiyar river. 174 Wassaf. 101 Whitman. 45. 235. 65. 162 Urumtsi. 125. 34. 254. 272 Vindhya mountains. 102 Uth!rat= U2al. 138. Vinukonda. 256. 24. Vijayadurga (see tium). 56 Wilde. 37. 38. 160 Wady el Araba. Oscar. 176. Pyrrhon). 130 J'cJas. 196 Western India. 19. 45 Hippalus. 241 Vaisya clan. 230. 36. 84. 226.. L. 183 Wild-Flesh-Eaters {Agriop/iagi) . 162 \Vestem Ghats. 116. 31. 77 Falemian. 2S1 Vengurla Rocks (see Sesecriena. 88. 78 Vivien de Saint. 127. 257. 164. 116 Wady Musa. 234. 149 Vizadrog. 104. 77 . 119 Wadi er Rumma. 127. 77 vinegar. 101. 201 Vogiie. 76. 190. 42 Yashhab. Book of. 117. 200 Yu-chou. 214 Zazebass Besedo. 88. Yarab. 149 61 Yang-knjjan^ 269 Yangtse river. 248 wolves. 67 Zafar (see Saphar) Zagdur. 166. 9. 71. 235. Zaire. 9. 67 Zechariah. Za Sutuwa. 112 Yakin. 270 yarn. 191 of Spain and Gaul. 67 67 Zayton. 263 Yudhisthira. 202. 107 Yates. 107. 99. 156 Yueh-chi. 257 ITu-i. 242. 154 276 Yerim. 94. 9. 66 Zosimiadon. 103. Yen-hsi period. 187. 157. 263 . 235 Yellow River (see Hoang-ho). 104. 268. 55 Zambesi River. 67 Za Agba. 143. 77 of Greece. 80. 24. 142. 80. 67 Za Malis. 115. 139 Yemama. treaty of. 67 98. 257 Zul Kamain. 67 Za Demahe. 273 Za Adp-aba. 185. 241. Za Beesi Angaba. 77 of the Roman republic. 16. 72. 97 zinc. 42. 155. 118 wood-oil. 70. 91. 77 of dates. 119. 106. 272 92. 257 woolen cloth. Yiimenhsien. 119. Zenobian islands (see Genaba). 248. 67 Witwatersrand. Yarub. 107. 237. 230 trade with India. 142 Yarkand. 67 Zabaesi Bazen. 77 of raisins. 66. 203. 130. 10. i40. 77 of Damascus. 102. 10. 160 Yemen. 264 xylo-balsamimi. El. 144. 23. 173. 101. 67 277 Zakawasya b'Axum.323 wine — continued Italian. 67 Za Hakale. 107 Younghusband. 148. 269 Yunnan. 76. 35. 18 Zula (Adulis). 77 Statanian. 74. 132 Zimbabwe. 67 Za Makeda. 10. 167. 108 Zwemer. 67 Za Awtet. 123. 24. 157. 77 of the Seine and Moselle. 261 wool. 60 129. the Sea-country Yakin). 77 Col. Henry. 109. 205. 92. 132. 99 Zaragoza. 67 Za Masenh. 170. 268 Yiimen-kivan. 268 Za Senatu. Yam. 165. 73. 77 Laodicean. 139. 64. 99 Zanzibair (see Menuthias). 77. 75. 115. 123. 51. 75 zennclr (see maieb). 269. 76. 165 (see Bit- Za Les. 147. 273 Yuan Chwang. 84. 75 9. 89. 67 Xerxes. 8. 69 Zoscales. 96. 77 of Surrentum. 105. 159 Zeila (see Avalites). 66. 66. 186. 108. 266 Yavanas. 101. 63. 144-6 Zeus. 263. Yule. 234. . D.Map to Illustrate the Periplus Maris ErytHRAei 60 A. 100 100 ZOO 300 -WO SOO too 7ffO English Nautical Miles 60=1 e<]Hatorial degree = 600 Olympic Sta . . . . . . by the state of Pennsylvania. and of the higher Masonic bodies . 211 – 212 WILFRED HARVEY SCHOFF Born at Newtonville. Traced Affer Burial. Leonard H. 1901. completing a two-years' course in Biology there in 1891. Cambridge. both of West Philadelphia. Was commissioner for Peru at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901. cum laude in 1894. B. and Beatrice. — The body of a man who was in an automobile. H. 4 IDENTIFIED 18 DAYS AFTER AUTO FATALITY W. particularly with relation to shipping developments. Was a member of the committee for the preparation of the Historical Pageant in the celebration of the 225th anniversary of the founding of the city of Philadelphia. been walking in the middle of the road and had been unseen in the glare of an approaching automobile.Edward Kennard Rand (South Boston. and have three daughters: Muriel. 20 December 1871 – 28 October 1945. held in Philadelphia that autumn. and was the author of numerous books.. 1908. secretary of the Philadelphia Commercial Museum. Wilmot. Philadelphia. of Cynwyd. Schoff's mother. delivering the Latin dissertation at Commencement. 58 years old. . receiving the degree of A. F. Schoff. pg. Lower Merion. Business address: 34th Street and Vintage Avenue. J.14. Jr. Pennsylvania. Special to THE NEW YORK TIMES. Frederick S. born July 8. Mlchell. Honorary Consul in Philadelphia for Bolivia. Ethelwyn. NEW YORK TIMES. at the University of Illinois in 1904. 1903. 1909. and of the vestry of St. Massachusetts. by an automobile driven by A. was released after he had told authorities that the man had. 1900. Lectured on foreign commerce at the University of Wisconsin in 1901. Married. born December 2. P. Entered the William Penn Charter School in 1885. 2. illustrating the History of Commerce at the Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition in 1907. in the Sophomore year. Schoff had been killed on Sept. pp. of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. November 27. Read law in Philadelphia in 1895. to the public schools. They told the police that Mr. and A. Home address: Cynwyd. daughter of William McGeorge. Member of University Lodge. Family removed to Philadelphia in 1877. That summer entered the employ of the Philadelphia Museums. and at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. After failing in attempts to identify the body the police ordered it to be buried last week. the Society of Mayflower Descendants. M.. Record of the Class of 1894. and received medals of award at all of these expositions. Graduated from Harvard A. N. Harvard College. Schoff. the Association of American Museums. accident near here nearly three weeks ago and buried in Brotherhood Cemetery after the police had been unable to learn his name has been identified as Wilfred Harvey Schott. M.. Was appointed Consul for Peru and Bolivia in. Pennsylvania. No. by means of clothing of the Victim and of photographs taken after the accident. Pennsylvania. and entered the Department of Philosophy of the University of Pennsylvania. and for the Republic of Panama in 1904. Schotf. He had been the honorary consul for Bolivia in Philadelphia. Made a tour of South America and Europe in 1899 as commissioner for the National Export Exposition. was in Europe again in 1900 on business for the Museums. Pennsylvania. graduated there in 1889. and a sister-in-law. Entered Harvard College that autumn. the Church Club of Philadelphia. June 20. delivered a series of lectures at Harvard on the "Commercial Relations of the United States with Latin America. Michell of Mount Holly. Massachusetts). MOUNT HOLLY. Massachusetts: 1909). 610. The same year entered the University of Pennsylvania. of which I am now secretary and assistant treasurer. Secretary’s Report Number V: For the Fifteenth Anniversary (Cambridge. born June 8. John's Church. 1904. and have visited the schools in all parts of the state for that purpose. October. In May. of West Philadelphia. in 1896. 1874. Schoff had been living in a cottage near here and that they had become worried when they ceased to receive letters from him. Mrs. Identification was made yesterday by Mr. Oct. Mr. 3 OCTOBER 1932. 1898. when he was struck while walking on the highway." Have been since 1903 in charge of the distribution. Mrs. Was in charge of a special exhibit of the state of Pennsylvania. as a member of the Class of 1894. of collections to further the teaching of Commercial Geography. 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