The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships: an empirical investigation in the utilitarian consumption contextSamy Belaid EM Normandie Business School, METIS and NIMEC lab, Le Havre, France, and Azza Temessek Behi Department of Management, IHEC, Carthage, Tunisia Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to examine the role of attachment in consumer brand relationships and its links with constructs such as trust, satisfaction, commitment and behavioural loyalty. Design/methodology/approach – This paper is based on exploratory and confirmatory studies that provide a model that explains the relationship between brand attachment and its outcomes. A structural equation modelling is used to assess the hypothetical links. Findings – The findings of the structural model confirm the majority of the hypothesised relationships. Brand attachment is considered as an important input to brand commitment for utilitarian products. Originality/value – Few studies have attempted to model the relationship between brand attachment and its antecedents and outcomes. This research also focused on a particular utilitarian product that is not – apparently – affect laden. Keywords Brands, Brand loyalty, Utilitarianism, Linear structure equation modelling Paper type Research paper An executive summary for managers and executive readers can be found at the end of this article. Introduction The literature on brand marketing has generated a considerable amount of theoretical and empirical research that has focused on various topics concerning brand ´ garra and Michel, 2001) or extension, co-branding (Ce brand personality (Aaker, 1997; Ambroise et al., 2004). In recent publications it has been argued that the affective component of a brand is an issue that requires conceptual and empirical elaboration. Further research into this fundamental question is required since it may lead to a better understanding of the way emotional ties are formed between consumers and their preferred brands, as well as explaining the role of this particular tie with regard to brand relationships and behavioural intentions. Brand attachment can be considered as an emerging construct that is particularly important in the representation of the affective component of consumer-brand relationships. Researchers from many different disciplines have investigated the attachment concept in such diverse The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www.emeraldinsight.com/1061-0421.htm Journal of Product & Brand Management 20/1 (2011) 37– 47 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1061-0421] [DOI 10.1108/10610421111108003] contexts as interpersonal relationships (Maisonneuve, 1966; Bowlby, 1969) or in evaluating the relationships between people and material possessions (Ball and Tasaki, 1992). The adoption of the attachment construct in the marketing literature is relatively recent (Fournier, 1998; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b; Cristau, 2001; Heilbrunn, 2001). Two approaches in brand marketing have supported the relevance of brand attachment. The first approach has provided evidence of the symbolic benefits of brands by investigating brand associations and brand personality. As a personified entity, the brand contributes to an affect-laden evaluation by consumers and a strong feeling of affiliation. This brand perception can be described as “attachment” (McQueen et al., 1993; Feldwick, 1996). The second approach is based on a marketing paradigm which focuses on determinants of longterm relationships and more particularly on defining the key construct of brand commitment. Two components of commitment have been identified; one is cognitive – it includes perceived risk and switching costs, and the other is affective – it expresses emotional ties that refer to attachment. A few studies on brand attachment have attempted to conceptualise and to develop a scale to measure this construct (Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b; Cristau, 2001; Heilbrunn, 2001; Thomson et al., 2005). However, little attention has been given to the modelisation of brand attachment in order to investigate how it relates to a number of outcomes and antecedents (e.g. satisfaction, trust, commitment, loyalty). In this paper we focus on the examination of a relationship model integrating brand attachment. We try to examine the role of attachment in consumer-brand relationships and to show the link between attachment construct and its salient 37 The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 antecedents and consequences, such as trust, commitment, behavioural loyalty and satisfaction. Moreover, we try to provide evidence of the relevance of attachment to utilitarian products such as the car battery. We begin this study with a review of the attachment construct literature, as well as a definition of attachment relevant to the context of brands. We will then show the relationship between the consumer who is strongly attached to a brand and his behaviour and attitude to this brand, and we will also test a brand attachment relationship model. We will subsequently put forward the results of our study and will conclude with a discussion of our findings, as well as some suggestions for further research opportunities in this area. Attachment in consumer-brand relationships: legitimacy and conceptualisation Attachment has been investigated in several contexts such as interpersonal relationships (Bowlby, 1979, 1980), material possessions (Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988; Belk, 1988), places (Rubenstein and Patricia, 1992), experiences (Arnould and Price, 1993) and, more recently, person-brand relations (Schouten and McAlexander, 1995; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b; Thomson et al., 2005). Psychological studies on material possessions have provided a clear delineation of the attachment concept and set up a first platform for the emergence of brand attachment. Material possessions attachment is considered as “a multi-faceted property of the relationship between an individual or group of individuals and a specific material object that has been psychologically appropriated, and singularised through person-object interaction” (Kleine and Baker, 2004, p. 1). This definition shows that: . attachment requires a psychological appropriation that goes beyond the physical possession of the material object; . material possession attachment is a kind of self-extension process – possessions express “who I am” and “who I was”; . attachment is formed for singular and irreplaceable possession – the object of attachment has personal meanings and a symbolic value that comes from personal history between the person and the possession; . there are degrees of attachment – a person can be strongly or weekly attached to the possession; . attachment is multi-faceted – people are attached to possessions for various reasons; . attachment evokes deep emotional meanings with regard to the possession; and . attachment is dynamic – the degree of possession attachment evolves with the person’s own development and the symbolic meanings of the possession change accordingly. Several prerequisites of attachment for possessions are apparent in the brand literature and particularly in the research into brand relationships. The studies of brand image have focused explicitly on functional and emotional associations of brands (Park et al. , 1991; Park and Srinivasan, 1994). Functional associations refer to the utilitarian benefits of brand consumption with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic brand attributes (brand performance). Emotional associations are the symbolic meanings of the brand that lead to a process of self-extension. Brand is a 38 symbolic entity that carries emotional, cultural and historical meanings into which the consumer extends himself. McCracken (1988) suggested that although some consumers engaging in “consumption pathologies” (e.g. defining oneself in terms of material things only), normally “the individual uses goods in an unproblematic manner to constitute crucial parts of the self and world” (p. 88). The conceptualisation of brands as a “collection of perceptions held in the mind of the consumer” (Fournier, 1998, p. 345), and the emphasis on brand personality in the field of brand research (Fournier, 1994; Aaker, 1997) give more legitimacy to investigate brand attachment (Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b; Thomson et al. , 2005). Examining brand relationship quality (Fournier, 1998), we find the first similarity between aspects of brand relationships and psychological attachment. Consumers may develop a close relationship with their brands, for example “passion”, “nostalgic connexions” (Fournier, 1994), “brand resonance” which includes elements such as “attitudinal attachment” (love for the brand and a feeling that it is something special) and “sense of community” (an affiliation with other people associated with the brand) (Keller, 2003). Conceptually, brand attachment is similar to possession attachment when considering the brand as a source of emotions, self-identity (Belk, 1988; Heilbrunn, 1995), shared personal history and shared values (Muniz and O’Guinn, 2001). Brand attachment involves psychological appropriation of specific brands, selfextension, and a personal history between the consumer and the brand (Escalas, 1996; Escalas and James, 1998; Fournier, 1998; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b). Brand attachment can be considered as “a psychological variable that refers to a longlasting and inalterable (the separation is painful) affective reaction towards the brand, expressing psychological proximity with this one” (Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, p. 66). This conceptualisation suggests that: . brand attachment expresses the consumer’s desire to maintain, through brand consumption, a nostalgic connection; . self-brand connections lead to strong brand connection – there are economic and psychic costs associated with buying and consuming the brand; . consumer brand-bonds are strong when the brand enhances self-identity but also when it is based on psychological similarity (the brand shares the same cultural or personal values as the consumer); . as with possession attachment, brand attachment involves psychological appropriation of specific brands, selfextension, a personal history between the consumer and the brand (Escalas, 1996; Escalas and James, 1998; Fournier, 1998; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b); and . brand attachment develops in accordance with a person’s life cycle. Attachment and relational outcomes Few empirical studies have focused explicitly on the relationship between attachment and other relational constructs such as brand trust, brand satisfaction, commitment and brand loyalty. Examining the correlations between those variables provides a deeper insight into the role of brand attachment in consumer behaviour. The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 . Brand attachment and brand trust The transcription of trust in the context of brands is obviously based on the theory of brand personality. This anthropomorphization of brands implies that they possess certain personal characteristics and, as a result, we can trust in a set of brands in the same way that we can trust in some people (Aaker, 1997; Fournier, 1998; Chernatony and McDonald, 1998). The concept of brand trust shows that the relationship between a consumer and a brand could go beyond satisfaction (functional performance). This qualitative dimension of brand value has been studied by many authors, for example Blackston (1995), Gurviez (1996), and Heilbrunn (1995). In the brand domain, Gurviez (1998, p. 81) defined trust as: The consumer’s presumption that the brand, as a personified entity, is committed to acting predictably, in accordance with the consumer’s expectations, and to maintain this orientation over time. . that is based on an evaluation of product-standards (expectancy disconfirmation paradigm), product consumption experience and or product attributes; and occurs before or after choice, after consumption (transactional satisfaction) or after extended experience (relational satisfaction). This conceptualization of brand trust highlights the fact that it has both a cognitive and an affective nature. The cognitive component of trust refers to credibility. This dimension of trust is related to the perceived reliability of the information on the brand, the performance of the brand and its aptitude to satisfy consumer needs. The affective component of trust is integrity. It is the consumer’s evaluative judgment regarding the brand’s motivations towards him personally (Gurviez, 1998). In other words, the consumer wonders whether the brand, as a personified entity, favour his best interests. In summary, brand credibility results from a rational and cognitive process based on the assessment of brand performance and reputation, whereas integrity is an affective and social trust outcome built on consumer perception of brand orientation, and intentions towards him the consumer. Taking into account this former dimension of trust we can assume a relationship with brand attachment. Trust is not necessarily a prerequisite of brand attachment but it plays a major role in enhancing this affective bond. Moreover, brand attachment could reinforce brand trust. In fact, as in interpersonal relationships, passion and feelings of attachment lead to a high desire to rely on the partner and to believe that he will fulfil his promises. Being attached to a brand, the consumer can believe that the brand does not intend to lie, to break promises or to take advantage of the consumer’s vulnerability. H1. The higher the attachment with one brand the greater the consumer trust in that brand. The link between satisfaction and attachment has not been explicitly evoked in the literature. The affective dimension of satisfaction suggests a possible relation with brand attachment; however, this is not self-evident. Brand attachment has been defined as an inalterable affective bond. This implies a relationship that is mature and sustainable. In contrast, the affective dimension of satisfaction could be described as a deep and brief emotion related to an experience or to a transaction of an ephemeral nature (contentment, surprise). In this context, satisfaction could not be considered as an antecedent of brand attachment. However, brand attachment could strengthen consumer satisfaction. When a consumer is attached to the brand, each experience of consumption is pleasurable and leads to positive emotions and a favourable evaluation. H2. The higher the attachment to one brand the greater the customer satisfaction for that brand. Brand attachment and satisfaction Satisfaction is considered as a “central element in the marketing concept” (Ervelles and Young, 1992, p. 104). Various definitions of satisfaction are given in the abundant literature. The conceptualisations have either emphasized an evaluation process (Fornell, 1992; Hunt, 1977; Oliver, 1981), a response to an evaluation process (Halstead et al., 1994; Oliver, 1997, 1981; Tse and Peter, 1988), an overall evaluation (Fornell, 1992), or a psychological state (Howard and Sheth, 1969; Dufer and Moulins, 1989). In addition to this definitional inconsistency, there is also disagreement regarding the affective or cognitive nature of the satisfaction response, as well as the period of time that it lasts. In general, satisfaction has been depicted as: . an affective, a cognitive and/or a conative response; 39 Brand attachment as a key predicator of commitment and brand loyalty In contrast with the different factors contributing to the explanation of brand loyalty formation (perceived risk, brand implication, perceived quality, satisfaction), brand attachment is depicted as a consumer-brand relationship, which is independent of instrumental and functional motives (Amine, 1998). In this case it is possible to explain the intentionality of repetitive buying behaviour. Attachment could predict, in this context, the attitudinal component of loyalty, which is brand commitment. Loyalty and commitment should be regarded as related, but distinct phenomena. Loyalty is a behavioural and attitudinal construct, whereas commitment is primarily an attitude. Investigations into the brand commitment relationship have found that commitment plays a central role in predicting brand loyalty. Loyalty can be conceptualised using three approaches. In the early literature (1950s and 1960s) conceptualisations and measurements of brand loyalty were based on the pattern of past purchases (Brown, 1952; Lawrence and Trapey, 1975; McConnell, 1968; Turker, 1964). Loyalty is defined as a consumer’s repetitive and systematic purchasing behaviour in relation to a given brand. Given the controversy caused by this vision of brand loyalty, several researchers have subscribed to a perspective that emphasises consumer attitude. In this second approach, researchers assume that loyalty should be interpreted primarily as an attitude toward a given brand (Day, 1969; Jacoby and Chesnut, 1978; Mellens et al., 1996; Reichheld, 1996; Simon, 2000). This attitude shows the degree to which a consumer’s disposition toward a brand is favourably inclined (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). However, some aspects of this approach have also been criticised. A conciliation of the two previous approaches has generated the most widely accepted definition of brand loyalty among marketing researchers. This definition was provided by Jacoby (1971) and Jacoby and Kyner (1973) and suggested that brand loyalty is “an effective buying behaviour of a particular The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 brand, repeated over time, and reinforced with a strong commitment to that brand” (p. 2). This composite approach captures the true complex nature of loyalty and incorporates a behavioural and an attitudinal component (Dick and Basu, 1994). The integration of commitment in the brand loyalty literature contributes to a better understanding of this phenomenon and spreads its definition beyond its behavioural aspect (Samuelson and Sandivik, 1997). Commitment has generally been conceptualised as an intention and a desire for continuity in the relationship. In the brand context, commitment is defined as the consumer’s strong willingness to maintain a lasting relationship with the brand (Morgan and Hunt, 1994; Dholakia, 1997). More recently, Gurviez and Korchia (2002) defined this concept as follows: Commitment from the consumer standpoint is defined as the implicit or explicit intention to maintain a durable relationship (p. 2). brand enhances a consumer’s perceptions and behavioural responses. Brand commitment leads to an emotional and cognitive bonding that is conducive to a need to maintain brand-purchasing consistency. Other studies have posited that a higher degree of commitment leads to more positive loyalty behaviour (Amine, 1998; Terrasse, 2003): H3. H4. H5. The higher the attachment to one brand the greater the customer commitment to that brand. Higher attachment to one brand leads to higher behavioural loyalty to that brand. The higher the commitment to one brand the greater the customer loyalty to that brand. In organization theory and relationship-marketing fields, researchers underline the double nature of commitment: they distinguish calculated commitment from affective commitment (Allen and Meyer, 1990). Calculated commitment expresses the extent to which consumers “maintain consistent purchasing behaviour as long as the benefits attached to the brand exceed the costs of switching to another brand” (Amine, 1998, p. 309). It is necessary to underline the opportunistic and rational nature of such a commitment. The consumer’s belief in the superiority of the brand (McQueen et al., 1993), the perception of the differences between brands, and notably a high-perceived risk during the purchase (Amine, 1998; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b) are the major motivations of such a dimension. The other form of commitment prevalent in the literature is called affective commitment. It is based on the pleasure of maintaining a relationship with a partner and on the development of an emotional attachment. From the consumer’s standpoint, affective commitment refers to their devotion and their identification with the brand without any material consideration. Of these two views of brand commitment, affective commitment is the most effective factor in predicting the willingness of the consumer to maintain the same purchasing behaviour. Given this clarification of loyalty and brand commitment concepts, the link with brand attachment is clear. Research into attitudinal loyalty developed in the early 1990s shows that consumers may form relationships with a given set of brands (Fournier, 1998), “loyalty is a committed and affectladen partnership between consumers and brands” (Fournier, 1998; in Uncles et al., 2003, p. 296). This definition of loyalty necessitates the formation of brand attachment. Assuming that attachment is a strong feeling that unites the consumer and the brand (independent of purchasing situations), it constitutes a barrier to brand switching and a pledge to consumer loyalty. This issue shows that the affection developed by the consumer towards the brand appears as a fixation with the choice and the purchase of this brand (Sierra and McQuitty, 2005). In addition, brand attachment appears as a component of affective commitment (Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b; Amine, 1998; Aaker, 1997; McQueen et al., 1993). Furthermore, “true brand loyalty” comes from a strong commitment to the brand that leads to repetitive buying behaviour. Several studies suggest that commitment to a 40 In order to take into account the entire relational chain, it is necessary to present the interactions between loyalty, satisfaction and trust. The link between satisfaction and loyalty has been investigated in a large part of the marketing literature. Despite the recognition of the non-linearity of this interaction (Olivia et al., 1992; Dufer and Moulins, 1989), several researchers have found that high consumer satisfaction leads to repetitive buying behaviour (McDougall and Levesque, 2000; Gotlieb et al., 1994; Lassar et al., 2000; Ostrowsky et al., 1993; Dufer and Moulins, 1989). H6. The higher the satisfaction with one brand the greater the customer loyalty to that brand. The interaction trust-loyalty has also received significant attention among researchers. The credibility and the integrity components of brand trust both seem to be predictors of brand loyalty (Ganesan, 1994; Hennig-Thurau and Klee, 1997; Garbarino and Johnson, 1999, Cristau, 2003; Bansal ´ re ´ De Lanause, 2006): et al., 2004; Se H7. The higher the feeling of trust in a brand the greater the customer loyalty to that brand. In the upstream of the relational chain, it is possible to check the link between satisfaction and trust. The idea that satisfaction generates trust is supported by several authors (Ganesan, 1994; Selnes, 1993). But few studies have attempted to investigate whether trust generates satisfaction. On the one hand, trust development is related to consumption experiences and prior interactions with the brand and, in this sense, the accumulation of satisfaction constitutes the consumer’s trust. On the other hand, when the consumer perceives that the brand has fulfilled its commercial promises and taken into account his welfare and interests, his overall evaluation of the brand performance will be positive. Thus it can be said that a trustworthy brand is a satisfactory brand: H8. The higher the satisfaction in a brand the more the customer trusts in that brand. Methodology The conceptual model and the corresponding hypotheses were investigated by studying Tunisian consumers. Two data collection procedures were employed in order to determine the relationships between brand attachment construct and its antecedents and consequences. The first study focused on the test of the psychometrics properties of the scales used in the model. The second study involved data collection and The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 entailed the evaluation of the hypothetical relationship between the variables in the model. Product investigated For the purposes of this study we selected the car battery because it is a genuine example of industrial competitiveness in the Tunisian market between domestic brands and international ones, and there are intensive mass media advertising campaigns concerning these kinds of brands. Hence Tunisian consumers are more familiar with and have a positive perception of Tunisian car batteries. In spite of the unconventionality of this product in brand studies, we considered that it would be interesting to investigate the relationship between consumers and this kind of product. Study 1 Previously used scales for measuring brand trust (Gurviez, 1999), brand commitment (Amine, 1998), and brand attachment (Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b) were identified for which we assessed dimensionality and reliability. All scales were translated into Arabic using the back translation method and items were measured on five-point Likert-type scales. The unavailability of a scale to measure car battery brand satisfaction necessitated developing an ad hoc ten-item scale that refers to calibrated expressions of satisfaction (Bartikowski et al., 2005). A quota sampling procedure based on the car type (tourism, trucks, taxi and pick-up) was conducted in Tunis and its suburbs. We validated 193 questionnaires, which were administered on a face-to-face basis to people who have experience of buying batteries for their cars. Based on the eigen value greater than one rule to determine the scale structure, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s sphericity test were used to confirm that the data sets were appropriate for factor analysis. Table I shows that the K-M-O was up to 0.75, Bartlett’s sphericity test was significant (0.000), and the alpha coefficients show the reliability of each scale. The scale for brand trust was thus validated. The original scale contains three subscales. For this research, only one subscale, composed of six items, was adopted. The attachment construct was taken from the Lacoeuilhe (2000a, b) scale, which was developed in a French context and validated in a Tunisian context. The original scale consisted of five items with high quality psychometrics properties (a ¼ 0:89). For the final scale one item was eliminated because it was not adapted to the product. The Amine (1998) measure was used in assessing brand commitment. Study 2 Following the first study, a second study based on confirmatory factor analysis, was performed. A face-to-face questionnaire procedure was selected to collect data. The target population for the study was car owners who buy their own car batteries. Data were collected via a quota sampling Table I scales structure and reliability Brand attachment KMO Explained variance (%) Coefficient Alpha 0.81 68.03 0.84 Brand trust 0.81 55.51 0.83 procedure. The car’s type and geographic location were used to select a respondent. Questionnaires were administered on a face-to-face basis and we collected 416 usable responses for the analysis. Analysis and results Preliminary data analysis In order to specify the mean score of attachment within the sample and to examine the differences in the mean values of the model’s different constructs associated with the effect of brand attachment (low, medium and high degree of brand attachment), we conducted a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). We began by the Levene test to check the assumption that the variances of the three attachment groups were equal. We noticed that the test was significant for the following constructs: repurchase behaviour, trust, perceived differences between brands, commitment and perceived risk. Thus, the assumption of equal variances was violated and so variances were significantly different. However, for brand sensitivity (significance ¼ 0:25) and satisfaction (significance ¼ 0:07) the Levene test was not significantly different. The Fisher test was significant for the formerly cited constructs. Hence the different attachment groups differ significantly with regard to repurchase behaviour [F(2,413) ¼ 106.93, p ¼ 0.000], satisfaction [F(2,413) ¼ 78,30, p ¼ 0.000], brand trust [F(2,413) ¼ 60,64, p ¼ 0.000], commitment [F(2,413) ¼ 234,588, p ¼ 0.000], and perceived risk [F(2,413) ¼ 14,890, p ¼ 0.000]. We noticed that when brand attachment was high, the mean values of repurchase behaviour, brand trust, satisfaction and commitment were also high. However for perceived risk, the mean values decreased for the high attachment level group. The brand attachment mean value reveals that, for car batteries, respondents are inclined to experience attachment (mean ¼ 2:8). This result confirms that even for a utilitarian product the consumer can develop an affective bond with a brand. Statistical method We used structural equation modelling to test the different relationships of the model (Lisrel 8.5). The “stepwise procedure” recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) and Jo ¨ reskog (1993) was used. The first step consisted of estimating the different measurement models, without imposing structural constraints. It allowed us to check if there was a lack of fit attributable only to the measurement. The second step included all the structural relationships presented in Figure 1. This procedure helped to avoid any confusion in interpretation, which could result from a single approach (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). After an iterative procedure in which standardized residuals and modification indices were examined, non-significant relationships were eliminated (Roussel et al., 2002). The goodness-of-fit was found to be good. RMSEA, RMR, GFI and AGFI were Brand satisfaction 0.82 39.71 0.78 12.99 0.79 10.24 0.58 Brand commitment 0.75 63.34 0.8 41 The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 Figure 1 The structural model satisfactory and allowed the conclusion that the goodness-offit of the model to the data was globally good (Table II). A test of the hypotheses mentioned in the conceptual model (H1 to H8) was performed. Path coefficients and significance helped us to test the causal relationships of our model (Table III). The validation of H1 leads us to support the assumption that a consumer who is attached to a brand, trusts the said brand. This shows the crucial importance of affective ties, which enhance the reliability of the brand in the consumer’s mind. We observed a high correlation between brand attachment and brand trust (g ¼ 0:77, t-value ¼ 10.53 at the level of 5 per cent). When the consumer develops emotional ties with a particular brand he feels less vulnerable towards that brand, he has a greater belief in its ability to satisfy his needs, and he considers that the brand deals with his expectations. Brand attachment appears to be a key predicate of brand commitment (g ¼ 0:92, t-value ¼ 9.63 at the level of 5 per cent). The strong correlation between these two constructs has been supported in other studies in interpersonal theory, organizational theory and in the brand literature. Attachment is considered as an affective component of commitment, which reinforces the addiction of the consumer to the brand and so reduces the probability of the consumer switching to another brand. However, we failed to confirm the two hypothesized links: brand attachment-satisfaction and brand attachment-loyalty. The test of the relationships between the remaining constructs of the structural model shows that a relationship of trust in the brand could be a good predicator of brand satisfaction (g ¼ 0:74, t-value ¼ 6.82 at the level of 5 per cent) and repetitive purchasing behaviour (g ¼ 0.35, t-value ¼ 3.81 at the level of 5 per cent). As predicted in the literature review, brand commitment affects the repetitive buying behaviour of the brand. The strong correlation between commitment and behavioural loyalty (b ¼ 0:71, t-value ¼ 5.10 at the level of 5 per cent) corroborates the pertinence of the composite approach to loyalty. However, in contrast with the majority of results from other studies, we found a low and negative correlation between brand satisfaction and loyalty. Discussion Brand attachment is a phenomenon that is currently receiving a great deal of interest. In this study we proposed a model that describes the relationships between brand attachment and some key relational constructs. We also investigated whether affective bonds could be formed in respect of a purely functional product category. First, our results show that brand attachment mean values are high for a large proportion of car battery buyers. In the case of high brand attachment, consumers exhibit more desire to rely on their preferred brand and to maintain the relationship in the form of repetitive buying behaviour. In high brand attachment groups, the perception of differences between brands is more obvious; consumers believe that their Table II The model fit x2 DL x2/df RMSEA RMR GFI AGFI CFI SR2 0.066 0.043 0.93 0.88 0.95 1.6 301.28 ( p 5 0.0) 107 2.81 Table III Results synthesis Hypothesis Relationships Att ! Trust Att ! Sat Att ! Comm Att ! Loyalty Comm ! Loyalty Sat ! Loyalty Trust ! Loyalty Trust ! Sat Standardized path coefficients 0.77 0.03 0.92 0.01 0.71 2 0.21 0.35 0.74 t-test 10.53 0.36 9.63 0.05 5.10 2 3.22 3.81 6.82 Hypothesis testing Supported Not supported Supported Not supported Supported Not supported Supported Supported H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 42 The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 brand is superior to other existing brands in the given product category. These results indicate that attachment formation seems to be independent of product category and is not necessarily attributed to objects or brands laden with affective associations. The findings of the structural model confirm the majority of the hypothesised relationships. Brand attachment is considered as an important input to brand commitment and explains 85 per cent of its variance. Such a result demonstrates the explanatory power of affective factors. A consumer who shows affective predispositions to a brand becomes unconsciously fixed on the choice of this brand. In other words, this strong and durable affective relationship with the brand drives the consumer to a feeling of inseparability towards this brand (Cristau, 2001; Lacoeuilhe, 2000a, b). Brand attachment also contributes to a consumer’s trust in the brand. Brand attachment appears as a main antecedent to brand trust since it explains 60 per cent of its variance. The affection formed with the brand reinforces the feeling of security and the need to believe that the brand, as a partner, is interested in the consumer’s welfare. However, we failed to corroborate the link between brand attachment and satisfaction. This finding is due to the satisfaction measure used in this investigation. The satisfaction scale developed for a car battery is basically cognitive and employs terms that refer to brand performance, price, reliability or guarantee. This perhaps explains the absence of correlation between the two constructs. Moreover, brand attachment does not directly affect behavioural loyalty. Nevertheless, since attachment is related to brand commitment, it indirectly affects loyalty. Our study indicates that brand commitment leads to repetitive buying behaviour of a brand. This finding is supported by several researchers (Jacoby, 1971; De Ruyter et al., 1998; Amine, 1998). Brand trust is also an antecedent of behavioural loyalty. Besides the well-known correlation between trust and commitment, we maintain that brand trust directly affects the consumer’s repetitive buying behaviour. Brand trust is a belief in the brand’s intentions, but it is also a behaviour that leads to repetitive buying of the reliable brand. The negative and low correlation between loyalty and satisfaction seems to imply that consumer satisfaction does not count when turning a trusting, committed consumer into a loyal consumer. Theoretical implications The following points should be taken into account when interpreting the results reported in this paper. First, the attachment construct represents some very complex phenomena. Future studies will have to determine a reliable conceptualisation and measurement of these phenomena. Second, important questions remain concerning the formation of brand attachment across product categories. This research focused on a particular utilitarian product and did not make any reference to emotional aspects, nor did it compare the differences between two types of products. This study could be replicated using other types and categories of product. Third, in this paper only the attachment outcomes are investigated. Future research could focus on the antecedents of brand attachment such as nostalgia, brand familiarity and brand personality. This type of study could result in the development of a security-based strategy that leads consumers to deal actively and constructively with 43 brands. Fourth, in order to improve the brand attachmentsatisfaction link, further research is needed which includes in the model the emotional dimension of brand satisfaction. Fifth, it should be noted that all scales, except the satisfaction scale, were conceptualised from French studies and all measures were adapted in Arabic from the French literature. Furthermore, the main purpose of this research was not to develop psychometrically rigorous cross-cultural scales, but to test the proposed hypotheses. Hence, cross-cultural research could also contribute to the understanding of cultural differences in the development of brand attachment. Finally all constructs were measured at a single point in time, thus essentially from a static perspective. It may be judicious to study behavioural loyalty over time in order to capture its dynamic nature. Managerial implications A notable managerial implication of this study is the importance of identifying relevant outcomes of brand attachment in a given market context and for a specific product. It provides marketing managers with some useful insights into consumer relationships with brands. It also provides useful information to producers and marketers (for example, improving emotional ties contributes to building proximity with customers and influences their commitment and loyalty to a brand). Brand attachment could be a useful segmenting variable for formulating an appropriate advertising strategy in order to enhance and/or to maintain a relationship between consumers and brands. Thus, different strategies could be designed for segments identified according to their degree of attachment. The conceptualisation of attachment-related constructs is a preliminary step towards understanding the implications of brand attachment development on related constructs such as brand trust, commitment, satisfaction and loyalty. In order to protect their customer portfolio, firms should focus on creating and keeping affective relationships between consumers and their brands, even for utilitarian products. Managers should concentrate on the affective bonds of consumers to their brands by promoting a brand image that corresponds with and is close to consumers’ values in order to enhance brand commitment and loyalty. References Aaker, J.L. (1997), “Dimensions of brand personality”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 34, August, pp. 347-56. Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980), Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Allen, N.J. and Meyer, J.P. (1990), “The measurement and antecedent of affective continuance and normative commitment to the organization”, Journal of Occupational Psychology, Vol. 63, pp. 1-18. Ambroise, L., Ferrandi, J., Merunka, D. and Valette´ des Marques Florence, P. (2004), “La Personnalite Explique t-elle le Choix des Marques? Un Test de la ´ Pre ´ dictive du Barome ` tre de la Personnalite ´ des Validite ` s de l’AFM, Saint-Malo. Marques”, Actes du XX Congre Amine, A. (1998), “Consumers’ true brand loyalty: the central role of commitment”, Journal of Strategic Marketing, Vol. 6, pp. 305-19. The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 Anderson, J.C. and Gerbing, D.W. (1988), “Structural equation modelling in practice: a review and recommended two step approach”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 103 No. 3, pp. 411-23. Arnould, E.J. and Price, L.L. (1993), “River magic: extraordinary experience and the extended service encounter”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 20, June, pp. 24-45. Ball, A.D. and Tasaki, L.H. (1992), “The role and measurement of attachment in consumer behavior”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 155-72. Bansal, H.S., Irving, P.G. and Taylor, S.F. (2004), “A threecomponent model of customer commitment to service providers”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 32 No. 3, pp. 234-50. Bartikowski, B., Belaı ¨d, S. and Chandon, J.L. (2005), “Calibration de la mesure de la satisfaction du consommateur en France et en Tunisie”, paper presented ` s de l’ATM, Hammamet, Tunisia, Avril. at Congre Belk, R. (1988), “Possessions and the extended self”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 15, pp. 139-68. Blackston, M. (1995), “The qualitative dimension of brand equity”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 35 No. 4, pp. 2-7. Bowlby, J. (1969), Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1, Basic Books, New York, NY. Bowlby, J. (1979), The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds, Tavistock, London. Bowlby, J. (1980), Loss: Sadness and Depression, Basic Books, New York, NY. Brown, G. (1952), “Brand loyalty fact or fiction”, Advertising Age, Vol. 9, June, pp. 53-5. ´ garra, J.J. and Michel, G. (2001), “Co-Branding: Ce Clarification du Concept”, Recherche et Applications en Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 57-70. Chernatony, L. and McDonald, M. (1998), Creating Powerful Brands in Consumer, Service and Industrial Markets, 2nd ed., Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. ´ finition et Mesure et Mode ´ lisation de Cristau, C. (2001), “De ` la Marque avec Deux Composantes: la l’Attachement a ´ pendance et l’Amitie ´ vis-a ` -vis d’une Marque”, The ` se de De Doctorat en Sciences de Gestion, IAE Aix-Marseille 3. ´ finition, mesure et mode ´ lisation de Cristau, C. (2003), “De ` une marque comme la Conjonction de deux l’attachement a ´ pendance et dimensions distinctes et concomitantes: la de ´ vis-a ` -vis de la marque”, presented at the 3rd l’amitie International Congres Marketing Trends, Venise. Day, G.S. (1969), “A two dimensional concept of brand loyalty”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 67-76. De Ruyter, J.C., Bloemer, J.M.A. and Peters, P. (1997), “Merging service quality and service satisfaction: an empirical test of an integrative framework”, Journal of Economic Psychology, Vol. 18, pp. 387-406. Dholakia, U.M. (1997), “An investigation of some determinants of brand commitment”, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 24, pp. 381-7. Dick, A.S. and Basu, K. (1994), “Customer loyalty: toward an integrated conceptual framework”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 99-113. Dufer, J. and Moulins, J.-L. (1989), “La relation du ´ lite ´ a ` la marque: un examen consommateur et sa fide critique”, Recherche et Applications en Marketing, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 21-36. 44 Ervelles, S. and Young, C.E. (1992), “A comparison of current models of consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction”, Journal of Consumer Satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and Complaining Behavior, Vol. 5, pp. 104-14. Escalas, J.E. (1996), “Narrative processing: building connections between brands and the self”, dissertation, Duke University. Escalas, J.E. and James, R.B. (1998), “Using narratives and autobiographical memories to discern motives”, in Ratneshwar, S., Mick, D.G. and Huffman, C. (Eds), Why of Consumption: Perspectives on Consumer Motives, Goals, and Desires, Routledge Press, New York, NY, pp. 237-58. Feldwick, P. (1996), “What is brand equity anyway, and how do you measure it?”, Journal of the Market Research Society, Vol. 38 No. 2, pp. 85-104. Fornell, C. (1992), “A national customer satisfaction barometer: the Swedish experience”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 56, January, pp. 6-21. Fournier, S. (1994), “A consumer-brand relationship framework for strategic brand management”, unpublished PhD dissertation, University of Florida, December. Fournier, S. (1998), “Consumers and their brands: developing relationship theory in consumer research”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 24, pp. 343-73. Ganesan, S. (1994), “Determinants of long-term orientation in buyer-seller relationships”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, April, pp. 1-19. Garbarino, E. and Johnson, M.S. (1999), “The different roles of satisfaction, trust, and commitment in customer relationships”, Journal of Marketing , Vol. 63, April, pp. 70-87. Gotlieb, J.B., Grewal, D. and Brown, S.W. (1994), “Consumer satisfaction and perceived quality: complementary or divergent constructs?”, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 79 No. 6, pp. 875-85. Gurviez, P. (1996), “The trust concept in the brandˆ cs, J., Bauer, A. and consumers relationship”, in Bera Simon, J. (Eds), EMAC Proceedings Annual Conference, European Marketing Academy, Budapest, pp. 559-74. ˆ le central de la confiance dans la Gurviez, P. (1998), “Le ro ` se de Doctorat en relation consommateur-marque”, The Sciences de Gestion, IAE Aix-Marseille 3. Gurviez, P. (1999), “La confiance du consommateur dans la ` se marque: conceptualisation, mesure et management”, The de doctorat, IAE d’Aix-ESSEC. Gurviez, P. and Korchia, M. (2002), “Proposition d’une ´ chelle de mesure multidimensionnelle de la confiance dans e la marque”, Recherche et Applications en Marketing , Vol. 17 No. 3, pp. 41-62. Halstead, D., Hartman, D. and Schmidt, S.L. (1994), “Multisource effects on the satisfaction formation process”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 22, Spring, pp. 112-4. Heilbrunn, B. (2001), “Les Facteurs d’Attachement du ` la Marque”, The ` se de Doctorat en Consommateur a ´ Paris IX Dauphine. Sciences de Gestion, Universite Heilbrunn, B. (1995), “My brand the hero? A semiotic ` , M. (Ed.), analysis of the customer-brand”, in Bergadaa EMAC Proceedings Annual Conference, pp. 451-71. Hennig-Thurau, T. and Klee, A. (1997), “The impact of customer satisfaction and relationship quality on customer retention: a critical reassessment and model development”, Pshychology and Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 8, pp. 737-64. The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 Howard, J.A. and Sheth, J.N. (1969), The Theory of Buyer Behavior, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Hunt, H.K. (1977), “CS/D – Overview and future research direction”, in Hunt, H.K. (Ed.), Conceptualization and Measurement of Consumer Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction, Marketing Science Institute, Cambridge, MA. Jacoby, J. and Chesnut, R.W. (1978), Brand Loyalty: Measurement and Management, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Jacoby, J. and Kyner, B.D. (1973), “Brand loyalty vs repeat purchasing behaviour”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 10 No. 1, pp. 1-9. Jacoby, J. (1971), “A model of multibrand loyalty”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 26 No. 11, pp. 25-31. Jo ¨ reskog, K.G. (1993) in Bollen, K.A. and Long, J.S. (Eds), Testing Structural Equation Models, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Keller, K.L. (2003), “Brand synthesis: the multidimensionality of brand knowledge”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 595-600. Kleine, S.S. and Baker, S.M. (2004), “An integrative review of material possession attachment”, Academy of Marketing Science Review, Vol. 1, pp. 1-35. ` la marque: Lacoeuilhe, J. (2000a), “L’attachement a ´ chelle de mesure”, Recherche et proposition d’une e Application en Marketing, Vol. 15 No. 4, pp. 61-77. Lacoeuilhe, J. (2000b), “Le concept d’attachement: ` l’e ´ tude du ro ˆ le des facteurs affectifs dans la contribution a ´ lite ´ a ` la marque”, The ` se pour le formation de la fide ´ de Paris 12, Val Doctorat en Science de Gestion, Universite de Marne. Lassar, W.M., Manolis, C. and Winsor, R.D. (2000), “Service quality perspective and satisfaction in private banking”, Journal of Service Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 3, pp. 244-71. Lawrence, X. and Trapey, S.R. (1975), “Brand loyalty revisited: a commentary”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 12, November, pp. 488-91. McConnell, J.D. (1968), “The development of brand loyalty: an experimental study”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 5, February, pp. 13-19. McCracken, G. (1988), Culture and Consumption, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN. McDougall, G.H. and Levesque, T. (2000), “Customer satisfaction with services: putting perceived value into the equation”, Journal of Service Marketing, Vol. 14 No. 5, pp. 392-410. McQueen, J., Foley, C. and Deighton, J. (1993), “Decomposing a brand’s consumer franchise into buyer types”, in Aaker, D.A. and Biel, A.L. (Eds), Brand Equity and Advertising , Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 235-46. ´s, PUF, Maisonneuve, J. (1966), Psycho-sociologie des affinite Paris. Mellens, M., Dekimpe, M.G. and Steenkamp, J.B.E.M. (1996), “A review of brand-loyalty measures in marketing”, Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management, Vol. XII No. 4, pp. 507-33. Morgan, R.M. and Hunt, S.D. (1994), “The commitmenttrust theory of relationship marketing”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, pp. 20-38. Muniz, A.M. Jr and O’Guinn, T.C. (2001), “Brand community”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 27, March, pp. 412-32. 45 Oliver, R.L. (1981), “Measurement and evaluation of satisfaction process in retail setting”, Journal of Retailing, Vol. 57, Fall, pp. 25-48. Oliver, R.L. (1997), Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer, The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, NY. Olivia, T.A., Oliver, R.L. and MacMillan, I.C. (1992), “A catastrophe model for developing service satisfaction strategies”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 56, pp. 83-95. Ostrowsky, P.L., O’Brien, T.V. and Gordon, G.L. (1993), “Service quality and customer satisfaction in the commercial airline industry”, Journal of Travel Research, Fall, pp. 16-24. Park, C.W. and Srinivasan, V. (1994), “A survey-based method for measuring and understanding brand equity and its extendibility”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 271-88. Park, C.W., Milberg, S. and Lawson, R. (1991), “Evaluation of brand extension: the role of product feature similarity and brand concept consistency”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 18 No. 2, pp. 185-93. Reichheld, F.F. (1996), The Loyalty Effect, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA. Roussel, P., Durrieu, F., Campoy, E. and El Akremi, A. ´ thodes d’e ´ quations structurelles: recherches et (2002), Me application en gestion, Economica, Paris. Rubenstein, R.L. and Patricia, A.P. (1992), “Attachment to place and the representation of the life course by the elderly”, in Low, S.M. and Altman, I. (Eds), Place Attachment: Human Behavior and Environment, Plenum Press, New York, NY, pp. 139-64. Samuelson, B.M. and Sandivik, K. (1997), “The concept of customer loyalty, marketing: prospects, perspectives”, Vol. 3, pp. 1120-40, EMAC Proceedings, Warwick Business School, Warwick. Schouten, J.W. and McAlexander, J.H. (1995), “Subcultures of consumption: an ethnography of the new bikers”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 22, June, pp. 43-61. Selnes, F. (1993), “An examination of the effect of product performance on brand reputation, satisfaction and loyalty”, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27 No. 9, pp. 19-35. ´ re ´ De Lanause, G. (2006), “Le ro ˆ le de l’orientation Se ´ veloppement de relationnelle perc ¸ ue de la marque dans le de la confiance et de l’engagement: biens de grande consommation”, paper presented at the 6th International Congres of, Marketing Trends, Venise, 21-22 January. Sierra, J.J. and McQuitty, S. (2005), “Service providers and customers: social exchange theory and service loyalty”, Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 19 No. 6, pp. 392-400. Simon, P. (2000), “Pour la clarification de la relation entre ´ lite ´ a ` la marque, vers la attitude envers la marque et fide ´ vidence d’un mode ` le inte ´ grateur”, paper mise en e presented at le Tendenze del Marketing in Europa, ` ca’ Foscari, Venezia. 24 Novembre, 2000, Universita Terrasse, C. (2003), “Proposition et Validation d’une Echelle ` la Marque”, Actes du Congre `s de l’Engagement a International de l’AFM, Tunis, pp. 1020-32. Thomson, M., McInnis, D.J. and Park, C.W. (2005), “The ties that bind: measuring the strength of consumers’ emotional attachments to brands”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 77-91. The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 Tse, D.K. and Peter, C.W. (1988), “Models of consumer satisfaction: an extension”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 25, May, pp. 204-12. Turker, W.T. (1964), “The development of brand loyalty”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 1, pp. 32-5. Uncles, M.D., Dowling, G.R. and Hammond, H. (2003), “Customer loyalty and customer loyalty programs”, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 249-316. Wallendorf, M. and Arnould, E.J. (1988), “My favorite things: a cross-cultural inquiry into object attachment, possessiveness and social linkage”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, pp. 531-47. About the authors Samy Belaid is Marketing Professor at EM Normandie Business School, affiliated to METIS and NIMEC. He is in charge of the Master’s in Marketing and Sales Management. He has published in the field of brand attachment, country of origin and cross-cultural branding. For a number of years he served as Senior Consultant to many firms including Carrefour and Monoprix. Samy Belaid is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected] Azza Temessek Behi has a Doctorate in Marketing from ´ de Savoie, in France, and she is currently working Universite as Professor of Marketing in a School of Business in Tunisia. Executive summary and implications for managers and executives This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the research undertaken and its results to get the full benefits of the material present. The concept of attachment has been explored within various disciplines in relation to such as interpersonal relationships, places and material possessions. More recently, the concept has started to attract the attention of marketing scholars eager to further their understanding of how consumers develop emotional ties with preferred brands. Marketers using one approach to attachment position the brand as a “personified entity” that is evaluated by consumers based on their level of emotional engagement. A different perspective considers attachment in relation to brand commitment. It is proposed that commitment incorporates both cognitive and affective dimensions and that attachment is associated with the latter of these. Attachment between people and material possessions has been the subject of psychological studies, resulting in the identification of several characteristics. Typically, attachment: . involves a psychological connection that is stronger than physical possession of the object; . functions as a process of self-extension; . can emerge for different reasons; . may vary in strength; and . is dynamic and can evolve as the individual’s perception of the object alters. It is additionally claimed that personal history between individual and possession imbues the object with the symbolic value that is necessary in order for attachment to develop. 46 Research into brand relationships has considered both functional and emotional associations. This respectively considers how a brand performs and its symbolic meanings that contain emotional, cultural and historical elements relevant to the individual consumer. Scholars argue that attachment to a brand is inspired by similar reasons to those identified in the psychological research. How attachment relates to commitment and other antecedents and outcomes like trust, satisfaction and loyalty has to date received only limited scholarly attention. Consequently, exploration of these relationships is an integral part of the current study. Trust in this context assumes that brands have personal traits and that consumers may learn to trust brands just like they trust other people. Some authors believe that the presence of trust indicates the relationship is more than performance satisfaction and indicates a belief that the brand will meet consumer expectations by acting in a predictable and consistent manner. Cognitive and affective elements of trust are identified and correspondingly relate to the “perceived reliability” and integrity of the brand. It is tentatively suggested that trust and attachment could prove mutually reinforcing. The key satisfaction component has been variously linked to different evaluation processes and labelled as a “psychological state”. Whether satisfaction is mainly affective or cognitive has also been the subject of much debate. Definitions of the construct do broadly agree that it concerns appraisal of product standards, product attributes and/or product consumption. It is noted that the consumption experience can start even before the product is selected and last until post-consumption and beyond. The connection between the affective component of satisfaction and brand attachment is unclear, although the possibility exists that attachment might lead to stronger satisfaction. That attached consumers will find each consumption experience “pleasurable” is the rationale behind such thinking. Commitment and loyalty are regarded by many as being related yet separate constructs. This view is based on the assertion that both reflect attitude while loyalty contains a behavioural dimension as well. According to certain research findings, loyalty to a brand is a predictable outcome when commitment is present. Different scholars have associated commitment with consumer intent to maintain a positive relationship with a brand. The existence of calculated and affective commitment is also proposed. Calculated commitment has been described as “opportunistic and rational” and linked to purchase behaviour as opposed to affective commitment shown by those who are not materially motivated to identify with the brand. Based on these definitions, it is argued that consumers who are strongly attached to a brand are less likely to switch their allegiances and will therefore be committed and loyal. Studies have also indicated that behavioural loyalty in the shape of purchase activity is inspired by both satisfaction and trust. Many academics agree that satisfaction breeds trust and it is suggested that the effect could be mutual. If a consumer trusts that the brand has fulfilled its obligations, increased satisfaction is likely. Various hypotheses were proposed and tested in a study conducted with 416 consumers in Tunisia. Belaid and Behi used a face-to-face questionnaire to target consumers who The role of attachment in building consumer-brand relationships Samy Belaid and Azza Temessek Behi Journal of Product & Brand Management Volume 20 · Number 1 · 2011 · 37 –47 purchased car batteries. This product was selected for the study because strong market competition and widespread media advertising ensured familiarity and awareness of car batteries among Tunisian consumers. The findings revealed some evidence of attachment to car batteries which was seen by the authors as indicating the possibility of consumers developing “an affective bond” with a brand even when products are functional. It was also found that: . attachment increases consumer trust in a brand; . attachment functions as an important predictor of brand commitment; . trust in the brand leads to brand satisfaction and behavioural loyalty; and . brand commitment positively influences behavioural loyalty. Contrary to expectations and previous results, the impact of brand attachment on satisfaction and loyalty was not evident. In the first case, the authors speculate that the measure used for satisfaction was responsible for this finding. Correlation between brand satisfaction and loyalty was surprisingly negative and insignificant. This invites the assumption that satisfaction plays a minimal role at best in transforming a trusting, committed consumer into a loyal one. Belaid and Behi conclude that high levels of attachment prompts greater faith in the consumer’s preferred brand and clearer perception of how it differs from alternatives. On this evidence, attachment is not limited to certain product categories or items more typically associated with affective appeal. It would be beneficial for companies to concentrate on developing emotional bonds between consumers and their brands. One suggestion here is to promote a brand image that closely matches the values and beliefs of the consumer. Marketers are also urged to consider segmenting customers based on attachment levels and use appropriate advertising strategies to effectively target each group. Future research might explore brand attachment in relation to other product types and categories. Another idea is to explore the effect of nostalgia, brand personality, brand familiarity or other attachment antecedents. The authors also suggest replicating the study within different cultural settings and examining behavioural loyalty over a longer period rather than just at a given point in time. ´cis of the article “The role of attachment in building (A pre consumer-brand relationships: an empirical investigation in the utilitarian consumption context”. Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.) To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail:
[email protected] Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints 47