17 and 18 Century British Literature

Program postuniversitar de conversie profesională pentru cadrele didactice din mediul ruralSpecializarea LIMBA ŞI LITERATURA ENGLEZĂ Forma de învăţământ ID - semestrul III SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURY BRITISH LITERATURE Cornelia MACSINIUC 2006 Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural LIMBA ŞI LITERATURA ENGLEZĂ Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century British Literature Cornelia MACSINIUC 2006 © 2006 Ministerul Educaţiei şi Cercetării Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Nici o parte a acestei lucrări nu poate fi reprodusă fără acordul scris al Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării ISBN 10 973-0-04576-3; ISBN 13 978-973-0-04576-5. Contents CONTENTS Introduction 1 1.1. 1.1.1. 1.1.2. 1.1.3. 1.1.4. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.4.1. 1.4.2. 1.4.3. 1.4.4. 1.5. 1.5.1. 1 The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Unit objectives The Renaissance and the Enlightenment The intellectual scene in the 17th and 18th centuries Reason and faith in the Age of the Enlightenment From the Age of Reason to the Age of Feeling The Enlightenment: an age of progress An overview of the literary scene in the 17th and 18th centuries The evolution of poetic forms Drama in the 17th and 18th centuries Jacobean tragedy Comedy in the early 17th century Drama during the Restoration period Sentimental drama and burlesque comedy in the 18th century The evolution of prose style Varieties of prose writing in the 17th and 18th centuries Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 9 10 10 10 11 12 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 19 21 21 23 24 24 28 30 30 31 32 32 33 33 35 36 37 37 38 39 40 41 43 43 44 46 46 47 48 i 2 2.1. 2.1.1. 2.1.2. 2.2. 2.2.1. 2.2.2. 2.2.3. 2.2.4. 2.2.5. 2.2.6. 2.2.7. 2.2.8. 2.2.9. 2.2.10. 2.2.11. 2.2.12. 2.3. 2.3.1. The late Renaissance and the Baroque Unit objectives The emergence of the baroque sensibility The late Renaissance: characteristics of the baroque sensibility Baroque features of late Renaissance drama and poetry Shakespeare’s genius. His later plays The baroque spirit of Shakespeare’s great tragedies Hamlet: a revenge play Renaissance man and the baroque sensibility in Hamlet Hamlet: the philosopher vs. the man of action King Lear: the madness of tragic grief To be or to seem: Othello Macbeth: the tragedy of “diseased” conscience Shakespeare’s last plays The plot of The Tempest Major themes Symbols in The Tempest The play-metaphor The metaphysical poets Characteristics of metaphysical poetry Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 5.4.8. The metaphysical conceit Themes in John Donne’s poetry Donne’s love poems Donne’s religious poems Andrew Marvell: the patriotic theme in the Horatian Ode Nature as “mystic book” in Marvell’s poetry The theme of love in Marvell’s poems Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 48 49 50 52 53 54 54 56 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 63 64 64 66 66 67 67 68 69 70 72 72 74 75 77 78 79 81 82 83 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 89 89 90 90 92 93 95 95 96 3 3.2. 3.1.2.3. 2.3. 4. 3.2.1. 3.3. 2. a master of satirical comedy of manners The rise of sentimental comedy English literary Neoclassicism Great Augustan writers: John Dryden and Alexander Pope Principles of Neoclassic literary poetics Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . 4. 3. 2. 4. 3.3.2.1. ii The Restoration and the Augustan Age Unit objectives Restoration drama Restoration theatre – a form of Court entertainment Dominant forms in Restoration drama Restoration comedy and its character types William Congreve. 3.2.1.3.1.3. 3.2.1. 3.1. 4. 3.3.6. 2.1.4.7.1. 2.3.4.5.2.1.4. 3.3. 1 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 4 4.5.5. 4. 2.3.4.3.2.5.3.4.4.Contents 2.2. 4.5.1.1. 3. 3.5. the Christian humanist Milton’s early poems L’Allegro and Il Penseroso Lycidas – a pastoral elegy Milton’s sonnets Sonnet VII Sonnet XVII Paradise Lost – the Christian epic Satan and the fallen angels in Hell The divine foreknowledge of the Fall Raphael’s warning to Adam The creation of the world The seduction of Eve The world after the Fall The heroes of Paradise Lost Milton’s Satan: the rebel’s inner hell Satan.4.3. the “author of all ill” Milton’s depiction of Adam and Eve Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities SAA No. 3.4. 3.1. 4.2.6. 4.2. 3.4.2. The Works of John Milton Unit objectives Milton.3. 3. 3.2. 5.3. Gulliver.4.4. 5. 5.3.8.2.2.4.3. 5.6.1.1. 5. The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Unit objectives Background and main concerns Novel and romance in the 18th century Didacticism and realism in the 18th century novel Typology of the novel in the 18th century Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson: from circumstantial realism to sentimental truth Daniel Defoe and the novel of adventure Robinson Crusoe: theme and plot Interpretations of Robinson Crusoe Defoe’s style Samuel Richardson’s contribution to the development of the novel The plot of Pamela.7. 5.2. 4. “The Spectator’s Club” Augustan satire John Dryden Alexander Pope Jonathan Swift The structure of Gulliver’s Travels Lilliput and Brobdingnag: satire and utopia The fourth voyage. 5.4. 4.4. 4.1.2.1. 5. 5.1.1.4.2.Contents 4. 5.3.4.5.2.3. 5.5.2. 4. 5.5.3. 5.4. 5.4. 4.5. 5.4.4. 4.4.4. 5. 5.2.4.3.4. 5.4.7.3.3.2.4.4.3. 5.6.2. 5.3.4.5.1. or Virtue Rewarded Social hierarchy and the individual self Psychological realism and the epistolary technique Henry Fielding and the novel of manners Comedy and parody in Joseph Andrews The novel as comic romance The character of parson Adams Fielding’s conception of character in Joseph Andrews Fielding’s Augustanism Laurence Sterne and the “anti-novel” Tristram Shandy: an unconventional autobiographical novel Eccentric characters in Tristram Shandy Sentimentalism and tragi-comic vision The “Shandean” view of writing The defamiliarisation of realistic conventions Tristram Shandy as metafiction Summary Key words Glossary Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . 5. 4. Nature and Reason The Augustan ideal of style “To divert and instruct” – the imperative of Augustan literature The periodical essay The Tatler and The Spectator. 4. 4. 5. 4.1.6.1.2. 5. the frustrated idealist The importance of Gulliver’s Travels Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 96 98 98 98 100 103 103 103 105 105 107 107 110 110 111 111 113 115 116 117 118 118 118 119 121 123 123 124 125 127 128 128 129 130 132 132 133 134 134 135 136 136 136 137 139 139 140 142 142 143 iii 5 5.1.3.3.2.2.2. 4.4. 5.2.2.2. 5. 4.3. 4.4. 6.1.3. 6.5. the Romantic visionary The theme of childhood in Songs of Innocence Ironic implications in Songs of Innocence The fall from Innocence: Songs of Experience Knowledge in the world of Experience The double vision in Blake’s Songs Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities SAA No.1.2.1.4. 6.2.4. 6.2. 6. 6.6.3. 6.2. 6.1.2. 6.1. 6.4. 6.2.3. 6. 6.2.4. 6. 6.1.7.Contents Gallery of personalities SAA No. 6. 2 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 144 145 146 148 149 150 150 151 151 153 153 154 154 155 156 158 158 159 161 161 162 163 166 166 167 168 170 171 171 173 173 174 176 177 216 6 6.3.1. English pre-Romantic poetry Unit objectives Pre-Romantic tendencies in 18th century poetry The poetry of melancholy meditation The interest in early poetry The pre-Romantic sensibility and the interest in new poetic forms The rural universe in 18thcentury poetry The sentimental approach: Oliver Goldsmith Character sketch in The Deserted Village The realistic approach: George Crabbe Robert Burns and the popular tradition Pre-Romantic nature poetry James Thomson.4.4. The Seasons William Cowper.1. 6. 3 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading Reader in seventeenth and eighteenth century literature Selected bibliography iv Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .4.2.4.3. 6.2. The Task William Blake – the visionary artist Blake as a pre-Romantic poet Blake. 6.3. Defoe. Swift. and an “agent” in the cultural dynamics in a country. a carrier of values. You must bear in mind that the teaching of a foreign language does not presuppose only a good command of its grammatical structures and vocabulary. The double focus of the course – on general aspects of a particular period or doctrine. Fielding. and will highlight the contributions of their most representative literary personalities. What this course is about This course is a brief introduction to English literature in the 17th and 18th centuries. Literature is always an important testimony to the evolution of this spirit. by encouraging your response to particular texts. this course will give you a minimum of contextual detail. You will be able to build a general picture of the main literary achievements of this period.” at helping you refine your perception of literary phenomena and categories. Blake. the study of the present course will more efficiently contribute to your professional becoming. this course aims at enlarging your understanding of British culture and civilisation. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 1 . Being concerned with aspects of literary history. and on certain texts – will hopefully help you to overcome the relatively great temporal and cultural distance separating us from those centuries. In this way. It will familiarise you with the defining features of the literary trends and doctrines of these two centuries. You are expected and urged to bring to the understanding of this extended literary period the knowledge acquired in your previous study. 3. Milton. It will thus contribute to the consolidation of your knowledge and understanding of British culture and civilisation. among others). How this course can help you The study of this course will widen your perspective on English literature and its evolution. Course objectives As already mentioned. and to the enrichment of your grasp of the English language. It also aims at developing your “reading competence. but also to examine more closely particular texts by the most important authors (Shakespeare. but also an intimate acquaintance with the spirit of that culture and civilisation. Before starting your study. such as was presented in your Cultural Studies course. it would be helpful if you refreshed your acquaintance with the basic historical and cultural framework of the 17th and 18th centuries.Introduction INTRODUCTION 1. 2. in a given text. forming a chronological survey of the major literary developments in the 17th and 18th centuries. identify the features of the baroque sensibility in Shakespeare’s tragedies. in its turn. By the end of your study of this course. a list of key words. you should therefore be able to: define the distinctive features. and a Gallery of personalities. a Glossary. the Restoration. the values of a particular culturalhistorical or literary age • distinguish the proportion of originality and conformity to a tradition in a particular work or a given text • specify the contribution of the studied authors and their works to the evolution of literary forms and styles • describe and compare particularities of style. Some of the units also contain an assignment that you have to do and send to your tutor. as part of your overall assessment.lIntroduction This complex aim presupposes your development of certain specific competences. the characteristic attitudes and concerns of such cultural-historical-literary movements or periods as the Renaissance. a unit contains a series of “auxiliary” sections: a Summary. Each unit.g. the Augustan Age. • 4. 2 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . preRomanticism) • identify such features in the work of a particular author or in a particular text (e. is structured around a series of tasks that you must accomplish – the self-assessing questions (the SAQs). thematic and formal structure in the works of various authors. Course content and structure This course is structured in six units of study.g. Besides them. Neoclassicism. the Baroque. The solutions and suggestions for SAQs are provided in a separate section. or establish what links Fielding’s novels to literary Neoclassicism. or what makes Blake a Romantic poet) • identify. characterisation. the Enlightenment • identify elements of continuity and discontinuity between these periods and movements • define the main features of an aesthetic-literary doctrine or type of literary sensibility (e. Introduction 4. The unit surveys characteristic preRomantic themes and motifs. hopefully. the periodical essay of the 18th century as an important contribution to Augustan literature. but also to your independent thinking and to your imagination. The self-assessment questions (SAQs) The self-assessment questions in each unit have the role of helping you to structure and organise your study. Fielding and L. The most common SAQs in this course will require you to: Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 3 . The units of learning Unit 1 (The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background) offers a general picture of the literary scene and its intellectual-cultural context. • Unit 4 (The Restoration and the Augustan Age) deals with four major aspects: the comedy of manners during the age of the Restoration. • 4.2. the epic poem Paradise Lost. and to draw your own conclusions. H. as well as major representatives. You will get acquainted with the contributions of four major novelists – D. Richardson. Sterne –. the literary doctrine of Neoclassicism. • Unit 5 (The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel) presents the main concerns and the typology of the novel as a dominant genre in the 18th century. The main focus in this unit is on the imaginative structure and thematic interest of Milton’s masterpiece. with an emphasis on the evolution of genres and styles and their main representatives. The variety of these learning tasks will. S. The SAQs encourage you to see your course work as more than a simple effort of memory (although the importance of memory in the process of learning must not be underrated). They appeal not only to your memory. Defoe. • Unit 3 (The works of John Milton) emphasises Milton’s Christian humanism. • Unit 2 (The late Renaissance and the Baroque) deals with the emergence of the baroque sensibility in English late Renaissance literature. and they will enable you to work with it in a specific context. • Unit 6 (English pre-Romantic poetry) introduces you to the poetry of sensibility of the 18th century as the illustration of an important literary tendency.1. and with the evolution of this genre. These tasks will guide you in the process of ordering your knowledge. The major authors considered in this unit are Shakespeare and the poets John Donne and Andrew Marvell. engage you actively and in diverse ways in the process of study. with main focus on Jonathan Swift. and insists on William Blake as both a pre-Romantic and Romantic poet. and Augustan satire. and you are advised to read those instructions carefully and to follow them. characterisation. the independent intellectual effort that you are encouraged to put into your learning. Try to analyse your errors and to become aware of everything you have missed in the instructions of the SAQ. an author’s work. etc. Solutions and suggestions for SAQs You can check your answers to each SAQ by going to this section. stylistic features. after you have identified them in/after a provided short description • match a given literary fragment with a given paraphrase.3. so as to re-describe certain important aspects about a literary period or a particular writer’s work • fill in blanks with the features of a certain literary movement or style. You are strongly advised to resist the temptation of consulting this section before you have actually tried to do the exercises yourself.. fragment) • complete sentences. A line in your textboxes is estimated to contain ten words on the average. the title of a work. Do not get discouraged if some of your answers should not come near the suggestions offered at the end. etc. in the literary text you were asked to work on. state its theme • comment on / interpret a given fragment. line.lIntroduction answer questions about the theme. summarise its argument. if the case may be. Remember that what counts most is the process of thinking that leads you to a particular answer. symbolic elements. etc. 4. narrative technique. and. 4 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . at the end of the unit. You are also given instructions about how to proceed if your answers differ significantly from the ones given in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs (see below). of a certain work or a provided fragment • explain the relevance or significance of a certain item (phrase. match incomplete statements so as to reconstruct an idea or a description • identify true/false sentences. with the typological definition of a work. so as to obtain synthetic reformulations or rephrasings of relevant details about a literary period. You are given detailed instructions about what is expected from you. You are required to solve these SAQs in the blank spaces provided for each of them in textboxes. • A self-assessed question (SAQ) is signalled in the course text by this icon accompanying a textbox. • paraphrase a given fragment from a studied literary work. The estimated length of your answers will be indicated as number of words / number of lines. 4.1. if you wish to supplement or clarify your knowledge • Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 5 . for the Great Chain of Being*. Sometimes. • the Selective bibliography at the end of the course. which will enable you to review and focus your knowledge. The terms included in the Glossary are marked by an asterisk (*) in the text of the unit. in order to make sure you remember exactly what a term refers to. but the phrase of which that word is part. These auxiliary sections are: the Summary and a list of key words. when this notion is used again in Units 4 or 6. which contains titles that should not be very hard to find in libraries. whose Glossaries will send you back to the Glossary in Unit 1. the Glossaries will send you back to 1.1. other instruments meant to assist your study. you will be sometimes returned to the Glossary of a previous unit to reinforce or refresh your understanding of them. not just Being. the term Enlightenment. will also appear in Units 5 and 6. at the end. You may also be directed back to a certain subchapter in a previous unit. to organise it around the most important issues • the Glossary (in alphabetical order). in Unit 1. Auxiliary sections Each unit contains. which includes basic information about the life and work of the mentioned personalities. • the Gallery of personalities (in the alphabetical order of the last names). if necessary or desired.Introduction 4. Most of the books included there are available in any University library. in which terms or phrases that have been considered difficult or unfamiliar to you are explained. You may ask your tutor to help you with the access to those sources. For example. you will look up the whole phrase in the Glossary. which is explained in the Glossary in Unit 1. with the pages where you may find relevant information. The materials indicated in the Further reading section and in the Selective bibliography (see below) offer you supplementary information.3. • Further reading. Thus. an asterisk must be understood to mark not just the word it is attached to. which indicates a minimal bibliography for each unit. the notion of heroic couplet is explained in subchapter 1. For instance.3. Some terms may recur in several units. 5. This is why the same word may appear with different explanations/translations in several glossaries. 1 will assess your knowledge of units 2 and 3. before you start solving the task. try to read each fragment more than once. this should not take you too much time. in which the words and phrases supposed to be unknown.2 will cover units 4 and 5. If you should find these lexical notes insufficient for your understanding of a particular text. The Reader The course is accompanied by a Reader. and 6.lIntroduction 4. the course contains three send-away assignments (SAAs). or misleadingly familiar to you are explained either in English or in Romanian. The written test that you will sit at the end of the semester will add the other 60%. Assessment and evaluation Besides the self-assessment questions included in each unit. especially the poetry texts. and make sure you understand its general meaning or basic ideas. difficult. don’t hesitate to use a good dictionary. A send-away assignment (SAA) is signalled in the text by the icon accompanying this textbox. The cumulated weight of these SAAs in your final grade is 40%. SAA no. while SAA no. The given explanation or translation into Romanian applies only to the respective context. the number of tasks. The table below represents the place. and the weight of each assignment: 6 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . or one word may be given an explanation/translation different from the one you might be familiar with. some of these texts might seem difficult to you. which contains the selection of texts you need in order to accomplish some of the course tasks. which will enable your tutor to assess your performance in the course work. In any case. As the texts are not very long. The Reader provides you with little glossaries for each text. These first two SAAs will therefore consist in more than one task. The three SAAs are placed at the end of units 3. 5. 5. As we are dealing with 17th and 18th century literature. Your ability to identify and use the knowledge required by a particular situation is part of what is assessed in any test. to go through each unit in approximately 4 hours. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 7 . at least take care that your handwriting should be fully legible. make sure you understand what is being asked of you in each assignment. • the coherence. and consistence of your ideas (40%) • the accuracy of your grammar (20%) • the accuracy of your spelling (10%) Each assignment must be completed and sent to the tutor in the allotted study week (see Your study schedule below). 2. You may. Most of the time. 1. 3. clarity. so pay special attention to the instructions for each task (30%).Introduction Unit Number of tasks and their weight in each SAA Weight of each SAA in the final assessment SAA no. your course work may take you more time. the tutor will take into account: • the degree to which your answer respects the formulated requirement. whose reading may take you some extra time. Of these hours. find your own rhythm and divide your study time into several sessions. 50% 50% 50% 30% 20% 100% 10% 20% 10% 40% In the assessment of each assignment. 6. If you have no possibility to type your assignment. and 8 hours to the completion of your SAAs. Plan your study by taking into account that a semester has 14 weeks. Your study schedule This course is devised for 42 hours of study. 1. however. If your level of proficiency is lower. 2.3 3 5 6 2 3 1 1.1 SAA no. This is more likely to happen when you are required to work on literary texts. As in the case of the SAQs. Note that a typewritten paper is likely to ease your tutor’s work. You can reserve two weeks for each unit of learning – which means that you are expected.2 SAA no. half of the answer is already contained in the question. 6 hours are allotted to your tutorial meetings. 28 are meant for individual study of the course material (the solving of the SAQs included). theoretically. and gallery of personalities). a revision of the course material. glossary.lIntroduction The first and the last week should be reserved for the Introduction and. while the final written test will represent 60 % in your overall evaluation. as well as a list of suggested further reading. as the course provides you with the solutions and suggestions for SAQs at the end of each unit. Summary This course offers you an overview of the literary periods and trends. You have the possibility to monitor your work by verifying your answers. list of key words. along the 17th and 18th centuries in England. 5. of the evolution of literary genres. there are SAAs. A provisional study schedule may look like this: Week Unit Number of study hours Assignment Number of hours for the SAAs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Introduction Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Revision 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 28 SAA no. It is structured in six units of study. and 6. according to a pre-established schedule. Each unit includes a series of self-assessing tasks (SAQs). Many of these SAQs require your response to a literary text. The three assignments will count. whose content follows a chronological line. The course contains several auxiliary sections (summary.2 SAA no. which you must write and send to your tutor. forms and styles. respectively. together.1 2 Planning your course work is important as it will enable you to send your assignments to the tutor in due time. More information about the subjects in each unit is available in the selective bibliography which concludes the coursebook. At the end of Units 3. as 40% of the final grade. 8 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . which you will find in the Reader accompanying the coursebook. representative authors. which will help you to organise and focus your knowledge. but which also focus on dominant genres and on outstanding.3 3 3 8 SAA no. 1.3.3. Unit objectives The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background The Renaissance and the Enlightenment The intellectual scene in the 17th and 18th centuries Reason and faith in the Age of the Enlightenment From the Age of Reason to the Age of Feeling The Enlightenment: an age of progress An overview of the literary scene in the 17th and 18th centuries The evolution of poetic forms Drama in the 17th and 18th centuries Jacobean tragedy Comedy in the early 17th century Drama during the Restoration period Sentimental drama and burlesque comedy in the 18th century The evolution of prose style Varieties of prose writing in the 17th and 18th centuries Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 10 10 10 10 11 12 12 13 15 16 17 18 19 19 21 21 23 24 24 28 30 30 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 9 . 1.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background UNIT 1 THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES: INTELLECTUAL AND LITERARY BACKGROUND Unit Outline 1 1.4.4.5.4.2.2.2. 1.1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1.4. 1.4.1.4.1. 1.1.4.3. 1. 1.1. 1.5.1. 1.1. colonial expansion and an extraordinary economic development made England. radical changes occurred in intellectual habits and preoccupations. as well as the faith in progress. Political. the year of the Glorious Revolution*. seen as extending up to the Restoration* (1660) were periods of gradual but irreversible changes in modes of thought. 10 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . philosophy. of the Enlightenment. obscurantism and intolerance. in which the progress of England to modernity was steady in all fields. religion. a powerful flourishing nation. The completion of this transition was to take place during the next age.1.1. literature. The gradual achievement of political stability. The growing critical spirit enthroned a rationalistic attitude in all spheres of culture. science.1. mentalities. The rise.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ define the most important tendencies in the evolution of intellectual attitudes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ♦ establish connections between the historical and intellectual context and the literary scene ♦ describe the major divisions of this long period according to historical. The intellectual scene Along the two centuries. attitudes and practices. in the latter part of the 17th century. marked the entrance into modernity. social and economic life. of philosophical empiricism* determined to a great extent the attitudes to man in his relationship to society. cultural and literary aspects ♦ establish elements of continuity and discontinuity along the two centuries ♦ explain the process of literary “modernisation” along these two centuries through the evolution of styles and the dynamic of genres ♦ place various poetic. Culturally the two centuries correspond to two movements whose basic tendency was the emancipation of man: the Renaissance* and the Enlightenment*. dramatic and prose genres and their main representatives in their proper literary-historical context within the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Unit objectives 1. at the end of this period. The end of “high Renaissance” (the flourishing of the Elizabethan* Age) and the “late Renaissance”. 1. as the Enlightenment is often described. The Renaissance and the Enlightenment The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries constitute a complex period. nature and divinity during the Age of Reason. which in England is in fact considered to have started in 1688. The victory of Reason over dogmatism. the arts – all fields of human endeavour went through crucial transformations during the 17th century. It was a highly intellectualised religious approach. to reconcile Reason and Faith. and it was essentially optimistic. and which encouraged emotional effusion as a way of achieving communion with God. It was a rational alternative to religious dogmatism. working according to impersonal laws which testified to the supreme intelligence of the Creator.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Francis Bacon It is also during these two centuries that modern science was born. or Natural Religion –. combined the traditional confidence in the divine infinite wisdom with the intellectual spirit of the age. a religious movement which aimed at reviving the Evangelical spirit and the ideal of Christian life. This new faith – Deism. in particular. in 1662.” This idea will be echoed several decades later. The optimism of the Deists extended to human nature. was an evidence of the creator’s good will. Engaging in a variety of original scientific experiments.2. manifest in its rationally and experimentally discernible laws. One of the most ardent promoters of the new scientific spirit was Francis Bacon* (1561-1626). The scientific discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton*. which was left to develop by itself on the basis of these perfect laws. It was to be counter-balanced by the Evangelical Revival*. The moral philosophy of the Deists argued that man was innately good.” God was seen as the prime cause of a harmonious universe. had important philosophical and theological implications: the universe was now conceived as a perfect mechanism. to “overcome the mysteries of all the works of Nature” and to apply that knowledge “for the benefit of human life. that human life be enriched by new discoveries and powers. John Locke Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 11 . The Royal Society endeavoured. in a systematic effort. Reason and faith in the Age of the Enlightenment The rationalism of the Renaissance and Enlightenment thought determined a reconsideration of the relation between Nature and Divinity and a new vision of the universe. a reaction against mysticism and obscurantism. the capacity of distinguishing right from wrong.1.” 1. In his work Novum Organum (1620) he explicitly states that “The true and lawful goal of the sciences is simply this. when The Royal Society “for the improving of Natural Knowledge” was founded. Deism attempted to give a rational foundation to religious thought. initiated by Isaac Newton and John Locke*. the “universal Architect. endowed with a sixth sense: the moral sense. His well-known maxim “Knowledge is Power” points to the utilitarian conception of the role of science. Deists believed that the admirable order of the universe. which could not offer spiritual comfort to the large masses of the poor and uneducated. under the patronage of Charles II. The Royal Society was an institution concerned with the spreading of Neoclassical principles in art and literature.” The whole century was preoccupied with the idea of man’s happiness and of the improvement of man’s condition on earth. T F 3. the awareness of the complex interdependencies in a modern civilisation made it necessary to reconcile the individual pursuit of happiness and freedom with the general wellbeing. The emergence of Deism was a reaction to religious dogmatism. but also affective and instinctual. T F 5. when he declared: ”The proper study of mankind is Man. Individual and social good was the object of all endeavours in this age. The cult of Reason thus gave way to the cult of Feeling. SAQ 1 The following exercise will help you revise some of the more important aspects concerning the intellectual and cultural background of the 17th and 18th centuries. T F 4. T F 12 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . The interest in the constitution and workings of the human mind awakened the awareness that man’s response to reality was not only rational.4. The Enlightenment continued the Renaissance faith in man’s perfectibility and sought for man’s emancipation both as an individual and as a social being. 1. Circle T (true) or F (false). The Deist image of God as the “Universal Architect” reveals a rationalist-mechanicist conception of the universe. appropriately.1. It was a general dedication to the cause of progress. The growing spirit of individualism. The Enlightenment: an age of progress On the whole. to superstition and obscurantism. T F 2. the Enlightenment. and which prepared the way for the Romantic Age*. for each sentence.1. 1. in his philosophical poem An Essay on Man (1733). The Deist notion of innate virtue came to be connected with man’s capacity for feeling. The development of modern science and the rise of philosophical empiricism are major aspects of the process of intellectual modernisation in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. The poet Alexander Pope indicated. Read the statements below and identify the true ones. the central concern of the Enlightenment. which made Enlightenment England a model of civilisation for the Western world. continued the project of the Renaissance.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background 1. with its belief in the perfectibility of man. which may be defined as the Age of Sensibility. From the Age of Reason to the Age of Feeling This infusion of emotionalism in spiritual life may be seen as the sign of a certain evolution in the temper of the 18th century. in the latter part of the Age of the Enlightenment.3. The literature of the Renaissance was under the sign of the classical revival*. and exalted Reason as the only defining human faculty.1. for proportion. the decrease in the power of the Crown. in one way or another. A new interest in rhetoric animated authors to pursue eloquence by a lavish use of figures of speech and the display of wit*. read again subchapters.1. There was a general care for discipline and refinement in composition. If you have failed to identify any of the sentences correctly as true or false. and the literary field was no longer confined to the learned.4. in the orbit of the crown. 1. The division into Elizabethan. T F 7. Jacobean* and Caroline* of the “high” and late Renaissance literature points not only to a temporal delimitation. when the literary audience becomes more diversified. The study and imitation of the great Latin and Greek authors and the concern with literary tradition as a reliable source of models made literature highly conventional. and both writers and audiences were. The 18th century is called sometimes The Age of Common Man. T F 8. but also the ultimate arbiter life on literature in matters of literary and artistic fashions. It is significant. The Court was not only the catalyst of the emerging national feeling. symmetry. and the accepted patterns and conventions were touchstones for literary virtuosity and originality. The Age of the Enlightenment excluded completely the interest in human feeling and emotion. with their Literature in the Age of Common Man cultivated taste. regularity. This is mainly connected with the rise of the middle classes and the growth of their cultural importance. the great ages of the Renaissance and of the Enlightenment may be further divided according to various criteria.” T F Check your answers in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. the social diversification and the “unfixing” of the strictly hierarchical order of the Renaissance led gradually towards a “democratisation” of literature. Alexander Pope pointed out the humanistic orientation of the Enlightenment in his maxim “The proper study of mankind is man. It was the main focus of literary attention. An overview of the literary scene in the 17th and 18th centuries From a literary point of view. Numerous treatises on literary art established norms and precepts.1. that the notion of reading public emerges now.2. The Evangelical Revival shared with Deism the attempt to give a rational foundation to religious faith. including readers of more modest education. at the end of the unit. After 1688. The abundance of classical Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 13 . The absolute authority of the monarch made the Court the Influence of Court centre of intellectual and literary life. for instance. You may also need to revise some of the terms explained in the Glossary. with little or no classical knowledge. to 1. but also to the close connection between the dominant literary values of those ages and Court life.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background 6. The mid-seventeenth century was an age of transition. when the merits of the “Ancients” and the “Moderns” became the object of comparison. Pierre Corneille. Corneille. but also to the influence of the French authors of the great classical century – the age of Louis XIV. The relationship between tradition and modernity became a matter of literary consciousness during…… 1. The great French classical authors of the 17th century (Boileau. …… c. Molière)…… d. so as to obtain complete sentences describing aspects of the general literary picture of the 17th and 18th centuries. in which the declining phase of the Renaissance was characterised by a return to the classics.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background The Augustan Age: literary Neoclassicism allusions demonstrated the author’s erudition and required from the readers familiarity with classical learning. on the model of the French controversy known as the “Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns. a new consciousness of the relationship between literary tradition and modernity. 14 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . with its highly conventional forms and rhetorical style. The comparative merit of ancient and modern standards of literary excellence and learning became a central issue of critical debate. Racine. …the Augustan Age. Jean Racine. Much of Renaissance literature. This reflects. but they were resumed during the Restoration*. A significant aspect of Augustan literature is the development and importance of literary criticism. a. 2. English Neoclassicism must be linked not only to the survival of the Renaissance humanism. SAQ 2 Read the partial statements below and match them. during the Augustan Age*. The Court was the main source of influence…… b.” started in the late 17th century. England’s intellectual and literary exchanges with Catholic France had been suspended during the Civil War*. Molière. …on literary taste and fashions during the Renaissance. the “Sun King” –: Nicolas Boileau. above all. Complete each sentence in the provided space. This led to the emergence Neoclassicism* in England. by the Romantic poets. which are illustrative of a pre-Romantic* cross-current. Thomas Carew. or his philosophical poem An Essay on Man (1733). or meditative-descriptive poems like James Thomson’s The Seasons (1726-1730) or William Cowper’s The Task (1785). acquainted with the great classical authors and works. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 15 . the sonnet* – dominated Renaissance poetry. In parallel. They approached other themes besides love: e. John Dryden (in the former). …influenced English literary Neoclassicism. the blank verse* – on the model of Milton in his great Blank verse epic* Paradise Lost (1667) – was extensively used in the 18th century. Robert Herrick).g. but English poets varied the highly conventional form of this kind of poem.2. in its various forms – the song*. Its perfect mastery is illustrated by works like Pope’s didactic poem An Essay on Criticism (1711).The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background 3. A “metaphysical” strain exists in Shakespeare’s final period of creation. The heroic couplet was the perfect verse couplet structure of the Age of Reason. It appealed both to the intellect and to the emotions. conveyed by means of a rich variety of rhetorical effects. concentration. 4. religious faith – John Donne. in a variety of poetical forms: philosophical poems. for instance. tight logical coherence and striking imagery. The evolution of poetic forms The lyric. The common vehicle for it was the heroic couplet – two rhyming The Augustan heroic lines containing a complete statement. Thomas Gray and William Collins (in the latter). which departed from the artificiality and poetry conventionalism of most Elizabethan poetry. James Thomson. continued to be used throughout the 17th and 18th centuries: John Milton. It favoured conciseness. 1. original or translated epics. …addressed itself to learned readers. Check your answers by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Andrew Marvell. at the end of the unit. you need to revise subchapter 1. or religion and politics – John Milton. Its name refers to a certain Metaphysical expressive strategy. If you have failed to make the right match. A remarkable poetic development in the first half of the 17th century was the metaphysical poetry (John Donne. the pastoral* lyric. George Herbert. The most Renaissance lyric enduring poetic achievements of the early 17th century is the forms sequence of Shakespeare’s Sonnets (1609). and the Puritan Andrew Marvell must also be included here. Other lyric forms endured: the ode. The chief model for The sonnet sequence Renaissance soneteers was Petrarch* and his love sonnets to Laura. The sonnet fell into disuse during the late Renaissance and it was revived only towards the end of the 18th century. Apart from the classical poetic forms that survived into the Restoration and the Augustan Age.3. combining classical restraint with force of argument and expressive clarity. the ode*. the verse satire emerged as a novelty at the end of the 17th century and flourished during the next – John Dryden and Alexander Pope being its unequalled masters. Alexander Pope. and it made extensive use of wit. 16 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Drama in the 17th and 18th centuries The Renaissance was the Golden Age of English drama. In the following units of this course. a brilliant constellation of playwrights founded a dramatic tradition which represents the best and most original expression of the nation’s creative genius. If there should be major differences between them. together with their most outstanding representatives.3. the ballad) and the increasing hostility to the artificiality and conventionalism of Augustan poetic diction* heralded the shift in taste which marked the beginning of Romanticism. and the “poetry of sensibility” which announced the coming of the Romantic Age (Unit 6). It was the only form of literature which. SAQ 3 Which are the most popular kinds of poems in the 17th and 18th centuries? Mention at least six of them.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Towards the end of the century. enjoyed a widely popular appeal. some of them of popular origin (the song. The flourishing of English drama during the Renaissance is a unique phenomenon. the verse satires of Dryden and Pope (Unit 4). Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. 1. in the space left below. comparable perhaps only with the rise of the novel in the next century. we shall look more closely at some of the most representative poetic works of these two centuries: the metaphysical poetry of Donne and Marvell (Unit 2). at the end of the unit. In little more than half a century (1580-1642). a new appreciation of older poetic forms.4. revise subchapter 1. through its representation on stage. the sensational plot. fascinating through unbounded ambition. John Ford (‘Tis Pity She’s a Whore. but destroys himself along with his enemies. treachery. etc. Jacobean and Caroline plays usually represented atrocities on stage. with his exploration of the darkness of strange passions.4. sometimes he rights the wrong done to another.1. On the whole. and the rhetorical manner. Some dramatic forms went out of fashion. murder. daring and wit. who usually appears as a ghost on the stage. built around the theme of revenge. From Senecan tragedy. Thomas Middleton (Women Beware Women. when the Puritans* closed the theatres. play-houses were reopened. 1612) and especially John Webster (The Duchess of Malfi. to accommodate the tastes of a new public. The type of the villain is the descendant of the Devil in the mediaeval Mystery plays* and a forerunner of the arch-villain in English literature. historical drama. insanity. is the most gifted. the fundamentally evil hero/heroine. The dramatic genres popular during the Renaissance were extremely diverse: tragedy and comedy with their varieties. The great acting companies were under the patronage of the king. 1614). 1. where bloody deeds were only evoked through an efficient rhetoric of the dramatic discourse. and this “unholy alliance” between crown and stage increased the intransigence of the Puritans. inspired by the plays of the Roman Stoic Seneca*. Unlike Senecan plays. Of the Caroline playwrights. They saw the theatre as a source of moral corruption through the “idle” pleasure that it offered. Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1601) is the finest illustration of this kind of tragedy. Shakespeare’s protagonist in Richard III (1592-3) and Lady Macbeth (Macbeth. Renaissance playwrights borrowed the five-act structure. masque*. drama witnessed a decline. the wronged hero plans revenge.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Contemporary reconstruction of a Jacobean playhouse The play-house. They were generally. tragi-comedy. each variety of spectator responding to the performance according to his/her education and imagination. 17 Revenge tragedy The villain in revenge tragedy Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . was a miniature of the English society. The great age of English drama ended abruptly in 1642. 1633). Milton’s Satan. rape. exploiting excessively morbid ingredients like incest. in Paradise Lost. with its audience arranged according to rank. as well as John Webster’s heroine in The White Devil. A particular type of protagonist became fashionable in revenge tragedies: the villain. Masters of this genre were the Jacobean dramatists Cyril Tourneur (The Revenger’s Tragedy. or Vittoria Corombona (1612) are among the most accomplished portrayals of the villain in drama. In such plays. sensational and macabre. Jacobean tragedy One of the most widespread forms of tragedy was the revenge tragedy. 1607). pastoral drama. with the restoration of monarchy. In 1660. 1605-6). while others changed. and in the 18th century it was replaced by the novel in popularity. but the spirit of the great tradition was never recaptured. The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background A distinct type in late Renaissance drama is domestic tragedy. If you have failed to identify the true statements. T F 5. dealing with middle or lower class life and concentrating on personal and domestic maters – unlike “grand” tragedy. The hero of revenge tragedy often destroys himself in his desire to right a wrong done to him or to another. circle the appropriate letter: T (true) or F (false).2. read again subchapters 1. reflecting. Ben Jonson* illustrates another form. Comedy in the early 17th century In the field of comedy. and 1. with its noble characters. The English play-house during the Renaissance accommodated a diverse audience. 1. in miniature. Seneca’s tragedies inspired Jacobean and Caroline authors in the representation of atrocities on stage. intended to correct vices and follies by denouncing them. Shakespeare’s Elizabethan phase included a number of exquisite romantic comedies. but. T F Check your answers by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. identifying the four true ones. Volpone (1606). at the end of the unit. Milton’s Satan. Epicoene. reminds of the fascinating villain-heroes of the Renaissance revenge tragedies by his extraordinary ambition and boldness. T F 3. as in Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida (1601-2) or The Winter’s Tale (1610-11).4. in Paradise Lost. The mixture of serious and comic elements results in tragicomedy. though each in a different way. T F 6. in the last period of creation. the satirical comedy.4. his comedies become darker.1. T F 2. The Jacobean and Caroline authors of revenge tragedies had Seneca as their model. T F 4. For each sentence. Shakespeare and Ben Jonson are the great masters.4. Renaissance tragedy had four acts – a structure borrowed from Seneca. The Alchemist (1610) and Bartholomew Fair (1614) are social comedies of city life. or in Philaster (1609) by John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont. whose fall from eminence marks the destruction of an order. T F 7. 18 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . SAQ 4 For a revision of some important features of Renaissance English drama. or The Silent Woman (1609). Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a classic example of domestic tragedy. read the following statements. the hierarchy of English society. a genre which will survive into the 18th century. as in All’s Well That Ends Well (1602-3) or Measure for Measure (1604-5). centred on the theme of love. or at least tinged with bitterness. 1. His best plays. A more representative achievement of the Restoration is the comedy of manners. The most representative works of this kind belong to Richard Steele (The Conscious Lovers. Heroic plays. 1769). Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 19 . Sentimental drama and burlesque comedy in the 18th century The drama of sensibility – with sentimental comedy as its dominant type – emerged as a reaction to the Restoration comedy. or The Mistakes of a Night. 1773). 1777).4.4. who demanded models of virtue and decency. mocks at certain theatrical conventions. The feeling that some dramatic forms were out of their time and were maintained artificially led to the emergence of a burlesque* kind of comedy. The Conquest of Granada. In The Rehearsal (1671). Duke of Buckingham. She Stoops to Conquer. Drama during the Restoration period Restoration drama developed in an age of scepticism and cynicism. with idealised heroes and heroines divided between love and honour or duty. Richard Cumberland (The Brothers.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background 1. a stylish and sophisticated world.4. but whose aim was not so much to correct manners as to entertain. too. The School for Scandal. This parodic spirit was not confined to drama: the mockheroic style* was also used in poetry (e.g. with their grandiose declamations and artificial conception of heroism. these plays built a world of high passion and incredible bravery. but also of French and Spanish romantic novels of adventure. Alexander Pope) and in the novel (e.g. The best achievement in this genre belongs to John Dryden (The Indian Emperor. and Richard Brinsely Sheridan (The Rivals. in his satirical play The Beggar’s Opera (1728). Oliver Goldsmith (The GoodNatured Man. 1665.3. but serious drama declined during the 18th century. for instance. The main representatives – the Restoration Wits* – were courtiers and aristocrats who assumed the role of leaders of fashion and taste. Heroic drama The comedy of manners 1. satirises heroic tragedy and so does Henry Fielding in his successful parody The Tragedy of Tragedies. but it appealed to a wide middle class public. There were a few attempts to revive classical tragedy or domestic tragedy. or The Life and Death of Tom Thumb the Great (1731). 1768. It lacked the latter’s liveliness and brilliance. 1722). 1775. which ridiculed them through exaggerated imitation. Tragedy was replaced in popular taste by a form that stood in sharp contrast with the unheroic spirit of the age: heroic drama. George Villiers. of pleasure-seeking and relaxation after the strict moral code imposed to the nation by the Puritans. Henry Fielding). The painful intensity of Renaissance tragedy did no longer move the hearts of audiences that either were too frivolous or whose mind had been subtly influenced by Puritan morality. which continued the realistic spirit of the earlier satirical plays. were a passing extravagance. Under the influence of French tragedies. 1669-70). John Gay. and it denounced puritanical virtue as hypocrisy. Restoration comedy presented an elegant society. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. If there should be major differences between them. 20 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . to 1.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background SAQ 5 What are the main varieties of comedy during the 17th and 18th centuries? Mention at least five of them in the space below. we shall focus on William Shakespeare’s later plays.4. at the end of the unit. Two moments in the evolution of English drama will be further detailed in this course: in Unit 2. and in Unit 4 you will be acquainted with more features of Restoration comedy.2.4. together with their most outstanding representatives. revise subchapters 1.4. Influence of Latin on prose style The prose of intellectual argument 1. a precious and highly ornate language. contributing essentially to the forging of a more straightforward and simple style. 1612. wealth and freshness greatly influenced the language of prose. on clarity and rationality. This allegorical expression of Puritan faith. Later in the century. the universal language of the Renaissance. prepared the English language for a variety of uses: in scientific. 1625) are prose classics in English literature. The English translation of the Bible – the “Authorised Version” of 1611. Sermons were a widely popular form of prose-writing.5. deliberately artificial and intricate. Under the influence of Latin – especially of Cicero* –. with its illustration to simplicity and natural flow of common speech. in political tracts and pamphlets. The Pilgrim’s Progress Among the prose forms widely used for intellectual argument. with its trials. gave way to an ideal of prose style more suited to the Age of Common Man. displaying a variety of styles. another Latin influence began to mould English prose style: that of Seneca and Tacitus*. The language of prose tended to become plain and transparent. Francis Bacon’s Essays (1597. Thomas Hobbes* and John Locke also insisted on the necessity of a language at once flexible and precise. Varieties of prose writing in the 17th and 18th centuries Of the literary forms that contributed significantly to the development of English prose. as the growing complexity of life increased the need for social and intellectual communication. philosophical and theological writings. blending concision with wit. in which rhetorical figures were subordinated to rational lucidity. The evolution of prose style At the beginning of the 17th century. prose works written in English displayed a highly rhetorical style.5. accomplished under the patronage of James I – established a model of English whose beauty. religious writings are particularly important. The rhetorical extravagance and ingenuity which had still dominated the early 17th century (not only in prose). Gradually. A different vein in religious writing is illustrated by the Puritan John Bunyan (1628-1688) and his extremely popular book The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678). John Locke Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 21 . struggles and William Blake: aspirations.1. influenced immensely Bunyan’s the language of prose. he describes the Christian soul’s search for salvation in the form of an allegorical journey along the path of life. weaknesses. temptations. Here. suitable for conveying “the knowledge of things” and intelligible to the average Englishman. English as an instrument of literary and intellectual communication still competed with classical Latin. Journalism as a form of prose writing emerged during the Civil War and flourished during the 18th century. More and more.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background 1. Francis Bacon was the first notable writer to plead for – and to illustrate – a prose style more suited for intellectual argument. the essay* proved the most flexible. the virtues of common speech permeated the language of all kinds of writings. The development of an aphoristic style*. Joseph Hall inaugurated the English tradition of this genre. the biography as an emerging prose genre. with Characters of Virtue and Vices (1608). biographies (Izaak Walton. the spiritual autobiography and the “character” were literary expressions of the growing interest in human individuality. To these must be added the character. which analyses the constitution of human society. the great literary achievement of the 18th century. with his Life of John Donne among other works of this kind – 1670). The character as a prose genre influenced Richard Steele and Joseph Addison in their periodical essays. Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners. unadorned style. A variety of other prose genres developed during the 17th century: historical and geographical accounts (Walter Raleigh. exhausting the subjects they dealt with.” 1642) are the most outstanding representatives of this genre. pamphlets* (e. 1621) and Sir Thomas Browne (Religio Medici. another form of prose writing which displayed divergent tendencies in style was the anatomy. The same encyclopaedic. Milton’s Areopagitica. a prose genre whose model was provided by the Greek writer Theophrastus*. Samuel Pepys). whose purpose was didactic or satirical. This kind of approach had a considerable influence on the realistic novel. letters. of remarkable precision and force.g. executed in a witty. aphoristic style. Human character as portrayed in their essays was at the same time typical and individualised. Anatomies were monuments of learning. delighting in speculation and building the knowledge they explored into an elaborate structure.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Frontispiece to Leviathan provides another example of this prose form – this time in booklength – as a vehicle for analysis of ideas and intellectual demonstration. in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). 1644 – a famous defense of the freedom of the press). Robert Burton (The Anatomy of Melancholy. 1666). 1632 – the most virulent Puritan attack on the theatre. but its impressive intellectual architecture is achieved in a simple. William Prynne’s Histriomastix. 22 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . spiritual biographies (John Bunyan. etc. In the 17th century. Samuel Purchas). which anticipates the prose of the Neoclassical period. diaries (John Evelyn. “Characters” were miniature portraits of human types. inclusive character is displayed by Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan (1651). with its explorations of the complexities of human mind and character. “The Religion of a Doctor. Like drama. you will learn more about the periodical essay. roughly. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.1. between which there is continuity. the image of the universe was changed. read again subchapters 1.. A steady process of economic development and imperial expansion made England the world’s greatest power.5. and 1. at the end of the unit. marked the entrance into Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 23 . since both place Man and the improvement of his condition at the centre of their concerns. This was a period of great changes at all levels of life in England. to the great movements of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Within these two centuries. obscurantism and intolerance. more carefully. the growing scepticism and critical spirit enthroned a rationalistic attitude in all spheres of culture. intellectual habits and preoccupations changed radically: philosophic thought became secular. as well as the faith in progress. these two centuries correspond. modern science was born. Culturally.5. Summary This unit has offered you a brief introduction to the intellectual and literary developments of the 17th and 18th centuries.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background SAQ 6 In what direction did English prose style tend to develop along the 17th and 18th centuries? Answer in the space below. Within these two centuries. The victory of Reason over dogmatism. in a paragraph of no more than 7 lines / 70 words. while Unit 5 will deal entirely with the novel in the 18th century. the progress from the old order of the feudal world to the modern age was completed. If there should be major differences between them. The following units will detail some aspects concerning the development of prose in the two centuries: in Unit 4. noble and heroic characters. of the time of emperor Caesar Augustus (27 B. elevated style. of serious action. with new genres accessible to a more inclusive reading public. Virgil – were revered models for the English Augustan writers. part of the process of modernisation that the Age of Reason came to acknowledge its own limits. From a literary point of view. in a caricatural spirit.” The short review of the dominant forms of poetry. The birth of the novel is the most significant literary development of this “Age of Common Man. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural • • 24 . and a major influence on their aesthetic ideal. predominantly middle-class. often by means of paradox.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background modernity. Augustan Age: a phrase designating the period of English Neoclassicism (extending from the Restoration to the latter half of the 18th century) by analogy with the golden age of Latin literature. and the emergence of the Age of Feeling prepared the way to the Romantic sensibility.). Key words • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The Renaissance The Enlightenment The Restoration The Age of Reason The Age of Common Man The Age of Feeling The Augustan Age Neoclassicism modernity tradition change emancipation progress poetry drama prose Glossary • • aphoristic style: (from Greek aphorismos: definition) a style characterised by condensation and precision. a slow transition took place. however. from a system of genres and styles dominated by classical influences to a more “democratic” tendency. drama and prose in the 17th and 18th centuries has been meant to offer you a general idea of the literary background of this extremely diverse and dynamic period. It is.-14 A. used to express observations of general truth. blank verse: unrhymed verse.C.D. Ovid. which are reduced to the comically trivial. The Great Latin writers of that age – Horace. burlesque: the exaggerated imitation. David Hume (Britain). social and moral thought. or from history. Thinkers like Thomas Hobbes. the conviction that reality is ordered according to laws that are accessible to human reason). • Elizabethan: related to the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603). • epic: long narrative poem celebrating the achievements of heroic personages. separation of powers were central to Enlightenment political. The subjects and heroes are taken either from myth. Voltaire. • essay: a prose composition of varying length. Tolerance. Diderot (France). anti-fanaticism. It is one of the most flexible and adaptable prose forms. The open conflict between king and Parliament set the whole nation to war. • Evangelical Revival: a trend which started within the Anglican Church (the official. natural law. Montesquieu. rejection of arbitrary authority and of absolutism are some of the characteristic attitudes of this age. legend. humanism. illustrating the close link between religion and politics in English history. which began as an educational programme (the humanities – humaniora) propagating those values in Greek and Latin culture which could be harmonised with Christian values.): “Man is the measure of all things”. widely used in all ages. individual liberty. The founder of the revival of classical learning was Petrarch (see note below). the humanism of the Renaissance refers to a view of life which we find summarised in the maxim of the Greek philosopher Protagoras (480-410 B. reconciling a materialist account of reality with a rationalist attitude (i. anti-obscurantism.e. Thomas Paine (the United States) are among the great representatives of this movement. Thomas Jefferson. social contract. • classical revival: the intellectual. John Locke. until 1660. by the promotion of intellectual emancipation and the belief in social and moral progress. when it was restored. Rousseau. it evokes an attitude to life which stresses the individual’s dignity. civil rights. characterised by anti-dogmatism and the cult of reason as the supreme guiding principle in human action. The victory of the Parliamentary forces led to the abolition of monarchy in 1649. state church) as a reaction against the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 25 • . worth and capacity for self-accomplishment. pragmatism. in which personal opinions and observations are presented in a formal or informal manner. artistic and literary life of the Renaissance was defined by a revived interest in the classical culture and its ideals. The founders of English empiricism were Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and John Locke (1632-1704). and by the search for a model of society in which man’s rights and duties should be exercised in freedom. In a broader sense. the folk tradition. and contributed to the intellectual preparation of the French Revolution (1789).The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Caroline: (from Latin Carolus) related to the reign of Charles I Stuart (1625-1642) • Civil War (1642-1649): the pivotal event of the 17th century.C. • empiricism: a philosophical orientation which established the primacy of experience in the process of knowledge. Concepts like human rights. This return to the Ancients is the foundation of Renaissance humanism. • Enlightenment: ideological and cultural movement in the 18th century in Europe and America. The actors used masks and personified pastoral or mythological figures.C. In architecture.C. Jacobean: (from Latin Jacobus) related to the reign of James I Stuart (1603-1625). and corresponded to the rationalistic spirit of the 18th century. Glorious Revolution: in 1688. uncorrupted life. solemn style. in harmony with nature. from the Creation to the Ascension. This religious orientation developed into a church: the Methodist Church. decorative art. simple. The term also refers to the form in which such a work was published: a booklet with paper covers. sumptuous costumes and settings. and harmony of classical art. mystery plays: early popular forms of English drama (13th to 16th century) developed out of the Liturgy of the Church and enacting biblical events. expressing lofty sentiments and thoughts regarding an event. singing and dancing. It addressed itself to the poor. pamphlet: a short prose work on a subject (often political or religious) that the author defends polemically. masque: courtly entertainment in dramatic form. to its need for clarity and its aspiration to universality. often of an allegorical nature. and soon developed into a distinct religious orientation. Neoclassicism meant a return to the purity. was forced to leave the throne and fled to France. who collaborated with the equally famous architect and stage designer Inigo Jones. the marginal sections of society.C. a person or an object. but also in Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 26 . mock-heroic style: a style mocking the serious grandeur of the epic. The origins of pastoral are in the work of the Greek poet Theocritus (316-260 B. In English literature. spectacular scenic effects. involving elaborate dialogue. restraint. painting and sculpture.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background • • • • • • • • • excessive rationalism in matters of faith. an idea. idealising shepherd life and creating a nostalgic image of a peaceful. whose authors were deeply revered and were recommended as models.). James II Stuart. It was used in order to make a trivial subject seem dignified and impressive. The Greek poet Pindar (522-442 B. Neoclassicism flourished in the latter half of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th. and it was often a device of parody and of burlesque. of spiritual regeneration by grace. The accession of William III (of Orange) and his wife Mary (James’s Protestant daughter) marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in England (monarchic power was limited and the Parliament’s prerogatives increased). the Neoclassic period is taken to cover almost a century (16601780). with an elaborate stanza structure and a dignified. encouraging a personal experience of conversion. Its conventions may be found not only in lyric poetry. who was a Catholic. ode: an extended lyric poem.) and the Latin poet Horace (658 B. pastoral: a literary composition on a rural theme.) are the great ancient models for English writers. The basis of this kind of faith was the Gospel (the New Testament) and its revealed truth. The most famous author of masques in the 17th century (when the genre flourished) was Ben Jonson. Neoclassicism: an aesthetic doctrine inspired from classical Antiquity (especially Latin). founded by John Wesley in the 1740s. g. Shakespeare. thus. Leonardo da Vinci. It is the period of transition from the Middle Ages and the feudal order to early capitalism. industry. Prominent figures of the Renaissance are Petrarch. implied the idea that the language of poetry is different in quality from ordinary language. Sir Charles Sedley. Thomas More. 27 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . selected according to genre and subject. poetic diction: a term that. by Columbus. and they continued to be used in the 18th century. and of the awakening of the reformist spirit. of the expansion of education. Puritans: members of a Protestant religious group. effort. which was to play an essential role in the rise of capitalism. in the 16th and 17th centuries. Edmund Spenser. when monarchy was re-established in England after the Puritan rule (1649-1660). who rejected the authority of the English Church because. on the enlargement of his knowledge of himself and of nature. It placed emphasis on the individual’s spiritual autonomy and creative potential. it overlaps with the Augustan Age. Sir George Etherege. Boccaccio. From a literary point of view.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background • • • • • • • drama. Renaissance: cultural movement which started in Italy in the 14th century and spread to Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. especially their work ethics. The Puritans insisted on man’s duty of actively serving God and on his responsibility towards his own conscience. Cervantes (Spain). Philip Sidney. tone. The most outstanding of the Restoration Wits (or Court Wits) were George Villiers. Ariosto. They propagated a doctrine of spiritual equality and cultivated a stern morality. William Wycherley. in their view. its limits are less well defined. Restoration Wits: the generic name for the Restoration dramatists. Their beliefs and convictions. it was the period of Charles II’s reign (1660-1685). Duke of Buckingham. Lope de Vega. Machiavelli. centred on integrity. “The poetry of sensibility” is another generic term for these pre-Romantic tendencies. the sense of purpose. John Vanbrugh. Pico della Mirandola. The Renaissance was the age of the great geographical discoveries (e. Romantic: the Romantic Age in England is usually considered to extend from the end of the 18th century to the 1830s. It was characterised by a remarkable flourishing of arts and literature. Tasso (Italy). of the rebirth of learning. which was the ultimate authority in the interpretation of God’s word in the Holy Scriptures. “Wit” designates here the person who displays liveliness and brilliance of spirit. Raphael. It refers to the particular kind of language – vocabulary. favoured the growth of individualism. Desiderius Erasmus (Holland). Francis Bacon (England). of America. romance or the novel. It is sometimes seen as extending to the end of the 17th century. it had not fully reformed itself. consisting in a tremendous development and transformation in all spheres. 1492). style – used by a poet. and brilliant accomplishments in scholarship and science. Restoration: historically. which opened the modern era. pre-Romantic: the term is sometimes used to refer to the literary tendencies which accompanied the rise of the cult of Feeling in the 18th century. for the Neoclassic writers. This theory had a great influence on the conception of character in the 16th and 17th century comedy. and a writer. as well as an unfinished utopia. with various rhyme patterns. The New Atlantis (published in 1627). choleric and melancholic – were seen as the result of the dominance of one of these humours. the belief in the spiritual correspondence between man and nature. He started his literary career as a playwright. Marcus Tullius (106-43 B. 1591-1595). which emerged in Britain in the context of the sympathy with the struggle of the American colonies for independence from British domination (1775-1781). phlegmatic. 1591. song: a poem composed for singing. the capacity or talent of making unexpected. The assertion of the self. two fine examples of comedy of humours. The Romantic spirit is usually associated with the championship of progressive social and political causes.e. in which the characters act.): Roman statesman. philosopher and writer. the founder of modern rationalist materialism. and a firm believer in man’s creative potential. In mediaeval and Renaissance physiology and pathology. and black bile – or melancholy) were believed to determine a person’s disposition and character. His literary work includes a series of essays on a wide variety of subjects. orator. Renaissance dramatists used songs in their plays to create a particular atmosphere. independently of circumstances. Cicero. The tradition survived into the 18th century. Gallery of personalities • Bacon. one of the most influential literary voices of his age. fluids) of the body (blood. according to a dominating inclination or passion. During the Renaissance. yellow bile – or choler.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background • • • Romanticism is a European cultural and literary movement. the promoter of the new scientific spirit. Romanticism reacted against the rationalist empiricism of the Enlightenment by an intense idealism and the cult of Imagination as man’s supreme faculty of the mind. with or without musical accompaniment. Edmund Spenser. phlegm. sonnet: a poem consisting of 14 lines. His famous political speeches and writings Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural • • 28 . Jonson. Ben (1572-1637): dramatist. Astrophil and Stella. Francis (1561-1626): the most influential thinker of the English Renaissance. with Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Every Man Out of His Humour (1599). and with the French Revolution (1789). He was also an eminent statesman. the emphasis on the spontaneity of poetic inspiration are also among distinctive features of Romanticism. The four traditional temperaments – sanguine. Amoretti. in the 17th century it came to mean fancy or liveliness of thought and imagination. poet and scholar. The sonnet sequence/cycle was frequently used during the Renaissance (Sir Philip Sidney. the quality of a writing that displays this capacity. Sometimes. wit: intellectual brilliance and ingenuity.C. the four “humours” (i. in which he anticipates many of the later conquests of modern science. it meant intelligence or wisdom. surprising associations. astronomer and philosopher. Petrarch: Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). whose concise and trenchant style inspired 17th century English prose writers. Newton. Locke studied medicine. besides the Characters.): Roman historian and statesman. Ecclesiastical and Civil (1651).): Greek philosopher and naturalist. the laws and regulations of human society imitate the laws of nature: the “great Leviathan” is the State. Seneca.” A fundamental problem for Hobbes is that of the foundation of the social and political order. whose conceptions were profoundly influenced by the development of physics and mathematics. must guarantee man’s natural right to liberty and life. the latter. Isaac (1642-1727): English physicist. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 29 . and Hobbes describes this generalised state of war by the famous formula “homo homini lupus” (“man is wolf to man”). Lucius Annaeus (4 B. and his political doctrine inspired the American constitution. the initiator of the revival of the study of ancient Greek and Latin literature. Publius Cornelius (55-120 A. but he was interested in a variety of intellectual fields: philosophy. studied the mechanics of planetary motion and formulated the law of gravitation. ethics. Locke insists on the mutual obligations of the individual and the instituted authority.D. Man. Thomas (1588-1679): materialist philosopher. greatly influenced by Hobbes. Both Hobbes and Locke can be seen as the initiators of the “social contract” theory.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background • • • • • • • on rhetoric and style provided a model of eloquence in prose. mathematician. He laid the foundations of the differential calculus. Theophrastus (372-287 B. Hobbes applies rationalist-materialist principles to the explanation of human nature and society. which was central to Enlightenment thought.): Roman philosopher. chief figure of the scientific revolution of the 17th century. insists on man’s perfect freedom in the state of nature. In his work of moral and political philosophy Leviathan. According to him. religion. writer and statesman.D. Hobbes. for instance. It is fear of death. John (1632-1704): considered the “father” of English empiricism. Tacitus. Italian poet and humanist. For Hobbes. in a kind of social contract. and man’s agreement to submit to a governing authority is an expression of that freedom.-65 A. Locke.C. author. Locke was a firm supporter of the Glorious Revolution and of constitutional monarchy. politics. humanity in the state of nature is driven by aggressive competition. Form and Power of a Commonwealth. economics. that determines man to surrender part of his natural rights to the authority of a civil government. of the first treatise of ancient philosophy. the instinct of self-preservation. made important discoveries in the field of optics. the “body politic” created in perfect analogy with the “body natural” of “that rational and most excellent work of nature. His political philosophy. unlike that of Hobbes.C. or the Matter. T. Cornelia. Marvell satire: Dryden. Collins. 6. 5.T. Cumberland burlesque comedy: George Villiers. Pope. 4. 2003 (pp. Duke of Buckingham. Editura Universităţii Suceava. 115-141) 30 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . 2. 4. Fletcher and Beaumont satirical comedy: Ben Jonson.F. Pope. b. 3. English Literature and Civilisation.F.F. John Gay Further reading 1. 8.T. Luminiţa Elena. Donne. The Novel in Its Beginnings. Marvell. 2. from a highly rhetorical style to forms of expression which aspired to the plainness of common speech. 7. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Ioan-Aurel (ed. 1983 (pp. Sir George Sedley.T.F SAQ 5 • • • • • • • SAQ 6 In general.F. 7-49) 3. Turcu. Macsiniuc.T. 2003 (pp. The Literature of the Beginnings. artificial. Milton. there was a tendency towards simplicity. Fielding. The Renaissance and the Restoration Period. 5. the sonnet: Shakespeare. concision and plainness: from the highly ornate. Blake the ode: Marvell. John Vanbrugh). Herrick.T. Sheridan sentimental comedy: Steele. Editura Universităţii Suceava. precision. Cowley. 3. William Wycherley.).2. Pope didactic poems: Pope philosophical poems: Pope descriptive-meditative poems: Thomson. d. Gray the epic: Milton metaphysical poetry: Donne. Thomson. 9-32) 2. clarity and straightforwardness of the Augustan style. . Preda. From Beowulf to Paradise Lost. 6. Carew.4. c. Milton the pastoral: Milton.1 SAQ 3 • • • • • • • • • SAQ 4 1.3. even extravagant style of the Renaissance to the simple elegance. Goldsmith comedy of manners: the “Restoration Wits” (George Villiers.T. Cowper romantic comedy: Shakespeare dark comedy: Shakespeare tragi-comedy: Shakespeare. Goldsmith.T SAQ 2 a. Sir George Etherege. Goldsmith.T. Dryden. The English Eighteenth Century. Herbert. Dryden.The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: intellectual and literary background Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. 2.2. 2.The late Renaissance and the Baroque UNIT 2 THE LATE RENAISSANCE AND THE BAROQUE Unit Outline 2 2.2.4.3. 2. 2.1.1. 2.2.3.2.3.8. the man of action King Lear: the madness of tragic grief To be or to seem: Othello Macbeth: the tragedy of “diseased” conscience Shakespeare’s last plays The plot of The Tempest Major themes Symbols in The Tempest The play-metaphor The metaphysical poets Characteristics of metaphysical poetry The metaphysical conceit Themes in John Donne’s poetry Donne’s love poems Donne’s religious poems Andrew Marvell: the patriotic theme in the Horatian Ode Nature as “mystic book” in Marvell’s poetry The theme of love in Marvell’s poems Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 32 32 32 33 33 35 36 37 37 38 39 40 40 43 43 44 46 46 47 48 48 49 50 52 53 54 54 56 56 57 58 59 61 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 31 .8.2.5. 2. His later plays The baroque spirit of Shakespeare’s great tragedies Hamlet: a revenge play Renaissance man and the baroque sensibility in Hamlet Hamlet: the philosopher vs.2. 2.2. 2.3.2.1.3.2.12.1.1.2.3.7.3.2.3. 2.2. 2.3. 2. 2.2.1.6.9.2. Unit objectives The late Renaissance and the Baroque The emergence of the baroque sensibility The late Renaissance: characteristics of the baroque sensibility Baroque features of late Renaissance drama and poetry Shakespeare’s genius. 2.3. 2.10.6.4.5.11.2. 2. 2. 2. 2. 2.2. 2. 2. 2.7.3. 2. 2. well-ordered universe. The former expansiveness.The late Renaissance and the Baroque By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ define the characteristic aspects of the baroque sensibility ♦ compare the Renaissance and the baroque visions on man and the universe ♦ compare aspects of Renaissance and baroque literary taste in the 17th century ♦ explain the baroque character of the main themes and motifs in Shakespeare’s tragedies ♦ identify patterns of symbolism and imagery in the studied plays by Shakespeare ♦ describe the main features of metaphysical poetry ♦ explain what a metaphysical conceit is ♦ analyse the use of conceits in poems by John Donne and Andrew Marvell ♦ point out the elements of baroque sensibility in the poetry of Donne and Marvell Unit objectives 2. with its sense of confidence and optimism. In the late Renaissance.1. to the perception of man as a bundle of contradictions and the view of the universe as threatened by instability. The vision of a harmonious. stable and modern state. The spirit that dominated this age was typical of the Renaissance. Philip Sydney*. and Edmund Spenser* complete the literary picture of the glorious Elizabethan Age. Under Queen Elizabeth I. but the outstanding achievements of writers like Thomas Kyd*. Christopher Marlowe*. the sense of tradition as a guarantee for order. High Renaissance English literature has its most accomplished expression in Shakespeare’s work. anxiety and even pessimism. The Elizabethan age: the English high Renaissance Features of the high Renaissance spirit 32 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the enormous vitality nourished by the trust in man’s powers – these are general features of the high Renaissance spirit that found their expression in literature as well. The emergence of the baroque sensibility The early and high Renaissance* in England developed under the Tudor monarchs*. Renaissance England reached the climax in its flourishing. to scepticism. idealism and confidence gave way to a growing sense of disorder and violence. Increasingly prosperous and powerful owing to colonial expansion and economic progress. during whose reign England developed into a strong. Elizabethan England also witnessed an explosion of creative energies in the field of letters and arts. this spirit declined under the pressure of certain historical events* and cultural tendencies. life and death. The late Renaissance: characteristics of the baroque sensibility The baroque* sensibility that emerged during the late Renaissance registered with particular acuteness the conflicts and turbulences in man’s existence. the extensive use of paradox. the spectacular and the sumptuous. its sense of form. The Baroque displays attraction to obscurity and melancholy. The baroque vision of experience of the Metaphysical Poets required a new kind of poetic language. and not properly forming a “school. St. and Christopher Marlowe’s characters. The Renaissance celebrated Nature and life with its joys. ornamental rhetoric and preference for convention and artifice.1. The Jacobean and Caroline drama* is essentially baroque. Characteristic baroque themes were those of life as dream and life as theatre. of confusing or transgressing limits. irony and ambiguity. capable of rendering its 33 Revenge tragedy Metaphysical poetry Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . to the macabre. they are the supreme dramatic achievement of late Renaissance. The unexpected. refinement and cruelty. the paradoxes and contrasts which make up man’s mixed nature. Baroque features of late Renaissance drama and poetry The essence of the baroque sensibility is conflict and tension. grandeur.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2. The Renaissance cult of rational order. with its abundance of bloody deaths. Even the Elizabethan dramatists cultivated elements which announced the Baroque.2. sensualism and mysticism. nothing reflects better its emergence than drama. but also to pomp. reason and superstition. and.1. Although very diverse. of man’s limitations and the inevitability of death. the Baroque displayed a sharp consciousness of life’s ephemerality. and in its dramatic conception. both in its themes and motifs. the concentration of expression in their poems stand in contrast with the Elizabethan smooth and orderly patterns of versification.1. Paul’s Cathedral in London (16751708): an example of baroque architecture 2. for excess. contrasts with the baroque taste for the extravagant. In lyric poetry. but his great tragedies belong not only chronologically to the Jacobean age: as embodiments of the baroque spirit. or the world as stage. destroyed by the monstrous excess of their ambition. splendour. Characteristic of the baroque spirit are the sense of ethical relativism and the exploration of the borderline between truth and illusion. on which the “show” of life must end. The best examples are Thomas Kyd’s revenge tragedy. striking imagery. Shakespeare’s early comedies and history plays* are Elizabethan in spirit. a tendency commonly associated with the baroque is represented by the Metaphysical Poets of the 17th century. the tragic divisions in man’s soul. the difficult – often irregular – rhythms.” these poets distinguish themselves by the ingenuity with which they force the limits of language. with the tendency of breaking proportions. in literature. wisdom and madness. proportion and symmetry. sense of form B: 4. you will be acquainted. optimism. R: cult for order and symmetry. Metaphysical poetry blends passion and reason. exuberance B: Compare your answers to those provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. R: confidence. The Tempest. respectively. Othello and Macbeth) and his last romance play.The late Renaissance and the Baroque complexities. at the end of this unit. If there should be major differences. as expressions of the baroque spirit of the age. 34 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . King Lear. classical balance. R: vision of the world as harmonious and well-ordered B: 2. R: celebration of life’s joys B: 3. In the following two subchapters. SAQ 1 Fill in the spaces left below with those features of the Baroque (B) which contrast with the following features of the high Renaissance (R): 1. complicated feeling and analytical detachment. read again the preceding subchapters. with the two most relevant accomplishments of the late Renaissance English literature: William Shakespeare’s great tragedies (Hamlet. and it is appealing simultaneously to the sensibility and the intellect of the reader. as well as some of the metaphysical poems of John Donne and Andrew Marvell. but in the creation of characters and the exploration of their mind and heart. in which every character – major or minor – has a consistent individuality and is animated by passions. His characters emerge from the dramatic situation with an unsurpassed force of conviction. transcending the artistic hierarchy of his age and consecrating him as always “our contemporary. there is an astonishing variety of styles and registers. devotion. rendered accurately in their poetic truth. motifs and imagery. as well as in the tragic grandeur of the inner conflicts that they portray. hate. in the great blank verse* soliloquies*.2. Shakespeare modulates the language in each play. He was not original in the use of his subjects: with a few exceptions. his deep understanding of humanity. Shakespeare had a natural instinct for the stage. He was a master of every contemporary dramatic form. friendship. etc. and a perfect adequacy of the language to the character’s moral nature and to the dramatised experience or emotion. to the prose speech of simple folk. gratitude and ingratitude. and the range of his subjects is extremely diverse. jealousy. aspirations and interests. irrespective of the register in which they are conceived – tragic or comic. craftsmen or servants. in plain. loyalty and betrayal. In his last period of creation (1608-1611). when his artistic maturity and depth of vision produced his four monumental tragedies: Hamlet (1601). It ranges from the sublime accents of pure poetry. so that it displays a similar variety. In Shakespeare’s whole work. Shakespeare’s genius. Othello (1604). These plays may be seen as strongly influenced by the emerging baroque sensibility in their themes. A whole human universe inhabits Shakespeare’s plays. romantic or trivial. where the lyrical and dramatic elements are in perfect fusion. among other features. and experiences are given dramatic shape in his plays: love. all mastered with supreme art. which brought him enormous success during his lifetime. Italian. Shakespeare’s whole work is a synthesis of the concerns and convictions of the Renaissance. The beginning of the 17th century is also the beginning of his second phase (1600-1608). or periods of creation. states of mind. and French. medieval and contemporary sources – English. envy. from the variety of his work. A wide range of feelings. moral attitudes. They are always credible. and a culmination of its literary art. but his enduring preeminence has been insured by his extraordinary insight into human nature. conflicts.” Shakespeare’s work is conventionally divided into several phases. search for truth. sometimes even trivial. According to the dramatic necessity. struggle for power. language. His later plays Shakespeare’s greatness as a dramatist comes. all of them are re-workings and adaptations of subjects taken from a variety of ancient. sublime or burlesque. His inventiveness and imagination were invested not in the intrigues. The richness and profundity of his comprehensive creation establish him as a universal genius.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2. King Lear and Macbeth (1605). Shakespeare seems to propose an alternative to the stormy and bloody worlds of his great 35 William Shakespeare (1564-1616) Language in Shakespeare’s plays The second period of creation: the great tragedies Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . in no more than 4 lines / 40 words each: 1.1. If they should differ significantly. common in the Renaissance. with the effects of evil on innocence. How does Shakespeare’s dramatic vision in his last plays differ from that of the tragedies of his second period of creation? Compare your answers with those offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.2.The late Renaissance and the Baroque The last period: the romance plays tragedies. SAQ 2 Answer the following questions. What does Shakespeare’s greatness consist in. the downfall of the tragic hero is accompanied by the destruction of a natural order. with the sense of hope overcoming spiritual desolation. He is concerned here with the paradoxes in the relationship between reality and appearance. but he adds to it philosophical and ethical implications of the deepest significance. basically. with innocence and vitality triumphing over evil and death. with the human endeavour to understand if suffering is part of the 36 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . In these plays. but they deal. The baroque spirit of Shakespeare’s tragedies Shakespeare’s tragedies preserve the pattern of the “fall of princes”*. are also tributary to the spirit of the Baroque. of which The Tempest (1611) is the crowning achievement. as far as his approach to character is concerned? 2. The issues that are explored dramatically in Shakespeare’s later tragedies reflect the spirit of uncertainty and increasing scepticism of a baroque age. 2. read again the preceding subchapter. by the chaos arising from the corruption and collapse of values. with the restoration of order. between truth and falsehood. with the consequences of imperfect knowledge and self-blindness. at the end of the unit. His romance plays. brave. with a poisoned sword. and continually delays the act of revenge. Claudius’s guilty conscience betrays him.3. the masterful treatment of highly complex characters. the intensity of poetic expression – especially in the soliloquies – are features that rank these plays highest in the whole history of the genre. His Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 37 . absorbed more and more by his consciousness of the paradoxes of his difficult task of exposing the truth. when Fortinbras. It is in these four great tragedies that Shakespeare gives the full proof of his artistic genius. who suspects him of aspiring to take his throne. but the plot escapes their control and. generous and brilliantly intelligent. accepts Claudius’s treacherous plan of killing Hamlet during a duel. has drowned herself. The enlargement of meaning through consistent patterns of imagery running throughout each play. Polonius is the father of beautiful Ophelia. a courtier. In another scene. he kills Polonius.2. rejected by Hamlet in spite of their mutual affection. Renaissance man and the baroque sensibility Hamlet has been seen as the embodiment of the ideal Renaissance prince – refined and cultivated. who had really gone mad. Hamlet escapes a criminal plot set up by Claudius. In order to find confirmation for the ghost’s story. all the main protagonists find their death. that he had actually been poisoned by his brother. old king Hamlet.2. At one point. Young Hamlet is thus confronted with the horrors of fratricide and incest. Sent on a diplomatic mission to England. Upon his return to Denmark from his university studies. the first in this series of masterpieces. sensitive and idealistic. Confronted with the moral corruption around him. Hamlet learns that Ophelia. which represents a similar scene of murder. who was now the new king and who had married Gertrude. Hamlet hides his terrible grief behind the mask of madness.2. Sir Laurence Olivier in Hamlet (1948) 2. Hamlet: a revenge play In Hamlet. bringing in the prospect of renewal and of the restoration of order. mistaking him for Claudius. as he now sees in her only another embodiment of woman’s frailty. Hamlet arranges a play to be performed at court. young prince Hamlet learns from the ghost of his recently dead father. Shakespeare deals with his great tragic themes in the frame of a revenge tragedy. required by his dead father. In spite of this bloody outcome. takes over the rule of Denmark. Laertes. Claudius.The late Renaissance and the Baroque natural order of things or if it betrays the indifference of Nature – or God – towards man. the Norwegian prince and glorious military hero. in the confusions of the final scene. he has the occasion to kill Claudius. the play ends on a note of hope. 2. but refrains from doing it as the latter was in prayer. Hamlet feels all his certainties destroyed. Her brother. the widow queen. During the play. and with the immense burden of revenge. Back to the castle. from the Reader contains a short meditation on man and the universe. his obsessive quest for truth and certainty. is eminently a philosopher’s effort. as well as the indicated fragment.The late Renaissance and the Baroque new consciousness that “something’s rotten in Denmark” plunges him into a nightmare.1. Madness becomes the refuge of the sensitive conscience from moral chaos. SAQ 3 Text 2. 2. If they should differ significantly. in which all the values on which he had relied have lost their meaning. What is the essence of this divided view? Formulate your answer in the space left below. 38 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . in no more than 10 lines / 100 words. the man of action Hamlet’s penetrating spirit has discerned a reality of human nature that he had not suspected. at the end of the unit. Hamlet: the philosopher vs. and this may explain his indefinite postponing of the revenge. which is only partly dissimulated. In Hamlet’s tormented soul. Compare your answer with the suggestions offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. read again the preceding subchapter. His effort to see beyond the veil of illusion. revealing Hamlet’s dualistic vision. The sign of this confusion is the typically baroque motif of Hamlet’s madness.4. the balance and confidence of the Renaissance man have been replaced by scepticism and mistrust.2. and this makes him now aware of the ironies and ambiguities inherent in the discrepancy between what is and what seems. It allows the hero to take distance from the corrupt order of the “prison” that Denmark has become for him. The earl of Gloucester joins them. The storm outside matches the storm in Lear’s hurt soul. which has been interpreted in innumerable ways. after his eyes have been put out for having helped Lear. Lear’s own madness. and the Fool’s comments. of truth and illusion. the quest for higher meanings. son of Lear’s loyal supporter. as his father has been deceived by his other son Edmund. of setting right again the “time” which is “out of joint. Goneril and Reagan. Lear strives to understand the roots of evil.2. another “fall of princes” tragedy. on the other hand.” 2. there is madness in nature itself. Hamlet feels overwhelmed by the real task that he is called to fulfil. His intellectual energies are now concentrated in his search for the meaning of the ultimate questions of life and death. Edgar. marks in fact a growth in his moral understanding. exiled Lear wanders in a terrible storm in the company of Edgar. a bastard. King Lear: the madness of tragic grief King Lear. through paradox. as in Hamlet. He is also accompanied by the faithful Earl of Kent in disguise and by the Court Fool. whom he disinherits. which hide much wisdom under the appearance of playful nonsense. to the themes of knowledge and self-knowledge. Disappointed by the reticence of his youngest daughter. Maddened with grief. of human suffering. The storm scenes in the play contain the highest symbolic concentration. like that of blindness. The motif of madness. if there is a purpose for its existence in the world of man. who deprive him of all prerogatives and turn him out of their castles. are skilfully brought together and create a new ironic dimension in the play. These explorations become more important than the technical matter of revenge. is also an exile from his own family. Tragically. who is disguised as a lunatic beggar. questioning side is exacerbated by the irruption of evil in a universe that he had thought well-ordered. and he is thus reunited with his son without knowing it. and. he is wondering: “Is there a cause in nature that makes these hard hearts?” Edgar’s disguised madness. Edgar.5. Cordelia. which helps him endure his suffering. in reality. is the victim of a staged play of appearances. Hamlet’s introspective. both of them prove to be the loyal. to believe him a traitor and usurper. starts with a folk tale motif: old Lear plans to leave his kingdom to his three daughters if he is pleased with their declarations of love. an outburst of violence which evokes to Lear the cruelty of his daughters. which would not undo the past. Shakespeare develops the theme of evil by contrasting the natural order of the moral universe with the chaos produced by the 39 Storm and madness Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the Earl of Gloucester. Lear becomes the victim of the ingratitude of his two elder daughters. which is that of restoring a lost order. like Lear’s daughter Cordelia.The late Renaissance and the Baroque The delay of Hamlet’s revenge his incapacity to act. is closely linked. unconditionally loving ones. Othello. faithfulness/betrayal. Shakespeare gives a special intensity to this theme by dealing with evil in the context of the most natural of human relationships: kinship (relations by blood or by marriage). Desdemona. a brave and honest general of the Venetian republic. With his mind poisoned by a false evidence of Desdemona’s infidelity. and the tragic disaster shows how the play of appearances can dissolve firm moral opposites like truth/lie. As a result of Iago’s manipulations. painted by James Graham (early 17th century) 40 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . and its outburst is always accompanied by the awakening of the tragic hero’s consciousness of the divorce between seeming and being.6. Othello kills her and takes his own life when her innocence is proved to him. and this destroys his confidence in a moral order. Claudius’s fratricide and the cruelty of Lear’s daughters are transgressions which turn the tragic hero’s world upside down. Othello is thrown into the terrible agony of suspecting that beauty and innocence might disguise corruption. acting against it.2. The noble protagonist. In Othello. In Othello. the bond of a love marriage is the frame in which Shakespeare explores the theme of evil in connection with that of appearance vs. is led by Iago to believe his wife. Evil is that which destroys Nature. essence. To be or to seem: Othello Evil coming from those who are naturally closest to us is intolerable. 2. evil succeeds precisely because of the perfection of Desdemona’s purity and Othello’s trusting nature. Scene from Othello. innocence/guilt.The late Renaissance and the Baroque Evil as destruction of the “natural” order unnatural acts which violate this order. unfaithful. but. innocence and corruption. There is “no sweet oblivious antidote” to cure Lady Macbeth’s “diseased” mind either. and unmotivated violence and cruelty. kills the sleeping king and takes the throne. 1. The theme of evil is dramatised as a crime against the bonds of blood. a brave and worthy general in Duncan’s army. ____________________ 2. Macbeth: the tragedy of “diseased” conscience In Macbeth. which constitutes a violation of the natural (therefore moral) order. invaded by “horrible imaginings” and hallucinations.6. arranging the murder of all those who might threaten his power. The hero’s exacerbated introspective tendency makes him postpone action. The protagonist. at the instigation of his wife.” The imagery* of disease is extended to the protagonist’s conscience.2. ____________________ 3.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 4 Each of the following sentences refers to one or several of the three tragedies mentioned so far. Macbeth’s conscience soon starts accusing him. The baroque motif of madness is. The storm scenes intensify symbolically the hero’s tragic sense of confusion. you need to revise subchapters 2. and she is destroyed by the unbearable Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 41 . Macbeth. it bleeds. who has a trusting nature. The evil reverberates in the whole land: in the words of Malcolm.2.7. and each new day a gash / Is added to her wounds. ____________________ Check your answers by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.2. underlining the theme of knowledge. the horror of evil is amplified by the fact that the protagonist’s crime is committed against Duncan as his king. Persuaded by his wife to hasten the fulfillment. paradoxically. ____________________ 5. illusion and truth. Macbeth’s ambitions are inflamed by the prediction of three witches that he shall be king of Scotland. 2. The effects of this sacrilege against Nature are devastating. to 2. he multiples his crimes. is manipulated into confusion about truth and falsehood. one of Duncan’s sons.2. kinsman and guest. If any of your solutions should not correspond. ____________________ 4. / It weeps. since it accompanies the hero’s revelation of the discrepancy between appearance and reality. “Our country sinks beneath the yoke. Read them carefully and fill in the indicated space with the right title(s). disorder. at the end of the unit. from which the ultimate relief is suicide. / Macbeth does murder sleep. Text 2. Macbeth’s heroic strength of will enables him to survive the terrible inner torments. 42 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .2. scene 2.The late Renaissance and the Baroque burden of sin. His words to Lady Macbeth render his first thoughts after the murder.” heard immediately after he has committed the murder? What does sleep represent for Macbeth here? Answer in the space left below. Macbeth joins his wife after he has killed Duncan. who ends up by losing the belief in any meaning of life. in no more than 120 words / 12 lines. SAQ 5 In Act II. and he meets his punishment in the final battle. in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. How can we interpret Macbeth’s hallucination about the voice crying “Sleep no more. read the fragment once more. from the Reader. If there should be significant differences. in which he fights to the end with the same determination that had brought him the glory of a hero at the beginning of the play. Shakespeare’s shortest and most poetic tragedy reveals the incalculable effects of the darkness with which destiny may cloud the moral conscience of a noble hero. Compare your answer with the one offered at the end of the unit. reveals how soon the abominable crime has begun to work on his spirit. extracted from this scene. or tension and suspense followed by happy reversals – features that make them tragi-comedies. The Winter’s Tale. these plays offer patterns of reconciliation and positive solutions to life’s contradictions. owing to the improbability of the action. the fairy-tale atmosphere. He had long studied the arts of magic. Prospero is the former and legitimate duke of Milan. his faithful spiritservant. has turned him into a slave. usurped by his brother Antonio and forced into exile twelve years before. 43 John William Waterhouse: Miranda –The Tempest (1916) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the long journey. as well as other passengers. Alonzo. The Tempest (1611). the shipwreck. but his plan is prevented by Ariel’s music. the pronounced elements of the supernatural. king of Naples. the master of an island. the sense of a benevolent providential design. Shakespeare’s last plays Shakespeare’s four plays belonging to his last period of creation (1608-1611) – Pericles. We soon find out that the storm and shipwreck have been magically provoked by Prospero. Miranda. the choice of a remote setting. by his powers. His acts of magic are fulfilled through Ariel. their plots contain characteristic ingredients like dangers which are finally avoided. while for physical labour he uses Caliban. It is also in these last plays that Shakespeare’s dramatic imagination relies to a greater extent on symbolism.8. Alonzo. They may also be described as romance plays. magic. separated from each other in various parts of the island and all believing the others dead. Trinculo. and The Tempest – are described either as tragi-comedies or as romance plays. Sebastian and Ferdinand – Alonzo’s brother and son. on which he lives alone with his daughter. and Sebastian. a drunken servant. The plot of The Tempest Of these four plays. and certain themes and motifs (e. are encouraged by Caliban to kill Prospero and take over the rule of the island. myth. 2. Three lines of action develop. and his supernatural powers have given him control over both the natural elements and the spirits. In its opening scene. involving the shipwrecked characters. a storm wrecks the ship carrying Antonio.9. to take his throne. respectively –. a creature whose beastly nature is beyond Prospero’s attempt of educating him. Another sub-plot brings together Ferdinand and Miranda. Caliban hates and fears Prospero. One of these sub-plots involves the courtiers: Antonio persuades Sebastian to kill his sleeping brother. is considered the finest. Cymbeline. In a plot-line that parallels and parodies the latter. marvelous.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2. who.2. After the tragedies. the theme of loss and recovery. They mix serious and comic action.g. the last expression of Shakespeare’s mature genius. who instantly fall in love with each other. of exile and return). duke of Milan. the jester.2. represents pure spirit. Prospero. one of Shakespeare’s most fascinating creations. and then to Milan. for the emergence of a regenerated world. a “thing of darkness. The theme of power Ariel vs. Caliban Innocence vs. education] can never stick. he learns. Major themes An important theme in The Tempest is that of the nature of power.” claiming his throne. and to return to the world in his full humanity. the scholar-magician. who reveals himself to them as “the wronged duke of Milan. influenced by Ariel. Prospero’s project acquires a wider dimension through the union of Ferdinand and Miranda. 2. Ariel is commanded to bring all the characters before Prospero. Evil is not absent in The Tempest: there are echoes of Shakespeare’s previous plays in the motif of the usurping brother planning murder. evil Elizabeth Green – Ariel: The Tempest (1922) 44 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . At the opposite pole.10. who now repent. or of the wickedness of the servant turning against his master. His act of forgiveness is the highest demonstration of princely power.” “on whose nature / Nurture [i. the control of intelligence over nature. Prospero plans a safe return to Naples for the wedding of Miranda and Ferdinand. to master himself. now. and it is significant that this act is accompanied by his decision to abandon his magic. more importantly. he has a change of heart and sees in the union of the lovers a possibility of reconciliation and of a new beginning. but. The power of innocence to redeem evil and restore order and the values of humanity is another important theme.” he had also failed to see his brother’s true character. He forgives his treacherous brother and those involved in his usurpation. the personification of Prospero’s imagination.” who can be controlled only by the art of magic. to break his staff (symbol of supernatural power) and to drown his book (symbol of supernatural knowledge).e. assumes a certain responsibility for his own dethronement: absorbed in his studies. whose youth and innocence are the premises for the undoing of the wrongs of the past. In the final act. “neglecting worldly ends. On the island.The late Renaissance and the Baroque Prospero’s initial plan had been revenge. Ariel.2. The grossest instincts of human nature and a fundamental viciousness are symbolically embodied in the grotesque figure of Caliban. at the end. While Caliban and the plotting courtiers and servants demonstrate that both nature and society are capable of corruption. he regains his authority and learns again the arts of power. in Ferdinand and Miranda civilisation and nature are united in their most innocent forms. extracted from The Tempest. Compare your answer with the one offered at the end of the unit. Prospero reminds Caliban that he did his best to raise him from his animal condition. in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. more carefully. Caliban answers that the only benefit of being able to speak is that he can now curse Prospero.4. Act I. If there should be major differences. scene 2. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 45 . by teaching him to speak. or in developing self-identity. for instance. Formulate your answer in 150 words / 15 lines. Here.. What implications can you find in their exchange of replies? You may think. of the role of language in acquiring knowledge. Full of resentment.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 6 Read Text 2. read the fragment again. comforts Ferdinand’s despair when he thinks his father dead. The miraculous survival of the ship’s passengers. suggests the victory of life over death and of spirit over the elemental power of nature. and it even contains (like Hamlet) a play within the play: a masque* performed as a celebration of Ferdinand and Miranda’s engagement. The play-metaphor The action in The Tempest is practically managed by Prospero. Symbols in The Tempest Several symbolic elements contribute to the treatment of the themes in The Tempest. manipulates the characters and prescribes the ending. Even Caliban seems to be responsive to the “sounds and sweet airs” of the island. the same features as those of the Renaissance aesthetic ideal: beauty. Another pervading symbol is that of music.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2.2. of performance.12. and it is constantly associated with the magic actions of Ariel. In opposition with the convulsions and dangers of the tempest.” The sea-journey Music 2. which “delight and hurt not. is frequent in Shakespeare’s plays. then at least man should strive to discern in it. whose magic art controls every incident. sublimating its primitive energies. Ariel – illustration to the 1873 edition of The Works of Shakespeare 46 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Shakespeare’s last masterpiece seems to suggest that if life is transient like a theatre performance. and prevents the wicked plots of both the courtiers and the drunken servants. music suggests harmony and the power of the spirit to purify human nature. but an important symbolic ingredient in its major events. Music is not only a necessary element in the spectacular quality of The Tempest. order and harmony. The playmetaphor.11. a profound spiritual transformation and growth. The sea-journey and shipwreck are the symbols of a “sea change”*. or to impose upon it. the association of life with the insubstantiality and briefness of a theatre show. It is through music that he calms down the fury of the waters. This emphasis on spectacle and its power to reveal truths by its illusion constitutes a baroque element in The Tempest. Prospero also needs “some heavenly music” to accomplish the final act of his plan. The title itself points to the importance of the symbolism of the sea-journey. The whole play insists on the idea of spectacle. It is through the perfection of Ariel’s art that Prospero re-establishes the moral law in the world to which he can now return.2. T F Make sure your answers are right by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. 2. 1. T F 6. at the end of the unit. Two essential symbolic elements contribute to the development of the theme of regeneration: the sea-journey and music. If any of your choices should be wrong. staged and managed by Prospero through his magic art. The betrayal of his brother and the plotting of the courtiers on the island were severely punished by Prospero. T F 2. T F 5.2. Their styles are different. of which three are false. John Donne and Andrew Marvell illustrate best the baroque sensibility of the 17th century in their themes and expressive strategies. combines an outstanding intellectual brilliance with lyric grace. Ferdinand and Miranda represent the innocent young generation capable of renewing Prospero’s former world. The contemporaries referred to their poetry as “strong lines.” and many disliked its cultivated difficulty. The metaphysical poets The term metaphysical. but each of them.3. Prospero had lost his power as the duke of Milan because his studies distanced him from the immediate world which he was supposed to rule. in his own way. Prospero intends to use his magic power and supernatural knowledge in his regained authority as duke of Milan. The power of music has no effect on Caliban.2. and this makes them both masters of metaphysical wit. T F 4. T F 3. Circle appropriately T (true) or F (false) for each sentence. A baroque feature of The Tempest is the emphasis on the theatrical quality of the action. was first intended to bring discredit on them.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 7 Let us remember a few things about The Tempest. except that of terrifying him. You must find them among the following statements. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 47 .12. applied to certain poets of the early and mid-seventeenth century. revise subchapters2. T F 7.9 to 2. argumentative quality. Dr. hidden. which starts from a comparison. The main features of metaphysical poetry are concentration and logical coherence. is contemplated from a certain distance. Characteristics of metaphysical poetry Metaphysical poetry displayed a new quality of writing. to bring not only his imagination and emotion into play. meant to surprise and delight the reader by their wit*. the poet was able to reconcile contradictory states of mind and feeling.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2.” A new kind of poetry emerged.e.3. as “a combination of dissimilar images. but also his reason. a metaphor or an analogy. or discovery of occult [i. from a most ordinary circumstance. The metaphysical conceit The poetic device by which such opposites are brought together and reconciled is the conceit. united] by violence together. conceits were abundant in Elizabethan dramatic and lyrical poetry. with patterns of rhythms closer to those of spoken language than to the requirements of literary tradition. As extended comparisons. which helps the poet to develop his subject. writers had to face a new exigency. a demand for “more matter and less words. which is developed through the exploitation of an image in all its possible implications. A poem in this tradition is usually focused on an idea or line of argument. which was in fact the expression of a new spiritual context.” as “the most heterogeneous ideas yoked [i. “More matter and less words” 2. a metaphysical poem is not a piece of abstract thinking. a cold intellectual exercise. that the poet detaches himself from his own feelings in order to better understand and analyse them. and which blended expressive conciseness with density of meaning. The reader is expected to approach such a poem with an active mind. and the emotions involved. This is an elaborate figurative device. The impression is that this experience. linked.2. Starting with the last decade of the 16th century.1. often extended by the use of hyperbole* or oxymoron*. all metaphysical poets are self-conscious and analytic. The thought goes hand in hand with the feeling. but metaphysical conceits were far-fetched* comparisons. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Discordia concors 48 . and to unify diverse and even discordant aspects of inner and outer reality into a single experience.” Conceits were effective instruments in developing an argument and in rendering complication and subtlety of thought. Samuel Johnson* was to describe (in 1779) the kind of wit which characterised a metaphysical conceit as discordia concors*.3. regardless of the subject of the poem. and a blend of the commonplace and the sublime. secret] resemblances in things apparently unlike. Irrespective of the kind of experience they endeavour to render.e. by the ingenuity with which they forced the perception of similarity in the most unexpected elements. In spite of its logical. There is always a connection between the abstract and the concrete. By means of conceits. and almost always such a poem starts from a very personal situation. as well as in ordering and mastering intense emotion. Donne displays the same sophisticated wit.1. you will look at some famous examples of metaphysical conceits. He rejected the regular versification of Elizabethan poetry . 2.3. Two important themes in his poetic work are love and faith. and allegory. revise subchapters 2. In the following subchapters. and 2. and created a style which had the vigour and liveliness of colloquial speech. In the treatment of both themes. Each answer should not exceed 2 lines / 20 words. and a highly original one. If they should differ considerably. its decorative use of classical mythology. the two most outstanding representatives of this poetic trend in the 17th century. and both are explored in the whole richness and variety of their possible experiences.3. in poems belonging to John Donne and Andrew Marvell. and which confers dramatic realism to his poems. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 49 .2.3. the same blend of ingenious reasoning and intense passion. ♦ ♦ ♦ ♦ Compare your answers with those provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. pastoral* conventions. at the end of the unit. and the same realistic force. Themes in John Donne’s poetry John Donne is one of the most influential poets of the 17th century. Use the space left below.3.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 8 Order the main aspects describing metaphysical poetry into four essential features. His approach of the theme of love is more “realistic”: he often glorifies sexuality and the body as important aspects in the experience of love. from cynicism and playfulness to passionate sincerity and the celebration of both physical love and spiritual union. he resorts to the extravagant identification of a flea that has bitten both of them with their “marriage bed” and a “marriage temple. Donne’s rejection of the Petrarchan tradition A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning The Flea: seduction and wit 50 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . beautiful. sometimes presenting woman as inconstant and unfaithful. he pleads that she should abandon the intransigence of the chaste. in which the lover tries to persuade his mistress not to cry at his imminent departure. Another powerful example of Donne’s use of logical argument in a poem about love is The Flea. may afford an experience of the transcendental. superior – woman was an object of never fulfilled desire. shocking the reader by the unexpected analogy developed in the central conceit (the flea as symbolic marriage bed). Donne is highly playful in this poem. and all that the faithful lover could hope for were symbolic rewards and favours for his constancy and humble submission. but. The various comparisons and analogies by which he describes their love function as arguments in his plea. Mingling the trivial with the mystical sublime. The poem celebrates the stability and comfort of a secure relationship. These are conceits which illustrate the preference of the metaphysical poets for analogies between the macrocosm and the (human) microcosm. Crying over their separation would bring to mind an analogy with earthly disasters (“sigh-tempests.4. sometimes speaking frankly of his erotic desire. His love poetry is revolutionary in its rejection of the Petrarchan* conventions of courtly love*. as this would be a triple “sin. dealing with profound personal feeling and emotion from the distance of intellectual argument. He also suggests sometimes that physical union.” their separation must be seen in analogy with cosmic disturbances (“the trepidation of the spheres”). in which the speaker brings all his argumentative skill in support of his attempt to convince the woman to accept physical intimacy. Their superior love is founded on spiritual union and is not dependent on physical presence for its survival.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2. This is a seduction poem. Donne adopts a wide range of tones and attitudes. and he seems to amuse himself. are however harmless to man. A famous poem celebrating shared love is A Valediction*: Forbidding Mourning.” In fact. unattainable lady and enjoy the pleasures of sensuality. Chaste. though greater. carrying the lover’s witty arguments to their logical extremes.3. which. Donne changes this conventional vision of love.” “tear-floods”). Donne’s love poems In his love poems. in which their blood is now mixed. their love being so great and “refined. and often emphasising the need for mutual love.” He tries to persuade his mistress not to kill the flea. according to which woman was always an unattainable ideal. when accompanied by genuine feeling. Formulate your answer in the space left below.2. Read the poem again. in the Reader). you need to revise subchapter 2.3. Here. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.6. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 51 . at the end of the unit. Explain the surprising analogy that he makes in order to speak about mutual love. he develops one of his most famous conceits.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 9 Read Donne’s poem (Text 2. If they should differ significantly. as well. which explains what a metaphysical conceit is. in no more than 18 lines / 180 words.. paying special attention to the last three stanzas. Tension and paradox are also explored in his religious poems. this need is expressed by means of several conceits. divine judgement. Donne’s focus is on his deep sense of sin. resurrection and salvation. comparable to that of Shakespeare. on death. one of Donne’s nineteen Holy Sonnets. Actually. Donne’s religious poems often develop an analogy between sexual love and divine love. These poems usually display contrary impulses.5. on the paradoxes of freedom and captivity. If love is often a holy mystery for Donne. The most eloquent example is the sonnet Batter My Heart. in his religious poems the mystery of faith is often explored in erotic terms. gives this sonnet a particular dramatic intensity. Donne’s religious poems Donne’s baroque sensibility is evident in his love poems in the tension between conflicting. The insistence on violence and struggle. In his religious meditations in verse. which parallel those in his love poetry. of loyalty and betrayal. for the divine saving grace. in which the poet’s desire to abandon himself to God’s love is rendered through paradoxical images. Satan.3. which makes him a prisoner of God’s enemy. In Batter My Heart. in which the delight in witty logical argumentation. between the need for permanence and the need for variety.The late Renaissance and the Baroque 2. between idealised passion and erotic desire. clashes with the poet’s scepticism that the mystery of faith can be penetrated intellectually. paradoxical aspects of the experience of love. in which the poet expresses his deep need for a close relationship with God. as if suggesting that the experience of erotic union is the only way of understanding our relationship with God. Batter My Heart Portrait of John Donne (1572-1631) (author unknown) 52 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . in the exercise of reason. He fights against his own sense of sin and guilt. Andrew Marvell: the patriotic theme in the Horatian Ode The last of the metaphysical poets. and love of country.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 10 Read Text 2. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.6. according to some critics. Marvell left. revise subchapter 2.3. nature. living through the turbulent years of the Civil War*. How does he use this contrast in order to speak about his religious experience? Analyse this conceit in no more than 12 lines / 120 words. at the end of the unit. In the last six lines. Three major themes can be detached from his poetry: love.3. representing Donne’s sonnet Batter My Heart. from the Reader. As a Puritan* patriot. Andrew Marvell combines in his poetic work the sophistication of metaphysical wit with the elegance and grace of classical forms and attitudes.5. This meditation on political conflict and national history is impressive by its clarity and controlled variations of tone. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 53 . Donne suggests his contradictory. the greatest of political poems in English literature: An Horatian Ode* upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland (written in 1650).7. paradoxical feelings by means of a conceit which exploits metaphorically the contrast between marriage and rape. If there should be significant differences. 2. and read the poem again. Gifted with a sharp sense of observation of natural detail. these details as emblems of a transcendent reality. shyness] and accept his passionate love. the most accomplished is To His Coy Mistress. in which both of them act according to a divine order. Marvell does not portray Oliver Cromwell and his opponent.3. The theme of love in Marvell’s poetry Of Marvell’s love poems. which illustrates the poet’s skill in combining the playful and the serious. pictured with remarkable precision. It is a seduction poem. A natural detail. Although loyal to the Puritan cause. reveals thus its symbolic dimension to the poet’s contemplative mind. and many of his poems reveal his delight in the contemplation of rural nature. in which the speaker develops an ingenious argument in order to persuade his mistress to give up her coyness [i. but Marvell’s poem extends it into a meditation on time. behaving with royal grace in his last minute. developed then into a complex analogy with the pure Christian soul and its relation with earth and with heaven. Nature as “mystic book” Another side of Marvell’s poetic personality is illustrated by his nature poetry. What begins as a nature poem is extended into a religious poem by means of a metaphysical conceit. Marvell emphasises the dignity with which the defeated king met his fate. anticipating the early Romantic attitude to nature.7.e. which begins with a most accurate description of a dew-drop on a rose petal. His nature poems have usually a mystical tendency. He showed a deep love for the countryside. on the scaffold. On a Drop of Dew 2. to change the form of ruling power).8.” so the Christian Soul denies the earth and its “impure” pleasures. however. as if Nature itself were a “mystic book. a masterpiece of metaphysical wit. in contrasting colours. 2. The most illustrative poem. Victorious Cromwell is admirable for his fiery spirit and the courage with which he assumed the task to “cast the kingdoms old / Into another mould” (i.The late Renaissance and the Baroque Andrew Marvell (1621-1678) Its classical perfection manages to hold in balance the ambivalence of attitude and the complication of thought characteristic of the metaphysical trend.e.” and finally dissolves itself “into the glories of the almighty Sun. Marvell often sees. On the other hand. aspiring to union with almighty God. King Charles I Stuart. lest it grow [i. in this respect. Just as the dew-drop is “trembling.” associated with his mistress’s preference for a prolonged courtship.” whose visible beauties are the key to spiritual truths. is On a Drop of Dew. The carpe diem* motif was popular in Renaissance poetry. and thus he can find reason to praise both of them. The speaker’s argument opposes the “deserts of vast eternity.e. He rather sees the events and the fate of the two rulers in the context of a providential history. for fear that it might grow] impure. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Carpe diem 54 .3. it can arrest the inevitable course towards physical extinction by a moment of ecstatic pleasure. paying attention to the logic of the argument. after revising subchapter 2. in the Reader). at the end of the unit. but…. then (therefore)…. SAQ 11 Read Marvell’s poem To His Coy Mistress (Text 2. Love can suspend the inexorable laws of nature. What are the main ideas corresponding to these three steps? Formulate them succinctly in the space left below.3.The late Renaissance and the Baroque to the imperative of conquering time by the intensity of sensual enjoyment.8. in its sexual fulfillment. If… But… Therefore… Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Do not exceed 12 lines / 120 words in all. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 55 . read the poem again. Love. If the difference is considerable. more carefully. which has the structure If….8. is presented as the only way of transcending our mortality. The late Renaissance and the Baroque Summary This unit has introduced you to an important aspect of the English Renaissance: the development, in the early 17th century, of the Baroque as a structure of sensibility different from that of the Elizabethan age (corresponding to the high Renaissance). Subchapter 2.1 focuses on the contrast between the optimism, confidence, exuberance, sense of order, harmony and balance characterising the high Renaissance spirit, and the baroque vision with its emphasis on disorder, conflict, tension and confusion, scepticism and anxiety. Paradox and irony are favourite devices for the exploration of the relationship between contraries, such as truth and illusion, wisdom and madness, life and death, body and spirit, action and contemplation, etc. A taste for the obscure, for melancholy, for the macabre often defines the Baroque, but it may also display an attraction to the spectacular, to extravagance and excess. Subchapters 2.2 and 2.3 focus, respectively, on Shakespeare and on two great metaphysical poets, John Donne and Andrew Marvell, who best illustrate this spirit of the late Renaissance. Subchapter 2.2 deals with Shakespeare’s four great plays of his second period of creation – Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, and Macbeth. The themes they explore (the nature of evil, the meaning of human suffering, the paradoxes of innocence and knowledge, truth and falsehood, etc.(reflect the baroque sensibility of the age). This subchapter includes also a discussion of Shakespeare’s last major dramatic creation, The Tempest, a romance play in which his tone changes into a more affirmative one and the central thematic concern is the possibility of moral regeneration, of the restoration of order. Subchapter 2.3 aims to acquaint you with some of the basic features of metaphysical poetry, insisting on its use of conceits, on its argumentative structure, on its mixture of intense feeling and intellectual detachment. Both John Donne and Andrew Marvell display a baroque sensibility in their attraction to paradox and ambiguity, and they are both great masters of metaphysical wit, skillfully controlling lyrical effusion by subtle and precise logical argument. Key words ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Renaissance Baroque paradox scepticism tragedy romance play play-metaphor metaphysical poetry conceit discordia concors 56 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural The late Renaissance and the Baroque Glossary • Baroque: the term comes from the Portuguese barroco and the Spanish barrueco, meaning a rough or imperfectly shaped pearl. It describes a style in architecture and the visual arts, music and literature, which dominated the 17th century, and which was characterised by sumptuous ornamentation and by the search for effect. Its meaning is often extended to a certain type of sensibility, not necessarily restricted to the historical period in which the baroque style flourished. In art, the Baroque is opposed to Classicism and Neoclassicism. blank verse: see the Glossary in Unit 1. carpe diem: literally, “seize the day” in Latin; a phrase from one of Horace’s Odes, meaning “enjoy yourself while you can.” The carpe diem motif is associated with the theme of the brevity of life and the inevitability of death. Civil War: see the Glossary in Unit 1. courtly love: a concept developed during the Middle Ages, in literary and aristocratic/courtly circles, which was closely linked to the feudal concept of vassalage and the cult of the Virgin Mary. discordia concors: (Latin) literally: harmonious discord; combination of apparently discordant images or ideas, the joining of opposites in such a way that a paradoxical sense of harmony is created. fall of princes: the traditional theme of a tragedy, as established by Aristotle (see the Gallery of personalities below), in his treatise on Poetics. According to him, tragedy was supposed to deal with the downfall of a noble character, enjoying “reputation and prosperity.” The disaster is brought on him not by vice and depravity, but by “some error of judgement,” and its representation is meant to arouse pity and fear. far-fetched: literally: carried too far; improbable, unlikely. history plays (or chronicle plays): a form of drama invented by the Elizabethans, which dramatises a certain historical period, starting from historical record rather than from myth and legend. Shakespeare’s chronicle plays include a sequence of four plays on the War of the Roses (the three parts of Henry VI, and Richard III – 1590-1592), and another series, consisting in Richard II, King John, the two parts of Henry IV, and Henry V, written between 1595-1599. These plays are mainly inspired from the 16th century chronicles of Raphael Holinshed, and they were highly influential in the shaping of a national consciousness. They scrutinise the national past, underlining the importance of a centralised authority which should put an end to the dangers of anarchy, inherent in the feudal struggles for power. Horatian Ode: an ode (see the Glossary in Unit 1) written in a highly formal, regular pattern, on the model of the ancient Latin poet Horace (65-8 B.C.). hyperbole: a rhetorical figure consisting in deliberate exaggeration, for the purpose of emphasis. imagery: basically, language appealing to the senses. Imagery represents the coherent system of mental images evoked by 57 • • • • • • • • • • • Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural The late Renaissance and the Baroque • • • • • • • • • • • • • figurative language, to which certain patterns of feeling are associated, and which direct the reader’s reaction. For instance, in Macbeth, the recurrent imagery of clothes sitting ill on their owner intensifies our perception of the protagonist as a usurper, and the dominant imagery of darkness contributes to the suggestion of the proportions of the moral evil. In King Lear, frequent images connected with bodily pain and torture and with animals of prey strengthen our sense of the extraordinary power of evil, of a humanity that has become a toy in the hands of indifferent gods. Jacobean and Caroline drama: see again subchapter 1.4.1 in Unit 1. masque: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Metaphysical Poets: see again subchapter 1.3 in Unit 1. oxymoron: a rhetorical figure in which apparently contradictory terms are used in conjunction (as in “beautiful tyrant”). pastoral: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Petrarchan: related to or modelled on Petrarch (see again the Gallery of personalities in Unit 1). Puritan: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Renaissance: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. revenge tragedy: see again subchapter 1.4.1 in Unit 1. sea-change: this phrase from Shakespeare’s The Tempest, used by Ariel in one of his songs, is used to refer to a complete change in the nature or character of something, a change which seems almost magical. soliloquy: from Latin solus, i.e. alone, and loqui, i.e. to speak; a widely accepted dramatic convention, by which a character, speaking alone on the stage, reveals to the audience his thoughts, feelings, motives and intentions. In Shakespeare’s plays, the soliloquies mark the moments of the characters’ most profound insight, in which some important revelation is reached, or in which the character discloses the full complexity of his motives and reveals the depths of his consciousness. valediction: a farewell speech (from Latin vale: farewell, and dicere: to say). wit: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Gallery of personalities • • Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): Greek philosopher, author of works on logic, ethics, politics, poetics, rhetoric, metaphysics. Johnson, Samuel (1709-1784): the most influential critic of the 18th century, author of the impressive critical-biographical work Lives of the Poets (1779-1781), editor of Shakespeare’s work (1765). He compiled the first important Dictionary of the English Language (1755). Kyd, Thomas (1557-1595): one of the most popular Elizabethan dramatists, the author of The Spanish Tragedy, the prototype of the Renaissance revenge tragedy, modelled on the plays of Seneca (se again subchapter 1.3.2 in Unit 1). Marlowe, Christopher (1564-1593): Elizabethan dramatist, the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural • • 58 The late Renaissance and the Baroque • • • most important and influential of Shakespeare’s precursors. His tragedies (Tamburlane the Great, Doctor Faustus, The Jew of Malta) depict titanic heroes, whose extraordinary will power and ambition set them on a risky quest (for absolute power, knowledge and wealth, respectively). Sidney, Philip (1554-1586): important poet of the Elizabethan age, best known through his sequence of love sonnets Astrophil and Stella. He is also the author of a prose romance, Arcadia, and of a critical prose essay, An Apology [i.e. defense] of Poetry, which played a major role in the definition of English Renaissance literary aesthetics. Spenser, Edmund (1552-1599): one of the greatest English poets, whose influence on later poets is comparable to that of Shakespeare and Milton. Like Sidney (see below), Spenser wrote a sonnet sequence, Amoretti, which enjoyed great popularity. His masterpiece is the allegorical poem The Fairie Queen, a culmination of Renaissance poetic art, which glorifies Queen Elizabeth. Tudor monarchs: Henry VII (1485-1509), who established national order and unity after a long period of feudal war; Henry VIII (1509-1547), Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. emphasis on disorder, violence, conflict, instability 2. emphasis on life’s shortness and insubstantiality (life as dream), on the macabre and the morbid, on melancholy 3. taste for extravagance, excess, breaking of limits and proportions, ambiguity 4. scepticism, anxiety, tension SAQ 2 1. Shakespeare shows a deep understanding of human nature in its extraordinary variety; he portrays a wide range of feelings, emotions, attitudes and moral features; he achieves perfectly convincing characters, in a variety of dramatic registers. 2. The last plays are characterised by a vision of hope and of order restored; here, innocence is victorious over evil, by contrast with the former tragic vision of the universe and of man as torn by inner conflicts. SAQ 3 The fragment contrasts the confidence and exuberance of the Renaissance with the scepticism and melancholy characteristic of the baroque spirit. Hamlet as a Renaissance man glorifies the beauty and majesty of the universe, and praises man as the masterpiece of creation, close to angels and God in his power of understanding and the infinity of his creative potential. On the other hand, to his tragic consciousness the world appears as irremediably corrupt and infested with evil, and man as a creature limited by his mortal condition (“quintessence of dust”). Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 59 through language (knowing his “own meaning”). by keeping one foot fixed and moving the other round this centre. F. innocent conscience) is part of the natural order of man’s existence. 5. led to his awareness of his condition as a slave. Othello. etc. 2. Hamlet. As “chief nourisher in life’s feast. and the horrible crime has immediate effects on his conscience. T. guided by rational will. of his own sense of self. Perfect circles (symbolising perfect love) may be traced by means of the compasses. T SAQ 8 1. attempt to reconcile contradictory or discordant experiences. By 60 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .e. 5.The late Renaissance and the Baroque SAQ 4 1. Othello. SAQ 6 Prospero might have better controlled Caliban in his “brutish” state. Macbeth’s feeling that he has lost this privilege of nature reflects his awareness that his “unnatural” deed is a violation of moral law (which is “natural”). passion and reason.g. T. analytical detachment from emotion 4. which remain perfectly united. King Lear SAQ 5 In the first place. make his purposes known through words). 4. From Caliban’s point of view. 2. He thus expected Caliban to overcome his primitive impulses and to develop more civilised tendencies (“purposes”). surprising associations) 3.g. of a clean mind. which would have enabled him to communicate (e. unexpected. As a truly superior being. concise expression and density of meaning 2. is a suitable emblem for their souls. which organises and “manages” intense feeling and emotion. unable to find peace once it has been corrupted by evil. 3. endowed with speech. King Lear. SAQ 7 1. which he resents. From Prospero’s point of view. F. Hamlet. 4. to blend contraries (e. the abstract and the concrete. made of two moving legs articulated at one end. Prospero seemed also to think that Caliban could be socialised through speech. King Lear. however. “Sleep no more” anticipates the torments of Macbeth’s conscience. Hamlet. because the latter’s nature was hopelessly evil. 6. 7. he chose to raise Caliban to the condition of a rational creature. the development of conscience. “The innocent sleep” is the symbol of moral integrity. T. even if physically the lovers must be apart.” sleep (i. complicated line of argument. usually between highly dissimilar elements. This instrument. F. 3. this hallucination proves Macbeth’s strong imagination. use of conceits (extended comparisons. He is not a cold-blooded killer.) SAQ 9 The poet associates mutual love with the way in which a pair of compasses works. he failed in his effort to enlighten Caliban. but the implication is that his will and reason are too weak to defend his faith.. 273-287) 2. waiting for her departed lover. Your own passion “transpires” in the blush of your skin. God would set him free for a complete experience of religious devotion. just as the mistress. Therefore let us enjoy each other while we are still young and you are beautiful. 97-105.. Further reading 1. vol. your beauty will fade and my songs of praise will have no object when you lie in your grave.” so there is always the certainty of reunion for the lovers. vol. 2 (“Shakespeare to Milton”). SAQ 10 Marriage is associated with love. English Literature and Civilisation. SAQ 11 If we had time enough and the world were all ours. while rape presupposes the violation of one’s will.). Preda. The New Pelican Guide to English Literature.). Boris (ed. consent and legality. will long for him. 246-249. as the moving leg will “come home” and join its “twin. because your charms deserve such praise. the inclination of the fixed leg may vary – it seems to “lean after” the moving leg. however. 130-140) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 61 . Penguin Books Ltd. I would spend ages in praising every part of your body. in fact.” which only God can effect.” Depending on the distance from the centre to the circumference. 3. 1983 (pp. Paradoxically. so let us devour Time with the intensity of our desire. 1969 (pp. He loves God. 34-40. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. 267-283. Ioan-Aurel (coord. since only worms will “enjoy” it. Taking him by force – by the force of the divine grace –. which would restore the purity of his faith (being “chaste”). The only way out of his loveless “marriage” to sin is a “divorce.The late Renaissance and the Baroque analogy. and which would resemble rape. The Renaissance and the Restoration Period. the poet’s love depends on the certainty of his mistress’s faithfulness and constancy: “Thy firmness makes my circle just. in the absence of joy. Ford. instead of letting it devour us slowly. But I know time is merciless. The speaker tries thus to persuade his mistress of his own constancy of feeling. A Critical History of English Literature. But. your virginity will then be worth nothing. the metaphor of the speaker’s “marriage” to God’s enemy suggests his sense of sin. 302-305) 3. London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. David. Daiches. 1991 (pp. 4. 3. 3.5. 1 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 63 63 63 64 64 66 66 67 67 68 69 70 72 72 74 75 77 78 79 81 82 83 83 84 85 86 87 62 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Unit objectives The Works of John Milton Milton.4. 3. 3.5. the “author of all ill” Milton’s depiction of Adam and Eve Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities SAA No.2. 3.4.1. 3.3.5. 3.4. 3.3.4.1.2.2.2. 3.3. 3. 3.6.1. 3. 3.2. 3.3. 3.The works of John Milton UNIT 3 THE WORKS OF JOHN MILTON Unit Outline 3. 3.5.1.3.2. 3.4.1.4. the Christian humanist Milton’s early poems L’Allegro and Il Penseroso Lycidas – a pastoral elegy Milton’s sonnets Sonnet VII Sonnet XVII Paradise Lost – the Christian epic Satan and the fallen angels in Hell The divine foreknowledge of the Fall Raphael’s warning to Adam The creation of the world The seduction of Eve The world after the Fall The heroes of Paradise Lost Milton’s Satan: the rebel’s inner hell Satan. 3.4.5.2. music. motifs and concerns in Milton’s earlier poems ♦ describe the kind of sonnet structure used by Milton ♦ analyse the way in which Milton develops imaginatively and interprets biblical events in Paradise Lost ♦ state and explain the theme of Paradise Lost ♦ summarise the argument that enables Milton to “justify the ways of God to men” in his epic poem ♦ define the main features of the character of Milton’s Satan ♦ describe Milton’s treatment of the characters of Adam and Eve in Paradise Lost Unit objectives 3. He lived and created in an age of historical turbulence and profound change. His education was eminently that of a Christian humanist. recommended him for the office of Latin Secretary to the Council of State. theology. rhetoric and the great works of the classics. etc. He returned to England when the troubles which were to lead to the Civil War* started. After that. He devoted himself heart and soul to the cause defended by the Puritans*. Christian faith and classical formal perfection. politics. written in English and in Latin. and he made up his mind about his own position in the conflicts that agitated his country. 63 John Milton (1608-1674) A man of impressive learning The Puritan patriot Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . as well as his moral inflexibility. the Christian humanist Milton is one of the most prominent figures of the 17th century. Milton had from an early age the conviction of his poetic vocation. and his acquaintance with the great artistic achievements of that country and with prominent personalities enriched his education and contributed to his erudition. etc. Milton’s enduring reputation is ensured by his masterpiece. At Cambridge (1625-1629). mathematics. Paradise Lost. he studied Latin.g. the greatest epic poem in English literature. as a publicist. the freedom of the press. religious and civil debates of his age. In his prose essays and pamphlets*. Milton. Greek and Hebrew. baroque* vision. and the course of his literary career was consistently marked by his involvement in the political. family. such as education. accumulating an impressive knowledge in a diversity of fields (e. His enormous learning. and for almost twenty years he served their ideal of a truly reformed England. and he dedicated long years of study and preparation to his accomplishment as a creator. he continued to read intensively. he went on a trip to Italy. the author of a work which represents a highly original synthesis of Renaissance humanism*.). In 1638. religion.The works of John Milton By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ situate Milton’s literary activity in the historical context ♦ explain what features of Milton’s work define him as a Christian humanist ♦ identify themes. he approached a diversity of subjects.1. which exerted a huge influence on many generations of poets. geography. approaching the great religious themes that enabled him to assert his genius. celebrating the birth (the “nativity”) of Christ and its inauguration of a new order for humanity. He sought inspiration in biblical mythology. by his aspiration to be a Christian epic* poet. However. As his poetic personality gained in self-confidence. In the Sixth elegy. Milton places emphasis on the dignity of agricultural labour and the 64 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the Nativity Ode* is a landmark in his creation. who. This poem was intended as the first in a series about the significant moments of the Christian year. L’Allegro and Il Penseroso To Milton’s long years of preparation for the fulfilment of his vocation belong also two poems. etc. Virgil*.2. They deal with contrasting moods of poetic inspiration. However. or the two sides of the poet’s soul. but his maturity and experience enabled him to bring to fulfilment the most important part of his poetic work. With the Restoration*. as it is also an ambitious assertion of Milton’s own literary birth as a “poet-priest.). In some of them.2. On the other hand. Milton’s Christian humanism consists in this fusion of classical form and Christian themes. As in other poems. in these poems Milton appears highly preoccupied by his poetic vocation. but Milton did not complete his plan. His models were the great Greek and Latin poets (Homer*. which already displayed the ambivalence in Milton’s poetic identity as both Christian poet and classicist humanist. Milton follows Ovid in the emphasis on sensuous enjoyment. in the optimism and exuberance accompanying the contemplation of reviving nature. which are in fact complementary: L’Allegro [“the cheerful man”] and Il Penseroso [“the pensive/melancholy man”]. like a priest. in the perfect integration of classical allusion and pagan mythology with Christian spirituality. with its pastoral delights. Milton’s early poems Milton started writing poetry very early. and his first notable poems were seven Latin elegies*. As a poet. Milton’s first important poem in English on a religious theme was written in 1629: On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity. he started to move away from themes and concerns which were defining for the classicist spirit of the Renaissance. these two sides are usually kept apart in these poems. L’Allegro describes a day – from morning till sunset – in the life of the cheerful man.” The Latin elegies The Nativity Ode 3. his political hopes ended. is in touch with divine secrets. to whose excellence he aspired to rise. and he was perfect master of a variety of styles.The works of John Milton The Christian humanist poet a position that he occupied from 1649 until 1660.1. 3. in the treatment of the theme of love and the use of Greek mythology. the pastoral* image of the shepherd becomes a metaphor for the poet-priest engaged in the exploration of high Christian themes. for instance. Ovid*. Milton wrote with the same ease and grace both in English and in Latin. L’Allegro and Il Penseroso a. of classical erudition with biblical themes. 3. in L’Allegro. In Il Penseroso. Are Milton’s first poems in English which deal with a Christian theme. the poet emphasises the blessings of the “pensive. in his poetic work. The diurnal activities and the cheerfulness of L’Allegro are replaced here by the nocturnal peace and quiet of the “lonely tower. to master a variety of styles. polyphonic sounds of the organ. gives way to the mystic exaltation of the poet-student listening to religious music. the song of the milkmaid) contrasts with the deep. are complementary poems about poetic inspiration and creative moods. to become a great epic poet of the Christian age. The final part of Il Penseroso expresses the poet’s aspiration of attaining visionary power. the poet hopes to hear “more than is meant to meet the ear” – i. b. you will thus review some aspects of Milton’s literary personality. b.e. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 65 . the crowing of the cock. Milton’s Christian humanism is reflected in a. The secular* pleasures of common life. at the end of the unit.” contemplative mood. with its simple pleasures.1. and 3. there is a strong emphasis on music. his constant preoccupation with his own poetic becoming. in Il Penseroso. SAQ 1 Make the right choice to continue each of the three beginning statements. Milton’s literary ambition was a. There is both parallelism and contrast between the two poems. In each poem.2. celebrate the diurnal pleasures of pastoral life and its activities. he expects to discern in the heavenly notes a spiritual truth. but the “natural” music of L’Allegro (the song of the lark. c. and on the happiness of rural life. c. to rival the classics in his perfect mastery of Latin. c. the diversity of subjects in his prose essays and pamphlets. appropriate mythological allusions contribute to the creation of the atmosphere. 2. the integration. In both poems.” in which the studious poet finds the gratification of intellectual experience. b.The works of John Milton satisfactions that it offers. 1. If your choices should be wrong. revise subchapters 3. In the latter. Check your answers by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. in his determination to carry on with his task and do each day’s work: “Tomorrow.” Lycidas shows Milton again preoccupied by his own becoming a poet. written at the death of a fellow-student at Cambridge. uses again the pastoral frame. to fresh woods and pastures new. and the end of the elegy brings in a note of personal confidence. The elegy Lycidas. The death of a promising young man makes the poet meditate on existential problems. preparing himself seriously for becoming a priest. The death of the dedicated young man. in a heavenly pastoral world. not on earth. representing both himself and his dead mate as shepherds. This fear was accompanied by the paradoxical feeling that his genius was not ripe enough for the poetic task for which he felt he was destined. Lycidas – a pastoral elegy In the same year with L’Allegro and Il Penseroso (1637). may appear unjust in a world in which corrupt priests prosper and accede to high offices. Milton adds a contemporary Christian relevance to the classical pastoral convention when he reflects on the corruption of the church.2.2. The lamenting poet finds comfort in the thought that the soul of the dead friend is now with God. Milton composed another poem in which. Milton’s concern with his poetic fulfilment 3. personal manner. Confronted with the tragic inevitability of death. again.3. variety and originality in the use of this poetic form. the shepherdpoet’s consolation is in his own sense of purpose. in two of his sonnets he reveals these anxieties in a direct. The answer to such questions enlarges the frame of the pastoral elegy: the true reward for both merit and vice is in heaven. The early death of his Cambridge mate was an occasion for meditating on the possibility of his own death before having accomplished the great work for which he had been preparing himself for so long. and they were either testimonies of personal experience and feeling.The works of John Milton 3. Milton’s sonnets demonstrate a remarkable flexibility. Milton’s sonnets Milton revived the tradition of the sonnet*. which had known a period of decline since the Elizabethan age*. 66 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . or occasional and complimentary compositions. He wrote sonnets intermittently throughout his life. he defines his poetic ambition in terms which are both Christian and classical-humanist. He asks himself if there is any sense in preparing oneself for poetic fame and giving up the pleasures of life when death may so unexpectedly put an end to all endeavour. Irrespective of their nature. If in other poems of Milton’s early career this thought is expressed more obliquely. When he wrote Sonet XVII. who carry out the divine his daughters will. To prevent such a complaint. by the acceptance of one’s fortune – of God’s “mild yoke.e. foolishly: how can God expect him to fulfill his task if He has decided to make him blind? (“Doth God exact daylabour. Patience – a Christian virtue – teaches him that God is served not only by actions. but of God’s eternal will. written in 1631.3. He has reached the age of twenty four. it does not matter if this task is fulfilled soon or late. he had asserted himself as a successful publicist. God: the poet’s “great taskmaster” 3. but he had not fulfilled his great poetic promise. As a Christian poet.” with no “bud or blossom” to promise ripe fruit. light denied?”). In Sonnet XVII. Milton has the strong sense that his poetic accomplishment is a task imposed by God (his “great task-master”).2. In the first part of the sonnet.” By this time. with a certain sadness. they have been fortunately able to prove their maturity at the right time. since. at his age. he Paradise Lost to commands “thousands” (of spirits. in another poem of this kind (Sonnet XVII). Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 67 . angels).” to carry out the task in such a way as to make his achievement count in eternity.3.The works of John Milton 3.1. Lamenting the loss making his political and religious views known in a series of influential of his eyesight essays. and the theme of blindness was to accompany the great themes of his coming masterpieces. in which the accumulation of knowledge was meant to create a solid foundation for his future great work. The life of study and leisure that the poet had been leading was a period of prolonged apprenticeship*. A sad biographical circumstance increased Milton’s anxiety in this respect: he was going blind. and that the passing of the time will eventually confirm if he is destined for glory. Sonnet VII In Sonnet VII (“How soon hath time”). he must admit. that.” “mean or high” as it may be. If he is to transcend time by literary fame. Sonnet XVII After almost twenty years. but also by Christian humility. in 1652. i. patiently. other young men have demonstrated “inward ripeness. confessing his temptation to ask. and confronts the evidence of a “late spring. Milton’s eye-sight was definitively compromised.” that they are “timely happy spirits”. as King of Heaven. Patient and dignified waiting for God’s will to be fulfilled is also a way of serving Him. that the unfolding of his poetic destiny is not only a matter of time. The only thing that matters is that he should have “grace to use it so. The final six lines of the sonnet change this tone of lamentation to one of self-comfort at the thought that heaven has already decided his “lot.” It would be arrogance to think that God needs “either man’s Milton dictating work or gift” to assert His greatness. Since for God time is in fact eternity (“All is…as ever” in God’s eye). Milton meditates on his loss of sight. Milton was still invoking Patience to avoid the anxiety caused by his feeling of “unripeness. but finds consolation in his faith in Providence. Milton laments the passing of his youth without any sign of poetic ripeness. he admits. completing it in 1665 and publishing it in 1667. This formal pattern usually corresponds to a certain thematic structure.” He had always dreamed of reaching the stature of the great epic poets that were his models – Homer. Paradise Lost was the fruit of long years of preparation and meditation. when he was already blind. in the Reader). and he worked at it over several years. Paradise Lost – the Christian epic Milton began the composition of his masterpiece in 1657. made up of two sections: an octave (an eight-line stanza) and a sestet (a six-line stanza). read again subchapter 3. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Dante* –.4. at the end of the unit. respectively. Virgil. and 3. paying attention to what their octave and sestet deal with.3.The works of John Milton SAQ 2 Milton adopted the form of the Italian sonnet. What is the common thematic development in these two sonnets? Your answer should not exceed 8 lines/80 words. and it represented the fulfillment of his ambition to write an epic which would be “doctrinal to a nation. If there should be significant differences. and of leaving to posterity an undying work.2. As the several Invocations in the poem suggest. and the two sonnets. His blindness was no obstacle – as he advanced in the composition of the poem.2. Read these sonnets (Texts 3. 3.1. which in Sonnets VII and XVII is the same. he expected the inspiring Muse to compensate for his physical blindness with a 68 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the passages stored in his mind were transcribed after his dictation. over the years. the fault with The Felix culpa happy consequences. The The belief in poem’s doctrinal foundation is the idea that God’s infinite knowledge free will and power do not exclude man’s freedom of action and choice.The works of John Milton more penetrating understanding of spiritual truths. he decided on the subject of the Fall – the theme of Paradise double fall. enemy]” who “holds the tyranny of Heaven. Finally. etc. in theme a daring. as he stated in the opening Invocation.” He suggests to his followers that their “work” should no longer be done by force – since that is the attribute of the Almighty –. His work is encyclopaedic.” forever deprived of the glory. declares his hatred against God and his intention to regain Heaven.1. and of Adam and Eve Lost from Paradise. in which man’s fall. and thus to enable him to attain indeed to a “prophetic strain. He interprets poetically the biblical events.e. accumulated throughout his life. knowledge and ignorance/innocence. The twelve books which make up Paradise Lost unfold an impressive epic action. which is never ornamental.” as he anticipated in Il Penseroso. 3.” and the central theme of his poem is that of felix culpa* – the fortunate mistake. Then the reader is plunged into the middle of the action: the fallen angels in Hell. Milton approached in his grandiose epic problems which provoked heated polemics in his time. obedience and rebellion.4. in fact. Milton’s ambition was. Incapable of accepting the thought of submission and of his imprisonment in Hell. an evil which is turned to good in God’s overall plan for the history of creation. and his loss of Paradise. to “illumine” what is “dark” in him. “to justify the ways of God to men. (divine) love and (Satanic) hatred. man’s temptation and fall into sin. Its Christian frame absorbs and integrates Milton’s astonishing learning. the creation of the world and of man. but his erudition. predestination*. but by Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 69 . of Lucifer* from Heaven. with the poet’s invocation of the Muse. Satan is determined to wage “eternal war” to his “grand Foe [i. whose main moments are the fall of the rebel angels. original epic scenario. The “lost Archangel. burning in the “darkness visible” of those “regions of sorrow. happiness and peace they had enjoyed in Heaven. Milton had thought. is subordinated to the poetic intensification or clarification of the main theme. Satan and the fallen angels in Hell The poem begins in conventional epic manner. These problems may be summarised by the alternative freedom vs. brought about by his disobedience. the poem develops an implicit debate on such contraries as freedom and tyranny. are gathered to listen to Satan. Starting from the dualism good/evil. of many possible subjects for his capital work – subjects inspired either from British or from The subject and biblical history. is presented as a necessary moment in the “Eternal Providence*”.” full of the bitterness of defeat. Paradise Lost defines Milton best as a Christian humanist. the greatest synthesis of the Western literary tradition. death and resurrection. Chaos and Chance.” He thus anticipates the moment of the Temptation. and their discussions are rendered in Book II. The corruption of God’s creation was thought better than any kind of revenge. His voyage through the great gulf separating Hell from Heaven.e. to seek the newly created Earth. the overwhelming discord of the elements of a yet uncreated world. whose setting is in Heaven. concentrates the doctrinal argument of the poem.e. The divine foreknowledge of the Fall Book III. Satan is prevented from carrying out his design by the angels guarding Paradise. assumes the danger of trying to break free from the formidable prison of Hell. Milton displays here at his best his gift of evoking vast spaces and general chaos.” God anticipates the event of His Son’s incarnation. surpass] hellish hate.2. Satan. The fallen angels are all called to a council in Satan’s infernal palace. whose splendour is described more effectively through Satan’s jealous eyes.e. the “wild abyss” governed by Night. in which his success was due to deceit and dissimulation. by virtue of his leading position.4. Divine justice and mercy Book IV: Satan’s arrival in the Garden of Eden 70 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Satan also tells his companions of a prophecy according to which a new world and a new kind of creature were to be brought into being by God.” and to make them transgress God’s interdiction of tasting the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. He contemplates with envy the beauty and the innocent happiness of Adam and Eve. Satan has reached the Garden of Eden. and so “Heavenly love shall outdo [i.” Meanwhile. Pandemonium*.The works of John Milton The council of the fallen angels “fraud or guile [i. The accepted solution is to reach the new world created by God. God. to find the weakness of man and to seduce him to join their party. knowing in advance that Satan will be successful in his attempt to “pervert” man. is rendered in one of the most highly poetic passages in the poem. and the only way to satisfy divine justice is a sacrificial death that would redeem man. and he flies away. i. God’s Son offers to pay this price for the reconciliation of man to his heavenly Father. explains to His Son the reason for his allowing this to happen. and plans to “excite their minds / With more desire to know. 3. Man’s sin of disobedience must be punished justly. and He commands His angels to adore and celebrate man’s Saviour and “universal king. set him free from sin. cunning]. the ascension from darkness to the light of his “native seat” – now forbidden to him –. and what are its implications? Answer in no more than 15 lines/150 words. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. read again the text. If there should be major differences.4. What is God’s argument. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 71 . at the end of the unit.The works of John Milton SAQ 3 Read Text 3. in the Reader. more carefully. which contains God’s justification for allowing man to fall. after the defeat of the rebel angels. and. and its impulse was God’s desire to create “good out of evil. visits Adam in Paradise to warn him about the danger from Satan. He draws Adam’s attention that God has made him “perfect. and he explicitly warns Adam: “remember. in Book VII. Adam is grateful to Raphael. The creation of the world Raphael also tells Adam the story of the creation of the world and of man.” Man himself was created as a “better race. in order to prolong his guest’s visit. Raphael tries to restrain Adam’s curiosity about “things above this world. Adam asks Raphael to tell him the story of the fallen angels. that cannot change].” He explains to Adam that true wisdom lies in the desire to know those things which directly concern one’s own being. Adam admits that. God entrusted His Son with the act of Creation and the latter’s “powerful Word / And Spirit” gave life and order to “unformed” matter and turned chaos into cosmos. in the multitude of its phenomena and living forms.” and that this happiness depends on his free will.4. The rest of Book V and Book VI are a retrospective account of the war in Heaven. not immutable [i. sweetness. in Milton’s poem.4. and about his perfect happiness in the company of “divinely fair” Eve. and most evident in the treatment of the fall of Adam and Eve.” to fill in the “vacant room [i. In Book VIII.3. as this diminished W.e. Milton displays an extraordinary evocative power. space]” left by the fallen angels.” for the evocation of the making of the world. instigated by Lucifer. In Milton’s interpretation. It is interesting that. and fear to transgress!” 3. Raphael once again advises him against trying to penetrate the secrets of the “great Architect. Raphael’s warning to Adam In Book V. with her “absolute” loveliness and grace. and in the description of more familiar details of earthly Nature. sent by God. whose pride had been hurt when God proclaimed His Son the “Messiah. Blake: The downfall of the his own power and pre-eminence. The story of the “deep fall / Of those too high aspiring who rebel angels (1808) rebelled / With Satan” is given by Raphael as a “terrible example” of the reward for disobedience. The six days of the biblical Genesis are developed by Milton into an impressive poetic vision. King Anointed*”.” Raphael leaves them. Satan. he tells him about his own experiences after he was created. the divine creation took place after the fall of Lucifer. and wishes to know more about the celestial motions.e. innocence and “virgin modesty. the angel Raphael. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural The divine creation: Good coming out of Evil 72 . not before repeating his warning. the “divine historian. The idea of Good coming out of Evil is central to Paradise Lost.4. both in the large-scale description of the making of celestial bodies or in the sublime picture of the primal waters.The works of John Milton 3.” and reminds him that obedience to his Maker means enjoying the present happy state. so that he may know more about his enemy. without aspiring to know things above his power of understanding. What does Milton suggest by the image of God using his “golden compasses”? Answer in the space below. A Prophecy.The works of John Milton SAQ 4 Text 3. and the “Spirit of God” infusing life into the primal ocean. the first moments in the creation of the world: the making of heavens and skies. W. read the fragment again. in the Reader presents.7. at the end of the unit. Blake: Urizen as the creator of the material world (from the poem Europe. 1794) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 73 . in no more than 10 lines/100 words. through Raphael’s words. more carefully. If your answer should differ significantly from the offered suggestions. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. hate / Mistrust.5. the thundering skies weep. The seduction of Eve Book IX presents the great scene of Eve’s seduction by Satan. Credulous Eve tastes from the forbidden fruit and tries to convince Adam that its effect is not to open the way to “evil unknown.e. their inward the fall on Nature peace. Blake: Satan finds Eve alone. Adam is chilled with horror at Eve’s irresponsible mistake but decides to share her fate. and.The works of John Milton 3. Satan gives voice again to his torments and to his ambition of destroying God’s creation. while Adam tries to convince her that together they would be more safe from harm.4. the “subtlest [i. At last. Eve is amazed at the miracle of a beast capable of speech and. W. Book IX: Eve and the Serpent (illustration by John Martin. and all The effects of Nature is in pain. The “calm region” of their state of mind. Meanwhile. The disaster of the original sin shakes the foundations of the natural order: Earth trembles. Their former innocent sensuality is now replaced by guilty lust and the feeling of shame. he is disarmed by her Satan with Adam and angelic grace. discord” – which make reason and will helpless.” she is finally seduced by his promise of higher knowledge and by his assurance that there is no sin in such aspiration. flattered by his praise of her “celestial beauty. is now troubled by the “higher winds” of negative passions – “anger. Adam and Eve have a difference of opinion: Eve insists that they should divide their daily labour and work in different places. but he regains the strength of his hate and appears to Eve (1808) her in the splendid shape of the Serpent.” but to “open eyes” and bring those who taste closer to the condition of a god. and all harmony between them is destroyed by bitter reciprocal accusations. her argument wins: she is willing to put her innocence to trial. whose spirit has entered the body of a serpent. certain that the proud tempter will not be successful. for a moment.” Back to guarded Paradise in this disguise. 1827) 74 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . suspicion. most subtle*] beast of all the field. since the “link of nature” is so strong between them that he cannot imagine living without her. on a separate sheet.” _______ g. which marks the conquest of the world by Satan. but His fear that His power might be weakened if His creatures equalled him in knowledge.6. Write the number(s) of the corresponding fragment(s) in the indicated space. read once more the indicated text and do the exercise again. at the end of each sentence. He tries to arouse Eve’s suspicion that God’s reason for His interdiction may not be man’s own good. The world after the Fall In the next books. This emphasises the idea that Satan’s victory is not final. Match these sentences with the fragment.4. If any of your matches should be wrong.The works of John Milton SAQ 5 Text 3. annihilate Sin and Death. and he proudly boasts of it in the Pandemonium. _______ b. at the end of the unit. He tries to dispel Eve’s fear of death. the consequences of man’s original sin are unfolded in episodes of great poetic and emotional intensity. accusing Him of keeping Adam and Eve ignorant so that He may hold them in a state of servitude. but are terribly humiliated to find that they are tasting only dust and ashes. but he also adds symbolic episodes. the destined “restorer of Mankind*. 75 Book X: the world open to Sin and Death Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Milton continues to expand moments of the biblical Genesis. they taste its fruit. but. in the Reader contains four fragments from Book IX. in which these moves are illustrated. 3. a. _______ c. hoping to arouse her pride. He tempts Eve with the promise of absolute knowledge. such as the building of a huge bridge across chaos by Sin and Death. which will bring her close to the condition of God. He tries to awaken in Eve the spirit of defiance and insubordination. He tries to introduce into Eve’s mind the doubt about God’s being “the author of all things. Satan’s victory seems complete.8.” is the one who will. _______ f. at last. in the middle of this speech. He denigrates God. The sentences below describe various moves in Satan’s strategy of seduction. the whole assembly of fallen angels are temporarily turned into monstrous hissing snakes and dragons. _______ e. Seduced by the illusion of the Tree of Knowledge. He flatters Eve. or fragments. _______ d. as God himself predicts: His Son. _______ Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. by inciting her to disbelieve God’s threat. from the speech by which Satan tempts Eve into disobeying God and eating the forbidden fruit. 1827) 76 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . – to the hostility of Nature. pride. but Michael comforts him. the emphasis on the presence and role of the Son of God increases. evil will finally be turned to good makes Adam and Eve’s exile from Paradise more tolerable. who can see the “many shapes of Death” and the many ways that lead to it. and He sends the archangel Michael to God decides Adam and Eve’s expulsion show them out. Book XII: Adam and Eve leaving Paradise (illustration by John Martin. The promise of where the central episode is the promised birth of God’s Son. Adam suffers deeply for the loss of his native place and of God’s proximity. In Book XI. etc. an anticipation of the effects of the original sin on the following generations. combining thus justice with mercy. redemption*: Jesus. but He decides that Adam and Eve may no longer live in Paradise. God sends Him to communicate the divine punishment to Adam and Eve. In Book X. his suffering. faith and good deeds. from Heaven Before they leave Paradise.The works of John Milton After the story of man’s fall. intemperance. This comforting story gives Adam peace of mind and Christ the hope that man is able to build – in Michael’s words – “a paradise within. and the poem closes not on a note of despair. God consents. asking God to accept their prayers and sincere repentance. and offering to pay the price of His own death for the peace between God and mankind. through Christ.” founded on love. from man’s own vices – violence. Moments of the biblical history are unfolded before Adam’s eyes. changed drastically after Adam’s fall. The vision is replaced by Michael’s narrative in Book XII. Michael shows Adam a vision of the future. the Son of God acts as a mediator between the sinful humans and His Father. resurrection and ascension to the coming of Heaven. The certainty that. death. but of sadness. however. 3. more carefully.The works of John Milton SAQ 6 Text 3. If they should differ in major points. in the Reader represents the ending of Paradise Lost. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. It may be argued. that both Satan and the human couple are heroic – each in a different way in their endurance of the bitter consequences of their sin. The heroes of Paradise Lost Many critics have remarked the paradox that the heroic spirit of Milton’s epic is embodied in Satan. read the fragment again. at the end of the unit. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 77 .5. while Adam has more in common with a tragic hero. which they fully assume.9. How do these lines present Adam and Eve at the moment of their exile into the world? Your answer should not exceed 12 lines /120 words. and that Milton gave the full measure of his literary genius in the character of Satan because he instinctively supported the idea of freedom. Satan appears indeed as a champion of freedom. Milton’s Satan: the rebel’s inner hell The most fascinating of Milton’s heroes is undoubtedly Satan. and his longing for the delights of his former existence torments him like an inner hell. the Romantic poets were to establish the view that Satan is actually the main hero. and he finds inner strength only in the intensity of his hatred. unwilling to serve a power that he considered tyrannical.” only the pain of longing and unfulfilled desire.5. William Blake remarked that Satan is Milton’s most accomplished creation. but he also knows that this freedom is a form of punishment. he is envious of God’s omnipotence. he naturally assumes the role of a leader. This sight is for him “hateful” and “tormenting. 78 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .1. In moments when the fallen angels feel despair at having lost Heaven. but for him freedom does not mean equality: among the rebel angels. “great in power / In favour and pre-eminence. One of the most powerful illustrations of this feeling which consumes Satan is the scene in which he sees Adam and Eve for the first time.” as he cannot help comparing their bliss with his own condition in Hell. made happy in their innocent love. Satan knows how to inflame again their ambition of re-ascending and their thirst for revenge. and his great ambition is “to reign. in whom they saw an embodiment of the spirit of freedom and of resistance to tyrannical oppression. “Imparadised in one another’s arms” – i. Satan seems to comfort himself with the thought that at least he is free. Over a century after the poem’s publication.” Envy accompanies Satan’s thirst for power.” He instigates the other angels to rebellion in the name of freedom from servitude. since it is accompanied by suffering and torment. Pride is one of Satan’s most prominent features in Pride and ambition Paradise Lost. he had been the first Archangel. This is why he is in a continual state of frustration and anger. In Hell. Before his fall. He displays majesty and grandeur even in his fallen condition. He is envious Envy and hate of God’s Son and His title as King of Heaven. From the beginning of the poem.e. and his extraordinary courage “never to submit or yield” inspires his followers. where there is “neither joy nor love. which is itself a paradise.The works of John Milton 3. The works of John Milton 3.2. Satan represents the negation of the creative power of the divine Word: his revenge is accomplished not by force. As God’s absolute antagonist.” He is “the author of all ill. Satan. Satan can assert his freedom of action only in the sphere of evil. and his power of seduction comes from the mastery of a very efficient rhetoric. Awakening in man the impulse to question. Satan is The Tempter. but by the evil subtlety of his mind and the corrupting power of his word. It is also with “persuasive* words. and he invests all his titanic energies in his destructive plan.” and the “Enemy of Mankind.” in whose destruction he finds complete satisfaction for his hurt pride. the destroyer of faith. and “out of good still to find means of evil. He is determined “to do ill” – which is “the contrary to his high will” – or to pervert the good done by God.5. His “immortal hate” makes revenge his only aim. Satan’s speeches have an impressive convincing force. Satan’s greatness as a character comes from the sublime intensity of his negative passions. It is with “high words. the “author of all ill” The only way in which Satan can define himself as an equal to the power that he refuses to serve is to become its irreconcilable opponent.” which actually lacked substance that he manages to revive the courage of the depressed fallen angels. The negative power of rhetoric: Satan the Tempter Gustave Doré: Satan (1870) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 79 . that he determines Eve to break the divine interdiction. Milton insists on the fact that they abandoned “the eternal splendours of Heaven” and followed Satan seduced by his promises of freedom and greatness. but the epic poet insistently underlines their manipulative intentions.” seeming reasonable and true. The temptation of Eve is in fact the repetition of the earlier act of persuading the angels to join him in his rebellion. he is the promoter of suspicion and doubt. 3. “Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven..The works of John Milton SAQ 7 Text 3. “A mind not to be changed by time or place. and read the indicated fragment again.5. at the end of the unit. and 3. If there are significant differences. in the Reader contains a part of Satan’s speech before his followers.2.” (6 lines /60 words) Compare your answers with those offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. and in itself / Can make a Heaven of Hell. 80 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . His words reveal some of the defining features of Milton’s hero. and point out what features of Satan’s nature are illustrated by the following lines: A. Read the whole fragment carefully.) B. in Hell. a Hell of Heaven”? (Answer in no more than 4 lines/40 words. “and “The mind is its own place.1. revise subchapters 3.5. as well as his identification with them in their condition of creatures that have fallen. of their wrong use of the freedom given by God. Both Adam and Eve display a certain Satanic fascination with the possibility of overcoming their condition through knowledge. the titanic dimension of his suffering.” “Patriarch of Mankind.” “Our great Progenitor [i. There is a tragic combination of greatness and weakness in their portrayal. man has paid a terrible price for the wisdom of not imitating Satan. Milton depicts Adam and Eve’s fall not as the result of depravity. While Satan’s pain is always accompanied by the proud defiance of God. He is now more aware of his freedom and his potentiality. but who can hope for redemption*. The consequences of their fall are great because their virtues – so tragically tested – are great. in spite of the fascination and seductive power with which he is invested.5.e. of understanding and accepting his limits. gifted with reason – a divine Eden 1808) attribute –. Created in God’s image. Fallen man is not a hateful creature. the sorrow of the fallen humans at their own weakness and their final recognition of their fault entitles them to God’s mercy. the character of Satan is Milton’s greatest achievement in Paradise Lost. there is not any doubt left about his fundamental evil.” The insistent use of the adjective “our” suggests Milton’s invitation to the reader to join him in his identification. are set against Adam and Eve’s lamentations after the fall. The way in which Milton refers to Adam and Eve throughout the poem points out his reverence to the original pair.3. Milton’s depiction of Adam and Eve Poetically. the protagonists of Milton’s ambitious epic leave it not in hopeless disgrace. But it is an evidence of Milton’s genius that. He has the revelation of the grandeur of God’s plan and of the “goodness infinite” of the Creator.” but also “our credulous mother. As a humanist.” Eve is the “Mother of Mankind. ancestor. Adam is called Sire* of Men. Satan’s torments in Hell.” “our general mother. and Milton expresses both admiration and compassion for them. of turning all evil into good by the supreme act of divine grace: the acceptance of Christ’s sacrifice for man. In his last conversation with Michael. but as a consequence of their wrong choices. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 81 . He is now able to understand God’s final purpose. but W. in Book XII. Adam’s enlarged understanding emerges in perfect fusion with his strengthened faith. Although Paradise has become a forbidden place for them. Milton is the heir of the Renaissance in his glorification of man and his virtues. he justifies “the ways of God to men” by showing the necessity of the divine grace. deprived of worth. Blake: The expulsion from Milton deals with it as one of the central paradoxes of the human condition.The works of John Milton 3.” “mother of human race.” “Our Author. As a Christian. precursor]. but armed with the wisdom of faith. 2. Some of Milton’s earlier works display this obsessive concern with his becoming a great poet. Milton was deeply involved in the religious and political debates of mid-17th century. in the Reader. Summary In this unit. presents some of his notable early compositions – the Latin elegies. His work is that of a Christian humanist: his astonishing classical erudition and his aspiration to the formal perfection of his classical models combine with his interest in religious themes. Convinced also of his poetic vocation. you are recommended a more careful reading of the indicated text. the pastoral elegy Lycidas. a necessary part of His design.The works of John Milton SAQ 8 Text 3. and the twin poems L’Allegro and Il Penseroso. Devoted to the Puritan cause during the Civil War. in which he explains to His Son why the fall of man was inevitable. in no more than 8 lines/80 words. Subchapter 3. The same obsession with poetic ripeness may be found 82 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . contains a fragment from God’s speech in Book III. at the end of the unit. you have been acquainted with some aspects of the prominent literary personality of John Milton.5. the Nativity Ode. he prepared himself for it during long years. Compare your answer with that offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. If there should be major differences. Read this fragment and summarise its argument. one of the greatest English poets. concerns itself with Milton’s heroes in Paradise Lost. In Milton’s vision of the original sin. which interprets poetically key moments in biblical history and elements of biblical mythology. Baroque: see the Glossary in Unit 2. put in the service of evil. Milton emphasises his fortitude and strength of will. and the culmination of his poetic achievement as a Christian humanist. apprenticeship: the training for a trade or for any kind of activity. Milton justifies the fall of man and his exile from Paradise in the context of a providential history.4. His destructive energy represents a negation of the creative power of the divine word. Subchapter 3. in which divine grace will eventually turn all evil into good. The declared aim of Milton’s epic is “to justify the ways of God to men.3.” and its great Christian theme is that of felix culpa.5. Adam and Eve are treated both with the typical Renaissance admiration for man’s potential and virtues. but also in which man may.The works of John Milton in two of his sonnets. his courage and majesty. The central events in Milton’s epic are the fall of Lucifer and of the rebel angels. Milton’s impressive epic poem Paradise Lost (1667) is the fruit of his mature vision. as a sign of consecration or sanctification. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 83 . and the promise of man’s reconciliation with God through the sacrifice of Christ. be tested for the responsibility which must accompany the exercise of his free will. the fall of man and the loss of Paradise. the most fascinating and complex creation is Satan – Lucifer in his fallen condition. however. Subchapter 3. Civil War: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. offers a brief presentation of the subject and structure of the poem. Key words ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Christian humanism elegy sonnet epic the Fall of Man the original sin free will Lucifer / Satan Felix culpa Glossary • • • • anointed: from to anoint: to apply oil on someone in a religious ceremony. and with the Christian compassion for their unhappy choice. presented in subchapter 3. Satan is dominated by powerful negative passions which keep him the prisoner of an inner hell. which are. at any time. the creation of the world and of man. his love of freedom. Undoubtedly. whose works include the poem on love Ars Amatoria and the poem on myths Metamorphoses. pamphlet: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. the act by which God determines in advance the events and their course. or some tragic event. Puritans: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. he is called Satan. Pandemonium: a word coined by Milton (from Greek pan: all.). It means “the carrier of light. Purgatory and Paradise. persuasive: having the power or ability to persuade (i. the one who sets man free from sin). felix culpa: this phrase comes from a line in the Latin version of the Catholic religious service held on Easter Sunday. It may also mean cunning. and daimon: demon) – the place where all demons gathered. suffering and death of Christ. noise and chaos. to convince. The word may refer. by extension.C. to whom are attributed the great epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey.e. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural • • 84 . Roman poet.C. guided by Virgil and his idealised love Beatrice. foreknowledge: knowledge of something before it happens.). Italian poet. clever in using tricks. humanism: see classical revival in the Glossary in Unit 1. ode: see again the Glossary in Unit 1.-17 A. 800 B. epic: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. redemption: the deliverance (the rescuing) of man from sin through the incarnation. Lucifer: the name of the archangel who led the rebel angels.D. predestination: from a theological point of view. Gallery of personalities • Dante: Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). subtle: not immediately evident.e. formerly used when speaking to a king. Restorer of Mankind: Christ as the one who will return (restore) man to God’s grace and to his original condition. In classical literature. benevolent care or protection of his creatures. to a place of wild confusion. to cause to believe).” After the fall from Heaven.The works of John Milton • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • elegy: a meditative poem lamenting the death of someone. Providence: God’s kindness. Man’s sin/fault was “happy” because its reward was Christ. difficult to detect (or analyse). Sire: a respectful term of address. sonnet: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Restoration: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. pastoral: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Homer: Greek poet (c. the range of subjects in an elegy was wider. every. Ovid: Publius Ovidius Nasso (43 B. not concerned with or related to religion. author of La Divina Commedia. the allegorical account of the poet’s journey through Hell. the “great and good redeemer” (i. secular: related to worldly things (as opposed to sacred). either with remarkable lucidity or blinded by his hate and ambition. 1. The weight of this task in the assessment of this SAA is 50%. Satan prepares himself to enter Paradise and to accomplish his diabolical design of tempting Eve. 1 This assignment covers Unit 2 and Unit 3. Macbeth delivers his monologue immediately after he is informed about Lady Macbeth’s death.2. and the last paragraph of 2. and thus of destroying man. which reveals the complexity of Milton’s hero. You will thus be drawing a portrait of Milton’s Satan. in Milton’s Paradise Lost. with special attention to the indicated subchapters.The works of John Milton • Virgil: Publius Ovidius Maro (70-19 B. in the Reader renders most of his memorable monologue. At the beginning of Book IV. You will find it helpful to read again subchapter 2. Identify his conflicting feelings and the various thoughts that trouble his conscience. 40 lines/400 words should be enough for your answer (apart from the lines that you are expected to quote for illustration). what is the difference in the implications of the two play-metaphors? The answer to these questions should not exceed 25 lines / 250 words. in the Reader represent short fragments from Shakespeare’s Macbeth and The Tempest.1.2. God’s creation.5. 2.. In both of them.. in Heaven • his oscillation between remorse and pride • his oscillation between self-justification and self-blame for his rebellion against God • his consideration and rejection of the possibility of rehabilitating Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 85 . Text 3. at the end of the play. It will be therefore advisable to revise the preceding unit. as well as of SAQ 7 and its solution at the end of the unit might help you to better understand the text and organise your answer. romantic in The Tempest –.2. Prospero’s speech closes the representation given in honour of Ferdinand and Miranda. before the final battle. • Read attentively this fragment. • What characteristic baroque theme do both fragments illustrate? Given the different context – tragic in Macbeth.). whose epic poem The Aeneid relates the experiences of Aeneas after the fall of legendary Troy.4.3.1. the baroque motif of the theatrical illusion is developed.C. You may also consider it useful to pay attention to the following aspects when reading the text: • Satan’s present misery set in opposition with the memories of his former condition. the paragraphs about Macbeth in 2. His speech reveals Satan’s tormented mind and the multitude of passions that agitate his soul. and 2. A revision of subchapter 3.6. Send-away assignment no. before he firmly decides to carry out his evil plan. one of the greatest Roman poets. in which he explores his inner hell. Texts 2. 3. is thus not attributable to God. SAQ 3 God’s whole argument is based on the idea of freedom. Created “just and right.. not God. as man’s wrong choice was not the pure result of his free will. your tutor will take into account: • the closeness of your answer to the formulated requirement (30%).. The fall of man.e. Remember that. the “instrument” by which to exercise his free will. in grading your paper. The implication is that God gave man conscience. his blindness. God cannot use His infinite power and knowledge to prevent the errors of those who are free to choose. The poet places his trust in Providence.” In the case of man.b.c. however. 2. both sonnets deal with the theme of loss (the poet’s sense of the passing of time. clarity. respectively) and with the anxiety that poetic fulfilment is late to come. • the coherence. SAQ 2 In the first section (the octave). responsible for his choices. but the consequence of evil influence. is that one may choose right or wrong. 1 will count as 10% in your final assessment. The latter part of both sonnets (the sestet) changes the mood to one of patient confidence. Both man and the rebel angels are “authors to themselves in all. comforting himself with the faith that his poetic destiny is in God’s hands. SAQ 4 The image of God using His divine instrument (the “golden compasses”) to draw the “just circumference” of the world implies the idea of perfection and rationality.a. since that would mean the “revocation” of His own “high decree” by which man was made free. and consistence of your ideas (40%) • the accuracy of your grammar (20%) • the accuracy of your spelling (10%) Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. The paradox of freedom. i. SAA no. rational spirit of the Creator (he refers to Him elsewhere as “the great 86 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the divine punishment is compensated by mercy (the sending of Jesus as mankind’s saviour). like that of the angels. Milton emphasises the geometrical. and reason makes man. or reason.” man shared the perfection of the angels (“the Ethereal Powers and Spirits”) and their complete freedom of will and judgment.The works of John Milton • • himself before God his determination to turn his suffering into satisfaction his impressive self-knowledge The weight of this task in this SAA is 50%. Pay special attention to the instructions for each task. i. His gift of Reason to man has no justification (it is “useless and vain”). 1. The Literature of the Beginnings. c.The works of John Milton Architect”). Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. 4 SAQ 6 For Adam and Eve. The same rational spirit separates what is vital from what is “adverse to life” (the “infernal dregs”). to be dictated by Reason. then it is like Heaven for a spirit that cannot accept constraints. 2.e. is meant to keep alive the memory of their transgression.e. 1983 (pp. guarded by fear-inspiring armed angels.. Man is not a free creature. Forced to look ahead. It is his will and desire that give value to things around. SAQ 8 God cannot be pleased with blind submission. Satan is willing to exchange the happiness of Heaven for the torments in Hell. 141-152) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 87 . as God has made him. Turcu.4. 2. Ioan-Aurel (coord. and for him servitude in Heaven is the real hell. If Hell is a space of freedom. SAQ 7 1. unless he exercises his will and reason. 2. 153-163) 3. and the image of the terrible gates. vol. From Beowulf to Paradise Lost.3. These lines suggest Satan’s formidable strength of will and the independence of his indestructible spirit. g. f. of human solidarity. This line illustrates both his aspiration to complete independence and his ambition. Further reading 1. He wants man’s obedience to be the result of an act of free choice. i. 2 (“Shakespeare to Milton”). 2003 (pp. Preda. 3. unless he is put in the situation of making choices. If God leaves man’s loyalty. 435-449) 2. 2. e. Their hesitant steps suggest their awareness of the difficulty of all choice. Paradise is now a forbidden place. David. 1. Luminiţa Elena.4. who draws a firm line between the formed and the formless (chaos). under the guidance of Providence. they soon master the sadness of their loss and confront the wide world as a place in which they are expected to exercise judiciously their free will. Satan feels God’s absolute power as a limitation to his enormous ambition. comforting himself that he exchanged submission for sovereignty. 1969 (pp. d. with passive virtue. SAQ 5 a. faith and love untested. Editura Universităţii Suceava. b. Daiches. A Critical History of English Literature. Incapable of obedience to God. but at least they have the mutual comfort of their love. of the responsibility that accompanies freedom.). The Renaissance and the Restoration Period. English Literature and Civilisation. the intelligible and the unintelligible (the dark void). 4. 4.3. 4.3. “The Spectator’s Club” Augustan satire John Dryden Alexander Pope Jonathan Swift The structure of Gulliver’s Travels Lilliput and Brobdingnag: satire and utopia The fourth voyage.1.1.2 4. the frustrated idealist The importance of Gulliver’s Travels Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 89 89 89 89 90 90 92 93 95 95 96 96 98 98 98 100 103 103 103 105 105 107 107 110 110 111 111 113 115 116 88 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . 4. 4.4. Unit objectives The Restoration and the Augustan Age Restoration drama Restoration theatre – a form of Court entertainment Dominant forms in Restoration drama Restoration comedy and its character types William Congreve.2.4. 4.4.2.5.3.4.1.5. 4.2.4. 4.1.3. a master of satirical comedy of manners The rise of sentimental comedy English literary Neoclassicism Great Augustan writers: John Dryden and Alexander Pope Principles of Neoclassic literary poetics Nature and Reason The Augustan ideal of style “To divert and instruct” – the imperative of Augustan literature The periodical essay The Tatler and The Spectator.4.1.2.4.1. 4. 4.4. 4. 4.5. Gulliver.1.2.The Restoration and the Augustan Age UNIT 4 THE RESTORATION AND THE AUGUSTAN AGE Unit Outline 4. 4.6.1.7. 4. 4.3. 4.4. 4.2. 4. 4.1.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.2. 1. Human nature. addressing itself to an inclusive public. From a literary point of view. and of considerable diversity. the scenery became more elaborate – more “realistic” in comedies. under the patronage of king Charles II. Significant changes took place in the theatre: the stage became closed on three sides. under the influence of French theatres. of increasing rationalism and secularisation. ♦ establish a relation between the spirit of Restoration comedy and the cultural-historical circumstances in which it emerged. with spectators no longer allowed to sit on it. drama holds a place apart. The Puritans had closed theatres in 1642. and Jonathan Swift. grandiose and extravagant in tragedies –. and. ♦ describe satirical devices used by John Dryden. ♦ explain the relevance of concepts like Art. was attended by a strong anti-Puritan reaction. was interrupted: Restoration theatre became almost exclusively a form of Court entertainment.The Restoration and the Augustan Age By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ identify the favourite themes and the typical characters of Restoration drama. ♦ specify the main targets of satire in Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels. Nature. One of the most important aspects of this literary age is the shift from the baroque* sensibility of the late Renaissance to the Neoclassic ideal of order. clarity and elegant restraint. its audience being restricted to the fashionable circles gravitating around the Crown. the age in which the ideological premises of the Enlightenment were constituted. the cast of actors included women. ♦ identify the main concerns of literary Neoclassicism.1.1. Restoration theatre – a form of Court entertainment In the heterogeneous literary picture of the Restoration. Restoration drama marked a clear split between popular and aristocratic standards of taste. Unit objectives 4. it was a period of transition as well. Restoration drama The Restoration* was a period of significant social and institutional change. Alexander Pope. ♦ define the purposes and literary strategies of the periodical essay as an instrument of cultural enlightenment ♦ explain the remarkable development of satire in the Augustan Age. and their re-opening in 1660. The Renaissance tradition of the theatre as popular entertainment. central to the Neoclassic poetics of the Augustan Age. Charles II Stuart (reign: 1660-1685) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 89 . 4. betrayal and mockery were recurrent motives in the comic plots of Restoration drama. refinement and sophistication. exotic places. inflated conception of heroism – these were the ingredients of a dramatic genre whose spirit was in sharp contrast with the unheroic age of the Restoration. and the characteristic theme was the conflict between love and honour. Restoration comedies dealt primarily with sexual intrigue and the pursuit of pleasure – including the pleasure of cynical manipulation of others. ending in Heroic tragedy the death of the hero or heroine or both and the triumph of honour. Heroic tragedy* was a dramatic development from the epic poem. and the plays of the Restoration Wits*. Another dominant dramatic form during the Restoration was the comedy of manners. sumptuous costumes. The range of character types in Restoration comedy was very diverse.3. of incredible cruelty and perfidy. fashionable manners. Dominant forms in Restoration drama The main kinds of drama were heroic tragedy and comedy of manners. One of the most common types was the rake – the libertine. The conception of character in Restoration comedy was indebted to the Renaissance comedy of humours*. Marriage and the games of love were a prevailing theme. Gallantry. It made fun of the people from the countryside.1. above all. and its audience was restricted to the exclusive and fashionable circles in London. jealousy. The highest achievement of this kind of baroque theatre was provided by John Dryden’s plays*. adultery. The Puritan rigidity and austerity of the former period were repudiated. and. The action was usually set in remote. were essential for the true man of the world. or Court Wits.” reflecting the aristocratic ethos of the time. both of them highly conventional forms. the 90 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Sensational turns of situation.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. magnificent settings. although each in its own way and for different reasons.2. on the other. Restoration comedy was a mirror of the Comedy of manners environment in which it developed. but they were loveless marriages and love affairs without warmth and affection. reflected the hedonism* and promiscuity encouraged at court by Charles II himself (nicknamed “the Merry Monarch” for his pleasure-loving way of life). A certain coarseness of feeling. with characters conventionally distributed into fabulously valiant heroes and virtuous beautiful heroines. or in the survival of love over the criminal machinations of the villains. on the one hand.1. grandiloquent declamations and sentimental exaltation. wit*. lust. and satirised the aspiration of social climbing and the ideal of virtue and respectability of the middle classes. an artificial. the licentiousness* and frivolity characterising Restoration comedy were accompanied by a cult for elegance. Restoration comedy and its character types Restoration comedy was “class drama. ridiculing their crude manners and lack of sophistication. and absolute villains. Conquest and seduction. 4. the cynicism. or fool. etc. pleasure-seeking. young or old. Contrasting types were the coquette. the ingénue. the country squire*. selfish and manipulative. cynical.” without scruples. one of the first actresses and the mistress of Charles II William Hogarth* Detail from The Rake’s Progresss (1735) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 91 . but whose affectation* became the object of irony and satire. If characters were usually static. who tried to imitate fashionable manners. whose generosity and kindness are satirised as weaknesses. usually an unprincipled and heartless married woman.The Restoration and the Augustan Age “young-man-about-town. Other common character types in Restoration comedy were the country girl. the lusty widow. the plot of Restoration comedy was usually highly complicated. Another frequent type was the fop*. despising marriage. and the trusting husband as dupe. with several subplots and with action developing at a fast pace. more concerned for his reputation as a wit than for honour. deliberately superficial in construction. lacking complexity. Nell Gwynn (1650-1687). the scheming valet. aspiring to the perfect adventure. whose simplicity and ingenuousness made her a perfect prey to the sophisticated seducer. who resorts to all kinds of devices to avoid 92 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . The baroque character of Restoration heroic tragedy resided in its sensational plot. hedonism and amorality at Court. at the end of the unit.1. His satirical play Love for Love (1695) deals with the contrast between public reputation and private behaviour. T F 6.The Restoration and the Augustan Age SAQ 1 Let us revise some aspects concerning the Restoration drama. and satirised clumsy manners and dull simplicity. Restoration theatre introduced professional women actors in performances. elegance. T F 5. frivolity. by doing the exercise that follows. The middle classes and their moral code found a mirror in the comedy of the Restoration. such as the impoverished gallant. Restoration comedy praised wit. to 4. Heroic tragedy reflected the realities and spirit of the Restoration Age. T F 4. T F 3. The main themes of heroic tragedy were seduction and the games of love. a master of satirical comedy of manners Among the most representative authors of comedies during the Restoration period there were George Etherege*. William Wycherley* and John Dryden*. 1. refinement and sophistication. William Congreve. It displays typical Restoration characters. The Renaissance comedy of humours inspired Restoration dramatists in their construction of dramatic character. T F 9. The true master of Restoration comedy of manners was William Congreve (1679-1723). T F 2.1. Circle appropriately T (true) or F (false). read again subchapters 4. If any of them should turn out to be wrong. extravagant stage settings and highly rhetorical language.1. T F 7. Read the statements below and identify five true ones.1.4. 4. T F Check your answers in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. T F 8.3. simple action. The Restoration rake as a typical character in comedy was representative for the atmosphere of licentiousness. Restoration comedy built its plot on a single. increasingly middle class. He is the most gifted of the Restoration dramatists. The situation. 4. affection. is extremely complex. adopting a moralising tone and recommending virtue and sensibility above refinement and wit. and it had to take into account the general concern for the improvement of manners that developed in the late 17th century. restore his fortunes and win the love of his mistress. perfectly aware of each other’s faults and playing various games which keep them on the border between independence and surrender. which reminds of some of Shakespeare’s comedies. the ambivalent motivations and feelings (ranging from love. the witty and resourceful servant. psychologically subtle and complex. and friendship to jealousy. the awkward country-girl. and were not interested in the rituals and games of fashionable life or in the sparkling wit duels. A shift in taste was taking place in the context of social change – the rise of a prosperous class of merchants. The indecencies and blasphemous spirit of earlier Restoration comedy became the object of severe condemnation by public opinion. the dramatic productions still preserved characteristic farcical elements and something of the brilliant artificiality of Restoration comedy. as these were remote from their experience.The Restoration and the Augustan Age William Congreve (1679-1723) his creditors. when Augustan* England was seeking for social stability and cohesion. half-amused. involving a multitude of characters.1. but they were now clearly intended for a middle class audience. with a rare concern for the accuracy and elegance of expression and for the balance of sentences. The new audience in the theatres. Towards the end of the 17 th century. consistent characters. hate and disgust) give this play an equivocal tone. He gave grace to the conventions of a highly artificial form of drama. the pair of witty lovers.5. Drama was changing under the pressure of middle class taste. Congreve’s merit is to have turned stereotypical characters into credible. It has a sophisticated plot containing several strands of action and centering on the relation between Mirabell and beautiful Millamant. etc. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 93 . The rise of sentimental comedy* Congreve belongs to a period of transition in the evolution of comedy. disapproved of the licentiousness of Restoration comedy. admiration. half-sad. mixed marriages between aristocracy and the newly rich. Congreve’s finest comedy is The Way of the World (1700). and the shifting relationships and alliances. bringing it to perfection. Millamant is also in love. which presents Millamant's demands. If there should be significant differences. read again subchapter 4. In a witty dialogue.The Restoration and the Augustan Age SAQ 2 In Congreve's play The Way of the World. their agreement has serious implications.1. However. as well as the indicated fragment. in Act IV..4. who is sincerely in love with Millamant and wishes to marry her. 94 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . they seem to be playing a game.. What is the idea of marriage that her conditions suggest? Answer in the space below. Read Text 4. but she accepts Mirabell's marriage proposal on certain conditions. at the end of the unit. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Mirabell is a reformed rake.1. they establish and agree on the terms of a "contract. in no more than 15 lines / 150 words. under the appearance of frivolity." Presenting their expectations from each other in a half-joking way. and propriety would favour the spirit of social unity and order and would contribute to the protection of the achievements of civilisation. Besides Dryden and Pope.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4.2. The excellence of their literary work and the elegance and force of their critical arguments made them central figures of the Augustan Age. or of the heroic couplet* over blank verse*. a society exhausted by civil wars was expressing its need for stability and moderation. balance. of the elegant French classical drama over English Renaissance drama. John Dryden (1631-1700) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 95 . Pope presents the basic concepts and theses of this literary orientation in a poetic form of remarkable elegance and clarity. in a series of essays and prefaces where he discussed matters of literary composition and taste and defended his own literary practice. Joseph Addison*.2. and harmony extended beyond literature. His main critical work is An Essay on Dramatic Poesy (1668). Alexander Pope brought to perfection Dryden’s achievements in poetic style and technique. In both cases. but it represents the quintessence of the Augustan literary ideal. In it. other great writers who were influenced by Neoclassicism or defended its doctrine were Jonathan Swift*. Oliver Goldsmith* and Samuel Johnson*. 4. such as the superiority of the Ancients over the Moderns. His work doesn’t equal in variety that of his predecessor and master. The return to the ancient models of the classical era was accompanied by the sense of an analogy between the present of England and the Roman times of Caesar Augustus*.1. The dialogue form of this essay allows Dryden to avoid being dogmatic and to look with healthy scepticism at a wide range of critical issues. Great Augustan writers: John Dryden and Alexander Pope Two great writers constituted the main influence in the development of the Neoclassic literary doctrine in England: John Dryden in the 17 th century. elegance. Augustan England believed that a cultural idea of balance. and he laid the foundations of modern literary criticism. John Dryden illustrated with masterpieces all contemporary literary genres. His didactic poem An Essay on Criticism (1711) is the most outstanding literary manifesto of English Neoclassicism. and Alexander Pope* in the 18 th . in which he systematises his Neoclassic view on literary art. English literary Neoclassicism* The Neoclassic aspiration for order. skill. who respected no particular rules and followed no particular models.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. the main source of inspiration for the writer was Nature*. The study of human nature in its individual aspects. since it dealt with noble characters and actions. by which the Augustans meant most frequently Human Nature. and whose creative power was a matter of intuitive genius and not of acquired art. a dignified diction. which referred to the writer’s obligation to use those elements of diction* and composition which were considered proper for each genre. was expected to use a common. to make form and substance adequate to each other. but a general intellectual tendency in the age. whose imagination had nothing to do with training or learning. Epic and tragedy. for the Augustans. The Augustans were aware that the heights of literary achievement couldn’t be reached by simply learning the trade. that it was an inborn gift that made a poet.e. and to those patterns of behaviour.e.. the most valuable store of literary experience. Nature and Reason According to the Neoclassic doctrine. A poet’s innate talent needed training.2. The concept of Human Nature referred to those features of human character and experience. The rule of decorum 4. i. which were seen as common to all humanity and as permanent and unchanging. required an elevated style. the emphasis on discipline in art. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Human Nature 96 . on the other hand. humble style. and he could master the secrets of poetic art by the study and imitation of the works of ancient authors. and the poet might disregard them. i. The quest for patterns of general significance through the study of particulars was not only a literary precept. The most eloquent example. would lead to the revelation of the typical and universal features. Following Nature presupposed first of all its understanding. To follow / copy Nature was the writer’s main endeavour.2. was Shakespeare. This was the case of the genius. and in order to do that accurately he was supposed to follow Reason as the main guide. skilful transgression. Sometimes rules might be too constraining for this natural gift. for instance.2. Principles of Neoclassic literary poetics One of the most important features of literary Neoclassicism was the concern with rules and norms. which in turn required good judgment and common sense. The Neoclassic emphasis on the principles and rules that guided successful creation did not mean blind adherence to them.3. It was the existence of this rule of decorum that enabled Neoclassic authors to derive great effects from its deliberate. lacking ornament. yet achieve great beauty. comedy. of infinite variety. in satirical or burlesque* works. which usually presented ordinary people and actions. The belief in order and correctness was reflected in the neoclassic principle of decorum [from Latin: propriety]. in a paragraph of no more than 4 complex sentences (80-100 words / 8-10 lines). Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 97 . and the indicated fragment. a combination achieved through reason.3. at the end of the unit. What are the main ideas in this fragment.The Restoration and the Augustan Age A rationalist poetics All the faculties involved in the process of creation were seen as subordinated to Reason. If there should be significant differences.3. in the Reader represents a fragment from Samuel Johnson’s Preface to his 1765 edition of Shakespeare’s works. The rationalist poetics* of Neoclassicism owed greatly to Horace*. and beauty was the result of the balanced combination of talent and inspiration with skill. and what Neoclassic conviction do they imply? Answer in the space below. or art*. SAQ 3 Text 4. read again subchapter 4. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. but also to imported French ideas – e. to those of Nicolas Boileau*.g.2. Emotion was supposed to be filtered and controlled by reason. The writer's art was a form of social communication. and the measure of the writer’s skill was his ability to convey an impression of “natural easiness and unaffected grace. In the context of general progress.” Augustan wit 4. It must not be forgotten that this was the age of the Enlightenment*.2. Wit described a style which combined elegance with profundity. as Oliver Goldsmith defined it. with the cultivation of men’s best virtues through polite learning*. A more straightforward style in prose was an imperative in an age so much concerned with education of mentalities. The periodical essay Although the normative poetics of Neoclassicism had in view mainly poetry and drama. and he was not supposed to withdraw in an ivory tower.5. The periodical essay is the Augustan prose genre which contributed immensely to the forging of a modern prose style. unnecessary ornament. the language of prose aimed more and more at simplicity. It displayed flexibility skilfully controlled. but also moral edification and standards of good judgment and behaviour. of critical debate in every field. Neoclassicism cultivated an ideal of style characterised in the first place by intellectual clarity and expressive restraint. yet everything is extraordinary” (Thomas Sprat*). or. and which illustrated most eloquently the didactic impulse of all Augustan literature.4. “To divert and instruct” – the imperative of Augustan literature The Neoclassic concern with standards of good writing must be seen in connection with an important feature of Augustan literature: its integration with social life.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. of the belief in progress an in man’s perfectibility. affectation were rejected. The Augustan ideal of style The suitable doctrine for the Age of Reason. 98 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . eloquence with restraint. manners and taste. Ostentation. where nothing seems to be studied. “grace and strength united. refinement with wisdom. but to be a functional part of the community. 4. its effects were considerable on prose. Literature was supposed to delight but also to instruct – to offer not only aesthetic pleasure.3. of quick accumulation of information. too.2. This ideal of style is best summed up by the Augustan notion of wit. The marked didactic tendency of much of the literature of this period reflects the Augustans’ pride in the conquests of their civilisation and their determination to assume responsibility for the defence of its achievements. precision and clarity. and of the increase and diversification of the reading public. dominantly middle class. merchants and ship owners 17th century coffee house in Covent Garden Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 99 . At the same time. The periodical essay constituted a chronicle of contemporary manners and an effective instrument of moral and social criticism. at cultivating their minds. contributing significantly to the “polite” education. meant to provide guidance in matters of manners and morals. with Alexander Pope.The Restoration and the Augustan Age It developed in the late 17 and early 18th centuries. the middle class readers. the enlightenment and the improvement of taste of its widest section. the periodical essayists aimed at broadening the intellectual horizon of their readers. at a time when political tension in the country and the events of war on the Continent engaged public attention to a high degree. They believed.” that ignorance is a source of evil. some of them being issued daily. Many periodical essays were dedicated to the dissemination of philosophical and scientific notions. Some writers felt that this popular avidity for political news might inflame partisanship and favour a spirit of social discord. or to the discussion of literary matters. they created an alternative kind of periodical publication. as a reaction to the ever greater demand for political news and gossip. for a clientele of ships' captains. Journalism and coffee houses* were the main instruments by which people’s curiosity was satisfied. that “a little knowledge is a dangerous thing. Essay periodicals were usually the work of a single author. opened in 1688. The reflections on both modern and ancient works. consisting in essays on a variety of topics. the debate on a variety of critical and aesthetic issues made the latter familiar to the public. and to offer intellectual enlightenment to a wide audience. and they were published with varying regularity. th Edward Lloyd’s coffee house. In order to counterbalance this tendency. If they are significantly different. whose essays were published several times in the century. at the end of the unit.The Restoration and the Augustan Age SAQ 4 In one of his periodical essays. Explain the analogy that his observation invites us to develop.e. To increase the efficiency of their undertaking. on a separate sheet.3. and Joseph Addison’s The Spectator (1711-1714). 100 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . 4. Think of present relevance of this remark. Joseph Addison wrote: The mind that lies fallow* but [i. Like other writers. were Richard Steele*’s The Tatler* (1709-1711). in no more than 12 lines / 120 words. think again and try to do the exercise once more. collected in book form. “The Spectator’s Club” Among the most important periodical essayists. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. only] a single day sprouts up* in follies that are only to be killed by an assiduous culture. Steele and Addison assumed the mission of public educators and proceeded to rescue their audience from what they perceived as “that desperate state of vice and folly into which the age is fallen” (Steele). and by far the most popular ones.1. The Tatler and The Spectator. they tried to make their essays not only instructive but also attractive and amusing. Spectator” on their opinions and behaviour in a variety of circumstances constituted real lessons in manners and morals. interested in his appearance and displaying a certain affectation in behaviour. in which they collaborated. Steele and Addison invented The Spectator’s Club. otherwise harmless and a well-bred gentleman.” He thus embodies the Augustan humanist view that true knowledge of human nature comes from a combination of first hand experience and learning.” He is a worthy representative of the middle class. turned to the study of literature. who had spent a turbulent youth in the company of the Restoration Wits. a competent justice of the peace*. a model of honesty. a rich London merchant. a courageous. but their good breeding qualifies them both for the same society of gentlemen. • A clergyman.e. skills] and industry. a gallant. • Will Honeycomb. bravery in battle]. generous and cheerful.” or that “diligence [i.e. modest and commonsensical person. • A gentleman who. manners. 101 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .The Restoration and the Augustan Age Joseph Addison (1672-1719) For example. who had to quit the military profession because his strict honesty proved to be an obstacle to the advancement of his career. an expert in fashion and gossip. His character is the first notable literary representation of the merchant class in a serious and dignified way.” and “his familiarity with the customs. Sir Andrew Freeport’s convictions are those of an enlightened middle class. and sloth [i. no longer as repulsively materialistic and greedy.” but whose life constitutes an eloquent example of moral integrity. an embodiment of its energies and enterprising spirit. “a person of indefatigable industry*. as his father had intended for him. instead of pursuing the career of a lawyer. He believes. that “it is stupid and barbarous way to extend dominion by arms. actions and writings of the ancients makes him a very delicate observer of what occurs to him in the world. idleness] has ruined more nations than the sword.” • Captain Sentry. hard work and skill. “a very philosophic man. ready to take responsibility for the progress of the nation. He is a man of “great probity. for The Spectator.e.e. • Sir Andrew Freeport. a middle-aged squire. and his harmless eccentricities are accompanied by a natural benevolence that endears him to everybody. steady effort] makes more lasting acquisitions than valour [i. a man of the world. a group of six fictional characters “engaged in different ways of life” and representing various social and human types. Many essays presented little stories about incidents in their daily lives. for instance. The six members of The Spectator’s Club were: • Sir Roger de Coverley. He is a pleasant company for his acquaintances in town.” of wide learning. rather than a merit. and great experience. Now. and the reflections of “Mr. in his county. for true power is to be got by arts [i. strong reason. He is the prototype for the character of the country squire in many 18th century novels. wit and understanding. laziness. His wisdom and gravity are set against the frivolous interests of Will Honeycombe. taciturn and with “no interest in this world. he is a somewhat old-fashioned gentleman. 3. 1. 2. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729) 102 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the talent of never offending the others) with such qualities as moral and physical courage. read again subchapter 4. 8. it is clear that Addison promotes certain virtues. 4. at the end of the unit.The Restoration and the Augustan Age The gentleman represented an ideal of social behaviour. which are important for the Enlightenment ideal of social integration. a cultivated mind and superior understanding. and write them in the indicated spaces below. cheerful disposition. If there should be major discrepancies.1. 5. 6. 7. combining the external marks of social decency (pleasant conversation. common sense. Identify at least eight such features. 3. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. more carefully. SAQ 5 From the description of the members of the Spectator’s Club. are mingled: the evil conspirator. with implications concerning the whole of Augustan civilisation. and Achitophel is the first Earl of Shaftesbury. Swift – aimed it at a variety of targets. It tells the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against his father. the instigator of the opposition to Catholic James Stuart. 4. Augustan satire The refinement and elegant surface of the Augustan Age. Perhaps the greatest Augustan satire on the world of letters is Alexander Pope’s The Dunciad* (1728.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. king David. hypocrisy. Bayes*. in which Dryden’s praise and criticism. Pope. 1743). could not entirely remove or hide its tensions. and its most outstanding representatives – Dryden. turning it into an allegory of contemporary political struggles.4. Alexander Pope Satirical attacks on literary mediocrity and incompetence were frequent in an age so preoccupied with standards of correctness and excellence. stability and order of a remarkable civilisation. disloyal and excessively ambitious. Absalom is the latter’s illegitimate son. The biblical characters represent English political figures: King David is Charles II. Charles’s brother and heir to the throne. urbanity and refinement made it a sophisticated instrument of correction. from political and social life. Samuel. folly.4. made king by the Goddess Dulness* in a realm turned to complete confusion by the vain ambitions of the Dunces – the multitude of bad writers and Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 103 . 15-18). the Duke of Monmouth. The best achieved portrait is that of Achitophel / the Earl of Shaftesbury. struggle for power and profit.4. Augustan satire defended the values of civilisation in a civilised way: elegance. The hero of this mock-heroic epic* is Mr.2. to religious debates and literary practices. contradictions and dark aspects. and affectation were felt as diseases which threatened to weaken the force. genuinely gifted for leadership. admiration and condemnation. greed. John Dryden A remarkable example of political satire is John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681-1682).1. The perfection of Dryden’s diction and his masterful use of the sketches heroic couplet* combine with his brilliant of character. its cult of reason and common sense. often touched by ironic humour. Political and religious dissensions. and satire became their formidable weapon. The Augustan Age is the great age of satire in English literature. intrigues. selfishness. The writers’ sense of mission turned them into guardians of the enlightened values of their time. appears also as a stormy spirit. a merciless attack on literary pedantry and dulness. brave and fearless man. a passionate. at the advice of Achitophel* (cf. 4. whose claim to the throne was justified by his Protestant religion. concerning satire. pointing out the Augustan conception of satire.4.2.e. Philosophy. more attentively. imagination). read the fragment again. and the satire ends with the apocalyptic extinction of the enemies of Dulness: Fancy (i. Here. Compare your answer with the suggestions provided at the end of the unit. in the Reader represents a fragment from one of John Dryden’s essays. that the corruption of the spirit (which follows from the corruption of the word) leads to the crumbling of all order. Religion. Explain this analogy. in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. The final triumph of this “great Anarch*” is rendered by a parodic allusion to the biblical Genesis: the “uncreated word*” of Dulness restores the primordial chaos. Science. and skill in the use of parody and the burlesque.The Restoration and the Augustan Age Alexander Pope (1688-1744) critics who aspire to undeserved fame. If it should be significantly different. imaginative inventiveness. and revise subchapter 4. 104 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . SAQ 6 Text 4. in a paragraph not exceeding 12 lines / 120 words. Its implications. The empire of Dulness finally extends to the whole universe of the spirit. Pope’s satirical allegory displays unequalled comic virtuosity and wit. Art. are more disturbing than entertaining. Truth. as it betrays Pope’s fear that civilisation and its conquests are vulnerable to unreason. however. he reflects on the art of the satirist. and Morality. drawing an analogy between satire and a public execution. In Lilliput and Brobdingnag. His hurt sensitivity and disillusionment are conveyed in a series of prose satires which cover a wide range of issues – political. religious. like extracting sunshine from cucumbers. respectively. It is an allegorical satirical travel book. a race of immortal people whose eternal life is in fact a curse of endless decay. absorbed in mathematical speculations and music. in his potential as a rational creature. is one of the greatest satirists in world literature. bigger than himself. combining the conventions of utopia* and of the imaginary voyage.A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . philosophical. Gulliver’s Travels pretends to be the record of the most astonishing experiences of an average man. he learns about the Struldbruggs. but the significance of his work may be extended to the philosophical question of the human condition itself. and where human creatures. In his third voyage he visits several strange places. appear in the utmost state of degeneracy.” a work which Swift published anonymously in 1726. justice and freedom. and his nostalgia for the perfect world of the 105 I.3. In Balnibarbi. or softening marble to make pincushions.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. is inhabited by impractical intellectuals. Jonathan Swift Pope’s friend. the flying island.4. Glubbdubdrib. social and intellectual realities. Gulliver is finally expelled. Like many of his contemporaries. the Yahoos. Balnibarbi. with a sharp sense of observation. economic. From this last country. building houses starting from the roof. The most powerful expression of Swift’s satirical genius is Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World “by Lemuel Gulliver. popular in the 16th and 17th centuries. an uncompromising defender of truth. Swift alludes satirically to a multitude of aspects from the contemporary political. Laputa.A Voyage to Lilliput II. and the disappointment and anger at seeing reason so often abused. intelligent speaking horses. whose admirable society is built entirely on rational principles. where mad scientists are engaged in phantasmagoric projects. Jonathan Swift. a hater of pedantry and pretence. Back in England. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745) 4. In Luggnagg. curious and resourceful.” therefore a potential threat to that civilisation. because he is perceived as a Yahoo endowed with “a rudiment of reason. In it.4. with elements of the marvelous or fantastic fable. Swift was divided between the idealist confidence in man’s capacity of selfimprovement. as well as an unequalled master of satirical wit and irony. The structure of Gulliver’s Travels Consisting of four books. Luggnagg and Japan IV. Gulliver finds himself among people who are twelve times smaller and. In his last voyage.A Voyage to Brodingnag III.A Voyage to Laputa. he is shown the Academy of Lagado (a burlesque of the Royal Society).4. and literary. whose adventures as a surgeon and then the captain of several ships take him through the most unusual places. Gulliver is cast on the shore of a country inhabited by the Houyhnhnms. These satires have established his reputation as a champion of moral virtue. Gulliver can’t help seeing his fellow humans as disgusting Yahoos. and he prefers now the company of horses. incapable of suffering the proximity of humans. 106 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . SAQ 7 Gulliver’s Houyhnhnm master tries to understand human nature by analysing the behaviour of the Yahoos (since he perceives Gulliver to be one). four features which humans and Yahoos are found to share. 2. read the fragment carefully once more. The parallel results in a grotesque image of humankind.5. Each answer should be limited to 3 lines / 30 words. His initial curiosity and openness to the diversity of human nature turns into madness and misanthropy. 4. Compare your answers with those provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.The Restoration and the Augustan Age rational horses alienates him completely from his own kind. 3. and he also re-interprets attitudes observed in the Yahoos in the light of the information received from Gulliver about human customs and institutions. from the Reader. at the end of the unit. If none of the features mentioned there corresponds with your answers. 1. in Text 4. who is thus forced to examine itself in a distorting mirror. Find. issues or figures. Gulliver.5. Their society is deeply divided by absurd dissensions: for example. etc. Dissenters and Catholics. the frustrated idealist After the comic-disturbing examples of unreason witnessed in his third voyage. the highest offices in the state are obtained by those who know how to entertain the king best. of the capacity for affection. In spite of Gulliver’s dimensions (an allegorical representation of his complex of superiority). to integrate Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 107 . The Houyhnhnms may be an allegorical embodiment of moral perfection attained through the exercise of pure reason. and they constitute a miniature picture of England. In the Yahoos. as he is in permanent danger from creatures so much larger than him. and the utopian commonwealth of Brobdingnag. or between those who break a boiled egg at the round end – the "Big Endians" – and those who break it at the pointed end). in his last adventure.4.4.6. between those who wear shoes with high heels and with low heels. The error of Gulliver* is that he adopts an impossible deal of perfection. vain. These comic details are satirical allusions to contemporary or recent events. by dancing on a rope. cruel and hypocritical. Gulliver is confronted. but their universe is completely deprived of emotion and feeling.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. with its religious controversies among Anglicans. Gulliver in Brobdingnag 4. his vulnerability increases. jumping over or creeping under a stick. his real humiliation is caused by the unflattering contrast between his own race and civilisation. However. ambitious. Gulliver’s failure to accept the mixed essence of man. from which he chooses to leave. governed only by reason. The Yahoos and the Houyhnhnms are a double mirror for Gulliver. and his position in that strange land is highly ambiguous. Lilliput and Brobdingnag: satire and utopia In the first two books of Gulliver’s Travels. He is no longer certain of the essence of his own nature. he is actually physically vulnerable in this world. In Brobdingnag. ruled by an enlightened monarch. with the hardest dilemma and the deepest humiliation. In the Houyhnhnms. Their non-human shape suggests that the absence of passion. The latter is shocked at the moral abjection and contempt for reason that he discerns under the gilded surface of Gulliver’s patriotic description of his country. its political parties – Whigs and Tories –. he contemplates with shame and despair all the imperfections of the human race. physical size indicates allegorically features of human nature.). The Lilliputians’ physical smallness is accompanied by moral flaws – they prove to be mean. means de-humanisation. and he realises how far man is from moral perfection. he sees ideal creatures. forgetting that man holds a middle place in the Great Chain of Being*. its thirst for war – the endless conflict with France. The fourth voyage. Political corruption is institutionalised (for example. etc. Houyhnhnm and Yahoo . an image which earned Swift the reputation of a misanthrope. unteachable and ungovernable. the Yahoos would stand for the essentially corrupt nature of man. filthy.The Restoration and the Augustan Age reason with feeling and instinct. or as opposite caricatural views of man in the state of nature. Illustration from an early nineteenth century abridged editions (for children): Gulliver entertaining and being entertained by the tiny Lilliputians.illustration from a 1947 edition of Gulliver’s Travels 108 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . For many readers. and he ultimately becomes the target of Swift’s irony. The last book of Gulliver’s Travels has been given a multitude of interpretations. makes him a frustrated idealist. the Yahoos embodied Swift’s own vision of mankind as hopelessly degraded. The Houyhnhms and the Yahoos have also been seen as allegorical representations of Reason and Instinct. In a “theological” perspective. while the Houyhnhms would represent man who has escaped the consequences of the original sin. in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs.6. Point out both kinds of aspects in the description contained in Text 4.6. Utopian aspects: Anti-utopian aspects Compare your answer with the one provided at the end of the unit. find anti-utopian elements in it. and by mixing the desirable with the unacceptable.The Restoration and the Augustan Age SAQ 8 Swift’s ironic method is to mislead the reader by giving the appearance of rationality to the absurd. and to revise subchapter 4. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 109 .4. The careful reader will. Formulate your answer in no more than 10 lines / 100 words for each aspect. more carefully. If there should be major differences. you need to read the fragment again. however. For Gulliver. the Houyhnhnms’ society is perfect – a true utopia. from the Reader. parody. The latter’s eminently rationalist poetics placed emphasis on clarity and elegance in style and composition. Congreve. narrow-sightedness. dominantly middle class. which contributed greatly to the development of a modern prose style. Swift. on Reason and common sense in aesthetic choice. Its flourishing in the Augustan Age reflects the integration of literature with social life. Dryden. on expressive restraint and skilfully controlled wit. Gradually. Pope. It cultivated the idea of the “marriage” of Art and Nature.4. grotesque. inflated ideal of heroism and virtue. Pope) and in prose (Swift). and he used every weapon in the satirist’s arsenal to awaken man from his selfcomplacency: biting irony. this highly artificial and conventional form was an expression of the taste of the Court aristocracy.g. was another characteristic genre. Steele). on the rule of decorum. It is an age of transition.The Restoration and the Augustan Age 4. Goldsmith. but also an enduring achievement of the enlightened spirit. It was a chronicle of manners and an instrument of social and moral criticism. reason was not to be taken for granted: man was only a creature capable of reason. 110 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . The period of the Restoration overlaps with the emerging Augustan Age. a wide public. comedy was licentious and cynical. the pressure of the taste of the rising middle class replaced it with sentimental comedy. and recommended as a model the literary wisdom of the Ancients.). both in verse (Dryden. accommodating a diversity of literary forms and traditions – old and new.7. Swift’s extraordinary inventiveness and narrative gift. Summary The Restoration is a historical and a literary period. Swift’s allegorical satire Gulliver’s Travels is the most accomplished exploration of the contradictions of the Age of Reason. He intended to “vex the world” in order to “mend” it. the writers’ sense of responsibility towards the values of their civilisation. including that of Reason itself. Dryden. the belief in progress and improvement in an age which was also that of the Enlightenment. and. For Swift. a masterpiece of irony which places under scrutiny many of the myths of the Enlightenment. when literary Neoclassicism developed. Johnson are central figures of the Augustan Age. Dryden). arrogant ignorance and unfounded pride in his reason. The importance of Gulliver’s Travels Gulliver’s Travels is the expression of Swift’s indignation and anger at man’s foolishness. One of the literary forms that developed during this period was the periodical essay (Addison. Like heroic tragedy (e. his learning and sense of literary tradition. Satire. Addison. and by means of it. therefore also capable of error. placing wit above virtue. etc. generally. A representative literary genre for this age is the comedy of manners (Etherege. Steele. caricature. was enlightened in matters of literary taste and intellectual achievements. and his brilliant wit make Gulliver’s Travels not only a landmark in Augustan literature. While heroic drama sustained an impossible. burlesque: see the Glossary in Unit 1. acquiring quickly the status of real “institutions” of opinion. beaux: plural of beau (“handsome” in French). Anarch: a personification of anarchy. well-dressed man. or human skill (as contrasted to the work of Nature). his craftsmanship. the acquired competence of the writer. admirer. which designated a fashionable. “Will’s Coffee House. baroque: see again subchapter 2.1. gathered people of the literary profession or interested in literary matters. dress or behaviour which is not natural. art: in the Neoclassic doctrine. profession or interest. In her empire of darkness and confusion.” where Dryden would come regularly. They were usually frequented by people of the same social rank. they were convenient places for socialising and for the dissemination of news. For instance. and the Glossary in Unit 2. Dulness as “Great Anarch” is the ruler of spiritual chaos. In Pope’s satire.1. political or religious orientation. but is intended to impress others. Art may generally refer to the work of man. blank verse: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. it may also refer to a woman’s lover. 111 • • • • • • • Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Augustan: see Augustan Age in the Glossary in Unit 1.The Restoration and the Augustan Age Key words • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • The Restoration The Augustan Age heroic tragedy comedy of manners Neoclassicism rationalist poetics Nature/Human Nature art wit to delight and instruct periodical essay The Spectator’s Club satire allegory utopia irony Glossary • • • Achitophel: the story of Absalom and Achitophel is told in The Old Testament. coffee houses: since the 1650s. affectation: a manner of speech. or escort. all the acquisitions of the human spirit become meaningless. achieved by training and practice. greatly concerned with appearances. in the 2nd Book of Kings (verses 15-18). unexciting. Mr. figuratively: undeveloped or inactive. Bayes: a name which was frequently applied satirically to a writer. justice of the peace: a person appointed by the crown to judge less serious cases in small courts of law. mock-heroic epic: see mock-heroic style and epic in the Glossary in Unit 1. stupidity. shortness of sight or imperfect sense of things. heroic tragedy: see again subchapter 1. but to the whole of created reality. In this kind of comedy.3 in Unit 1.” Nature: an inclusive concept. licentiousness: uncontrolled sexual behaviour. Pope replaced Theobald by Colley Cibber. to deceive). landscape. boring. a strictly ordered hierarchical system. inclination. fallow: (about land) left unplanted or unseeded. and distinction. In the 1743 version of The Dunciad. surviving through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance into the 18th century. Great Chain of Being: an ancient world-picture. Pope uses the word in the enlarged sense of “all slowness of apprehension. characters were constructed on the basis of a particular disposition. in which the destruction of one “link” would bring chaos. the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 112 . fop: a man who is excessively concerned with fashion and elegance. which conceived of every being in nature as having its well-established place in an uninterrupted chain of increasing degrees of complexity. It derives from “bay. Bayes. Gulliver: the name sounds very similar to the adjective “gullible. i. hedonism: a lifestyle devoted to the seeking of sensual pleasure. dulness: in a strict sense. heroic couplet: see again subchapter 1. Dryden himself had been attacked several times as “Mr. Dunciad: the title is coined after The Iliad. or “humour. the bay-leaf crown was the ancient emblem of fame.3 in Unit 1 (heroic drama).” which means easy to fool or persuade to believe something (from “to gull”: to cheat.e. honour.” diction : see poetic diction in the Glossary in Unit 1. a word designating a person who is stupid or slow to learn. Bayes” refers to Lewis Theobald.” another word for “laurel”. In Pope’s satire. who had criticised Pope for his edition of Shakespeare (1725).The Restoration and the Augustan Age • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • comedy of humours: see Jonson in the Glossary in Unit 1.” a “force inertly strong” which corrupts understanding and confuses the mind. “Mr. trait . “Dull” also means uninteresting.4. from dunce. referring not only to external nature. slowness in thinking and learning. Enlightenment: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. industry: the quality of being hard-working or of being always employed usefully. who in 1730 had become Poet Laureate. uncreated word: with reference to the literary world. founder of literary journalism.e. sentimental comedy see again subchapter 1. poetics: the system of principles and conventions which govern a certain literary form. Restoration Wits: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Among the latter. He excelled in all literary genres of his time.1. Boileau. this phrase suggests the lack of inspiration. sprout up: to begin to grow or develop. whose poem L’art poétique (1674) established the canons of taste and the standards of literary judgement for European Neoclassicism. Restoration: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. and he was the pioneer of modern English literary criticism. and sentimental novel in subchapter 5. polite learning: the knowledge acquired through classical education (polite: refined.4. of taste or skill.3 in Unit 5.4 in Unit 1. author of poems. for the notion of sentimentalism. Gallery of personalities • • • Addison.4. especially the main landowner in a village.” utopia: a genre in fiction whose name comes from Sir Thomas More’s work Utopia (1516). He was equally successful as an author of heroic dramas (see again subchapter 1. and topos = place). Pope’s satire warns thus about the dangers of lowering literary standards. polished). or literature in general. and he contributed significantly to the dissemination of the values of the Enlightenment in England. John (1637-1700): one of the most outstanding figures of the Restoration and the Augustan Age. Dryden. elegant. Joseph (1672-1719): representative of English literary Neoclassicisn. the conception about literature and the creative act of a certain literary school or writer. of imagination and originality. wit: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. Tatler: a “tattler” is a person who gossips. essays and dramatic works. or who chats or talks idly. Neoclassicism: see again the Glossary in Unit 1.3 in Unit 1) and of comedies of manners. perfect society (literally: “no place. i. squire: a country gentleman. Marriage à la Mode (1672) distinguishes itself by its brilliant wit combats and effective social satire. he translated from ancient authors.The Restoration and the Augustan Age • • • • • • • • • • • • cosmic harmony and order manifested in the appearances of this world. Nicolas (1636-1711): outstanding French poet and critic. 113 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . He established the periodical essay as a literary genre. making literature “dull. in which he outlines the features of an ideal.” from Greek u = not. Hogarth. and A Modest Proposal (1729). a bitter satire in defense of the Irish people.). Sprat. Oliver (1728-1774): upholder of the Neoclassic standards of style and composition. Johnson. 114 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . an unequalled master of irony and wit. clear. William (1640-1716): one of the Restoration Wits. In the mock-heroic allegory The Battle of the Books (1704). Thomas (1635-1713): mathematician and writer.The Restoration and the Augustan Age • • • • • • • • • • Etherege. extremely popular owing to his “modern moral subjects” – a series of paintings or engravings which tell a story and constitute a comment on social. Samuel: see the Gallery of personalities in Unit 2. William (1697-1764): painter and engraver. as well as the mock-heroic poem The Rape of the Lock (1712). which contains an allegorical satire on the division of the Christian Church. and of the influential critical work Ars Poetica. satires and epistles. Alexander (1688-1744): the most illustrious representative of English literary Neoclassicism. Latin poet of the time of Caesar Augustus.” Horace: Quintus Horatius Flavius (65-8 B. Together with Addison. he argues for the superiority of the Ancients over modern authors. and a major representative of English sentimentalism. he endeavoured to lift Latin literature to the level of Greek literature. Steele. George (1634-1691): a member of the group of Restoration Wits. Jonathan (1667-1745): the greatest English satirist. Among various other works. His best comedies are She Would If She Could (1668). He was a friend of the novelist Henry Fielding. political and moral vices. Wycherley. of Irish origin. His works include the philosophical poem An Essay on Man (1733). preoccupied by the cultivation of an English style that should be simple. as well as to the forging of a polished literary prose style. who called him a “comic history-painter. in which he is the optimistic spokesman of the Age of Reason. His comedies The Country Wife (1675) and The Plain Dealer (1676) satirise the discrepancies between the social surface of respectability and the unscrupulous selfishness that may hide behind it. and The Man of Mode. author of odes. a masterpiece of 18th century fiction.C. Swift. Besides his famous Gulliver’s Travels. Goldsmith. he contributed to the spreading of Enlightenment ideas. he is the author of the novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766). his works include A Tale of a Tub (1704). Richard (1672-1725): Augustan essayist and dramatist (he established sentimental comedy on the English stage). concise and flexible. member of the Royal Society. or Sir Fopling Flutter (1676). Virgil. Pope. Like his friend. 4.e.” Just as weeds (i. which may be cultivated or left to “lie fallow. integrity. modesty. Dryden makes an analogy between the sharp blade of the executioner’s sword and the sharp irony and wit of the satirist. in an analogous sense. SAQ 5 honesty. She wishes for a sincere and authentic relationship. diligence.F. 8. common sense. In marriage. and she rejects the idea of the wife’s subordination. Civilised reserve in society. She also refuses to see marriage as a limitation of the woman’s freedom. SAQ 6 Satire is the art of pointing at people’s faults without resorting to insult or calumny. wild plants growing where they are not wanted) will invade an uncultivated field. of Human nature. His characters embody the fundamental human passions which will always move mankind. regardless of their particular condition. good breeding. opinions and tastes.” Shakespeare will appeal to readers across the ages. Her desire to preserve an area of privacy in her domestic life reflects the fact that she does not conceive love and marriage as incompatible with one’s independence. reasonableness. 5.F.F SAQ 2 Millamant has an unconventional view of marriage.T. good sense. is. a way of protecting their intimacy and their feelings.T. SAQ 3 The pleasure of contemplating representations of “general nature” – i. educated to think – will employ itself with trifles. SAQ 4 Addison builds an analogy between the human mind and a field.T. 6. for sophisticated Millamant.T. 7. each partner should accept and respect the other’s wishes.T. by the standards of her social environment. Culture is thus seen as an improvement of nature. Addison’s observation reflects the faith in man’s intellectual and moral perfectibility through responsible education – an attitude characteristic of the Enlightenment. benevolence. 9. industry. because he succeeded in rendering the general “truths” of human nature. so the mind which is not assiduously and constantly cultivated – i. 2. abdicating from reason. of those features which are universal. and. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 115 .The Restoration and the Augustan Age Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. 3. Johnson implies that an author’s greatness depend on his insight into Human Nature. furnished with ideas. open-mindedness. the refusal to make a public show of their affection. sense of responsibility. good judgment. and should not try to impose his/her habits on the other. common to all humanity – is greater than the pleasure of “sudden wonder” procured by the depiction of “particular manners” and by “fanciful invention. or judgment.e.F.e. and she proposes to reject the social rituals and fashions that would require them to wear masks. 3 (“The Restoration to 1800”). The Houyhnhms are not divided by quarrels. 2. 5. 1983 (pp. SAQ 8 Utopian aspects: The cultivation and exercise of reason. which breeds imaginary ills. Editura Universităţii Suceava. Cornelia. decency and civility are certainly desiderata of any civilisation. Womankind’s lustfulness and inclination to coquetry. 2003 (pp. The incapacity of choosing a ruler according to real merit. the “unnatural appetite” for things whose value doesn’t justify the effort and energy spent in their acquisition and preservation. so the satirist is merciless in his denouncing human flaws. which is meant only for procreation. In the absence of affective attachment. David. The spirit of competition. The English Eighteenth Century.” SAQ 7 1. The art of the accomplished satirist consists in the elegance. Both of them need skill – or “art” – to do this in a satisfactory way. 1969 (pp. vol. Macsiniuc. They practice population control.The Restoration and the Augustan Age Just as the executioner will implacably carry out the capital punishment. ultimately of imagination. deprives their thinking of flexibility and nuance.). the rulers’ habit of surrounding themselves by favourites whose role is to flatter and to encourage them in their abuses. Daiches. and the equal education of males and females was a progressive Enlightenment ideal. The Renaissance and the Restoration Period. the education in the spirit of moderation and industry. and the hierarchy of their society is based on racial discrimination (“inferior” Houyhnhnms will fatally be servants). the silly behaviour of women determined to draw attention to themselves. which makes social progress inconceivable. and no personal choice in the matter of marriage. the exclusion of opinion. the ability of the worst to set themselves as leaders. the jealousy (envy) and the aggressiveness towards one’s fellows. Ioan-Aurel (coord. Further reading 1. the generalises extension of friendship and benevolence. The Novel in Its Beginnings. Anti-utopian aspects: the absolutisation of reason.” the subtlety of his accusations. The individual is of no importance. only the species counts. which are the literary equivalent of a man’s “slovenly butchering. 537-550) 2. 3. civility and friendship become a cold and superficial form of social relationship. The irrational greed and avarice.33-66) 116 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . conflict and self-interest. A Critical History of English Literature. The tendency to idleness. the “fineness. London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. English Literature and Civilisation. The tyranny of reason also rules out affection and emotion: they have no particular feelings for their own offspring.. 4. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Preda. 180-187) 3. The civilised art of satire is opposed to the coarseness and brutality of personal attack and insult. 1. 5. 5. Unit objectives The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Background and main concerns Novel and romance in the 18th century Didacticism and realism in the 18th century novel Typology of the novel in the 18th century Daniel Defoe and Samuel Richardson: from circumstantial realism to sentimental truth Daniel Defoe and the novel of adventure Robinson Crusoe: theme and plot Interpretations of Robinson Crusoe Defoe’s style Samuel Richardson’s contribution to the development of the novel The plot of Pamela.2.2. 5.5. 5.3.2.6.2.3.3.1. 5.3. 5. 5.6.5.2.4. 5.2.4. 5.4.3. 5. 5. or Virtue Rewarded Social hierarchy and the individual self Psychological realism and the epistolary technique Henry Fielding and the novel of manners Comedy and parody in Joseph Andrews The novel as comic romance The character of parson Adams Fielding’s conception of character in Joseph Andrews Fielding’s Augustanism Laurence Sterne and the “anti-novel” Tristram Shandy: an unconventional autobiographical novel Eccentric characters in Tristram Shandy Sentimentalism and tragi-comic vision The “Shandean” view of writing The defamiliarisation of realistic conventions Tristram Shandy as metafiction Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities SAA No. 5.3. 5.4. 2 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 118 118 118 118 119 121 123 123 124 125 127 128 128 129 130 132 132 133 134 134 135 136 136 136 137 139 139 140 142 142 143 144 145 146 148 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 117 . 5.2.1.3.3. 5.8. 5.2.1.2. 5.2.1. 5.4. 5.7. 5.2. 5. 5.4. 5. 5.4.2.1.3.4.4.2.1.3. 5.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel UNIT 5 THE AGE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT: THE RISE OF THE NOVEL Unit Outline 5 5.4.1.5. in the light of the author’s aesthetic principles ♦ describe the peculiarities of the narrative technique and style used by the studied authors ♦ define the concept of metafiction and describe metafictional strategies in Sterne’s novel Unit objectives 5. whose action was often set in remote. A significant part of this new reading public consisted in women.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ identify. mostly imitations of French models. a certain tendency to women’s emancipation. and whose protagonists were of noble stock. but there was a considerable amount of novels written by women. Not only were women the most numerous “consumers” of novels. whose vast majority was middle-class.1. and there is a connection between. in various aspects of the novels discussed in this unit. of a genre which became the main rival of the novel: the romance. Novel and romance in the 18th century The dominance of female readership explains the enduring popularity. tolerance. Background and main concerns The novel’s emergence is commonly associated with the aspiration of the middle classes to overcome cultural marginality. This new literary form embodied the democratic and revolutionary impulse of a century in which the issues of individual liberty. The general growth of literacy* in the 18 th century led to the rise of a new. 5. and their involvement with literary life was increasing. and the development of the novel. Romances were long narratives combining heroic adventure and passionate love.1. Women’s education was beginning to be encouraged. natural rights. more inclusive reading public. confined to the 118 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the rise of the middle classes. values and attitudes characteristic of the Age of the Enlightenment ♦ describe typological features of the studied novels ♦ compare the studied novelists from the point of view of their approach to character and plot ♦ delineate a character from one of the novels under discussion. Such tales gratified the fantasies of a class of readers who were still barred from public self-assertion. and generally about women. The late 17 th century had seen a flourishing of this kind of fiction. in the early years of the 18 th century.1. emancipation and progress received unprecedented prominence and were vital for the self-assertion of the new class. exotic settings. 2. vague and abstract figures. realised with an unprecedented wealth of social. The novel reflects. their common denominator was the attempt to convey an impression of authentic experience. its emphasis on individual experience is the literary expression of the spirit of individualism associated with the growing importance of the middle classes. It attempted to correct morals and educate manners by censuring vice and folly. its endeavour to propagate a certain moral and social code. but distinct individualities. The novel proposed norms of moral conduct and standards of social integration. Didacticism and realism in the 18th century novel Whereas the basic aim of romance was to entertain. The represented experience was meant to engage the reader’s interest both because it was familiar and because of its uniqueness. a reality that was close to the average reader’s experience became a source of imaginative interest. romances were therefore literature of escape. The readers of novels could identify themselves with the characters. In spite of the great diversity of novels in the 18th century. the province of the novel was the familiar. in its concerns. Thus. The novelist no longer drew his plots from mythology. The knights and princesses of romances were replaced. Characters are no longer idealised. socially and materially dependent on men. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 119 . truth to Nature – is what primarily distinguished the novel from romance. Realism – or. by common people. the novel reflected the general critical spirit of the Age of the Enlightenment and participated in its project of emancipation through education. in Augustan terms. shows its assumed responsibility towards contemporary civilisation. By contrast. For most women. it recommended patterns of behaviour and models of success that were relevant to the condition of middle class readers. to their relevance for the reader’s aspirations and possibilities. or previous literature. because the depicted experience and universe were more or less familiar to them. On the other hand. The popularity of the novel and the success of its didactic mission owed greatly to its endeavour of convincing the reader of the lifelikeness* of the represented characters and actions. moral or psychological detail. but from contemporary life. the novel’s didactic vocation.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel domestic universe. with entertainment frequently subordinated to the instructive aim. its determination to participate in the general Augustan quest for an ideal of social harmony. whose province was the spectacular and the extraordinary. legend. its normality. the novel’s aspiration was to fulfil the double mission of all Augustan literature: to entertain (to divert) and to instruct (to edify). history. The ordinary aspects of life.1. 5. a double tendency of the Age of the Enlightenment. On the one hand. in the novel. 1. and 5. 120 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . and public/social norms and conventions. constitute the foundation of all novelistic plots in the 18 th century. 1. SAQ 1 Complete the sentences below. on the other. at the end of the unit. read again subchapters 5.1.2. Two or three lines (20-30 words) should be enough for each completion. The novel’s interest in the tensions between the public and the private reflected … Compare your answers with those given in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. If there should be major differences. Each full statement should describe a general aspect concerning the rise of the novel as a genre in the 18th century. The didactic mission of the novel in the 18th century consisted in … 5. by centering its interest on the relationship between the individual and his/her social environment. The rise of the middle classes … 2. By contrast with the escapist spirit of romances.1.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel The novel offers imaginative versions of the reconciliation of these two tendencies. on the one hand. The tensions and conflicts between private/individual convictions and inclinations. … 4. Women were … 3. The most popular kinds of novels in the 18th century were: Adventure novels share with romances an emphasis on action. inclusive. since this kind of fiction subverts the prestige of older genres (the epic. The motif of the travel is central. It may either offer a comprehensive mirror of the social diversity of the age (e. but to literature as well. and the hero’s various encounters are. exposing their irrelevance and unreality. irony and burlesque*. an opportunity for comprehensive social criticism. the romance). • The sentimental novel is the literary manifestation of that cross-current within the Age of the Enlightenment which placed value in emotional response rather than in reason. patterns and motifs. romance is trivialised through parody*. classic models to follow. This makes the 18th century novel rather difficult to classify. but they differ from romances in their attention to realistic detail. popular in the 17th and 18th centuries. or explore personal conflicts which involve different sets of values (e. The analysis of sentimental response was meant to elicit from the reader an empathic understanding. Many novels cut across divisions.3. loosely structured. but also in poetry and in drama. On the other hand. their distance from the every day experience of common readers. misfortune to the solution of all conflicts and the integration of the protagonist in a social structure. • • The novel of manners submits to the reader’s judgements various types of social behaviour. displayed not only in fiction. and its beginnings are defined by a tendency to “sponge” on other literary forms. on events. and extremely diverse. The comic novel in the 18th century is inscribed in a long tradition of deflation of romance. Fielding). the comic vision is always in the service of social and moral criticism. confusion.1.g.e. examining the conflicts between private morality and public expectation. which claim the reader’s attention more than the characters do.g. Richardson). • Picaresque* novels may be considered a special case of adventure novels. and the world represented in such novels is open. • Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 121 . i. The characteristic comic plot presupposes the passage from disorder. a wide variety of influences went into its making. Sentimentalism became a literary fashion. in which the action is episodic.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. forms of expression. in imitation of the descriptive accuracy of travel literature. Typology of the novel in the 18th century The novel as a genre had no authoritative. The sentimental hero/heroine unites a remarkably acute sensibility with spotless virtue and a deep sense of honour. from which it borrowed devices. They invariably contain the motif of the journey. The comic novel is an opportunity for writers to display a critical attitude not only to reality. for the author. therefore an ally to realism. and which emphasised the importance of feeling and its close connection with moral virtue. belonging to several categories at once. Instead. repetitious. ________________________ 5. It explores the diversity of social manners and their articulation with moral values. If you have failed to match any of the descriptions with the right type of novel. trivial subjects. usually with supernatural ingredients. deliberately reducing the importance of plot or emotional conflict. ________________________ 4. ________________________ Compare your answers with those provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. 1. ________________________ 6. It presents a tale of mystery and horror. It explores the labyrinth of emotion and feeling. at the end of the unit. ________________________ 8.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel The novel of education (the Bildungsroman*) is concerned with the formation of character through the accumulation of experience. ________________________ 2. after each sentence. Two of these descriptions do not match any of the types of novels described in the subchapter above. this illustrates the concern of the Enlightenment with the development of the individual as a social being.3. in their confrontation with moral choice. The achievement of maturity leads to the hero’s satisfactory social integration. Its hero is a marginal figure who aspires to social success. It centres on intellectual debate and confrontation of ideas. mocking their elevated style by applying it to common.1. It is concerned with the individual’s full assertion as a social being. in an atmosphere of gloom. and his/her experiences provide a satirical survey of the contemporary society. at the end of a process in which he/she learns to accord private impulse with social expectation. It defines itself in contrast with the “serious” narrative genres. It offers more delight in ________________________ action than in character. read again subchapter 5. 122 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .. 3. ________________________ 7. • SAQ 2 What kinds of novels do the following sentences describe? Write the answer in the space indicated by the continuous line. Its tremendous success encouraged Defoe to produce. in the next years. Puritan* background. the power to hold attention and keep curiosity awake. on the individual’s striving towards some form of personal achievement. Both of them enjoyed enormous popularity not only in England. the constant striving towards accuracy of description. cast in a picaresque form. Daniel Defoe and the novel of adventure Defoe’s career as a novelist started with his masterpiece. 5. Richardson focuses on the inner world of thought and feeling. His heroes are remarkable in their vitality. of such non-fictional kinds of writing as the spiritual autobiography or didactic religious treatises. and tracing the protagonists’ struggles to achieve material prosperity as a condition of a stable social position. Their novels are the literary reflection of the spirit of individualism that characterised the age. on the movements of consciousness and the emotional response to moral problems. resourcefulness and capacity for adjustment and survival. and both of them focus on the individual in his/her struggle of securing a legitimate position in the social structure. They were all stories of success. They differ in the objects of their “realistic” approach: whereas Defoe’s interest is invested in the external world of fact. Defoe and Richardson: from circumstantial realism to sentimental truth Each of these two novelists had an essential contribution to the rise of the novel. Mariner.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. They share a middle class. dynamic and versatile. to the influence.2. establishing it as the most popular literary genre in the 18th century.1. on his fiction. The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York. when the writer was almost sixty. and their adventures show the individual victorious over circumstances and environment (physical or social). in actions.2. They are pragmatic. in circumstantial details. Both Defoe and Richardson display in their narratives a remarkable faithfulness to detail. is invariably accompanied by moral reformation. but also on the Continent. several adventure novels. published in 1719. This confers vividness to their narratives. Their rise to social respectability and wealth. This aspect in Defoe’s novels points to his Puritan background. their social insertion. Features of Defoe’s heroes Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 123 . ” and leaves home on board a ship. On his return to England. struggling to impose on an alien space his middle class idea of order.” as he came to call his novels – the attempt to inculcate religion and morality through a gripping story which has the appearance of authenticity. he turns from a reckless. romantic youth into a realistic. names him Friday and turns him into his loyal servant and receptive pupil. The subject is inspired by 17th century stories of castaways on desert islands. to buy slaves.” He disregards his father’s advice of continuing the family trade and keeping within the limits of his “middle station in life. After 26 years. Robinson becomes engaged in a heroic struggle for survival. not only physical but also spiritual. a celebration of man’s power of spiritual endurance in adversity. one of Defoe’s “honest cheats. such an experience became an archetypal one. Wyeth . Robinson Crusoe: theme and plot Robinson Crusoe is recommended as “a just history of fact. Providence helps him finally leave the island. After several misadventures at sea. Under Defoe’s pen. in fact.” without “any appearance of fiction in it. he rescues a savage from his fellow cannibals. He marries.” It is.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. as well by the more recent case of a sailor who had lived in complete solitude for five years on an uninhabited island. Robinson settles in Brazil where he becomes a relatively prosperous plantation owner. prudent and calculating mature man. In the hope of increasing his wealth. Illustration to the first edition (1719) Robinson on the beach (illustration by N. he learns that his prospering business in Brazil has made him a rich man. of his moral strength to carry on against all obstacles. Robinson displays from a young age the romantic inclination of wandering.2. C. in soon left a widower.1920) 124 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .2. has three children. Son of a successful German merchant settled in England. The only survivor. In the 28 years of solitary life. he starts a voyage to Africa. the desire for adventure and for “seeing the world. but during a terrible storm he is shipwrecked on a desert island. and the book ends with his promise of further accounts of his island. where he has established a colony. but the proper condition for the examination of consciousness. as one of the great myths of individualism of Western civilisation. Robinson comes to see his solitude rather as a spiritual and moral shelter. at the end of the unit. as his life becomes more secure and his trust in Providence increases. read again subchapters 5. It corresponds to the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 125 . the awareness of his sinfulness and the sincere desire for repentance. In this light. as an allegory of the ecological development of history. and 5.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel SAQ 3 How does the description “honest cheat” apply to Robinson Crusoe? Answer in no more than 8 lines / 80 words. It may also be read as a spiritual autobiography in the Puritan tradition. If it should differ considerably. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Robinson perceives his exile from the world as a terrible punishment for his transgression of his father’s word.1. Interpretations of Robinson Crusoe Defoe’s novel lends itself to a variety of interpretations: as an allegory of man’s evolution from the state of nature to civilisation and its institutions.2. to the awakening of religious conscience.” 5.3.2.2. tracing Robinson’s progress from sin (his disobedience of his father). Gradually. and finally to his conviction of God’s benevolent design. making sure you understand the meaning of the phrase “honest cheat. In his initial struggle with despair. the motif of the island acquires symbolic Robinson’s island dimensions. as a political or economic utopia.2.. Isolation is no longer a misfortune. embodying elements of contemporary social philosophy and economic theory. He takes pleasure in his work).g. in the space below. perseverance. 126 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Robinson is cast out from the “edenic” safety and happiness of his father’s home into an uncertain world of toil. ingenuity). if the biblical curse of work is meant to remind Adam permanently of his original disobedience. you must read again the last two paragraphs of subchapter 5. morally autonomous. Enumerate. and it is also symbolic of the Puritan sense of an intense personal relationship with God. as a self-reliant individual. 3. with a well-defined utilitarian view of life. If you should fail to find any of the features mentioned there.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel The celebration of homo faber characteristic Puritan tendency to self-scrutiny and introspection. SAQ 4 Read Text 5.2. 1. subchapter 5. g. describing in minute detail Robinson’s attempt to make an earthenware pot.2. The enormous effort by which he secures shelter. the protagonist’s experience evokes the theme of the fortunate fall. Robinson Crusoe also celebrates those human features which enable man to master circumstances: pragmatism. or by a sentence (e.. In this connection. its essential role in man’s material and spiritual progress. at the end of the unit.. perspicacity. which will serve his instinct for independence. Like Adam. where his daily bread is earned with “infinite labour. It has its spiritual rewards. and is thus a way of restoring a lost Paradise.3..2. Robinson finds in it a “therapeutic” value.” However.” desires and “delights. at least four features of the hero’s character as they are illustrated by this description. inventiveness. Changed in his “notion of things. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. 2. 4. food and the basic commodities of life turns into a source of satisfaction. You may render these features either by a single noun (e. as well as the fragment in the Reader.” Robinson perceives the island as the equivalent of a regained Paradise. Crusoe’s years of solitude trained him for social insertion. Defoe’s novel is thus a celebration of the dignity of work. or the felix culpa*. Defoe’s style The world of Defoe’s novels is the world of common fact and action.4. 1. His fiction has the remarkable power to evoke a tangible reality. His linear. the accumulation of circumstantial detail create a strong sense of a palpable. concreteness. It was with Richardson that “the sense of life” conveyed by the narrative was completed by a sense of form. containing. on a separate sheet. Defoe’s novels imposed a model of style that contributed considerably to the “democratisation” of literature. whose reality is difficult to doubt. in the Reader from the point of view of its style. 2.2. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. easy and eminently factual style made his writings accessible to a large audience. the most common objects and actions in their particularity. Identify in it at least four features of Defoe’s characteristic narrative style and write them in the space provided below. clarity. rendered in a simple. 127 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the frequent enumerations and inventories. with unmatched vividness. His simple. He convinced readers of the truthfulness of his narrative by evoking.4 once more and do the exercise again. arising from the complication of a plot centering not on episodic adventure. Robinson Crusoe is a gripping narrative.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. in turn benefited from his innate gift for telling stories. at the end of the unit.2. SAQ 5 Analyse Text 5. clear language. which. episodic plots imitate the episodic quality of life itself.2. The “journalistic” style of Defoe’s fiction is consonant with an ideal of prose style characterised by plainness. solid world. which draws much of its force from Defoe’s peculiar narrative manner and style. The latter owes greatly to Defoe’s experience as a journalist. of familiar detail. If your list contains none of the features mentioned there. the promise of symbolic meanings. 4. Defoe is the first major fiction writer whose narrative realism conveyed such a powerful impression of authenticity and completeness in the representation of the interaction of the individual with the environment. In his aspiration to create an effect of reality in his narrative. at the same time. lack of unnecessary ornamentation. read the fragment and subchapter 5. he paid little attention to matters of form. but on the complexity of character and human relationship. 3. The richness of concrete detail. the double victim of the libertine aristocrat who raped her and of her narrow-minded. In Clarissa. impressed by Pamela’s unusual beauty and grace. Faced with her resistance. in Bedfordshire.2. Pamela continues a diary. Richardson’s contribution to the development of the novel Richardson is the first to combine a sense of social reality with the interest in individual psychology. Mr. In Pamela. but also the agitation of her heart and its conflicting impulses. which Richardson found best suited for the realistic rendering of psychological and moral complexity. the death of the heroine turns her into a tragic figure. His influence was considerable. He acknowledges his love and proposes marriage to her. Pamela differs from Clarissa in tone and ending. B_ abducts her and keeps her a prisoner for a while in his Lincolnshire house. the latter’s son. or the History of a Young Lady (1748). In her new state. 128 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . who is now convinced of the purity of her motives and of her innocence. At the same time. recording the details of her ordeal. B_’s sister. hoping that she will give in. Upon the death of her mistress. of individual freedom threatened by arbitrary power. the tone is rather that of a comedy of manners and the ending is in the spirit of the Cinderella* tale. B’s relatives and friends. Both novels concentrate on the microcosm of the family and develop the themes of the trial of innocence. Mr. Pamela has one more test to pass: winning the approval of Mr. not only in England but also on the Continent. As the first great sentimental novelist. Mr. of the struggle between virtue and vice. Richardson focuses on the relation between feeling and virtue. or Virtue Rewarded Pamela is a simple countryside girl who works as a maidservant in the house of Lady B_. Both are written in the epistolary manner*. Pamela decides to thank Providence by doing as much good as she can to those around her. tries to seduce her and make her his mistress. Her diary – intended for her parents – falls into Mr. unanimously loved and admired. B_’s hands. Her disarming combination of graceful modesty and pride helps her come victorious in an encounter with haughty Lady Davers. or Virtue Rewarded (1740) and Clarissa. sensibility and morality. Back to Bedfordshire as mistress of the house. cruel and greedy relatives. whose affection she finally gains. The plot of Pamela.5. as well as for his didactic purpose. There.2.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. His focus on the inner life of feeling and emotion prefigures the Romantic* sensibility.6. his exploration of unconscious motivation makes him a forerunner in the great tradition of the novel of psychological analysis. B_. Richardson’s prominent place in the history of the English novel is ensured by two novels: Pamela. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) 5. Pamela is brought up by her modest parents in the spirit of the strictest religious principles. B_ intercepting Pamela’s first letter to her parents (Engraving by H. He thus questions the exclusive right of aristocracy. to set moral standards to the nation. F. the freedoms that he takes with her. Pamela’s position of moral superiority reflects Richardson’s confidence that the values of the middle class entitled them to claim moral leadership. but the education she received in Lady B_’s house is far above that of a servant. that no one has the right to control the ideas and feelings of another.” but she defends her dignity as an individual. She perceives her imprisonment by Mr. is consistent with the spirit of individual freedom which defines the Enlightenment. his violation of her privacy (including the private space of her correspondence) as abusive attempts to reduce her to the condition of an object.2. She sees social hierarchy as “natural. Through its subject and theme. as a traditionally dominant class. Gravelot to the 1742 edition) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 129 . the rights of the individual. The cover engraving and title page of the 1741 edition Mr. This ambiguity in her condition makes her remarkably class-conscious.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. Richardson’s novel participates in the larger illuminist debate on the issue of authority and absolute power vs. The moral conflict in the novel is accompanied by social issues. Richardson’s creation of Pamela is revolutionary. Richardson’s implicit radical message. a complete novelty in fiction. Social hierarchy and the individual self Pamela’s problem is not only the defense of her chastity.7. as he embodies perfect virtue in a lower middle-class girl. B_. If there should be significant differences. it is easier for her to stand his abuses. 5. between hate and admiration.7. 130 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Her initial innocent regard for her master’s benevolence turns gradually into the apprehension of danger. B_ When the latter acts openly as her oppressor. at the end of the unit. in no more than 10 lines / 100 words. Psychological realism and the epistolary technique What makes Richardson a real innovator is the credibility with which he renders the heroine’s inner conflicts. read again attentively subchapters 5. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. social standing] I am but upon a foot with the meanest slave. what are the implications of her exclamation: “My soul is of equal importance with the soul of a princess.”? Answer in the space left below. Pamela struggles from the start between fright and fascination. though in quality [i.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel SAQ 6 Considering the heroine’s dilemma in the novel. her contradictory impulses and unconscious motivations.2. but her letters betray her growing affection for her master.2. Richardson’s mastery consists in the subtlety with which he suggests the gradual surfacing of unconscious feeling and with which he traces the heroine’s slow process of self-knowledge. but his moments of kindness confuse her and make her feel vulnerable.e. Her conscience is divided between her loyalty to the moral principles inculcated by her parents and her social duty.8. as a servant. and 5. to obey Mr.2.6. and his developing love. There is a struggle in him between the “pride of birth” and “pride of fortune”. SAQ 7 Starting from Richardson’s own description of his epistolary manner (Text 5. in the Reader). She has a remarkable gift for rendering an incident vividly or delineating another character.. What Richardson manages to convey most convincingly is the psychological truth that feeling and emotion may sometimes run counter to our rational will. find two main advantages of the epistolary technique. excerpted from Pamela. He found the epistolary narrative to be best suited for his sentimental focus. however. Your answers should not exceed 4 lines / 40 words each. and considering also Text 5. The use of the epistolary technique afforded direct access to the character’s thoughts and feelings.2. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 131 . at the end of the unit. 1. The exploration of the complexities of emotional response to pressing moral issues defines Richardson as a sentimental novelist.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel The character of Mr. Compare your answers with the ones given in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. 2. is the impact of these incidents and encounters on her mind and heart. B_ follows a similar evolution.4. What counts.3. her sentimental response to them. In Pamela’s letters and diary. on the other. as well as the indicated fragments in the Reader.9. He proves as unaware of his feelings as Pamela is.. which are captured in the process of their emergence. and that human actions may have their true motivation hidden from consciousness. on the one hand. events are recorded with the same care for detail as in Defoe’s narratives. If they should correspond to none of the offered suggestions. The spectacular change in him is his overcoming of class prejudice under the influence of feeling. read again subchapter 5. Mr.” Mr. More unexpected Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Lady Booby and Joseph Andrews (engraving by James Heath. Fielding’s combination of realism and comedy inaugurated a lasting tradition of realistic fiction as an instrument of criticism of manners.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. The careful narrative architecture of his novels. Pope. the author asserts himself. His acknowledged literary models were Swift. performed by means of comic satiric devices. He is the object of seduction of “Lady Booby*. required a narrator who should be no longer a character. Slipslop. Fielding abandons parody. irony. above all. in London. Joseph Andrews is presented as Pamela’s brother. emulating his sister in the exemplarity of his virtue. priggish* upstart. but a snobbish. and the long central section of the novel – its picaresque part – describes Joseph’s adventures on the road. Omniscient narration afforded a comic vision of life. His rejection of both leads to his dismissal. His works are panoramic reflections of the age.3. started as a parody. but a voice external to the story. The result was the first comic novel of manners in England. Fielding uses the technique of reversal as a parodic device. Henry Fielding and the novel of manners Fielding is the creator of the novels of manners. as well as their inclusiveness. Comedy and parody in Joseph Andrews The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and of His Friend. A somber discovery marks the climax of confusion: it appears that Joseph and Fanny are brother and sister. Fielding considered the Puritan morality preached by Rhichardson’s Pamela as narrow and ungenerous. Cervantes.3. Treating seriously of male virtue results in comic effect. and the first comprehensive literary picture of the manners and mentalities of the age. controlling the narrative and imposing his own values explicitly. Through the omniscient* narrator. Lady Booby’s estate in Somersetshire is the scene for the novel’s last series of adventures. author of Don Quixote” (1742). burlesque and comic satire. so that he sets out for home. and. Mr. including Pamela and her husband. which is doubled by the fact that Joseph is pursued not only by the mistress. Parodic accents are revived: Pamela is not Richardson’s humble. Fielding was a master of parody. Henry Fielding (1707-1754) 5. 1790) 132 . At this point. they mirror a wide range of human types. relationships and actions. modest and gentle creature. but also by the maid. Booby. “written in imitation of the manner of Cervantes*. B_’s aunt. Abraham Adams. whose servant he was. and he thought to propose his own version of morality. Joseph’s sweetheart. to his native village. All important characters meet here. who opposes her brother’s marriage to a simple country-girl. He is also the first novelist who displayed a remarkable sense of form. The multitude of incidents during their journey acquaints the reader with the most diverse aspects of English countryside life and with an impressive variety of human types. Mrs.1. The hero’s companions are Parson Abraham Adams and Fanny Goodwill. Both comedy and comic romance introduce characters of low social rank and inferior manners. T F 7. Affectation arising from vanity presupposes the concealment of vice under an appearance of virtue. for true or false) for each of them. Fielding likes to play with genres. T F 5. The novel as comic romance Like his invoked literary master. read the text once more.5. Cervantes. Natural imperfections are a source of the Ridiculous for the comic writer. T F 4. SAQ 8 In the Preface to Joseph Andrews. carefully. Affectation arising from hypocrisy is more efficiently comic. Mr. very carefully and identify which of the statements below are true and which are false. indeed “in imitation of the manner of Cervantes. The comic writer gives pleasure by strictly imitating nature. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 133 . Fielding exploits such motifs in a comic or burlesque key. or the pattern of the adventurous journey. T F 3. Read Text 5. whom they had met during their journey. This removes all obstacles in the way of Joseph and Fanny’s marriage. Circle the appropriate letter (T or F. Fielding resorts to the burlesque both in the creation of his characters and in diction. Wilson. which turns out to be gentle*. If you should fail to identify the sentences correctly as true or false. For instance. T F Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Fielding gives his definition of a comic romance and discusses the nature and the source of the comic (“the Ridiculous”). The burlesque in writing and the caricatura in painting presuppose distortion and exaggeration.” Fielding himself speaks of his work as a comic romance. alluding thus to the older genre. The action of a comic romance is more extended and comprehensive than that of a comedy. but rooting his action in contemporaneity and the ordinary. is an ingredient of romantic plots. 1. T F 6.3. 5. to be both serious and ironic about their conventions. like the motif of love fulfilled against all obstacles.2. at the end of the unit. T F 2. the spectacular reversal of Joseph’s status. which closes the plot. T F 8.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel disclosures bring about the final clarification and the great reversal of the plot: Joseph turns out to be the son of a gentleman. while Fanny and Pamela are revealed to be sisters. in the spirit of comedy. Parson Adams as a quixotic character 5. but good deeds and charity. but also moral instruction. as he himself says. In the combination of foolishness and idealism that characterises the parson. not an individual. Fielding resorts to the principle of contrast in characterisation. Like his literary ancestor. Fielding’s fiction displays an immense gallery of characters. Fielding involves him in a multitude of comic situations. both honest and hypocrite priests. Fielding’s conception of character in Joseph Andrews The way in which Fielding conceives his characters in his novels is of great importance for his didactic purpose. in Fielding. there are both good and bad innkeepers. fulfilling thus the novel’s double aim of entertaining and instructing. Along the novel. In other words. Adams’s unsuspecting nature often gets him in trouble. one of the most successfully accomplished quixotic* characters. he describes “not men. In order to make the extraordinary variety of human types easier to deal with. but they placed their main interest in the individual. For the author.4. hypocrisy and intolerance he is confronted with. the parson combines innocence and simplicity with dignity and learning. Joseph appears to follow his sister in his restriction of virtue to the question of chastity. lawyers. the essence of Christian morality is not prudence. Fielding’s panoramic approach led him to find uniform patterns in human behaviour. but a species” (Joseph Andrews).The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. etc. both loyal and treacherous servants or friends. In the beginning. which often create comic effects. active goodness. His fund of Christian idealism is inexhaustible. By means of techniques of contrast.3. He represents what Fielding considers the highest Christian value: goodness. Fielding makes a synthesis between the comic and the morally serious. Fielding offers aesthetic delight.3. At the same time. Parson Adams’s character remains the moral center of the novel. often making him appear ridiculous. in spite of the many instances of greed. but manners. and the reader is invited to judge all the other characters against the moral standard that he embodies. etc. The presence of Parson Adams is essential for the evolution of the main character. and he never seems to learn from disappointing experiences. The character of Parson Adams The influence of Cervantes is clear in Fielding’s delineation of Parson* Adams. cruelty. above all.3. his virtues always outshine his occasional foolishness. quickly assimilating his mentor’s lesson and convinced that true Christianity means. Defoe and Richardson were also concerned with the relation individual-society. Joseph emerges as morally mature. doctors. which must give substance to faith. Virtue and vice are not the “privilege” of a certain class or profession. masters. in various nuances of behaviour and in its moral diversity. Every social class. as for Richardson. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Character as type The principle of contrast in characterisation 134 . because “beauty and excellence” are always best demonstrated by their reverse. profession and temperament is represented in his novels. If they should differ substantially. and he tried to give full legitimacy to the novel. preoccupied with the reformation of manners..5. Such reflections show his Neoclassic emphasis on discipline and craftsmanship as essential for successful creation. and he believes. His narrative style is eminently Augustan: articulate and refined. and 5. he had the exceptional gift of individualizing his characters through speech.8. Explain them. in the superior corrective efficiency of comedy and its devices. provide the first theory of the novel. Compare your answer with the one given in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. SAQ 9 Mention at least three features of Fielding’s art of the novel which distinguish him from Defoe and Richardson. incorporated in the substance of his works. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 135 .2. Fielding is the most “Augustan. 5.3. of no more than 3 lines / 30 words each. read again subchapters 5. He had a solid classical education and a strong sense of literary tradition.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5.. At the same time. 2. Fielding’s Augustanism* Of all 18th century novelists. defining it in relation with the respectable genres of the epic and drama. He is a moralist. of evoking his characters’ social position and moral nature through their language. unaffected..3. combining elegant seriousness with wit and irony. 1.” His exploration of the diversity of Human Nature.2.2. 5. like many Augustan writers. 3.4. 5.4. at the end of the unit. drawing short comparisons. reveals his Augustan view of the writer’s province.3. His commentaries and reflections on his own art.. through its moral and temperamental types. 136 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Much more of the narrative is dedicated to the unforgettable figures of his father.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5.” when a window sash fell over him owing to the maid’s carelessness. which progressed at a slower pace than the growth of his son. he seems to have. and his long. the history of a private life. who has read “the oddest books in the universe” and consequently has “the oddest way of thinking. that his brother Bobby died suddenly. In spite of his promises. With Sterne.1. Laurence Sterne and the “anti-novel” Sterne’s only novel was published in instalments: its nine volumes appeared between 1760 and 1768. These few tragi-comic episodes from Tristram’s early life make him a “small HERO.” individuals dominated by some private obsession. as well as of Parson Yorick. at the age of five. Fielding had demonstrated. Tristram Shandy: an unconventional autobiographical novel The title of the novel raises in the reader the expectation of an autobiographical narrative. His father. the narrator. the priest who baptised Tristram. is an erudite philosopher. Walter Shandy. that parody was a factor of innovation in the development of the novel as a literary genre. The ultimate question that Sterne raises in his novel is the nature of fictional representation. i. His Tristram Shandy has been seen as an anti-novel. which isolates each of them in his mental universe.” He is fond of building strange theories and hypotheses about the smallest things. the relation between life and literature. pedantic discourses are completely incomprehensible to those around him. Walter. in Joseph Andrews. of those procedures by which an author “transcribes“ life. instead of a linear narration of a life's story and the rational coherence of an autobiographical retrospective account.4.2. Tristram. We learn few things about his life: that his nose was crushed at birth by the doctor’s forceps. that his father decided to write a “system of education” (Tristrapaedia). a sceptical examination of the conventions of realistic fiction. we are drawn into an extremely irregular. moulds reality into a literary pattern. 5. Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) 5. of his uncle. by accident.4. does not manage to give a shape to his story.” in every sense. the testing of the possibilities and limits of fiction took the novel into a radical direction. christened Tristram (a name which evokes the French word “triste”) instead of Trismegistus* as his father had intended. Toby and the latter’s devoted servant. This makes his novel a work of metafiction*. However. other interesting things to relate. at every point. unpredictable narrative. that.4. that he was. Eccentric characters in Tristram Shandy Tristram’s family is a collection of “originals. He tells us about his birth only in Volume III. corporal Trim.e. Tristram suffered a new misfortune: an accidental “circumcision. He digresses continually. moral or psychological) that interests Sterne. “My uncle Toby” is the most memorable character in the book. but they can enter a dialogue of the hearts. Tristram calls such obsessions hobby-horses. which were expected to influence a man’s conduct. gentleness.” Toby Shandy is Sterne’s best accomplished sentimental character – the narrator continually praises his uncle’s good nature. a quixotic figure forming an eccentric couple with corporal Trim. where compassion and empathy bridge the gap created by their singularity. On the other hand. to 137 The Shandean view of life Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Sterne places emphasis on the sentimental nature of his heroes as an aspect of their “moral character. Tristram Shandy displays a unique combination of sentimentalism and comedy.” defined as the capacity to mock at the blows of fate. but the uniqueness of each individual mind. uniqueness is achieved in extreme. character and destiny. Sentimentalism and tragi-comic vision The characters’ obsessions and idiosyncrasies are an intellectual barrier in their communication.” forgetting (1760) everything in pursuit of his obsession. Understandably. There are many eccentric characters in 18th century fiction. Characterisation by hobby-horse is a negation of conventional means of realistic character delineation. as comic eccentricity. the members of the Shandy family reach mutual understanding on the affective level. which becomes almost a parody of human individuality. absorbed in this activity. above all. and discharged from the army. to preserve good humour in the middle of trouble. Shandean* book” that Tristram is trying to write is meant to do good to the reader’s both heart and head. He becomes completely Tristram Shandy. His narrative emphasises a tragi-comic vision of life. 5. amiability. Suffering is a permanence in Tristram’s world. with man as a vulnerable. and this is made obvious in their endless conversations recorded in the novel. It is not type (social. He transforms his bowling green into a miniature military field. Its approach to the frustrations of life is called by Tristram “true Shandeism. were being fought on the continent. good-humoured. doomed to pass from sorrow to sorrow.1 architecture as Don Quixote was found to have of chivalry. uncle Toby continues to live the reality of war through a substitute. ironic terms.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Among his most eccentric theories. modesty and. but in Sterne’s novel all characters are eccentrics. which influences all his thoughts and actions.4. therefore. representing there the main battles as they William Hogarth. The narrator sees laughter as the ultimate defense of the sensitive soul against life’s miseries and limitations. gathering “almost as many books on military frontispiece to vol. pitiful creature. generosity. during the War of the Spanish Succession*. They cannot share their thoughts.3. However. the early accidents in his son’s life cause him great distress. The “nonsensical. and it is either dealt with sentimentally or revealed in its comic absurdity. Wounded in Flanders. there are his “system of noses” – his conviction that the quality of a person’s nose determines his character – and the hypothesis concerning Christian names. V. SAQ 10 In Vol.3.6. in the Glossary to Unit 2. Sterne introduces the theme of Fortune – a theme which he will develop with a characteristic mixture of sentimental pathos and comic wit. see again the fall of princes. which enables man to keep a healthy spirit and to get around the evils of life by joking about them. Ch. restricting it to 12 lines / 120 words.4. Read this short chapter (Text 5. read again subchapter 5. 138 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . To remember the features of the tragic hero. at the end of the unit. I.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel take a lightly ironic distance from suffering.. as well as the fragment from the Reader. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. in the Reader) attentively and explain why Tristram’s selfdescription as a “small HERO” suggests a tragi-comic vision of life. Write the answer in the space left below. It is a combination of wisdom and mirth*. If the difference is considerable. e.” Not only as a man. so different from Fielding’s tight. by exploiting them in a parodic way. with its multitude of dashes. The same “Shandean” view applies to writing: Tristram counteracts the frustrations of the author who aims at perfect communication by putting on the mask of the literary jester* and mocking at the conventions of the genre. frustrates our expectation of chronological linearity commonly associated with an autobiographical account. only in the middle of Volume III that we find the author’s Preface. etc.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. for instance.5. He thus exaggerates parodically the realistic pursuit of accuracy and immediacy. and gives the impression of stagnation. For example. Digressive narrative Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 139 . marking a moment of affectionate recollection. the restriction of the hero’s “life” to a few episodes breaks the convention of autobiographical focus. Tristram constantly oscillates between the comic despair at his incapacity to master his narrative and the delight he takes in complete narrative freedom.4.” The confused chronology and the digressive excesses frustrate also our expectation of a plot. even a black sheet introduced at the death of Yorick. which he calls “the sunshine of reading. and to involve the reader both imaginatively and sentimentally. Typographically. there are several dedications scattered through the book. The zigzagging narrative. but also to how it is told. Tristram resorts to other means of communication. Faced with the problems of accurate representation through words. 5.4. This impression is increased by Tristram’s effort to be exhaustive in his presentation. does not seem to move towards any climax. there are numberless digressions and interpolated stories. the “imperfections of words. in Sterne’s novel. makes the reader aware of them. watched as if by a slow motion camera. and he takes great delight in digressions. Sterne’s rambling narrative. The “Shandean” view of writing This ambivalent view of life corresponds. by drawing his attention not only to what is told. its unpredictable returns to various moments in the past. points of suspension.4. The narrator explicitly refuses to keep the story straight. the book is a comic oddity. i. coherent plots. It is. Sterne defamiliarises them. Tristram has the consciousness of his tragi-comic predicament. The defamiliarisation of realistic conventions By taking extreme freedoms with narrative and compositional conventions. to a certain view of writing. drawings and graphs. asterisks. but also as an author. He delights in minute descriptions of postures and small gestures. Tristram is earnestly trying to tell the story of his life and his opinions as accurately as possible. The structure of the book is equally odd. with its blank pages for the reader to fill in. The difficulty he experiences as a writer is due to the limits of language. Tristram constantly draws attention to the way in which he manipulates fictional time. The randomness of the narrative is a mirror of the narrator’s sense of his own life as tragi-comically governed by accident. the process of its own writing. The unpredictable. One such theme in Tristram Shandy is that of human communication – or rather incommunication –. The main subject of Sterne’s novel is.e. at the structural level. into the “laboratory” of his literary consciousness. i. In volume VI. however. random course of the narrative has a correspondent in the theme of Fortune. i. As metafiction. the theme of time corresponds to the narrator’s concern with the distinction between the time of writing. of life as pure chance. makes Tristram Shandy a work of metafiction. also concerned with the way in which consciousness refracts external reality.6. making the reader aware that “literary time” is arbitrary and conventional. as it explores – halfseriously. with the narrator’s desperate effort to be allinclusive and his incapacity of managing his narrative. the permanent inquiry into what a novel can do and cannot do. experimental character affords the reader a glimpse into the novelist’s dilemmas and arsenal of choices. 140 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the narrated time and the time of reading. There are themes in Sterne’s Metafictional novel which may be called “metafictional”. Tristram Shandy questions the mimetic illusion that realistic fiction endeavours to create. half-comically – the distinction between subjective and objective time.” with their digressions. in the first four volumes.e. on the author’s vision of life. Tristram draws the narrative “lines. Sterne’s particular approach to narrative correponds to a certain vision of human experience. The meaning of metafiction depends.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel 5. Tristram Shandy may be called the first philosophical novel in English. Its extravagant. halfsceptical meditation on the condition of literature and its relation with reality. ultimately. metafiction is fiction about fiction.4. works which call attention to their own devices. which is connected. they may be related to themes the problem of fictional representation and its limits. on the possibilities of fiction to render in an intelligible pattern the elusive. Another prominent theme with a metafictional relevance is that The theme of time of time and its relation with the imagination. Basically. Sterne’s literary treatment of the notion of duration makes him a precursor of 20th century modernist writers like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. formless reality. Metafictionally. Tristram Shandy as metafiction The constant reference to the devices and conventions operating in fiction. It is a half-amused. which he discusses in the very text of the work. The fragment is practically about the writing of the novel. at the end of the unit. If they differ significantly. 2.. using no more than 3 lines / 30 words for each of them.5. Write them in the spaces indicated below. Compare your answers with those provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. the author reveals to the reader one aspect of his conception of writing. In this way.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel SAQ 11 Text 5.4.7. Read the text and find three reasons for Tristram’s praise of digressions. Henry William Bunbury: Uncle Toby and Trim reviving a scene of war on the bowling green (1773) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 141 . 1. go again through subchapters 5.4. and read the fragment attentively once more.6. in the Reader illustrates the metafictional dimension of Sterne’s novel. and 5. the narrator stops and considers his eccentric way of telling it. 3. Instead of continuing the story. self-conscious novel that makes him highly modern. Henry Fielding. Defoe illustrates best the new narrative realism that emerged in fiction. completely ignored by Augustan poetics. Samuel Richardson. which has dealt with four major novelists of this age: Daniel Defoe. This is reflected in the wide diversity of directions in which the novel developed in the 18th century. Richardson takes the novel in the direction of the minute analysis of emotion and feeling. Since its settlement on the literary scene. and Laurence Sterne. Lastly. this genre has enjoyed unrivalled popularity. who shares with Fielding the attraction to comedy and parody. and with Robinson Crusoe the middle class hero is imposed on the literary scene. Key words • • • • • • • • • • • realism romance character to divert and instruct parody comic novel of manners sentimental novel narrative technique metafiction convention 142 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Fielding. on the other hand. looks for the permanences in human nature and investigates the border area in which the individual’s aspirations and pursuits are submitted to the pressure of social demand. Sterne. tests the possibilities and limitations of the newly-born literary genre in an experimental. in a work so committed to the matterof-fact. The absence of norms and models made it an exceptionally flexible and inclusive form. to the palpable reality of common objects and actions. the novel was a minor form. We have only concentrated on one novel for each writer. readers along the ages have been able to find a wealth of symbolic meanings and a story of archetypal significance. selected as an illustration of the most characteristic features of his art. Their works illustrate various aspects and tendencies in the evolution of the genre. However. but his interest in the psychological complexity of the individual is completed by a remarkable sensitivity to social aspects.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Summary The birth of the novel is a literary phenomenon that must be seen as part of the process of modernisation defining the Age of the Enlightenment in England. You have formed an idea of this diversity from the chapters of this unit. At the beginning of the 18th century. in his novels of manners. omniscient: describes the perspective of a narrator who appears to know all about the characters and their action. minuteness: exactness in the rendering of small detail.e. whose style. gaiety. ends up by marrying Prince Charming. mirth: laughter. which dominated Western aesthetics until the end of the 18th century. Bildungsroman: German term. fun. He is forced to 143 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . parson: an Anglican priest in charge of a local church. mimetic: the adjective derived from mimesis (Greek: imitation). parody: the satirical imitation of a serious work. lifelikeness: closeness to life. booby: silly or stupid person. Cinderella: an old fairy story. a term designating the contemporary mode of fiction – postmodern fiction – which is essentially self-reflexive. a Fool. which became popular in England through translation and imitation.3 and the Glossary in Unit 3. a term associated with the aesthetic view according to which the work of art is an imitation – a representation – of reality. or “narcissistic” – i. exact representation of life.e. “beyond fiction”. happiness. epistolary manner: in a novel. fixed idea. It was Aristotle who articulated this theory. The letter (epistle) as a literary species was widely used in the 18th century. picaresque: the origin of English picaresque novels is in the Spanish picaresque fiction of the 16th century. persecuted by her stepmother and ugly stepsisters. to the lower ranks of society. belonging to a high social class (as in gentleman). literacy: the ability to read and write.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Glossary • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Augustanism: the features of style and the aesthetic views of a writer belonging to the Augustan Age (for the latter. tone. gentle: of good breeding. characteristically. a hobbyhorse is a toy. hobby horse: a favourite topic or an obsessive. played like a piano. who achieves success owing to beauty and virtue. attitude and subject are deliberately distorted so as to make them appear ridiculous. the way of telling the story through a character’s letters or through an exchange of letters. harpsichord: an old musical instrument. rogue) – belongs. and he seeks social integration. literally: novel of formation. or education. see again the Glossary in Unit 1). metafiction: literally. Cinderella is the prototype of the obscure and neglected young person. in which the poor heroine. felix culpa: see subchapter 3. consisting of a stick with a figure of a horse’s head at one end. but producing a different sound. Concretely. jester: a professional clown employed by a king or nobleman. in which its form becomes explicitly its subject. burlesque: see the Glossary in Unit 1. The hero – the picaro (i. on a quest that is both admirable and ridiculous. Spain and Bavaria in this war fought over the disputed succession to the Spanish throne. quixotic: the word describes a character moulded after Cervantes’s Don Quixote. Prussia and the Netherlands against France. Britain joined Austria. Romantic: see Romanticism in the Glossary in Unit 1.e. the famous satirical romance in which the hero’s sense of reality is altered by his obsession with the romantic chivalric ideal. 1615). having often to go through the experience of humiliation and frustration. author of Don Quixote de la Mancha (1605. War of the Spanish Succession: 1702-1713. Don Quixote is an implicit debate on the relation between fiction and reality. Don Quixote starts. Trismegistus: Hermes Trismegistos (thrice-greatest) is the Greek name given to the Egyptian god Thoth as supposed author of various works of mysticism and magic. Puritan: see the Glossary in Unit 1. squire) appear as madness in a world whose reality is obscured to him by the idealism of the old romances.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel • • • • • • find his way in a hostile world by means of his resourcefulness and ingenuity. honest and brave hidalgo (i. Gallery of personalities • Cervantes (Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra): Spanish writer (1547-1616). The high aspirations of this generous. priggish: describes a person who is strict about rules and correct behaviour and thinks him/herself morally superior to others. which stands in an ironic contrast with the successive triumphs of the noble hero of romance). Stimulated by the numberless stories of romantic heroism that he has read. like a knight-errant of former times. “quixotic” indicates an unrealistically optimistic and impractically idealistic approach to life. • 144 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Shandean: the adjective that Tristram derives from his family name. which presents Swift as a master of allegorical satire. The novel as a literary genre both reflects and helps consolidate values and attitudes which define the Age of the Enlightenment.1. clarity. Pay special attention to the instructions for each task.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Send-away assignment no. 1. The weight of this task in the assessment of this SAA is 20%.. Gulliver offers him the secret of the recipe for gunpowder. and Gulliver’s new humiliation will make him partial in the subsequent description of the king’s rule.4. as well as the presentation of the novel you choose to discuss. to revise the preceding unit. The weight of this task in the assessment of this SAA is 50%. in the Reader represents a fragment from Robinson Crusoe in which the motif of the island is particularly prominent. Horrified. You may refer both to the general circumstances of the novel’s emergence and its concerns. in the Reader presents an incident at the court of Brobdingnag. Read the fragment carefully and analyse: • the ironic-satirical treatment of Gulliver himself. 2 will count as 20% in your final assessment. and 5. and consistence of your ideas (40%) • the accuracy of your grammar (20%) • the accuracy of your spelling (10%) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 145 . in Book II of Gulliver’s Travels. and its contrast with European civilisation as Gulliver presents it. You might find it helpful to revise subchapters 5. with special attention to subchapter 4. In order to win the good graces of the king. SAA no. • the features that make the kingdom of Brobdingnag a utopia of reasonable government. 2. your tutor will take into account: • the closeness of your answer to the formulated requirement (30%).4. Text 4. Limit your answer to 25 lines / 250 words. 3. • the coherence. revealing candidly to him the “benefits” of this invention.1. the king rejects this tribute. therefore. and to the illustration of those values and attitudes in a particular novel. as illustrated by this fragment.2. in grading your paper. Mention at least four aspects in support of this idea. Limit your answer to 35 lines/350 words. You will have. 2 This assignment includes tasks concerning both Unit 4 and Unit 5. Text 5. The weight of this task in the assessment of this SAA is 30%.1. What is the double symbolic significance of Robinson’s island.. in the context of the novel’s pattern of Puritan autobiography? Your answer should be no longer than 10 lines /100 words. who had just pronounced a severe judgement on his civilisation. Remember that. concreteness. optimism. 5. 2. By contrast with the escapist spirit of romances. resilience. SAQ 5 factuality. … novels focused on the ordinary and the familiar aspects of life. SAQ 3 Defoe’s own phrase refers to the purpose of his novels: to entertain and to instruct. on contemporary social reality and on the experience of the common individual. vividness. The didactic mission of the novel in the 18th century consisted in … offering the middle class readers models of moral and ethical conduct and of social success. plainness. 6. He delights the reader with an extraordinary adventure and a story of success. realistic account. 4. He thus “cheats” the reader with the illusion of truth. SAQ 2 1. 5. patience. SAQ 4 Tenacity. but she lives with the deep conviction that in the spiritual order of a Christian world. industriousness. The rise of the middle classes … coincides with the emergence of the novel as a literary genre. but she denies any human being the right to control her moral 146 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural the novel of adventure the sentimental novel the picaresque novel the Bildungsroman the novel of manners the comic novel . sharp sense of observation. In the social order. 4. and by the form of autobiographical record. Women were … a consistent part of the novel’s reading public. which is given an air of authenticity by the meticulous. she may be deprived of the privilege of class and fortune. The novel’s interest in the tensions between the public and the private reflected … the attempt to reconcile the growing spirit of individualism with the aspiration to social harmony.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. and also authors of novels. 3. inventiveness. pragmatism. all souls are equal. but this is a way of accomplishing more efficiently his honest intention of conveying a moral message. She will accept humbly her social inferiority. the capacity for learning from mistakes. minuteness SAQ 6 Pamela’s assertion points to her conviction that the right to defend the moral integrity of one’s self is independent of social status. rationality. 2. 3. immediacy. The use of digressions is meant to show Tristram’s narrative skill and constitutes a mark of his originality.F. 7. 3. and this impression of unmediaded communication strengthens his belief in the character’s sincerity. they create a sort of suspense.e unfavourable] accidents” is in comic contrast with the ideas of tragic disaster and the fall of the great. but in the way in which the individual embodies general traits of human nature. that is.T. SAQ 11 1. SAQ 10 In formulating your answer. his gifts and virtues set him above common people. He is a “small HERO” because the misfortunes of his life do not consist in some “great or signal evil. 6. The narrative manner: unlike Defoe and Richardson. The conception of character: he is interested not in the uniqueness of individuals. 2. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 147 . it enables the author to give greater psychological complexity to the characters. Fielding finds the omniscient point of view more suitable to his intentions. 4. He is always a prominent figure. Digressions keep the reader’s curiosity awake. 3F. you should think first of the features of a tragic hero.T. In this way. This technique may thus give a dramatic quality to the narrative. since the letters usually record moments of crisis in the character’s experience. SAQ 8 1. His style: while the style of Defoe and Richardson is closer to the plainness of common speech. Her statement reflects the strength of her sense of individual worth. living and the act of writing overlap each other. 5. enjoying title. 2. SAQ 7 1.F SAQ 9 1. as well as a paradoxical combination of social conformity and rebelliousness.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel will. 2. wealth and power. he is concerned with human types. 8.” but in “pitiful misadventures.T.T. It allows a more profound insight into the character’s mind. The reader is made witness to the most private thoughts of the character. 3.” The image of the “ungracious Duchess” – Fortune – pelting him with a series of “cross [i. It creates a greater sense of suspense and anticipation. This is not Tristram’s case. 2. who write in the first person. Fielding displays the elegance and refinement of the Augustan ideal of style.T. forbidding the reading “appetite” to fail and bringing in variety. It prevents the writing from ending – it allows the writer to go on indefinitely. which makes her sensitive to any form of power abuse. 3. Allen. 1991 (pp.3 (“The Restoration to 1800”). A Critical History of English Literature. 116127. 37-42. Walter. 217-231. Penguin Books Limited. 598-602. 2003 (pp. 234-238) 148 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Macsiniuc. Cornelia. 712-718. 701-704.The Age of the Enlightenment: the rise of the novel Further reading 1. vol. 53-59. 43-46. London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. The English Eighteenth Century: The Novel in Its Beginnings. 143-163. Editura Universităţii Suceava. Daiches. 731-736) 3. 179-195. The English Novel. David. 76-80) 2. 1969 (pp. 1. The Seasons William Cowper. 6. 6. 6.7.6.4.1.4. the Romantic visionary The theme of childhood in Songs of Innocence Ironic implications in Songs of Innocence The fall from Innocence: Songs of Experience Knowledge in the world of Experience The double vision in Blake’s Songs Summary Key words Glossary Gallery of personalities SAA No.2. 6.2. The Task William Blake – the visionary artist Blake as a pre-Romantic poet Blake.1.2. 6.4.1.2.3. 3 Solutions and suggestions for SAQs Further reading 150 150 150 151 151 153 153 154 154 155 156 158 158 159 161 161 162 163 166 166 167 168 170 171 171 173 173 174 176 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 149 .1. 6. 6. 6.3.4. 6.2.4.English pre-Romantic poetry UNIT 6 ENGLISH PRE-ROMANTIC POETRY Unit Outline 6 6.4. 6.3. 6.3. 6.4.2.4. 6.3.5.4. Unit objectives English pre-Romantic poetry Pre-Romantic tendencies in 18th century poetry The poetry of melancholy meditation The interest in early poetry The pre-Romantic sensibility and the interest in new poetic forms The rural universe in 18thcentury poetry The sentimental approach: Oliver Goldsmith Character sketch in The Deserted Village The realistic approach: George Crabbe Robert Burns and the popular tradition Pre-Romantic nature poetry James Thomson. 6. 6.1.3. 6.4. 6.1. 6.2.2. 6.2.1. subjective experience is displayed not only in fiction. harmony. The interest in individual psychology. elegance and decorum*. with its emphasis on order. From the Age of Reason to the Age of Feeling 150 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Addison. the century of the Enlightenment*. Pre-Romantic tendencies in 18th century poetry The eighteenth century. Literature was called to deal with matters of public interest. This new poetic trend ran counter to the optimistic confidence of the Age of Reason. the cult of Reason favoured an attitude of humanitarianism and social benevolence. whose literary-artistic expression was the Neoclassical doctrine. regarded art as the product of civilisation. which became the vehicle for the expression of private feeling and assumed a personal voice. Neoclassicism*. which in turn favoured the emergence of the cult of Feeling. discipline. led to an increasing attention to emotional response. One trend in the 18th century poetry of meditation was the preference for the expression of melancholy and dark thoughts. The concern with personal.g. to bring the significant aspects of human life and behaviour into the light of public attention. but also in a new kind of meditative poetry.English pre-Romantic poetry By the end of this unit you should be able to: ♦ explain the shift in literary taste that occurred in the latter half of the 18th century ♦ define the main interests and tendencies in pre-Romantic poetry ♦ point out elements of continuity and discontinuity between pre-Romantic poetry and Augustan literature ♦ compare the representation of the rural universe in the works of 18th century poets ♦ describe the pre-Romantic approach to the theme of nature ♦ specify pre-Romantic and Romantic features of William Blake’s work ♦ analyse Blake’s notions of Innocence and Experience in the context of particular poems ♦ describe the contrasting visions in poems by Blake Unit objectives 6. as well as the preoccupation of 18th century analytic thought with the workings of the human mind. Like any modern age. however. The sentimental novel* (e. and for night as a setting. the century of the Enlightenment was not without paradoxes and contradictions. as is proved by the works of the great Augustan writers (Steele. and the sensibility that it cultivated favoured the rise of the Gothic novel. The optimism and pragmatism of a rational age which believed in progress were reflected in literature as well.1. and cultivated its public relevance. For instance. was eminently the Age of Reason. Samuel Richardson) is one manifestation of this tendency. Swift. and Fielding). Pope. Macpherson claimed to have translated these poems from “the Gaelic or Erse* language. legendary Irish bard and hero Ossian. by Thomas Gray (1716-1771). Edward Young (1683-1765) 6.” and to have collected them in the Ossian Highlands of Scotland*. It is in this tradition that one of the most popular poems in English must be placed: Elegy written in a Country Churchyard. This new interest was reflected in the curiosity about “primitive* poetry” – biblical poetry. Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. sublime landscapes. His long poem in nine books. imitating partly the cadence of biblical verses and of Milton’s blank verse.D. supposed to have lived in the 3rd century A. Night Thoughts (1742-1745).1. known as the Graveyard School of poetry.1. The perfect form of Gray’s poem shows his classical training.1. death and immortality. and it exerted an immense influence both in England and on the Continent. It consisted in long blank verse* meditations on such things as earthly vanity. and misty. with tombstones lit by the pale moon – contributed to the birth of the taste for Gothic. Thomas Percy published a collection of mediaeval ballads. is the most outstanding expression of this new spirit in poetry. Its gloomy setting – the churchyard. which contrasts with the Augustan focus on contemporary civilisation. 1782) What Macpherson presented as a great primitive Celtic epic turned out to be entirely his own imaginary creation. and folk literature in general. which leads the poet to a sad meditation on “the short and simple annals* of the poor” – the joys and sorrows of the country-folk. which awakened a steady interest in older poetic styles. and the dominant tone is that of nostalgia and regret. It begins with the contemplation of the landscape. Celtic* and Norse* legend and mythology. In 1765. The lamentations of the blind bard evoke an ancient world of heroic virtue. whose life had passed in complete anonymity. The fascination with the Middle Ages is another feature which illustrated the rise of the Romantic sensibility. He also claimed that their author was the (painted by Nicolai Abildgaard. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 151 . The poetry of melancholy meditation Edward Young is one of the most important representatives of this new kind of reflective poetry. Young and other poets formed a distinct trend in the mideighteenth century.2. The interest in early poetry Another tendency which announced a change in literary sensibility was a new sense of the past. wild. published in 1765 by James Macpherson (17361796). The most spectacular manifestation of this interest is the volume Poems of Ossian. Macpherson’s “Ossianic poems” are pieces of highly rhetorical poetic prose.English pre-Romantic poetry 6. but its influence on the birth of Romanticism* in England and on the Continent was huge. but its subject and mood are preRomantic. whose basic motifs were the shortness and sorrows of life and the inexorable passage of time. These poems displayed lyric grace and the promise of talent. Chatterton committed suicide. 1. Reliques of Ancient English Poetry. Write the correct sequel in the space provided for each sentence. b. aspiring to poetic fame. is a pre-Romantic reaction against Neoclassic literary decorum. … 3. If you have failed to make the right match for every sentence. imagination. regarding him as a martyr. … Chatterton is also the author of a literary “fraud. with its gloomy atmosphere. published a volume of poems presented as belonging to the mediaeval poet-monk Thomas Rowley. 152 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Check your answers by looking in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. SAQ 1 Read the partial statements below and match them. The melancholy poetry of the Graveyard School. The churchyard was a favourite setting … 2. The publication. the victim of an (1856) insensitive and hostile world. When his literary fraud was exposed. … for the pre-Romantic poetry of melancholy meditation. read again the previous subchapters. of Thomas Percy’s collection of ballads. with its taste for the macabre and the supernatural. young Thomas Chatterton (1752-1770).” presenting his own poems as authentic mediaeval verse. … a.English pre-Romantic poetry In 1770. … the pre-Romantic interest in the Middle Ages and popular poetry. d. The completed sentences will describe aspects of the emergence of a pre-Romantic current in 18th century poetry. … as well as Gothic fiction. reflected… 4. c. who claimed to have translated an ancient Celtic epic poem by the legendary Ossian. Like James Macpherson. The coming generation of Romantic poets turned by Henry Wallis him into a legend. but they proved to be (like the Ossianic poems) entirely the product of Chatterton’s inflamed Death of Chatterton. at the end of the unit. in 1765. and indeed the tendency along the century was to abandon it for poetic forms that allowed more freedom. Samuel Taylor Coleridge). Henry Fielding) would often associate the turbulent. and the 18 th century abounded in optimistic utopias about an idyllic. A return to blank verse – for which Shakespeare and Milton were the great models – allowed greater flexibility of expression. the interest in rural life and its contrast with civilisation. In the latter part of the century. we shall look more closely at two important pre-Romantic aspects of 18 th century poetry: the development of a sentimental interest in rural life. This change in taste concerned not only themes and subjects. patriarchal society in which men could enjoy fully their natural right to freedom. William Blake would call the heroic couplet* the “great cage” of Augustan poetry. valued for their simplicity and directness by the first Romantics (William Wordsworth. an interest developed in popular forms of poetry. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 153 . the state of nature began to be idealised. The emphasis on sentimental response. but also literary forms. the new feeling for nature – these were features indicating that literary taste was changing.English pre-Romantic poetry 6.1. such as the song and the ballad.2. and the emergence of a distinct poetic attitude towards nature. The return to blank verse 6. In the following subchapters.3. Under the influence of Jean Jacques Rousseau*. towards the highest achievement of man’s Reason: civilisation itself. The pre.Romantic sensibility and the interest in new poetic forms The transition from the Augustan to the Romantic age was slow and long. and the simplicity of country life with moral virtue. The rural universe in 18th century poetry The emerging Age of Sensibility oriented the critical spirit. The sentimental opposition between town and country was to become a convention in 18 th century literature. There was a growing suspicion that civilisation may have a corrupting effect on man’s innate goodness. The great novelists (e. the interest in the local and national past. the inspiration from folk myths and legends. Towards the end of the century. busy life of the city with moral confusion. Elements of a pre-Romantic sensibility can be found all along the century. sometimes within the context of Augustan conventions.g. characteristic of the Enlightenment. English pre-Romantic poetry 6.2.1. The sentimental approach: Oliver Goldsmith An idyllic view of the countryside is present in the poem The Deserted Village (1770), by Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774). Goldsmith’s literary preferences were Neoclassic, but his remarkable achievement is to have combined a sentimental theme with the elegant, balanced form of the Augustan couplet. The poem is Goldsmith’s reaction to a social and economic reality: the enclosure* of land, a capitalist process which changed radically the life of the traditional village. Goldsmith sets in contrast the former happiness of Auburn (an idealised version of his native village, in Ireland) with the desolation of the present, when the land is concentrated in the hand of “one only The Deserted Village master.” He remembers the days gone by, with their “humble illustration by happiness” spent in the middle of a hard-working but cheerful and W. Lee Hankey warm-hearted community. Their life was measured then by the cycles (1900 edition) of agricultural labour, alternating with the simple “sports” (i.e. amusements) and pleasures of the moments of well-deserved leisure. Goldsmith gives an idyllic picture of a rural paradise, in which man lives in harmony with nature and enjoys “health and plenty,” “innocence and ease,” and in which toil becomes a pleasure. This sentimental image of the “loveliest village of the plain” is only a memory, and the poet constantly moves between the happy past and the sorrowful present. His evocation of the past charms of “sweet Auburn” has an elegiac tone, and he laments the disintegration of the traditional, stable rural civilisation. Goldsmith blames the decay of the former way of country life on the increasing greed of man, on the excessive concern with accumulation of wealth, and on the vice of “luxury.” His village was an idyllic microcosm, a small but organic universe sustained by temperance and virtue, but incapable to resist the pressure of the new economic tendencies. 6.2.2. Character sketch in The Deserted Village The Deserted Village illustrates not only Goldsmith’s sharp sense of observation in the description of natural beauty and of the human scene, but also his art of character sketch. His remembrance of the old days in Auburn focuses now and then on some member of the community, whom he evokes in short, precise and vivid features. Among his notable miniature portraits is that of the village schoolmaster, whose small eccentricities are captured with affectionate humour. A memorable sentimental description is that of the village preacher. Goldsmith emphasises the decency, moderation and humility of his simple life, “remote from towns,” his complete lack of ambition and vanity, and his strong attachment to the place and community which he serves. Firm in his moral guidance and a severe judge of human “wanderings,” Goldsmith’s parson is, however, a truly charitable soul, “to all the country dear.” 154 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 2 The portrait of the preacher in The Deserted Village completes the idyllic picture of Auburn in the old days. Below, there are several features of this character. Read Text 6.1., containing a fragment from Goldsmith’s poem, and identify those lines which illustrate or suggest these features. Write these lines down in the provided spaces, after each mentioned feature. 1. moderation (1 line): 2. strong attachment to the humble community that he served (2 lines): 3. complete lack of worldly ambition or vanity ( 2 lines): 4. selflessness and sincere concern for the fate and spirit of those in pitiful circumstances (1 line): 5. hospitality to the poor (2 lines): 6. severity in his judgement of human error, but unconditional charity (1 line): Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs, at the end of the unit. If they should differ significantly, read the fragment from Goldsmith again. 6.2.3. The realistic approach: George Crabbe Goldsmith’s idealisation of rural life received a sharply realistic reply from a poet who also continues the Augustan tradition: George Crabbe (1754-1832). His poem in rhymed couplets The Village (1783) is an attack on those poetic conventions which created the illusion of the innocence and happiness of country life. Crabbe’s medical practice afforded him a first hand observation of the rural world, and the sentimental cult of its idyllic charm had little to do with the realities that he encountered. His poem aims to paint village life “as Truth will paint it and as bards will not”. Instead of the cheerful ease, the innocent pleasures and the rewarding toil described in Goldsmith’s Deserted Village, Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 155 English pre-Romantic poetry Illustration to (1905 edition) The Village Crabbe presents a sordid reality. For him, the sad truth of village life is the people’s hopeless poverty, their many vices, their struggle with an unfriendly nature for the daily bread. Despised and neglected by the rich, they lead a bitter existence, whose miseries never end. Crabbe denounces the unreality and artificiality of pastoral poetry, whose Muse knows nothing of the real pains and cares of the peasants. The moralist in him could not accept to disguise their deplorable fortune “in tinsel trappings [i.e. glittering ornaments] of poetic pride.” The classical image of the happy shepherd playing his pipe in the fields is out of place in the contemporary world, only a “mechanic echo” of other literary times. To prolong this convention, painting everything in “fair colours,” means to deviate from “Truth and Nature.” Crabbe pleads for a change in the poets’ attitude towards the subject of country life, in the belief that its realistic reflection will at least awaken curiosity and sympathy in the reader. The superficial praise of an idealised, conventional world serves only the poet’s vanity. The peasant, “overcome by labour” and consumed with many cares, would not get any comfort from such praise. Crabbe’s poem is completely unromantic, removing the veil of poetic illusion from a subject that was already a conventional one. However, his realism and critical spirit did not exclude genuine compassion. His sympathetic interest in the life of humble people anticipates the radical attitude of the first great English Romantic poet, William Wordsworth. 6.2.4. Robert Burns and the popular tradition At about the same time, the Scottish peasant-poet Robert Burns (1759-1796) was opening a path towards the Romantic revolution in poetry. Written in his native tongue, the collected poems he published in 1786 were the authentic expression of a passionate nature, whose experiences were fundamentally linked to the universe of rural life. These poems are greatly indebted to the popular tradition of poetic forms (songs, ballads, etc.) and they display either delicate sentimental lyricism or vigorous realism, spirit and humour. Their intensely personal tone and their vividness and warmth in the description of the natural scene contrasted sharply with the formal rigidity and didacticism of much late 18th century poetry. Burns’s success as a poet confirmed the early Romantic belief in the close connection between nature, spontaneity of feeling, and poetic imagination. It was Burns who provided the lyrics for the song Auld Lang Syne, whose title means “old times” or “times past”. They were partly Burns’s composition, partly his transcription, as he said, “from an old man’s singing.” 156 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 3 Text 6.2. in the Reader contains a fragment from The Village, in which Crabbe invites those who idealise the countryside in “smooth” verse to take a closer look at its realities. Read the fragment and point out that the image he offers is an antithesis to the idyllic picture of “rural ease.” How does Crabbe’s description contradict the nostalgic image in Goldsmith’s poem? You might find it helpful to read again subchapter 6.2.1. for a better perception of the contrast. Answer in the space below, in no more than 15 lines / 150 words. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs, at the end of the unit. If they should differ significantly, read the fragment from Crabbe again, making sure you have understood it correctly. Read again the paragraphs referring to Goldsmith in the preceding subchapter, as well. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 157 ” Thomson’s ambitious poem in blank verse is remarkably inclusive: its descriptions of nature occasion indeed frequent meditations on a variety of contemporary ideas and interests.” inspired many other poets along the 18th century. as well as his glorification of “retirement in solitude” as the best state in which to “sing the works of nature. Britannia. James Thomson. Samuel Johnson said. Thomson practically inaugurated the trend of descriptive-meditative poetry. nature. His poem educated.” Thomson confesses that he knows “of no other subject more elevating. It contains reflections on the natural and social condition of man and on Nature as the manifestation of the divine ordering mind. Each of the four parts of the poem describes seasonal aspects of nature and rural life. The Augustans were interested in nature only to the extent that it helped them emphasise the conquests of civilization. the peace of autumn – bringer of “Philosophic Melancholy” –. Thomson evokes the glory and joy of reviving nature in spring. manifest as early as the 1730s. than the works of Nature. an expression of national pride. “The reader of The Seasons wonders that he never saw before what Thomson shows him. “Winter. and the apparent cruelty of winter. in many generations of readers.English pre-Romantic poetry 6. patriotic enthusiasm. Pre-Romantic nature poetry One of the most significant shifts in poetic sensibility was the new attitude to nature.3. James Thomson (1700-1748) 158 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . more amusing.3. the splendour of summer. with a remarkable attention to detail and precision of notation. not only the perception of nature. praise of friends. etc.” The Seasons marked an important moment in 18th century poetry. In spite of its eclectic nature. and that he never yet has felt what Thomson impresses. 6. but also the feeling for it. in which the descriptive detail was often used in order to create a certain mood. It appealed both to the Augustans and to the Romantics.1. Thomson is also famous for the patriotic lyrics that he wrote for the song Rule. becomes an object of interest in itself. more ready to awake the poetical enthusiasm. political comments. The Seasons has a unity ensured by the recurrent themes and motifs related to the observable natural universe. poetic renderings of current notions of natural history. exerting a considerable influence on both of them. the philosophical reflection. and the moral sentiment. The conventional Augustan “local” poem (or “topographical” poem*) looked at nature from the perspective of historical or classical mythological associations. in its magnificence and diversity. The Seasons In the Preface to the fourth part of The Seasons. His praise of nature and of the countryside. As Dr. With James Thomson (1700-1748) and his long poem The Seasons (1726-1730). and his feeling for Nature is that of a pre-Romantic. and he displayed the Augustan taste for stylistic refinement. at the end of the unit. Like Thomson and Collins.English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 4 Read Text 6. “Autumn. but his subjects anticipate the Romantic sensibility. in which he captures with precision and delicacy the crepuscular atmosphere. William Collins 6.. unrhymed stanzas.3. The Task Much closer in time to the beginning of the Romantic Age. read text C again. Cowper displays an Augustan concern for elegance and refinement in expression.2. with its short. from the third part. If there should be major differences. which the poet calls “Philosophic Melancholy” (remember Milton’s Il Penseroso*. in popular superstitions and the supernatural. whose work brings into harmony the various tendencies in 18th century poetry. in a paragraph of no more than 6 lines / 60 words. which represents a fragment from Thomson’s The Seasons – more exactly. records his observations and reflections.” Autumnal nature favours a contemplative-meditative mood. Passages of moral and political commentary. Compare your answer with the one given in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. The Task has actually been described as a spiritual autobiography. social satire. He was interested in the mediaeval past. in which a sensitive and thoughtful Christian. living in retirement from the city. which actually inspired Thomson). the poem The Task (1785) by William Cowper (1731-1800) reflects a similar attraction to the theme of nature. He reaches perfection in his famous Ode to Evening (1746). How does the Philosophic Melancholy influence the poet? Answer below. religious meditations and character sketches accompany Cowper’s celebration of rural domestic happiness and communion with nature. One of Thomson’s great admirers was William Collins (17211759). but his blank verse poem has a much more personal tone. more carefully. He preferred the classical form of the ode*. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 159 .3. William Cowper. His meticulous descriptions of countryside scenery and animal life. the peace and quiet of village life. Read this fragment and explain why Cowper finds the countryside superior to the urban world. fearing that “The town has tinged [i. with its vices and follies. which he opposes to the civilisation of the city. Coleridge). affected] the country. He praises the simple pleasures. Wordsworth. Retirement to the countryside does not mean for him idle solitude – it is not isolation that he seeks in rural nature. in the Reader.e. indicate an affectionate observer. As a poet of nature. S. concerning the opposition country/town. in which he can find shelter against depression and anxiety. however. Your answer should not exceed 10 lines / 100 words. extracted from Cowper’s The Task. domestic activities. but the joy of communion with friends. and of simple. Cowper displays a remarkable eye for detail and a landscape-painter’s sense of perspective. represents one of the most memorable statements. SAQ 5 Text 6. like gardening. 160 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . / Paradise that has survived the fall. Read again the fragment if you answer is significantly different. in the 18th century. Cowper’s love of nature is closely linked to his love of the countryside.” Sometimes. he becomes aware of the instability of this last retreat from the confusions and corruption of modern urban civilisation. at the end of the unit.4. of the seasonal diversity of natural aspects. The contemplation of nature has a healing effect on Cowper. T. and his expressions of gratitude for the spiritual comfort and superior joys that it offers anticipated the first generation of English Romantics (W. 1856 The Task. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Rural “domestic happiness” seems to him “the only bliss.English pre-Romantic poetry illustration by Birket Foster. and recognised as one of the most original creators. He was a relatively marginal figure during his lifetime. It was in the latter half of the 19th century that he was rediscovered by a group of poets and painters. Each copy was then coloured by hand. the visionary artist William Blake holds a unique place in the history of English literature.civilisation. Blake as a pre-Romantic poet Blake is often regarded as a pre-Romantic poet. He associates nature with the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 161 . Gray.English pre-Romantic poetry Both Thomson and Cowper see a strong connection between love of nature and a humanitarian spirit. and displays the same humanitarian spirit as his contemporaries. William Blake (1757-1827) 6. A heart that is insensitive to nature is a hard heart. minute work of mediaeval miniaturists and their illuminated* manuscripts. Like other pre-Romantic poets. in the tone and rhythms of Biblical psalms and religious hymns. and his creative personality manifested itself in combined and complementary modes of expression. these various dimensions of his works shed light on each other. to the special way in which he produced his work. represents symbolically the uncorrupt order of nature. our sense of a common fate for all humanity. the rural setting. Milton. and Macpherson. Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1794).4. In his first great illuminated work. all Blake’s major poems were composed in this way. rendered in its pastoral simplicity. widening the range of meanings. exerting influence only on a small circle of friends and admirers. “unfit for human fellowship” and “dead” to “love and friendship both” (Cowper). These beliefs – in Nature as a moral teacher and as a guide for imagination – were central to the creed of the first Romantics. picture and decoration reminds of the painful. Blake’s late fame is due. The charms of nature have also an almost magic influence on human creativity and depth of thought. The combination of calligraphic text.4. and this laborious process restricted the number of copies that Blake could produce. Thomson. to a large extent. 6. William Blake. In Blake. he turns his attention to the rural world. and being regarded as an eccentric artist. whose attitudes and concerns define him sharply as an anti-Augustan. Nature “nurses” the sympathy for our fellow beings. He used a special method for engraving and printing the handwritten text. which was accompanied by drawings and decorations. Apart from a volume of early verse. The theme of childhood in this work enables Blake to explore the opposition nature . He was an admirer of Shakespeare. finding literary inspiration in the simplicity and directness of popular poetry.1. but also a gifted painter and engraver. He was not only a poet. Blake did not publish his poems in conventional printed form. and he rejected the classical standards of style. a prophet. which oppresses man in the name of Reason and Progress. and his whole work. whom Blake (like the other Romantics) venerated. says.” Blake worshipped Imagination as the only true way to spiritual freedom. is one of the most powerful assertions of Romantic creativity. He insisted on the visionary and inspired quality of his writings – he asserted. Blake was a rebel. Jerusalem: “I must create a system. the Romantic visionary Blake is also frequently assimilated to the first generation of Romantic poets. He distrusted all systems of thought and institutions that restrained man’s freedom and imagination. and he opposed to them the “Daughters of Inspiration. One of Blake’s mythological creatures in these poems. and he denounces the evils of civilisation.2. in a way. for instance: “I copy Imagination. by William Blake 162 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .” or “I write when commanded by spirits. a tribute to Milton. Plate from the poem Jerusalem (1805-1820). unpremeditated act. original and strange. or be enslaved by another man’s. in Blake’s last poem.” He is a true Romantic in his belief that poetic creation is a spontaneous. and whom he saw as the embodiment of the revolutionary impulse.” This is Blake’s own creed. in which Blake creates a mythology of his own. His rebellion against the “systems” which limit the energies of the Imagination takes a literary form in his Prophetic Books*. 6. They are.” asserting that ”Imagination has nothing to do with Memory. owing to the intensity with which he proclaimed the primacy of the Imagination over Reason and his deep conviction that the poet was a seer. The classical Muses were for him the “Daughters of Memory”*. / I will not reason and compare: my business is to create.4. Blake.English pre-Romantic poetry innocence of man in his condition before the Fall – the “childhood” of humanity –. Like the other English Romantics. Los*. Spring. If you have made mistaken choices. or Cradle Song offer a glimpse into a world filled with simple. by their remarkable lyrical delicacy. Blake composed his first significant work: Songs of Innocence. innocent delights. at the end of the unit. the association of childhood with edenic nature is opposed to civilisation as the fallen condition of man.e. with its repertoire of rhetorical conventions. T F 3. 1. of the world seen through the eyes of the child. It was the year of a revolution in poetry as well. The main influence in Blake’s work were the ancient Greek and Latin poets admired by the Augustans. revise the whole subchapter. As the poet emphasises in the Introduction. Circle appropriately T (true) or F (false). The subchapter that follows will acquaint you with some of the poems illustrating Blake’s “double vision” in Songs of Innocence and of Experience. their clarity of expression and their musicality. T F 2. The theme of childhood in Songs of Innocence In 1789 – the year of the French Revolution –. For Blake. echoing with laughter and sustained by love and by the belief in the goodness of nature. which are the expression of his Romantic rebellion against all forms of constraint. Blake enjoyed a great popularity during his lifetime. T F 4. Poems like Infant Joy. and the three statements that are false. enjoy] to hear. As a poet. these are “happy songs / Every child may joy [i. T F 6. T F 5. The extreme formal simplicity and the apparent lack of sophistication of these short poems anticipated the Romantic rejection of poetic diction*. The Shepherd. poetic creation was the spontaneous fruit of inspiration. Laughing Song. The Blossom. In Songs of Innocence and of Experience. that is. T F Check your answers in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. What chiefly impressed Blake in Milton’s Paradise Lost was its astonishing display of classical-humanistic erudition. Songs of Innocence marked a new departure in English poetry. and its origin was visionary experience.3.English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 6 Read the following sentences and identify the four true statements which describe features of Blake’s work.” They build a charming picture of the universe of childhood. Blake is a creator of myths in his Prophetic Books. The Echoing Green. 6. 163 Songs of Innocence (1789) Title page of Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . which echoed the rhythms of popular verse.4. Blake’s works combine the handwritten text with picture and decoration – a technique that reminds of mediaeval manuscripts. T F 7. Blake rejected the praise of Reason as man’s supreme faculty and proclaimed instead the importance of man’s “Poetic Genius. Besides the children themselves. love. in Nurse’s Song. In The Echoing Green. “Old John.” as the happiness of the children playing around him and the animation of nature in Spring enable him to recreate his own joys of childhood. It is a world in which evil has not penetrated and in which there is no suffering. or even Jesus. meadow]”. and every child is a manifestation of the Divine Imagination in the world. The pastoral setting symbolises the closeness of man to a benevolent nature and the bliss enjoyed by man in Paradise. The world of Innocence is the paradise of freedom.e.English pre-Romantic poetry Nurse’s Song (in Songs of Innocence) The theme of childhood emerged in late 18th century poetry in the context of the rising cult of Feeling. the shepherd. According to him. The innocence associated with childhood is for him the equivalent of the original state of paradisal innocence. Rousseau believed in the original innocence of man. Blake filtered these ideas through his own intense idealism and his unconventional religious beliefs. the Songs of Innocence display protective figures like the caring mother or nurse. In these poems. Blake identifies Jesus with the Imagination. childhood represents the unfallen state of man. with white hair. does not mean ignorance. The nurse. The adult figures represented in these poems share the child’s freshness of perception and capacity for joy. For Blake. allows the children more time to play “on the green [i. The child has a kind of wisdom which comes from the freshness and freedom of his imagination. taking care of his flock of innocent lambs.” can “laugh away care. although the sun has set. with which Blake was acquainted. which a proper education should develop. Infant Joy (Songs of Innocence) 164 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . the pressure of civilisation and an education which cultivates the intellect at the expense of the soul are likely to destroy in man the natural state of grace. and the perception of childhood was greatly influenced by Jean Jacques Rousseau’s ideas. suggesting the child’s closeness to a protective divinity. gratified desire. Innocence. The pastoral figure of the shepherd receives in Blake a Christian connotation. is a biblical allusion. who express their candid feelings of piety and uninhibited joy. and absence of frustration or inhibition. because she has the empathic understanding of the children’s need for freedom.” Throughout his work. associated with childhood. The good shepherd. the guardian angel. in his natural tendency to virtue. in the Reader.5. If there should be a significant difference between them.English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 7 Read Text 6. in no more than 20 lines / 200 words. at the end of the unit. Focus on the way in which the child imagines the creator of the lamb.” Answer in the space below. What makes this poem a Song of Innocence? Start from the idea that The Lamb may be read as the vision of Innocence on the act of Creation. which reproduces Blake’s poem The Lamb. and in which he represents to himself its “making. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. revise this subchapter and read the poem more attentively. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 165 . the reader cannot miss the implicit reference to the social reality of children’s exploitation and cruel treatment. a gloomy reality makes itself felt sometimes. the child has a wonderful vision of all souls freed from their “clouds” of flesh – black or white –. 6. The Clod and the Pebble Songs of Experience contrasts selfless with selfish love. In the fallen state of Experience. when this life ends.4. which is a promise of divine mercy. The poet attacks the tyranny exercised on the individual by the church and state. The fall from the paradise of Innocence to Experience is the entrance in a world of rules and constraints. The source of corruption in the world of Experience and the impediments to happiness are as much in the systems regulating social life as in the individual heart and mind. In The Little Black Boy – an anti-slavery poem –. The serene and peaceful pastoral setting of the world of Innocence is set in opposition with the sombre world of Experience. nature.4. the ethical and social implications are more obvious. the little black boy is “protected” by his imagination and finds the same comfort for the present sorrows in the Christian promise of a happy afterlife. love and joy have been replaced by fear. The complete work offered now a set of contrary symbolic visions of man. it is suggested that human suffering and oppression is the result of “mind-forged manacles*”. disease. Like the chimney sweeper. the ironic implication in the poem is that the English colonisers “taught” Christianity to the natives only to be able to exert better control over them. A poem like A Poison Tree points out Title page of the murderous effects of secret hate. of the prejudices and constraints with which man “enchains” his own mind. Ironic implications in Songs of Innocence Blake’s graceful Songs of Innocence may appear to be simple and transparent. but the child in the poem is comforted by the vision of the Angel. i. in the poems that he added in 1794: the Songs of Experience.e. which deny man his freedom. envy and deceit. or the mind of others. poverty and oppression. 166 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . for instance. often. standing equal before God. Blake’s speakers in these poems are often bitter and ironic.5. the thirst for war. In The Chimney Sweeper*. the greed of the powerful and their indifference to the sufferings caused by social injustice. society and divinity. In London. The world is seen through the eyes of an angry observer. the reader cannot help noticing paradoxes and contradictions. However. The fall from Innocence: Songs of Experience Blake developed such implications into open statements.English pre-Romantic poetry 6. of “stony laws*”. and Nurse’s Song shows the (1794) jealousy consuming an adult who has lost the vision of Innocence. but. In Songs of Experience. for instance. Beyond the children’s innocent visions of happiness and harmony. hate. even sarcastic. protesting against the evils of his time. in which man’s lot is hard work.4. full of indignation and anger. by ambiguity and even obscurity. Compare your answer with the one provided in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. Read this poem – Text 6. in Songs of Experience. and the rhythms of the poems are also more difficult. SAQ 8 In Blake’s poem Infant Sorrow. you]?) and his own answer. the event of a child’s birth becomes the symbol of the fall into the world of Experience. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 167 .4. while The Tyger consists only in an accumulation of questions. The counterpart of The Lamb in Songs of Experience is The Tyger* and this pair of poems illustrates very well the contrastive vision in Blake’s work. If it should differ in major respects. The implication is that knowledge in the state of Experience is always incomplete and fragmentary. Knowledge in the world of Experience The clarity and directness of Songs of Innocence is replaced. The speaker in the latter poem wonders not only who created the “fearful symmetry” of the powerful. in a paragraph of 10 lines / 100 words at the most. innocent question (“Little Lamb.English pre-Romantic poetry 6. in the Reader – and find out in its lines suggestions for at least one aspect which defines this “dangerous” world. dangerous tiger. with no explicit answer. The two stanzas of The Lamb contain the child’s simple. This suggests that the world of Experience is more opaque and uncertain. revise this subchapter and read the poem more attentively.6.e.6. at the end of the unit. Quote the respective words or line(s) and give your comment in the space below. who made thee [i. but also if this creator is also that of the gentle lamb. provoking more anxiety than certainty. in Blake’s view. imposing constraints and inflicting punishment. a stern. Love and Hate are necessary to Human existence. as Blake indicated in the subtitle. 168 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . was seen by Blake as an instrument by which the church kept men in a state of obedience. compared with “flowers” and “Thames’ waters. The double vision in Blake’s Songs Several other poems in Songs of Experience have a counterpart in Songs of Experience. but also complementary aspects of man’s imagination.” which lead to contrary visions. in fact. This is the God of the world of Experience. tyrannical figure. “contrary states of the human soul. the spectator to the same scene has a quite different vision. since those are “babes reduced to misery. but he seems to be fully aware of his condition in an unjust world. The Chimney Sweeper in Songs of Experience is bitterly ironic about the way in which “God. and King” “make up a Heaven of our misery. this sad reality is shadowed by the speaker’s idyllic description of the poor children of London. A deeply religious person. He sees nothing “holy” in the beautiful picture.7.” Such corresponding poems illustrate the fact that Innocence and Experience are not necessarily to be associated with ages in man’s life. in Songs of Experience. Blake hated nevertheless the church as an institution. and His Priest.4. There is a Chimney Sweeper in Songs of Experience as well. indeed. One of the targets of Blake’s critical attacks is the Church. Blake made in fact a distinction between the God of the Old Testament and God of the New Testament. and he is also a child. with its “mysteries”*.” The angry speaker protests against the duplicity of a society that feeds its poor “with cold and usurous* hand. The two poems entitled Holy Thursday* deal with the hypocrisy of the church. but with ways of seeing and feeling.English pre-Romantic poetry 6. like that of Hell as a punishment for sin. in Blake’s view: “Attraction and Repulsion. for keeping man at a distance from God. The church. He displays. a double awareness of his own innocence and of the hypocritical and cruel world around him. In the poem of Innocence.” Blake’s Songs suggest that Innocence and Experience are not only inevitable stages in human growth. seeing it as an instrument of oppression and a source of corruption. They reveal.” in a country that is “rich and fruitful. served by the institutionalised churches. which allows the rich and powerful of this world to ease their conscience and “buy” Heaven by occasional and festive acts of charity. The former is represented in Blake’s work (the Prophetic Books included) as an “angry” God. was responsible.” The idea of Heaven as a reward of happiness for earthly misery. Reason and Energy*.” or with a “multitude of lambs. which are thus strengthening their own power.” In the counterpart poem. bearing even the same titles. Contraries are essential to progression. If there should be major differences between them. to 6.1. but he is no longer able to do that. The speaker’s “journey” to the garden of Love is an attempt to revive the former state. Compare your answer with the one offered in the section Solutions and suggestions for SAQs. except as an act of remembering.4. Explain them in no more than 20 lines / 200 words.2. Read the poem carefully and identify the symbols by means of which the two states are contrasted.4. at the end of the unit. revise subchapters 6.. to regain the vision of Innocence. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 169 . The two “states of the human soul” are here set in contrast. and read the poem again more carefully.English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 9 The poem The Garden of Love – Text 6.7. in the Reader – tells the story of the loss of Innocence and the entrance in the state of Experience. presents the outstanding figure of William Blake. 170 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . you have been acquainted with two poets who turned their attention to the rural universe. Their poetry displays an unprecedented attention to natural detail. in its relation with “the two contrary states of the human soul”: Innocence and Experience. His Songs of Innocence and of Experience are the testimony of the visionary artist. William Collins and William Cowper approach the theme of Nature. g. and of Thomas Chatterton with the Middle Ages anticipates the Romantic spirit. who sees the opposition nature-civilisation in the light of the myth of Paradise and of the Fall.2. Another feature of 18th century pre-Romantic poetry is the perception of rural life in its close connection with Nature.3. in whose work pre-Romantic and Romantic elements meet. The fascination of James Macpherson with Britain’s Celtic past. 6. George Crabbe adopts a more realistic and critical view. In subchapter 6. the interest in early poetry. now threatened by the march of Progress. imagination and feelings.. One of them is the emergence of a kind of meditative poetry fond of melancholy themes and gloomy settings. by focusing on those tendencies in poetry which prefigure the Romantic Age.4. Subchapter 6. and seeks to arouse compassion for the life of labour and poverty of the English peasant. The first subchapter of this unit deals with two prominent features announcing the Romantic sensibility. as Blake’s “double” poems suggest. Oliver Goldsmith emphasises the idyllic happiness of the traditional rural civilisation. deals with the way in which poets like James Thomson. He condemns the literary habit of idealising the countryside. The same theme and situation acquires contrary implications. The transition from the Age of Reason to the Age of Feeling in the 18th century was accompanied by changes in literary taste. The last subchapter. The latter may be also seen as complementary aspects of poetic imagination. nature-civilisation.. the vision of Innocence and the vision of Experience completing each other. and they acknowledge Nature’s subtle influence on man’s thoughts. The other feature is primitivism. The theme of childhood is examined in several Songs.English pre-Romantic poetry Summary This unit aims at enlarging your picture of the literary diversity of the 18th century. The “Graveyard” poets (e. Edward Young and Thomas Gray) illustrate this new trend. The theme of Nature in pre-Romantic poetry is sometimes closely associated with the opposition country-town. in Unit 4. The Neoclassic principle of decorum did not. The Celtic variety spoken in Ireland and Scotland is called Gaelic. the nine Muses were indeed the daughters of Mnemosyne. ruins. for instance. Daughters of Memory: in Greek mythology. the changes in agriculture led to the enclosing (i. children were often employed for the cleaning of chimneys. For the small farmers. as the next subchapter will show. Enlightenment: see again the Glossary in Unit 1.English pre-Romantic poetry Key words ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● pre-Romantic nature vs. Gothic novel: a type of fiction that emerged in opposition with the realistic novel in the 18th century. Celtic: related to the Celts. It was a kind of work that contributed to the child mortality rate. which they could climb more easily. passion. which has survived in parts of Scotland. graveyards.2. blank verse: see again the Glossary in Unit 1. or Erse. The first Gothic novel was Horace Walpole’s The Castle of Otranto (1764).2. enclosed portions of land were turned into private parks and gardens. Their father was Zeus. decorum: see subchapter 4. favour melancholy or morbid themes. Initially. Sometimes. Gray is sadly ironic. for the sake of more profitable farming. enclosure: in the latter half of the 18th century. putting fences round) common land. Celtic refers also to the language spoken by the Celts. Haunted castles. A tendency in 18th century poetry went precisely against this rule. because the life of the poor was not actually reflected in such official records. the term “Gothic” referred to the mediaeval inspiration of such tales of mystery. the members of an Indo-European people who inhabited Britain before the arrival of the Romans. and they were forced to find work in towns or to emigrate to America. civilisation rural universe primitivism melancholy sentimentalism humanitarianism childhood imagination Innocence and Experience double vision Glossary • • • annals: yearly record of events. Imagination was free Energy. while Reason was concerned with setting limits. and horror. the enclosures meant ruin.e. chimney sweeper: in the 18th century. Ireland and Wales. Energy: for Blake. goddess of Memory. 171 • • • • • • • Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Romanticism: see again Romantic in the Glossary in Unit 1. primitive: original. Holy Thursday: another name for Ascension Day. the 39th day after Easter. See also subchapter 4. The Book of Urizen. on which the Ten Commandments were written. in Unit 1. Milton. The Book of Los. etc. Neoclassicism: see the Glossary in Unit 1. sentimental novel: see subchapter 5. when the ascension of Christ is celebrated. heroic couplet: see again subchapter 1. illuminated (about a piece of writing): decorated by the application of colour. luxury and materialism of urban civilisation. orphaned children from the charity schools to St. Prophetic Books: the generic name for Blake’s longer (and often obscure) epics. etc. the Passions. Los: Blake’s mythological character represents human Imagination in his epics.) poetic diction: see again the Glossary in Unit 1.English pre-Romantic poetry • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • secret chambers and corridors. and Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 172 .1. Most of Collins’s odes are addressed to personified abstractions (Fear. Highlands of Scotland: the mountainous area in northern Scotland. The feeling of nostalgia for a supposed Golden Age and the praise of the “state of Nature” are also features of primitivism. Jerusalem. Pity. which have a complex structure of symbolism and analogies. which still preserves elements of the ancient Gaelic culture. and in which he gives an allegorical shape to his religious. ode: see the Glossary in Unit 1.3. in Unit 3. in Unit 5. as well as against the sophistication. The custom in London was to bring the poor.2. used to secure the hands of a prisoner. concerning the typology of the novel in the 18th century.1. were typical settings in Gothic fiction. Blake distinguished between the prohibitive divinity of the Old Testament. who attacked and sometimes settled in parts of Britain between the 8th and 11th centuries. belonging to the beginnings. unfeeling – is intensified by Blake’s allusion to Moses and the Tables of the Law. Blake associated “mystery” with secrecy and deceit. Il Penseroso: see again subchapter 3.3.. and he rejected the pretense of the Church to intermediate between man and God. A Prophecy. wild landscapes. to attend the religious service. Paul’s Cathedral. The Four Zoas. Among the most important of them are America. 2 in Unit 4. Norse: related to the ancient Scandinavian people. philosophical and political convictions. Primitivism in literature refers to the admiration for and revival of early forms. manacles: a pair of iron rings linked by a chain. mysteries: the system of sacramental rites affording access to divinely revealed truths. with His laws formulated as interdictions. especially to the Vikings (or Norsemen). stony laws: the figurative meaning of “stony” – heartless. or of gold or silver paint. It is associated with the reaction against Neoclassicism. Send-away assignment no. gardens or estates. and consistence of your ideas (40%) • the accuracy of your grammar (20%) • the accuracy of your spelling (10%) Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 173 . meant to win a patron’s favour.. 6.. Jean Jacques: (1712-1778): French writer and philosopher.. topographical poem: a poem in which the description of a landscape is accompanied by meditation and historical retrospection. The Chimney Sweeper.13.8. 6. clarity. • Read them and show that Blake’s treatment of the theme of childhood depends on the contrast between the vision of Innocence and the vision of Experience on the same reality. 3 will count as 10% in your final assessment.).10.12. Point out the pre-Romantic themes and attitudes that these poems illustrate. Remember that. Tyger: Blake’s spelling of “tiger. 6. with his law of love. Many topographical poems were praises of particular parks.” usurous: from usury. 6. your tutor will take into account: • the closeness of your answer to the formulated requirement (30%). in grading your paper.. He is the precursor of Romanticism by his belief in the primacy of feeling over reason and in the necessity of the return to nature – a principle which he defended in his treatise on education Émile (1762).11. Your commentary should not exceed 50 lines / 500 words. the unlawful practice of lending money at an exorbitant rate of interest. Pay special attention to the images in these poems and to their symbolic significance. SAA no. and Holy Thursday (Texts 6. • the coherence. He condemned social inequality and regarded the sovereignty of the people as the only legitimate form of political power.English pre-Romantic poetry • • • Jesus. whose radicalism strongly influenced the ideology of the French Revolution.9. Gallery of personalities • Rousseau. Pay special attention to the instructions for the task. 3 The Reader includes some of the “pair poems” from Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience: Nurse’s Song. and 6. and love of man. on his soul. 2. he focuses sharply on the withered tree. Its bare. 174 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . all intensified. the “drooping weary” father. d. these gifts are “threatened” – the life of pleasure and luxury with which the city tempts man may corrupt his moral fiber. c SAQ 2 1. disease and poverty. Health and virtue are God’s “gifts” to man. whereas what man makes is inevitably deficient. The country is thus a substitute for Eden. to enable him to bear more easily the burden of life. and on his thoughts. Crabbe also gives a reply to those who idealise rural nature: instead of the pleasing “smooth stream” sung in such poetry. in which everything seems to be in decline. 4.” “expiring” fire suggest overwork. broken branches are a “sad emblem” of the unrewarding existence of the poor in the countryside. There is a general sense of decay and exhaustion in the humble scene in the cottage: the “pale” mother. By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour” 5.e. “His house was known to all the vagrant train” “The long-remembered beggar was his guest” 2. Meditation leads to illumination. nor wished to change his place” 3. the vagants’] wanderings. “Remote from towns he ran his godly race. SAQ 5 The first line of the fragment contains the implication that everything made by God is perfect. a. “Unpractised he to fawn. Nor e’er had changed. b. SAQ 4 The personified Philosophic Melancholy exerts “his” influence on man’s imagination. love of nature. “passing rich with forty pounds a year” SAQ 3 In contrast with Goldsmith’s idealised image of rural happiness and ease. This heightened understanding is accompanied by “correspondent passions”: love of God. Crabbe presents a desolate picture. or seek for power. For Cowper. “He chid their [i. “More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise” 4. but relieved their pain” 6. the place where “health and virtue” can be found abounding. the mind can see beyond the “dim” surface of things.English pre-Romantic poetry Solutions and suggestions for SAQs SAQ 1 1. Their hard life has no room for illusions about the comforts of old age. the “feeble.” vitality and cheerfulness of the idyllic village life. the country is therefore morally superior to the city. 3. Crabbe’s descriptin of the old man’s weakness and of the pains of old age is meant to contradict the pastoral emphasis on the “health and plenty. In the city. the lamb is God’s gift to the child: it is a “delight” to look at and to touch. In the simple economy of the poem. This is also suggested by the gloomy figure of the priests. the God of Love. in the state of Experience. the few elements of the natural setting (stream. my father wept” – In the vision of Experience. no longer able – or permitted – to relate to God “naturally” and directly.” that is. It is the intuition of Innocence that dictates the confident answer to the child: the Creator is Jesus. vales) emphasise the close connection between Innocence and Nature. The interdiction “Thou shall not” on the door of the chapel suggests repression and limitation. and his “tender voice” fills all nature with joy. Man.English pre-Romantic poetry SAQ 6 1. 5. The mother “groans” with the pains of delivery. SAQ 9 The “garden” where he “used to play” – the Eden of childhood – is the symbol of the state of Innocence. If the child’s play suggests the freedom and pleasure enjoyed in the state of Innocence. “walking their rounds” like soldiers guarding a Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 175 . incarnated in a child and having the Lamb as a symbol. gentle and humble like the lamb itself. Experience brings about inhibition and constraint. T. therefore. In the second stanza. “Struggling in my father’s hands / Striving against my swaddling bands” – The new born infant is practically a “prisoner” from his first moments in the world. in Blake’s vision. struggles in vain. T. being thus a source of oppression. 4. 3. disappointments and frustrations that await man in the world of Experience. it controls man’s relationship with Divinity. confinement and oppressive authority. but are symbols of limitation. and the father weeps perhaps because his new baby comes into a world of trouble and cares. the child identifies himself and the lamb with Jesus. The shut gates of the chapel symbolise the estrangement of man from God. 7. Nature and Divinity form a harmonious whole. F.” The child imagines the making of the lamb as the act of love of a generous and protective creator – “making” and “giving” are made somehow equivalent in the first stanza. the “Lamb of God. F. The vision of Experience reveals to him the perspective of death: the garden turns out to be a graveyard. F SAQ 7 The child cannot imagine the Creator of the lovely and tender creature otherwise than “meek and mild. T. meadow. SAQ 8 Examples: 1. In a vision of Innocence. 2. “My mother groaned. against which man. At the same time. 2. T. His swaddling bands and his father’s arms do not suggest care and protection. and the beauty of the “sweet flowers” – symbols of life – is replaced by the grim image of the tombstones. The church as an institution belongs to the world of Experience. which he has lost. The pain and sorrow accompanying birth are symbolic anticipations of the suffering. a child’s birth is no cause for joy. 6. and is itself one more care in the family. and. vol. 6987) 176 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Ford. Daiches. Penguin Books Ltd. 652-658. David. Ford.5 (“From Blake to Byron”).English pre-Romantic poetry restricted area... vol.). A Critical History of English Literature. 1991 (pp. Further reading 1. 671-684. The New Pelican Guide to English Literature. 1991 (pp. vol. 3 (“The Restoration to 1800”). 84-94) 3. and conditioning man’s access to the mystery of Divinity on the suppression of his desire. Penguin Books Ltd.). London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. 1969 (pp. The New Pelican Guide to English Literature. Boris (ed.. Boris (ed. 692-699) 2.4 (“From Dryden to Johnson”). Reader READER in Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century British Literature Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 177 . foregone: to give up goodly pleasant or satisfying in appearance frame form. and indeed it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly* frame*. foregone* all custom of exercises. this brave* overhanging* firmament*. shape canopy a large or wide covering (e. cât de asemenea unui zeu: frumuseţea lumii. acest mândru firmament ce senalţă deasupra noastră. Scene II) Hamlet: (…) I have of late*. the sky) brave minunat. this most excellent canopy*. acest preaminunat baldachin. forewent. ce înseamnă această chintesenţă a ţărânii? Omul nu mă desfată (…). it appears no other thing to me but a foul* and pestilent congregation of vapours. What a piece of work is man! How noble in Reason! How infinite in faculty! In form. nu ştiu – mi-am pierdut toată voioşia. pildă a vieţuitoarelor. cât de chibzuit şi de admirabil e în faptele sale. vedeţi. in moving. Hamlet (Act II. seems to me a sterile promontory. literary) the sky fretted decorated foul very bad or unpleasant apprehension understanding. how express and admirable! In action how like an angel. îmi pare un promontoriu sterp. sufletul îmi este atât de apăsat. şi. what is this quintessence of dust? Man delights me not (…).Reader UNIT 2 THE LATE RENAISSANCE AND THE BAROQUE TEXT 2. look you. ability to understand paragon a model of excellence Romanian translation (by Leon Leviţchi and Dan Duţescu) Hamlet: În ultima vreme – de ce. Ce minunată lucrare e omul.1. of late recently wherefore why. văzduhul. to me. alcătuirile şi mişcările. for what reason mirth happiness and laughter foregone to forego. ce fără de număr îi sunt facultăţile. the air. in apprehension* how like a god!! The beauty of the world! The paragon* of animals! And yet.excelent. şi totuşi. pământul. William Shakespeare. cât de nobilă îi este inteligenţa. nu-mi pare alta decât un vălmăşag odios şi infect de miasme. the earth. strălucitor overhanging hanging over firmament (archaic. pentru mine. cum să spun. 178 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . this majestical roof fretted* with golden fire. m-am lăsat de toate obişnuitele exerciţii. – but wherefore* I know not. într-adevăr. încât acest frumos tărâm. această boltă falnică împodobită cu scântei de aur. cât de asemenea unui înger în puterea sa de înţelegere. – lost all my mirth*.g. live or stay healthy feast ospăţ Romanian translation (by Ion Vinea) Macbeth: Mi s-a părut c-aud un glas strigând: “Nu mai dormi! Macbeth ucide somnul” Nevinovatul somn. and tomorrow. And all our yesterdays have lighted fools The way to dusty death. to be in a state of anxiety and agitation (a se agita. Balm of hurt minds. out. it is a tale Told by an idiot. cel ce desface Fuiorul încâlcit al grijii – somnul: El. moartea vieţii fiecărei zile. Signifying nothing. methought past tense from methinks (archaic): it seems to me to knit up a împleti. Out*. to creep. sore* labour’s bath. Sleep that knits up* the ravelled* sleeve* of care.Reader TEXT 2. chinuitor) course fel de mâncare chief most important. To the last syllable of recorded time. ţanţoş. şi-a doua mană A marii firi. great nature’s second course*. crept to move quiety and slowly (a se târî. a se frământa) sound zgomot Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 179 . a poor player. semeţ. desfirat. iar la ospăţul vieţii Cel mai de seamă fel. a se furişa) petty inessential. scene V) Macbeth: Tomorrow. trifling (mărunt. Chief* nourisher* in life’s feast* (…). trivial. desfăcut sleeve mânecă sore causing grief or sorrow (dureros. Macbeth (Act V. William Shakespeare. That struts* and frets* his hour upon the stage. Macbeth (Act II. Creeps* in this petty* pace from day to day. isprăveşte (stinge-te) brief short in duration candle lumânare to strut a umbla/păşi/călca mândru. a înnoda ravelled destrămat. TEXT 2.2. And then is heard no more. The death of each day’s life. principal nourisher that which gives (someone) what is needed to grow. cu un aer important to fret to be distressed. full of sound* and fury. neînsemnat) out (interjection) termină. El. brief* candle*! Life’s but a walking shadow. and tomorrow. scalda grelei trude şi balsamul Durerii sufleteşti. scene II) Macbeth: Methought* I heard a voice cry “Sleep no more! Macbeth does murder sleep.” the innocent sleep. William Shakespeare.3. taught thee each hour One thing or other: when thou didst not*. redus. Which any print* of goodness will not take. netrebnic. abject. Un biet actor. For learning* me your language! abhorred detested vehemently print mark made on a surface thee you thou didst not you did not thine / thy your wouldst would gabble to utter words rapidly and indistinctly (a bolborosi. Know thine* own meaning. TEXT 2. Te stinge. Spre cel din urmă semn din cartea vremii. scene II) Prospero: Abhorred* slave.Reader Romanian translation (by Ion Vinea) Macbeth: Dar mâine şi iar mâine. Cu pas mărunt se-alungă zi de zi. for that reason wast thou were you deservedly rightly learning teaching vile 180 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Şi fiecare “ieri” a luminat Nebunilor pe-al morţii drum de colb. tagmă thou didst learn you did learn to abide a răbda. E o poveste spusă de-un nătâng. tot mereu. nasty (josnic. a bâigui) brutish coarse. Took pains to make thee speak. therefore* wast thou* Deservedly* confined* into this rock Who hadst deserved more than a prison. ce-n ceasul lui pe scenă Se grozăveşte şi se tot frământă Şi-n urmă nu mai este auzit. savage. The Tempest (Act I. mârşav. cruel. had that in it which good natures Could not abide* to be with. sălbatic. and my profit on it Is I know how to curse: the red plague rid you. lumânare de o clipă! Ni-e viaţa doar o umbră călătoare. Being capable of all ill! I pitied thee*. but wouldst* gabble* like A thing most brutish*. mărginit) shameful and evil. William Shakespeare. ticălos) race neam. I endowed thy purposes With words that made them known: but thy vile* race*. Din vorbe-alcătuită şi din zbucium Şi nensemnând nimic. stupid (necioplit. Though thou didst learn*. a suporta therefore as a result. Caliban: You taught me language.4. consistency. cu singurul folos Că ştiu acum să-njur – dea ciuma-n tine Şi-n limba ce m-ai învăţat. Scoteai doar mugete. În stare de orice. avea ceva Ce bunul simţ nu rabdă. Biserici maiestoase. şi-n văzduh S-au destrămat cu toţii. TEXT 2. Te-am surghiunit aici.5. Plămadă suntem precum cea din care Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 181 . Cu tot ce-a moştenit. turnuri Cu turlele în nori. când meritai Mai mult decât o temniţă. were all spirits and Are melted* into air. M-am străduit sa te deprind cu graiul. fiară. ţi-am arătat Al vorbei meşteşug. The Tempest (Act IV. etc. revels festivitate teatrală pentru curteni foretold to foretell. structure. dar. colour. nepricepând Nici tu ce bălmăjeşti. ca-nchipuită scena-aceasta. all which it inherit. Actorii Ţi-am spus. and our little life Is rounded with a sleep. like this insubstantial pageant* faded*. rack a floating cloud Romanian translation (by Leon Leviţchi) Prospero: Serbarea noastră s-a sfârşit. Te-am învăţat de toate. Nici spulber n-au să lase-n urma lor. temelie) fabric building. pe drept. a spune dinainte melted to melt: a se topi. into thin air: And. the great globe itself. când tu. The solemn temples. au fost. Leave not a rack* behind. shall dissolve And. William Shakespeare. framework (clădire. foretold: a anunţa. alcătuire) cloud-capped towers towers whose tops are capped (covered) by clouds yea (archaic. chiar pământul. The cloud-capped towers*.Reader Romanian translation (by Leon Leviţchi) Prospero: Slugoi scârbavnic. As I foretold* you. afară doar De-un dram de bunătate! Mi-a fost milă. Yea*. scene I) Prospero: Our revels* are now ended. se vor topi Şi. palate mândre. like the baseless* fabric* of this vision. Şi întocmai Ca funigeii viziunii. duşi. dar proasta-ţi fire. literary) truly. We are such stuff As dreams are made on. a se dizolva baseless unfounded (fără bază. duhuri. the gorgeous palaces. Deşi-ai fost dăscălit. These our actors. Caliban: M-ai învăţat vorbi. toţi. indeed pageant splendid public show or ceremony faded to fade: to lose brightness. Like gold to aery thinness beat. Whilst* some of their sad friends do say. Care less eyes. 182 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . makes no show To move. Thy* soul the fixed foot. TEXT 2. which are one. The breath goes now. And though it in centre sit. John Donne. and hands to miss. because it doth* remove* Those things which elemented* it. Though I must go. they are two so As stiff* twin* compasses are two. no: So let us melt*. Men reckon* what it did and meant. but doth. is innocent. No tear-floods. and hearkens* after it. as that comes home. Inter-assured of the mind*.6. If they be two. Dull* sublunary* lovers’ love (Whose soul is sense*) cannot admit Absence. who must. Though greater far. Yet when the other far doth roam*. And whisper* to their souls. and some say. to go. But we by a love so much refined. nor sigh-tempests* move. Moving of the earth* brings harms and fears. But trepidation of the spheres. A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning As virtuous men pass mildly* away*. Thy firmness makes my circle just*. endure* not yet A breach*.Reader Făcute-s visele. lips. Our two souls therefore. Such wilt* thou* be to me. Like the other foot. if the other do. And makes me end. but an expansion. obliquely run. and make no noise. şi scurta viaţă Împrejmuită ni-e de somn. where I begun. It leans*. And grows erect*. ‘Twere* profanation of our joys To tell the laity* our love. That our selves know not what it is. a înrobi. fig. except you ravish* me. That I may* rise. three-personed God*. gladly betrothed unto logodit cu to untie a dezlega. and stand. and bend Your force*. a silui Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 183 . overthrew. a ajunge în poziţie verticală wilt will thou you just corect. leant a se apleca. Yet dearly I love you. a înfrânge bend your force concentrate. ferm. blow. batter to hit or beat someone heavily three-personed God the Trinity as yet până acum that I may in order that I may o’erthrow to overthrow. furtuni de suspine) these are Petrarchan conceits – see the Glossary) ‘twere it were (it would be) the laity those who do not know how strong their love is (from lay: profan.7. a lua cu sila. for I Except your enthrall* me. a elibera to enthrall a supune. and proves weak or untrue*. a rătăci to lean. untie*. overthrown: a nimici. softly to whisper a şopti whilst while to melt a-şi înmuia firea. burn. and make me new. to break. Nor ever chaste. or break that knot again. mirean) moving of the earth earthquake to reckon a gândi. to another due*.: inflexibil. a se înclina to hearken a asculta. rupture stiff rigid. Labour* to admit you. with no result viceroy governor of a territory who acts for and rules in the name of his sovereign (Reason is the viceroy of God in man) untrue disloyal fain (archaic) willingly. I. o’erthrow me*. never shall be free. therefore subject to change whose soul is sense in which physical presence is essential doth does to remove to take away. to long for) to grow erect a se îndrepta. exact Text 2. imprison me. like an usurped town. datorat to labour to work hard. breathe. to no end*. me should defend. but oh. But am betrothed* unto your enemy. a fi supus (the speaker urges his beloved to face the separation calmly and quietly) tear-floods. But is captived. John Donne. shine. a fi atent la (here: to seek to join. Reason your viceroy* in me. you As yet* but knock. hotărât twin îngemănat thy your to roam a hoinări. to make disappear which elemented it which constituted/founded it inter-assured of the mind we are both assured that our love is primarily the union of our minds to endure to suffer. sigh-tempests şuvoaie/potop de lacrimi. precis. apply your force due cuvenit.Reader pass away to die mildly gently. to undergo breach break. a presupune dull not intense sublunary: beneath the moon. and would be loved fain*. a subjuga to ravish a răpi. Divorce me. Take me to you. and seek to mend. Batter My Heart Batter* my heart. for. to struggle to no end vainly. An hundred years should go to praise Thine* eyes. An age at least to every part. and pass our long love’s day. I think. And now. And tear* our pleasure with rough strife* Thorough* the iron gates of life.Reader TEXT 2. Now let us sport* while we may. shall sound My echoing song. and on thy* forehead gaze. Now therefore. And the last age should show your heart. And yonder* all before us lie Deserts of vast eternity. Thy beauty shall no more be found. But thirty thousand to the rest. And while thy willing* soul transpires At every pore with instant fires*. I would Love you ten years before the Flood*. Nor would I love at lower rate. refuse Till the conversion of the Jews*. For. do there embrace. And your quaint* honor turn to dust. Andrew Marvell. yet we will make him run. Two hundred to adore each breast. Lady. and think which way To talk. Nor. We would sit down. if you please. But at my back I always hear Time’s winged* chariot* hurrying near. To His Coy Mistress Had we but* world enough. Rather at once our devour Than languish* in his slow-chapt power*. Thus. in thy marble vault*. I by the tide Of Humber* would complain. Lady. Let us roll all our strength and all Our sweetness up into one ball. And you should. like amorous birds of prey. But none. were no crime. And into ashes all my lust*: The grave*’s a fine and private place. you deserve this state*. 184 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . while the youthful* hue* Sits on thy skin like morning dew*. This coyness*. and time.8. though we cannot make our sun Stand still. then worms shall try That long-preserved virginity. My vegetable* love should grow Vaster than empires and more slow. Thou* by the Indian Ganges’ side Shouldst* rubies* find. a se veseli to languish a se ofili. a lua cu de-a sila strife violent struggle thorough through Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 185 . thy your state ceremonial treatment winged having wings. groapă youthful de tinereţe. modestie thou you shouldst should ruby rubin Humber an estuary in the north-east of England the Flood Potopul the conversion of the Jews considered to be one of the events at the end of history vegetable growing slowly as a plant thine. in spite of her coyness. indicates her “willing soul” to sport a petrece. which. tentă dew rouă willing favourably disposed. fig.: swift. a lâncezi. peculiar. inclined instant fires the flush in her face. a se plictisi slow-chapt power the power of its slowly devouring jaws to tear (tore. nuanţă. sfială. fast chariot ceremonial carriage (car) yonder (poetic) over there vault burial chamber (cavou) quaint odd. patimă) grave mormânt. torn) a smulge. tineresc hue culoare.Reader had we but… if only we had coyness timiditate. inappropriate (nefiresc) ashes cenuşă lust strong sexual desire (dorinţă. And inward ripeness* doth* much less appear. if I have grace to use it so. the subtle* thief of youth. chide*. in this dark world and wide. Stolen on his wing my three and twentieth year*! My hasting days fly on with full career*. obscure. Sonnet VII How soon hath* time.2. or soon or slow. they serve him best. Toward which time leads me. opportune happy fortunate. John Milton.1. soon replies: “God doth not need Either man's work or his own gifts. to prevent That murmur*. Ere* half my days.” 186 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . hath has subtle difficult to perceive or describe because fine or delicate my three and twentieth year my twenty-third year career swift movement ahead. his state Is kingly – thousands at his bidding* speed* And post* o'er land and ocean without rest*: They also serve who only stand and wait. however mean* or high. But my late spring no bud* or blossom showeth*. speed. a strict overseer TEXT 3.e to a lesser extent) still always lot fortune. light denied*?” I fondly* ask. who best Bear his mild yoke*. vârstă adultă ripeness maturitate doth does timely occuring atjust the right moment. As ever* in my great task-master's* eye. And that one talent* which is death to hide Lodged with me useless*. which endues some more timely-happy spirits. lest he. and the will of heaven. and present My true account. That I to manhood* am arrived so near. to endue: a înzestra (Inward ripeness. Sonnet XVII When I consider how my light* is spent*. though my soul more bent* To serve therewith* my maker. Yet be it less or more. Perhaps my semblance* might deceive* the truth. '”Doth God exact* day-labour. It shall be still* in strictest measure even To that same lot*. rush bud mugur. insignificant ever eternity task-master the one who imposes tasks. but Patience. boboc showeth shows (My late spring shows no bud or blossom) semblance outward appearance to deceive to mislead (a înşela) manhood bărbăţie. returning. appears [in me] much less – i. lucky endueth endues. All is. destiny mean humble. John Milton.Reader UNIT 3 THE WORKS OF JOHN MILTON TEXT 3. That some more timely*-happy* spirits endueth*. Reader light eyesight spent used up, exhausted (When I think that my eyesight is gone, before I have even reached the middle of my lifetime… I fondly ask…) ere (poetic) before talent an allusion to the biblical parable of the talents in Matthew (25: 14-30 – parabola talanţilor). Its moral is that a gift from God must not be stored and left unused, but must be multiplied. Milton felt that his “talent” – his gift for poetry – lay useless in darkness, as he had not begun the great epic poem he intended to write. lodged with me useless [talantul/talentul] mi-a fost încredinţat în zadar bent to bend, bent: to incline therewith with that lest he… chide să nu mă dojenească to exact to demand as a right light denied if he denies me (deprives me of) eyesight fondly foolishly (cu naivitate) murmur complaint who…bear his mild yoke cei care-I îndură jugul blând (allusion to Matthew, 11: 30) at his bidding la porunca sa to speed (sped) to hurry, to hasten to post to travel with speed o’er over rest odihnă, repaus TEXT 3.3. John Milton, Paradise Lost (Book I) Farewell, happy fields, Where joy for ever dwells! Hail*, horrors! hail, Infernal World! And thou, profoundest Hell, Receive thy* new possessor – one who brings A mind not to be changed by place or time. The mind is its own place, and in itself Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. What matter where, if I be still the same, And what I should be, all but less than he Whom thunder hath* made greater? Here at least We shall be free; the Almighty* hath not built Here for his envy, will not drive* us hence*; Here we may reign* secure*, and, in my choice, To reign is worth ambition, though in Hell: Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven. hail an exclamation of greeting thy your hath has the Almighty Atotputernicul hence (archaic) from here; away (will not drive us hence: nu ne va alunga de aici) to reign a domni, a stăpâni secure liniştit, în siguranţă TEXT 3.4. John Milton, Paradise Lost (Book III) [God is speaking to His Son, foreseeing man’s fall] Whose fault? Whose but his own? Ingrate, he [i.e. man] had of me All he could have; I made him just and right, Sufficient to have stood*, though free to fall. Such I created all the Ethereal* Powers And Spirits, both them who stood and them who failed; Freely they stood who stood, and fell who fell. …. I formed them free, and free they must remain Till* they enthrall* themselves: I else* must change Their nature, and revoke the high decree Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 187 Reader Unchangeable, eternal, which ordained* Their freedom; they themselves ordained their fall. The first sort* by their own suggestion fell, Self-tempted, self-depraved; Man falls, deceived By the other first: Man, therefore, shall find grace, The other none; in mercy and justice both, Through Heaven and Earth, so shall my glory excel*, But mercy, first and last, shall brightest shine. stood to stand, stood: a rămâne, a rezista, a se menţine într-o anumită poziţie ethereal celestial, spiritual til until to enthrall to enslave else altfel, altminteri ordained to ordain: to order, to establish, to predestine irrevocably the first sort the angels who had fallen to excel to increase TEXT 3.5. John Milton, Paradise Lost (Book III) Not free, what proof could they have given sincere Of true allegiance*, constant faith, or love, Where only what they needs must* do appeared, Not what they would*? What praise could they receive, What pleasure I, from such obedience paid, When Will and Reason (Reason is also Choice), Useless and vain, of freedom both despoiled, Made passive both, had served Necessity, Not me? allegiance loyalty needs must trebuie neapărat not what they would nu ceea ce ar vrea / ar voi despoiled (of freedom) lipsit (de libertate) TEXT 3.6. John Milton, Paradise Lost (Book IV) Sometimes towards Eden which now in his view Lay pleasant, his grieved* look he fixes sad, Sometimes towards heaven and the full-blazing* sun, Which now sat high in his meridian* tower. Then much revolving*, thus in sighs* began: 'O thou that with surpassing glory crowned Look'st* from thy sole dominion like the god Of this new world; at whose sight all the stars Hide their diminished heads; to thee I call, But with no friendly voice, and add thy name, O sun, to tell thee how I hate thy beams* That bring to my remembrance from what state I fell, how glorious once above thy sphere; Till pride and worse ambition threw me down Warring* in heaven against heaven's matchless* king. Ah wherefore*? He deserved no such return* 188 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Reader From me, whom he created what I was In that bright eminence*, and with his good Upbraided* none; nor was his service* hard. What could be less than to afford him praise*, The easiest recompense, and pay him thanks, How due*! Yet all his good proved ill in me, And wrought but malice*; lifted up so high I ‘sdained subjection*, and thought one step higher Would set me highest, and in a moment quit* The debt immense of endless gratitude. ………. O had his powerful destiny ordained Me some inferior angel, I had stood* Then happy; no unbounded hope had raised Ambition. Yet why not? Some other power As great might have aspired, and me though mean Drawn to his part; but other powers as great Fell not, but stand unshaken*, from within Or from without, to all temptations armed. ………. Me miserable*! which way shall I fly Infinite wrath, and infinite despair? Which way I fly is hell; myself am hell; And in the lowest deep a lower deep Still threatening to devour me opens wide, To which the hell I suffer seems a heaven. O then at last relent*: is there no place Left for repentance*, none for pardon* left? None left but by submission*; and that word Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame Among the spirits beneath, whom I seduced With other promises and other vaunts* Than to submit, boasting* I could subdue* The omnipotent*. Ay me*, they little know How dearly I abide* that boast so vain, Under what torments inwardly I groan*; While they adore* me on the throne of hell, With diadem and scepter high advanced, The lower still I fall, only supreme In misery; such joy ambition finds. But say* I could repent and could obtain By act of grace my former state; how soon Would height recall high thoughts, how soon unsay What feigned* submission swore: ease would recant* Vows* made in pain, as violent and void*. For never can true reconcilement grow Where sounds of deadly hate have pierced* so deep; Which would but lead me to a worse relapse* And heavier fall: ………. So farewell hope, and with hope farewell fear, Farewell remorse! All good to me is lost; Evil, be thou* my good; by thee* at least Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 189 Reader Divided empire* with heaven's king I hold By thee, and more than half perhaps will govern; As man ere long, and this new world shall know. grieved mâhnit, întristat full-blazing în plină strălucire/splendoare meridian the peak, zenith; noon much revolving with many thoughts revolving in his mind sighs suspine nd look’st look (2 person sg.) beams rays of light warring…against războindu-se/purtând război cu…, matchless unequalled, incomparable wherefore why return recompensă, răsplată eminence position of superiority, distinction, high rank upbraided to upbraid: a mustra, a dojeni his service serving him (i.e. God) to afford him praise a-i aduce/oferi laudă due cuvenit, datorat wrought but malice worked/produced only evil intent, the desire to do harm I ‘sdained [disdained] subjection: am dispreţuit supunerea to quit a părăsi, a abandona I had stood I would have stood unshaken neclintit miserable unhappy, depressed (nenorocit, nefericit) to relent to show pity, to become less severe or cruel repentance căinţă, părere de rău pardon iertare sumbission supunere (to submit: a se supune) vaunt laudă, preamărire de sine boasting to boast: a se lăuda to subdue to defeat and gain control (a supune, a subjuga) ay me (archaic) an expression of unhappiness (vai mie!) to abide a suporta (consecinţele) to groan a geme, a se văita, a suspina, a ofta to adore to worship (a preamări, a se închina la) say să zicem; închipuindu-mi că feigned prefăcut, simulat to recant a retracta, a se dezice de, a se lepăda de vow jurământ, legământ, făgăduială void empty pierced to pierce: a pătrunde relapse recădere thou you by thee by you empire stăpânire, putere TEXT 3.7. John Milton, Paradise Lost (Book VII) In his hand He took his golden compasses, prepared In God’s eternal store, to circumscribe This Universe, and all created things. One foot he centred and the other turned Round through the vast profundity obscure, And said, “Thus far extend, thus far thy bounds*; This be thy just circumference, O World.” Thus God the Heaven created, thus the Earth, Matter unformed and void. Darkness profound Covered the abyss, but on the watery calm His brooding* wings the Spirit of God outspread*, And vital virtue infused, and vital warmth, Throughout the fluid mass, but downward purged* The black, tartareous*, cold, infernal dregs*, Adverse to life; then founded, then conglobed* Like* things to like, the rest to several* place Disparted*, and between spun* out the air, And Earth, self-balanced, on her centre hung. bounds limits, margins brooding covering perfectly to outspread a întinde, a desfăşura to purge a curăţi, a limpezi, a spăla, a purifica tartareous of the underworld, infernal (from Tartarus: Hades) dregs impurităţi, drojdii, rămăşiţe conglobed formed into a ball or a globe like asemănător; de aceeaşi natură several mai mulţi/multe; diferiţi, diferite to dispart a distribui spun to spin, spun: a ţese, a urzi 190 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural and that advantage use On our belief.) venturing to venture: a îndrăzni. 4. Queen of the Universe. as they know. 3. in the day Ye eat thereof*. participating* godlike* food? The Gods are first. I question it. John Milton. and freely taste. Goddess humane. if all be his? Or is it envy? and can envy dwell In heavenly breasts? These. and ye shall be like Gods. by the Threatener? look on me. that all from them proceeds*. Them nothing. Warmed by the Sun. What can your knowledge hurt him. din el/ea (eat from the Tree of Knowledge) dim having weak or indistinct vision participating sharing godlike divine to proceed (from) to originate.8. then. a apuca Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 191 . do not believe Those rigid threats of death. by venturing* higher than my lot. Paradise Lost (Book IX) 1. ye you (pl. these and many more Causes import* your need of this fair fruit. producing every kind. His worshippers? He knows that. Me who have touched and tasted. Shall that be shut to Man which to the beast Is open? 2. Why. was this forbid*? Why but to awe? Why but to keep ye low* and ignorant. shall perfectly be then Opened and cleared. yet both live And life more perfect have attained than Fate Meant me. Knowing both good and evil. reach* then. that Man may not become As they. modest thereof din ace(a)sta. a se încumeta forbid forbidden low humble. ye* shall not die. that seem so clear Yet are but dim*. to emerge fair beautiful to import a însemna to reach a întinde mâna. And what are Gods. for this fair* Earth I see. your eyes. How should ye? by the fruit? it gives you life To knowledge. or this tree Impart against his will.Reader TEXT 3. looking back.Reader TEXT 3. beheld (archaic. beheld to behold. with wandering steps and slow. so late* their happy seat*. where to choose Their place of rest. hand in hand. and Providence their guide. sălaş flaming brand sabia de foc/flăcări thronged (with dreadful faces) plină (de chipuri de temut) fiery în flăcări. The world was all before them.9. but wiped them soon. Waved over by that flaming brand*. all the eastern side beheld* Of Paradise. Through Eden took their solitary way. literary): to look at so late până nu demult seat locaş. care arde natural firesc 192 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Paradise Lost (Book XII) They. John Milton. the gate With dreadful faces thronged* and fiery* arms: Some natural* tears they dropped. They. to write and receive letters. Mirabell: Have you any more conditions to offer? Hitherto* your demands are pretty reasonable. without giving a reason. to wear what I please. wherever I am. to provoke eyes and whispers*. The Way of the World Millamant: (…) Good Mirabell. politicos a great while a long time hitherto until this time. reserved well-bred binecrescut. you shall always knock at the door before you come in.Reader UNIT 4 THE RESTORATION AND THE AUGUSTAN AGE TEXT 4.1. which you must never presume* to approach without first asking leave*. so far trifle fleac. and as well bred as if we were not married at all. abătut closet a small private room inviolate in which nobody intrudes sole only. let us be as strange as if we had been married a great while*. Let us never visit together. Come to dinner when I please. nor kiss before folks*. and ashamed of one another ever after. the only oneto presume to dare (a îndrăzni) to ask leave to ask permission Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 193 . as if we were proud of one another the first week. because they may be your relations*. to have no obligation upon me to converse with wits* that I don’t like. (…) fond affectionate. and choose conversation with regard only to my own taste. nor go to a play together. and then never be seen there together again. or to be intimate with fools. nor go to Hyde Park together the first Sunday in a new chariot*. but let us be very strange* and well bred*. without interrogatories or wry faces* on your part. And lastly. Millamant: Trifles* – as liberty to pay and receive visits* to and from whom I please. William Congreve. dine in my dressing room when I’m out of humour*. bagatelă to pay…visits a face vizite wry faces grimase (to make wry faces: a strâmba din nas) wit a person who has the ability to say things that are both clever and amusing relation relative (rudă) out of humour prost dispus. tender folks people chariot trăsură to provoke eyes and whispers to attract attention and provoke gossip (bârfă) strange distant. To have my closet* inviolate*. to be sole* empress of my tea table. because they are your acquaintance. manierat. don’t let us be familiar or fond*. like my Lady Faddler and Sir Francis. 3. cap sec knave escroc. In the writings of other poets a character is too often an individual: in those of Shakespeare it is commonly a species. pungaş. măcelărire fineness eleganţă. escroc. Particular manners* may be known to few. and the mind can only repose on the stability of truth. which can operate but* upon small numbers. rogue pungaş. and that wittily*! But how hard to make a man appear a fool.2. The irregular* combinations of fanciful* invention may delight awhile* by that novelty of which the common satiety* of life sends us all in quest. by the peculiarities* of studies or professions. the poet that holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life. potlogar villain nemernic. Samuel Johnson. a blockhead*. The Preface to Shakespeare Nothing can please many.Reader TEXT 4. descendenţi to supply a oferi. above all writers. a furniza 194 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Shakespeare is. but the pleasures of sudden wonder are soon exhausted. but just representations of general nature. A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire How easy is it to call rogue* and villain*. and the fineness* of a stroke* that separates the head from the body. and leaves it standing in its place. variabil fanciful capricios. fantezist awhile for a short period satiety the state of being too much filled or satisfied peculiarity particularitate but only transient temporary. His persons act and speak by the influence of those general passions and principles by which all minds are agitated and the whole system of life is continued in motion. ticălos. transitory (trecător) progeny urmaşi. perfecţiune stroke lovitură TEXT 4. the poet of nature. such as the world will always supply* and observation will always find. or a knave* without using any of those opprobrious* terms! (…) There is (…) a vast difference betwixt* the slovenly* butchering* of a man. or by the accidents of transient* fashions or temporary opinions: they are the genuine progeny* of common humanity. John Dryden. unpractised by the rest of the world. and therefore few only can judge how nearly* they are copied. dobitoc. at least above all modern writers. secătură. and please long. successfully irregular neuniform. nemernic opprobrious insulting betwixt between slovenly neglijent butchering căsăpire. a livra. His characters are not modified by the customs of particular places. lichea wittily in a witty manner (cu mult spirit) blockhead nătâng. manners moravuri nearly faithfully. to justice and lenity*. where an enemy or some rival nation were not in case. unnecessary scruple. chapter VII) The King was struck with horror* at the description I had given of those terrible engines* and the proposal I had made. and esteem. and profound learning. should from a nice*. either in a prince or a minister. whereof* in Europe we can have no conception. A strange effect of narrow principles and short views*! that a prince possessed of every quality which procures veneration. And he gave it for his opinion that whoever could make two ears of corn* or two blades of grass* to grow upon a spot of ground* where only one grew before would deserve better of mankind and do more essential service to his country than the whole race of politicians put together.4. to the improvement of agriculture and all mechanical arts*. poetry. let slip* an opportunity put into his hands that would have made him absolute master of the lives. to the speedy* determination* of civil and criminal causes. For I remember very well. of strong parts. (…) I take* this defect among them to have risen from their ignorance. yet he would rather lose half his kingdom than be privy* to such a secret (…). Gulliver’s Travels (Book II. the liberties. entities.Reader TEXT 4. they not having hitherto reduced politics into a science. I could never drive* the least conception into their heads. But the last of these is wholly applied to what may be useful in life. and the fortunes of his people. endued* with admirable talents for government. with some other obvious topics* which are not worth considering. he protested* that although few things delighted him so much as new discoveries in art or in nature. love. He could not tell what I meant by secrets of state. He was amazed how so impotent and grovelling* an insect as I (these were his expressions) could entertain* such inhuman ideas. consisting only in morality. in a discourse one day with the King. abstractions. great wisdom. and in so familiar a manner as to appear wholly unmoved at all the scenes of blood and desolation which I had painted as the common effects of those destructive machines (…) As for himself. And as to ideas. He confined* the knowledge of governing within very narrow bounds*: to common sense and reason. wherein* they must be allowed to excel. as the more acute wits* of Europe have done. so that among us would be little esteemed. history. when I happened to say there were several thousand books among us written upon the art of government. The learning of this people is very defective. refinement and intrigue. and transcendentals*. Jonathan Swift. He professed both to abominate* and despise all mystery*. it gave him (directly contrary to my intention) a very mean opinion* of our understandings. and mathematics. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 195 . and almost adored by his subjects. a încredinţa to be privy to a fi făcut părtaş la. the shortness of my claws*. and therefore* to protect himself. to restrict bound limit. but still looking round with great caution. excessively particular about details (pretenţios. and our actions. For. and the like. perspicace) mean opinion părere nefavorabilă to abominate to detest. as sometimes happens. without delay determination rezolvare. they will instead of eating peaceably. to dislike intensely mystery urzeli tainice to confine to limit. and that the dissensions of those brutes in his country were owing to the same cause with ours. than any of the rest. (…) As to learning. This favorite is hated by the whole herd. and drive the female Yahoos to his kennel. so.Reader struck with horror cuprins de groază engines maşini (piese de artilerie) grovelling to grovel: to crawl. un secret) short views concepţii înguste endued înzestrat nice fastidious. He said the Yahoos were known to hate one another more than they did any different species of animals.5. manufactures*. which all could see in the rest. they will dig with their claws for whole days to get them out. a face să priceapă TEXT 4. VII) He observed that I agreed* in every feature of my body with other Yahoos. our manners. from the representation I had given him of our lives. (…) That. for fear their comrades should find out their treasure. keeps always near the 196 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . in some fields of his country. for which he was known and then rewarded with a piece of ass’s flesh*. and the reason usually assigned* was the odiousness* of their own shapes. there are certain shining stones of several colors. That this leader had usually a favorite as like himself as he could get. I suppose acute wits spirite luminate (acute: pătrunzător. government. Jonathan Swift. a fi iniţiat în. except where it was to my real disadvantage in point of* strength. boundary (hotar) lenity tolerance (îngăduinţă) speedy quick. fall together by ears*. Ch. încheiere (a unei cauze juridice) topic temă. whereof the Yahoos are violently fond*. and activity. and when part of these stones are fixed in the earth. He had heard indeed some curious Houyhnhnms observe that in most herds* there was a sort of ruling* Yahoo (as among us there is generally some leading or principal stag* in a park*) who was always more deformed in body. as I had described them. if (said he) you throw among five Yahoos as much food as would be sufficient for fifty. driven) an idea into one’s head a băga în cap. Gulliver’s Travels (Book IV. but not in themselves. (…) But he now found he had been mistaken. a asigura. a scăpa din mână (o ocazie) I take I think. each single one impatient* to have all to itself. arts. subiect ear of corn spic de grâu blade of grass fir de iarbă spot of ground petec de pământ wherein in which mechanical arts meşteşuguri transcendentals categorii metafizice to drive (drove. he found as near a resemblance in the disposition* of our minds. my master confessed he could find little or no resemblance between the Yahoos of that country and those in ours. a i se încredinţa (e. as in fear or humility (a se târî) to entertain (an idea) a nutri (o idee) to protest a declara. For he only meant to observe what parity* there was in our natures. and carry them away. and mischievous* in disposition. whose employment was to lick* his masters feet and posteriors. and hide them by heaps* in their kennels*.g. speed. and some other particulars* where Nature had no part*. greu de mulţumit) whereof of which to let slip (an opportunity) a lăsa să-i scape. Reader person of his leader. (…) But how far this might be applicable to our courts and favorites, and ministers of state, my master said I could best determine. (…) My master likewise* mentioned another quality, which his servants had discovered in several Yahoos, and to him was wholly unaccountable*. He said, a fancy* would sometimes take a Yahoo, to retire into a corner, to lie down and howl*, and groan*, and spurn* away all that came near him, although he were young and fat, and wanted* neither food nor water; nor did the servants imagine what could possibly ail* him. And the only remedy they found was to set* him to hard work*, after which he would infallibly* come to himself*. To this I was silent out of partiality* to my own kind*; yet here I could plainly discover the true seeds* of spleen*, which only seizes on* the lazy, the luxurious, and the rich (…). His Honor had farther observed, that a female Yahoo would often stand behind a bank* or a bush*, to gaze* on the young males passing by, and then appear, and hide, using many antic* gestures and grimaces; at which time it was observed, that she had a most offensive* smell; and when any of the males advanced, would slowly retire, looking back, and with a counterfeit* show of fear, run off into some convenient place where she knew the male would follow her. At other times, if a female stranger came along them, three or four of her own sex would get about her, and stare* and chatter*, and grin*, and smell her all over; and then turn off with gestures that seemed to express contempt and disdain. I agreed I corresponded in point of în ceea ce priveşte claws gheare particulars details no part no role, no contribution near close disposition predispoziţie, înclinare to assign (a reason) to give, to attribute (a reason) odiousness hidoşenie they will fall together by ears se vor lua la bătaie impatient zorit, grăbit whereof of which to be fond of a fi amator, a-i plăcea mult by heaps în grămezi kennel culcuş, vizuină manufacture meşteşuguri parity corespondenţă, asemănare, analogie herd cireadă ruling dominant, conducător stag cerb park parc cinegetic mischievous răutăcios, rău intenţionat, pus pe rele to lick a linge ass’s flesh carne de măgar therefore that is why likewise also unaccountable inexplicable a fancy would sometimes take a Yahoo din când în când i se năzare câte unui Yahoo to howl a urla to groan a geme to spurn (away) a îndepărta, a refuza, a alunga to want a duce lipsă de to ail a durea, a deranja to set (somebody) to work a pune la muncă infallibly negreşit he would come to himself îşi revenea, îşi venea în fire partiality părtinire, slăbiciune, înclinaţie my own kind cei de-un neam cu mine seeds seminţe (fig.: izvor, cauză) spleen ipohondrie, melancolie seizes on se abate asupra, îi cuprinde pe bank movilă bush tufiş to gaze to look long and fixedly antic grotesque offensive unpleasant, disgusting counterfeit simulated; a counterfeit show of fear: prefăcânduse că îi este teamă to stare a se holba to chatter a flecări to grin a rânji Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 197 Reader TEXT 4.6. Jonathan Swift, Gulliver’s Travels (Book IV, chapter VIII) As these noble Houyhnhnms are endowed by Nature with a general disposition to all virtues, and have no conceptions or ideas of what is evil in a rational creature; so their grand* maxim is to cultivate reason, and to be wholly governed by it. (…) Friendship and benevolence are the two principal virtues among the Houyhnhnms; and these not confined to particular objects, but universal to the whole race. For a stranger from the remotest* part is equally treated with the nearest neighbour, and wherever he goes, looks upon himself* as at home. They preserve decency and civility* in the highest degrees, but are altogether ignorant of ceremony*. They have no fondness* for their colts or foals*; but the care they take in educating them proceeds* entirely from the dictates of reason. And I observed my master to show the same affection to his neighbour’s issue* that he had for his own. They will have that* Nature teaches them to love the whole species, and it is reason only that makes a distinction of persons, where there is a superior degree of virtue. When the matron* Houyhnhnms have produced one of each sex, they no longer accompany* with their consorts, except they lose one of their issue by some casualty*, which very seldom* happens; but in such a case they meet again; or when the like accident* befalls* a person whose wife is past bearing*, some other couple bestows* on him one of their own colts, and then go together* a second time, until the mother be pregnant*. This caution* is necessary to prevent the country from being overburdened with numbers*. But the race of inferior Houyhnhnms bred up to be servants is not so strictly limited upon this article*; these are allowed to produce* three of each sex, to be domestics* in the noble families. Courtship, love, presents*, jointures*, settlements*, have no place in their thoughts, or terms whereby* to express them in their language. The young couple meet and are joined, merely because it is the determination* of their parents and friends; it is what they see done every day; and they look upon it as one of necessary actions in a reasonable being. But the violation* of marriage, or any other unchastity* was never heard of; and the married pair pass their lives with the same friendship and mutual benevolence that they bear to all others of the same species who come in their way, without jealousy, fondness, quarreling*, or discontent*. Temperance*, industry*, exercise*, and cleanliness* are the lessons equally enjoined* to the young ones of both sexes; and my master thought it monstrous in us to give the females a different kind of education from the males, except in some articles of domestic management (…). 198 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural Reader grand principal, capital, supreme remote distant, far away looks upon himself considers himself civility amabilitate, curtenie, politeţe, bună creştere ceremony protocol, etichetă fondness duioşie, afecţiune, dragoste colt, foal mânz to proceed (from) to come from, to originate in (a izvorî) issue odrasle, progenituri, urmaşi they will have that they say that matron mamă de familie to acompany (with) a se împreuna casualty accident, nenorocire, năpastă seldom rarely the like accident o năpastă de felul acesta to befall (befell, befallen) a se abate asupra is past bearing nu mai poate zămisli to bestow to give, to offer they go together se împreunează pregnant grea, însărcinată caution măsură de prevedere overburdened with numbers overpopulated upon this article în această privinţă, la acest capitol to produce a zămisli domestic servitor present dar, cadou jointure averea cuvenită soţiei după moartea soţului settlement contract whereby by which determination decision violation necinstire unchastity infidelitate quarreling ceartă discontent nemulţumire temperance cumpătare industry hărnicie exercise exerciţii fizice cleanliness curăţenie enjoined imposed, prescribed Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 199 Reader UNIT 5 THE AGE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT: THE RISE OF THE NOVEL TEXT 5.1. Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe It was now that I began sensibly* to feel how much more happy this life I now led was, with all its miserable circumstances, than the wicked*, cursed*, abominable* life I led all the past part of my days. And now I changed both my sorrows and my joys; my very desires altered*, my affections changed their gusts*, and my delights were perfectly new from what they were at my first coming, or indeed for the two years past. Before, as I walked about, either on my hunting or for viewing the country, the anguish* of my soul at my condition would break out* upon me on a sudden*, and my very heart would die within me to think of the woods, the mountains, the deserts I was in, and how I was a prisoner locked up with the eternal bars* and bolts* of the ocean, in an uninhabited wilderness, without redemption*. In the midst* of the greatest composures* of my mind, this would break out upon me like a storm, and make me wring* my hands like a child. (…). But now I began to exercise myself with new thoughts. I daily read the Word of God, and applied all the comforts* of it to my present state. One morning, being very sad, I opened the Bible upon these words: “I will never, never leave thee*, nor forsake* thee.” Immediately it occurred* to me that these words were to me. Why else* should they be directed in such a manner, just at the moment when I was mourning over my condition as one forsaken of* God and Man? (…) From this moment I began to conclude in my mind that it was possible for me to be more happy in this forsaken, solitary condition than it was probable I should have ever been I any other particular state in the world; and with this thought I was going to give thanks to God for bringing me to this place. sensibly în mod apreciabil, destul de mult wicked păcătos cursed nelegiuit, ticălos abominable odios to alter to change gust răbufnire, explozie, izbucnire anguish pain, misery, agony to break out a se dezlănţui, a izbucni on a sudden suddenly, abruptly bars gratii, zăbrele bolt zăvor redemption mântuire, izbăvire, salvare midst middle composure linişte, calm, cumpăt, stăpânire de sine to wring (wrung) a frânge; to wring one’s hands: a-şi frânge mâinile de durere comfort mângâiere, consolare, încurajare thee you to forsake (forsook, forsaken) to abandon to occur (to someone) a-i veni în minte, a-i trece prin gând why else? altfel de ce? forsaken of forsaken by 200 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural a cădea fell out to fall. a se desprinde clay lut. and any things my hand turned to*. I let them stand in that heat about five or six hours(…). what odd. (fell. and I had hardly patience to stay till they were cold before I set one upon the fire again with some water in it to boil me some meat. which was to get an earthen pot to hold what was liquid. Robinson Crusoe It would make the reader pity* me. I could not make above* two large earthen* ugly things – I cannot call them jars* – in about two months’ labour. and. But all this would not answer my end*.Reader TEXT 5. Daniel Defoe. In the morning I had three very good – I will not say handsome* – pipkins and two other earthen pots as hard burned as could be desired (…)..2. though I had some lead to do it with. in a word how. but I placed three large pipkins and two or three pots in a pile. and the heat of the sun baked* them strangely hard*. This set me to studying how to order* my fire. such as the potters* burn in. so as to make it burn me some pots. a frământa. a prelucra above more than earthen de lut. pitchers*. I had no notion of a kiln*. No joy at a thing of so mean a nature* was ever equal to mine when I found I had made an earthen pot that would bear the fire. and how many fell out*. and how many fell in pieces with only removing* as well before as after they were dried. how many cracked* by the over-violent heat of the sun. yet I made several smaller things with better success – such as little round pots. and placed my firewood* all round it. when I went to put it out* after I had done with it. dug a săpa to temper a amesteca. oală Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 201 . or glazing* them with lead*. fallen) in: a se prăbuşi. making a pretty large fire for cooking my meat. with a great heap of embers* under them. When I saw them clear red. or rather laugh at me. to tell how many awkward* ways I took to raise this paste*. It happened after some time. (…) Though I miscarried* so much in my design* for large pots*. the clay* not being stiff* enough to bear its own weight*. flat dishes*. and said to myself that certainly they might be made to burn whole if they would burn broken. to bring it home and work it. to pity a căina awkward incomod. how many of them fell in*. and pipkins*. de pământ jar oală. which it did admirably well. I plied the fire* with fresh fuel round the outside and upon the top till I saw the pots in the inside red-hot quite through*. misshapen*. to temper* it. anevoios. argilă stiff tare weight to bear its own weight: să reziste la propria greutate to crack a crăpa set out too hastily expuse prea devreme with only removing doar ce le-am mişcat to dig. I was agreeably surprised to see it. dificil paste cocă misshapen diform fell in to fall. being set out too hastily*. fallen) out: a se desface. to dig* it. vas to miscarry a da greş design intenţie pot vas. after having laboured hard to find the clay. which none of these could do. and observed that they did not crack at all*. I found a broken piece of one of my earthenware vessels* in the fire burned as hard as a stone. and red as a tile*. one upon another. ugly things I made. (fell. and bear* the fire. Samuel Richardson. narrative. when I expected some new plot*. that my heart was too partial* in his favour. a învinge. punct culminant. in which he confesses his affection for her. a ţine la to put out (the fire) a stinge (focul) earthenware vessels vase de lut tile ţiglă. O my unguarded* youth. has greatly affected me. nenorocire pangs mâhnire. I must own* to you. so much affection. placă de ceramică how to order the fire cum să potrivesc focul kiln cuptor potter olar to glaze a smălţui lead plumb firewood lemn de foc embers jăratec I plied the fire am întreţinut focul quite through cu totul. but now. a se pune pe lucru to bake a coace strangely hard neobişnuit de tare end ţel. born) a rezista. I imagine. forgive your poor daughter! How am I grieved* to find this trial so severe* upon me. […] O my dear parents. that I shall never be able to think of any body in the world but him! Presumption*! you will say. before. did I say! […] I know not how it came.Reader dish blid. will ye* not in some 202 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . I am quite overcome*. can be. is not a voluntary thing – Love. plin de viaţă) height culme. neutru to surmount to overcome (a birui. arătos a thing of so mean a nature un lucru atât de mărunt TEXT 5. crept. Much more lively* and affecting must be the style of those who write in the height* of a present distress*. my dear father. the mind tortured by the pangs* of uncertainty (the events then hidden in the womb* of fate). intenţie to bear (bore. doubtful lively vivid (însufleţit. But to be sure*. but with what may be called instantaneous descriptions and reflections (…). nor when it began.] This letter. upon me. but it has crept*. chinuri womb pântece. and before I knew what was the matter. and accounts for his rigorous* behaviour to me. and tender years*. She seems taken by surprise by her own feelings. This was a good fortune. For here plainly* does he confess his great value for me. it looked like love. Samuel Richardson. I had no reason to expect. to my grief*. the womb of fate: incertitudinea sorţii dry sec. B_.3. în întregime at all deloc handsome frumos. to find him capable of so much openness. however. farfurie pitcher ulcior ulcea pipkin gavanos to turn to a se apuca de lucru. Preface to Clarissa All the letters are written while the hearts of the writers must be supposed to be wholly engaged in their subjects (the events at the time dubious*): so that they abound not only with critical situations. I beseech* you. and so it is: but love. a depăşi) TEXT 5. scop. like a thief. unanimated style of a person relating difficulties and dangers surmounted*. apogeu distress nefericire. than the dry*.4. […] Forgive. dubious uncertain. and of so much honour too. nay*. forgive me! but I found. durere. Pamela [Pamela receives a letter from Mr. perfidious traitor*! deservest* thou to smart. as the serious epic from tragedy: its action being more extended and comprehensive*. necaz wert were inconsiderately (în mod) nesocotit. in its sentiments and diction*. by preserving the ludicrous* instead of the sublime. But though we have sometimes admitted this in our diction. în mod clar rigorous aspru.my heart] fully deserve to suffer summons chemare. mâhnire partial to având o slăbiciune pentru nay (literary) ba mai mult. Joseph Andrews (Preface) Now. I hope. burlesque itself may be sometimes admitted. In the diction. I must either not show you this confession of my weakness.e. în consecinţă to tear (tore. a înştiinţa mischief neajuns. we have carefully excluded it from our sentiments and characters. and the benefits of your good lesson and examples. It differs from the serious romance in its fable* and action. and consequently. I think. thy whole self. of which many instances will occur in these works […].) couldst thou could you serve how couldst thou serve me thus? Cum ai putut să te porţi astfel? notice to give notice: a preveni. a comic romance* is a comic epic poem* in prose. a se furişa to beseech (besought) a ruga cu stăruinţă. containing a much larger circle of incidents. Yet. nechibzuit thyself yourself thy poor mistress biata ta stăpână (not) in the least câtuşi de puţin. that as in the one these are grave and solemn. I could have no notion of what it was to be so affected! But prayer. only dangerous attacks! After all. for giving up so weakly.Reader measure excuse me? I never before knew.) treacherous trădător (adj. and resignation to the Divine Will. to consider of this. torn) out a smulge.5. sever grief durere. whereas the grave romance sets the highest* before us: lastly. [Memorandum*. mai mult chiar to overcome a depăşi. nicidecum traitor trădător (noun) deservest well …deservest thou to smart: you [i. who had used me so hardly. a rupe memorandum notă. and therefore*. mâhnit severe trial încercare grea unguarded imprudent tender years vârstă fragedă ye you (pl. and when likewise* thou hadst* so well maintained thy post* against the most violent and avowed*. întristat. without ever consulting thy poor mistress* in the least*! But thy punishment will be the first and the greatest: and well. before summons* came. O my treacherous*. and to one too. or tear* it out of my writing. differing from comedy. of inferior manners. when I get home. in this. însemnare TEXT 5. a copleşi to be sure cu siguranţă to own a mărturisi presumption cutezanţă. treacherous heart! How couldst thou serve* me thus! And give no notice* to me of the mischiefs* thou wert* about to bring upon me! How couldst thou thus inconsiderately* give thyself* up to the proud invader. so in the other they are light* and ridiculous: it differs in its characters by introducing persons of inferior rank. unless* in writings of the Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 203 . Henry Fielding. îndrăzneală crept to creep (crept): a se strecura. avertizare likewise de asemenea hadst (you) had thou hadst so well maintained thy post you put up resistance successfully avowed făţiş therefore aşadar. for there it is never properly introduced. intrigă plainly în mod deschis. will enable me to get over this heavy trial. as I thought. a implora grieved amărât.] plot uneltire. and introducing a greater variety of characters. for though the vain man is not what he would appear. Now. the affectation which arises from vanity is nearer to truth than the other. no two species of writing can differ more widely than the comic and the burlesque. or e converso*. yet it sits less awkwardly* on him than on the avaricious man. so in the former we should ever confine* ourselves strictly to nature. than to find him a little deficient in the quality he desires the reputation of. and the Ridiculous to describe than paint. 204 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . who is the very reverse of what he would seem to be.Reader burlesque kind. in order to purchase* applause. […] Now. It may be likewise noted. when it proceeds from hypocrisy. as they proceed* from very different motives. so hypocrisy sets us on an endeavour to avoid censure*. yet. as in the former the painter seems to have the advantage. with those performances which the Italians call Caricatura. Indeed. for the Monstrous is much easier to paint than describe. so they are as clearly distinct in their operations: for indeed. that. which always strikes* the reader with surprise and pleasure. where we shall find the true excellence of the former to consist in the exactest copying of nature. therefore. from the just* imitation of which will flow all the pleasure we can this way convey to a sensible* reader. which this is not intended to be. if we examine it. for as the latter is ever* the exhibition* of what is monstrous and unnatural. […] The only source of the true Ridiculous (as it appears to me) is affectation. by concealing* our vices under an appearance of their opposite virtues. vanity or hypocrisy: for as vanity puts us on affecting false characters*. which that of the hypocrite hath. and where our delight. and in the same manner the comic writer and painter correlate to each other. and all distortions and exaggerations whatever are within its proper province*. or hath not the virtue he affects. for to discover any one to be the exact reverse of what he affects. Burlesque is in writing. the affectation of liberality* in a vain* man differs visibly from the same affectation in the avaricious. in so much that a judicious eye instantly rejects anything outré*. it partakes* of the nature of ostentation: for instance. any liberty which the painter hath* taken with the features of that alma mater*. From the discovery of this affectation arises the Ridiculous. affectation proceeds from one of these two causes. And though these two causes are often confounded (for there is some difficulty in distinguishing them). to the degree he would be thought to have it. yet when it comes from vanity only. and that in a higher and stronger degree when the affectation arises from hypocrisy. that affectation doth* not imply an absolute negation of those qualities which are affected. as in appropriating the manners of the highest to the lowest*. arises from the surprising absurdity. though. and consequently more ridiculous. so it is in the latter infinitely on the side of the writer. […] Let us examine the works of a comic history painter. and. it be nearly allied to deceit*. what Caricatura is in painting. as it hath not that violent repugnancy* of nature to struggle with. whereas in the Caricatura we allow all licence* – its aim is to exhibit monsters. not men. than when from vanity. And here I shall observe. is more surprising. it sits less awkwardly on him than: îi şade mai puţin rău decât strikes the reader with surprise and pleasure îi oferă cititorului plăcerea surprizei applause when ugliness aims at the applause of beauty: când urâtul/urâţenia aspiră la aplauzele meritate de frumuseţe lameness şchiopătare. it is then that these unfortunate circumstances. şchiopătat to display to show to tend a tinde mirth laughter thought the lines quoted by Fielding are from Alexander Pope’s Essay on Criticism (1711): “Nimeni nu este vinovat de a fi ceea ce e. comic romance roman comic comic epic poem poem eroicomic comprehensive cuprinzător fable subiect. face parte din liberality generosity (mărinimie. / Ci de-a nu fi ceea ce vrea să pară. The poet carries this very far: None are for being what they are in fault. but affectation appears to me the only true source of the Ridiculous. tend* only to raise our mirth*. intrigă light uşor highest sets the highest before us aduce în faţa ochilor pe cei de rang superior diction stil ludicrous grotesc unless except ever always exhibition display (expunere) appropriating the manners of the highest to the lowest atribuirea obiceiurilor din lumea bună unor oameni din popor e converso (Italian)and viceversa to confine oneself to a se limita la just faithful. contradiction doth does deceit înşelătorie it partakes of se înrudeşte cu. or lameness* endeavours to display* agility. sferă affecting false characters pretending to be in a way that one is not.Reader […] Much less are natural imperfections the objects of derision. dărnicie) vain vanitos awkwardly stângaci. But for not being what they would be thought*. which at first moved our compassion. smaller faults. fig.: the primary source licence liberty province domeniu. exact sensible endowed with common sense (cu judecată. cu stângăcie.” Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 205 . of our pity. […] Great vices are the proper objects of our detestation. putting on a flattering mask to purchase to obtain censure so hypocrisy sets us on an endeavour to avoid censure tot astfel ipocrizia ne îndeamnă/ne face să ne străduim a evita critica to conceal to hide to proceed from to come/to emerge from repugnancy incompatibility. cu bun simţ) outré (French) exaggerated hath has alma mater (Latin) the nourishing mother. but when ugliness aims at the applause* of beauty. – and at the same time.Reader TEXT 5. and reconciled. which. on my conscience. – and it is this: That though my digressions are all fair*. and though I will not wrong her by saying she has ever made me feel the weight* of any great or signal* evil. […] The machinery* of my work is of a species by itself. my work is digressive. Tristram Shandy (Vol I. the merit of which has all along. as far and as often too as any writer in Great-Britain. in a digression. not for want of penetration* in him. dirty planet of ours. brought forth* into this scurvy* and disastrous world of ours. I fear. with reverence be it spoken*. In a word. yet I constantly take care to order affairs so. Chapter V) On the fifth day of November.I. and it is progressive too. I can truly say that from the first hour I drew my breath into it […] I have been the continual sport* of what the world calls Fortune. I take to be made up of the shreds* and clippings* of the rest. yet with all the good temper* in the world I affirm it of her that in every stage of my life. two contrary motions are introduced into it. as in my all digressions (one only excepted) there is a master-stroke* of digressive skill. or could any how contrive* to be called up to public charges* and employments* of dignity or power – but that is not my case […]. […] 206 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . povară signal însemnat. or in any of the planets […] than in this vile*. Laurence Sterne. a reuşi public charges însărcinare. which were thought to be at variance* with each other. abject vile ticălos with reverence be it spoken fie spus cu tot respectul shreds zdrenţe clippings resturi. lipsit de cordialitate/amabilitate to pelt a bombarda. as you observe.6. and that I fly off* from what I am about. but because it is an excellence seldom* looked for. a asalta pitiful jalnic misadventure nenorocire cross potrivnic. remarcabil good temper voie bună turn cotitură to get at (somebody) to irritate.7. been overlooked* by my reader. Tristram Shandy (Vol. – not but the planet is well enough*. nefericit TEXT 5. a izbuti. provided a man could be born in it to a great title* or to a great estate*. I wish I had been born in the Moon. Laurence Sterne. brought forth born scurvy păcătos. and at every turn* and corner where she could get* fairly at me. răspundere publică employment slujbă sport jucărie weight greutate. to annoy ungracious răutăcios. Chapter XXII) For in this long digression which I was accidentally led into. rămăşiţe not but the planet is well enough nu că n-ar fi bună planeta provided a man could be born to a great title cu condiţia să te naşti cu un titlu însemnat estate avere to contrive a o brodi. 1718 […] was I Tristram Shandy. the ungracious* Duchess has pelted* me with a set of as pitiful* misadventures* and cross* accidents as ever small HERO sustained. that my main business does not stand still in my absence. or expected indeed. Gentleman. is truly pitiable*: For. it shall be kept a-going these forty years. All the dexterity* is in the good cookery* and management of them. and forbids the appetite to fail. For which reason. from the beginning of this. incontestably. are the sunshine. a trece cu vederea for want of penetration din pricina lipsei de pătrundere/înţelegere seldom arareori fair fără cusur. then there is an end of his digression. whose distress*.Reader Digressions. bids* All hail*. I have constructed the main work and the adventitious* parts of it with such intersections. in general. has been kept agoing. artă culinară distress stare jalnică pitiable vrednic de milă to stand stock-still a încremeni. so as to be not only for the advantage of the reader. he steps forth* like a bridegroom*. the soul of reading. This is vile work*. – and. restore them to the writer. but also of the author. – take them out of this book for instance. you see. that the whole machine. – one cold eternal winter would reign* in every page of it. master-stroke mişcare măiestrită skill meşteşug to overlook a-i scăpa. his whole work stands stock-still*. a sta pe loc vile work ticăloasă treabă adventitious întâmplător to involve a încurca. în contradicţie to reign a domni to step forth a păşi bridegroom mire to bid (bade. brings in variety. slavă! dexterity îndemânare cookery gătit. you might as well take the book along with them. if it pleases the fountain of health to bless me so long with life and good spirits*. one wheel within another*. what’s more. a încâlci one wheel within another cu rotiţele îmbucându-se una întralta good spirits voie bună Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 207 . if he begins a digression. I observe. from that moment. in this matter. and have so complicated and involved* the digressive and progressive movements. cum trebuie. and if he goes on with his main work. bidden) a ura all hail trăiască!. – they are the life. sadea to fly off a-şi lua zborul machinery mecanism at variance potrivnic. a alina. hoinar. fiind considerat bogat pound liră remote far away. look within. passing rich trecând drept bogat. a mângâia) TEXT 6. If peace be his – that drooping* weary* sire*. The Village Ye* gentle* souls who dream of rural ease*. a aprecia the wretched cei sărmani/nenorociţi vagrant vagabond. Oliver Goldsmith.2. distant godly pious. modelat. propped* on that rude* staff*. cucernic) e’er ever to fawn to seek attention and admiration by flattering (a se ploconi. Go. whose trembling hand Turns on the wretched* hearth* the expiring* brand*! (…) (…) yonder* see that hoary swain*. and ask if peace be there. a boy. to scold (a dojeni. looks up to see The bare arms* broken from the withering* tree On which. cerşetor train alai. chid: to rebuke. More skilled to raise the wretched* than to rise. to all the country dear. And passing rich* with forty pounds* a year. but relieved* their pain: The long-remembered beggar was his guest. Or theirs. Far other aims his heart had learned to prize*. croit to prize a preţui. he climbed the loftiest bough*. Nor e’er* had changed. but his sad emblem now. 208 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . Or hers. the matron* pale. nor wished to change his place. Unpracticed he to fawn*. Who. George Crabbe. By doctrines fashioned* to the varying hour. The Deserted Village A man he was. that offspring* round their feeble* fire. He chid* their wanderings*.1. Whose beard descending swept his aged breast. a mustra) wandering rătăcire to relieve to bring alleviation (a uşura. Then his first joy. Whom the smooth* stream and smoother sonnet please. devout (evlavios. cortegiu şir chid to chide. a linguşi) fashioned potrivit. or seek for power. Go! if the peaceful cot* your praises share.Reader UNIT 6 ENGLISH PRE-ROMANTIC POETRY TEXT 6. whose age Can with no cares except his own engage. Remote* from towns he ran his godly* race. His house was known to all the vagrant* train*. rezemat rude rudimentary. whom the heart feels as a family TEXT 6.Reader ye you (pl. jalnic. dumbravă Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 209 . lacking adornments staff toiag bare arms ramurile/crengile desfrunzite withering decaying.4. slab matron mamă de familie wretched biet. nenorocit hearth vatră. should most abound And least be threatened in the fields and groves*? draught înghiţitură. sprijinit. The Seasons (from Autumn) He comes! he comes! in every breeze the Power Of Philosophic Melancholy comes! (…) O’er* all the soul his sacred influence breathes. linişte. generos ease tihnă. and far Beyond dim earth exalts* the swelling* thought. the sigh for suffering worth* Lost in obscurity. (…) The sympathies of love and friendship dear. What wonder then that health and virtue. disdain (dispreţ) tyrant pride the arrogance of arbitrary or unjust power the social offspring of the heart the community. the noble scorn* Of tyrant pride*. unconfined*. and man made the town. chief*. to excite swelling expanding rapture ecstasy. urmaş feeble plăpând. James Thomson. sorbitură grove crâng. o’er over to exalt to raise. and as high: Devotion. to stimulate. With all the social offspring of the heart*.) gentle nobil. the large ambitious wish To make them blest. through the breast Infuses every tenderness. to elevate. coarse. ales. simple.3. As varied. ecstatic joy unconfined unlimited chief most important suffering worth men of merit and virtue who suffer scorn contempt. The Task (1785) God made the country. gifts That can alone make sweet the bitter draught* That life holds to all. cămin expiring dying (care se stinge) brand tăciune yonder (poetic) there hoary swain săteanul cărunt/nins/venerabil propped proptit. losing vitality (care se usucă) loftiest bough ramura cea mai înaltă TEXT 6. părinte offspring vlăstar. pace smooth calm. and. The love of Nature. Inflames imagination. (…) As fast the correspondent passions rise. William Cowper. Of human race. încovoiat weary exhausted (istovit) sire (poetic) tată. raised To rapture* and divine astonishment. liniştit cot căsuţă drooping aplecat. Struggling in my father’s hands. Infant Sorrow (from Songs of Experience) My mother groaned*. God bless thee. Little Lamb. By the stream and o’er* the mead*. Like a fiend* hid* in a cloud.6. te-a poftit să te hrăneşti o’er over mead meadow (pajişte. Bound* and weary*. to groan a geme. William Blake. a înlănţui. and he is mild*. supus) mild gentle. a se arunca piping to pipe: to utter something in a high and thin voice fiend demon hid hidden swaddling bands scutece bound to bind. Into the dangerous world I leapt*. who made thee who made you dost thou know do you know bid thee feed ţi-a oferit hrană. Helpless. He became a little child: I a child and thou a lamb. bound: a lega strâns. luncă) wooly made of or feeling like wool (lânos) to rejoice to feel or show great joy thy your meek very quiet. wooly* bright. leapt: a sări.Reader TEXT 6. not violent (blajin.The Lamb (from Songs of Innocence) Little Lamb who made thee*? Dost thou know* who made thee? Gave thee life. Gave thee clothing of delight. William Blake. I’ll tell thee: He is called by thy* name. Gave thee such a tender voice. a fi supărat/îmbufnat 210 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . a închide weary tired. Making all the vales rejoice*! Little Lamb.5. Striving against my swaddling bands*. my father wept*. îngăduitor) TEXT 6. Little Lamb. Softest clothing. and bid thee feed*. cuminte. I thought best To sulk* upon my mother’s breast. God bless thee. Little Lamb. We are called by his name. a ţâşni. naked. For he calls himself a Lamb: He is meek*. who made thee? Dost thou know who made thee? Little Lamb. gentle and uncomplaining (blând. a suspina wept to weep (wept): a plânge leapt to leap. I’ll tell thee. exhausted to sulk to be silent and resentful a se bosumfla. piping* loud. midst middle ‘Thou shalt not’ ‘You shall not’ (the interdictory formula beginning the ten commandments in the Bible) writ written bore to bear. And the gates of the Chapel were shut. And then go home to bed. well. come leave off play.7. a ţopăi to echo a răsuna Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 211 .8. And the hills are all covered with sheep. at ease dew rouă let us away să megrem to fade away to die.” “Well. Where I used to play on the green. the sun is gone down. iarbă neagră) TEXT 6. and let us away* Till the morning appears in the skies. And laughing is heard on the hill. green pajişte verde at rest calm. And binding* with briars* my joys and desires. go and play till the light fades away*. to disappear to leap (leaped/leapt) a sări. no. And Priests in black gowns* were walking their rounds*. Come. And ‘Thou shalt not’* writ* over the door. Besides. “Then come home my children. So I turned to the Garden of Love. William Blake.” The little ones leaped* and shouted and laughed And all the hills echoed*. borne: to give birth to grave mormânt tomb-stone piatră funerară gown mantie. That so many sweet flowers bore*. And tomb-stones* where flowers should be. robă walking their rounds făcându-şi rondul binding to bind. The Garden of Love (from Songs of Experience) I went to the Garden of Love. bore. And the dews* of night arise. in the sky the little birds fly. a sălta. let us play. William Blake. tranquil. bound: to tie briar a wild bush with branches that have thorns (măceş. My heart is at rest* within my breast. Nurse’s Song (from Songs of Innocence) When the voices of children are heard on the green*. And we cannot go to sleep. And every thing else is still. And saw what I never had seen: A Chapel was built in the midst*.Reader TEXT 6. for it is yet day.” “No. And I saw it was filled with graves*. Your spring and your day are wasted* in play. Were all of them locked up in coffins* of black. And my father sold* me while yet my tongue Could scarcely cry “weep*. Nurse’s Song (from Songs of Experience) When the voices of children are heard on the green And whisperings* are in the dale*. who cried when his head That curled* like a lamb’s back. Tom. He'd have God for his father and never want* joy. my children. laughing. for when your head's bare. a irosi TEXT 6. And wash in a river. You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair. freamăt dale vale. he had such a sight*!– That thousands of sweepers. And got with our bags and our brushes to work. Dick. vâlcea my face turns green as in “green with envy” to waste a pierde. And he opened the coffins and set them all free. and sport* in the wind. And by* came an Angel who had a bright key. weep. The Chimney Sweeper* (from Songs of Innocence) When my mother died I was very young.Reader TEXT 6. And your winter and night in disguise. weep!” So your chimneys I sweep. and that very night. And so Tom awoke. 212 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural . and in soot* I sleep.10. There’s little Tom Dacre. So if all do their duty. all their bags left behind. whisperings şoapte.” And so he was quiet. weep. They rise upon clouds. And the Angel told Tom. Then come home. And the dews of night arise. The days of my youth rise fresh in my mind. and we rose* in the dark. Though the morning was cold. they need not fear harm. foşnet. Then naked and white.9. Ned and Jack. the sun is gone down. As Tom was a-sleeping. Then down a green plain leaping. was shaved: so I said “Hush*. William Blake. never mind it. they run. Joe. if he'd be a good boy. My face turns green* and pale. and shine in the Sun. Tom was happy and warm. William Blake. Or like harmonious thunderings* the seats* of heaven among. Then cherish* pity.” weep see explanation above woe intense grief/sorrow/unhappiness thy your say? ia spune! heath câmpie stearpă injury rău. The Chimney Sweeper (from Songs of Experience) A little black thing among the snow. Till into the high dome* of Paul’s* they like Thames’ waters flow. sold: a vinde (the boy’s father has put him to work to bring money in the family) weep the boy is so young that he could scarcely cry “sweep!” )to advertise his work in the streets). it is ironic that “sweep” becomes “weep” (a plânge) soot funingine to curl a se încreţi/cârlionţa hush taci. Holy Thursday (from Songs of Innocence) ‘Twas* on a Holy Thursday*. William Blake. a se juca to want to feel the need or longing for something. Now like a mighty* wind they raise to heaven the voice of song. Beneath them sit the aged men. their innocent faces clean. Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 213 . And are gone to praise God and his Priest and King. And taught me to sing the notes of woe. risen): a se scula. Thousands of little boys and girls raising their innocent hands. with wands* as white as snow. hornar sold to sell. potoleşte-te. They clothed me in the clothes of death. Crying “weep*. nedreptate misery intense unhappiness or suffering TEXT 6. weep!” in notes of woe*! “Where are thy* father and mother? say*?” “They are both gone up to church to pray. coşciug by aproape. fii liniştit sight vision coffin sicriu.11. în preajmă to sport a zburda.Reader chimney sweeper coşar. but multitudes of lambs.12. lest* you drive* an angel from your door. a se deştepta TEXT 6. William Blake. alături. Grey-headed beadles* walked before. The children walking two and two in red and blue and green. And smiled among the winter’s snow. The hum* of multitudes was there. O what a multitude they seemed. Because I was happy upon the heath*. wise guardians of the poor. to be lacking something rose to rise (rose. Who make up a Heaven of our misery*. And because I am happy and dance and sing. They think they have done me no injury*. these flowers of London town! Seated* in companies they sit with radiance* all their own*. when the ascension of Christ to heaven is celebrated beadle an officer in British churches in the past.13. in the Revelation) to cherish to treasure something (a preţui. rece. And where-e’er the rain does fall. a goni TEXT 6. and to the Last Judgement. the 40 day after Easter. fruitful fecund. neroditor thorn spin. roditor fed to feed (fed): a hrăni usurous cămătăresc (see again the Glossary) bleak sterp. fertil. sterp. ghimpe where-e’er wherever to appal to make someone feel shocked and upset (a îngrozi) 214 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .Reader ‘twas it was th Holy Thursday Ascension Day. Babe can never hunger there. Nor poverty the mind appal*. soft. who helped the priest in various ways. a iubi) lest ca să nu. For where-e’er* the sun does shine. William Blake. a monument of baroque architecture seated aşezaţi radiance great happiness that shows in someone’s face. ca nu cumva to drive (from) a alunga. re-built th in the late 17 century. In a rich and fruitful* land Babes reduced to misery. gentle light (strălucire) all their own coming from inside themselves hum a low continuous murmuring sound mighty very strong and powerful thundering tunet the seats of heaven among among the seats of heaven: in the sky (allusion to judgement seat. Holy Thursday (from Songs of Experience) Is this a holy thing to see. especially by keeping order wand baghetă dome hemispherical roof St Paul’s Cathedral the largest cathedral in London. Fed* with cold and usurous* hand? Is that trembling cry a song? Can it be a song of joy? And so many children poor? It is a land of poverty! And their sun does never shine. And their fields are bleak* and bare*. It is eternal winter there. lugubru bare gol. And their ways are filled with thorns*. Paradise Lost.J. vol. Ed. H (Gen. Penguin Books Ltd. ediţie îngrijită şi comentată de Leon D. London and Melbourne: J. II New York. I. Dent and Sons Ltd. or. Penguin Books Ltd. 1980 Shakespeare. vol. Craig.English pre-Romantic poetry Sources Abrams. William. M. Oxford University Press. The Complete Works. 7 (Macbeth). or the History of a Young Lady. with a glossary by W. with and introduction by Margaret Ann Doody.. Henry.. XI (Furtuna) Bucureşti: Editura pentru Literatură Universală.. edited with an Introduction by Angus Ross. M. London: Henry Pordes. Gentleman. vol. Samuel. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy. Virtue Rewarded. Opere. 1996 Richardson. Samuel. Norton & Company. Mariner. Opere complete. Leviţchi. Daniel. edited. 1985 Richardson. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. 1983 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 215 .).. Vols. 1993 Defoe. 1987 Milton. Bucureşti: Editura Univers. Joseph Andrews and Shamela. Penguin Books. by Peter Sabor. ed. John. edited with an introduction by Ian Campbell Ross. 1986 Shakespeare. edited with an introduction by Arthur Humphreys. William. Pamela. William. W. Leviţchi. Bucureşti: Editura Univers. The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York. 5 (Hamlet). Ltd. 1965 Fielding.. 1984) Sterne. 1963 Shakespeare. London: W. Opere complete. Clarissa. ediţie îngrijită şi comentată de Leon D. William. 1988 Shakespeare. Laurence. Penguin Books Ltd. edited with an introduction by Angus Ross. Representation and the Popular Imagination. 1991 Ford.). History of English Literature.. The Novel in Its Beginnings. 1993 Coveney. Penguin Books Ltd. The Mid-Eighteenth Century. Ana. Literatura europeană în epoca luminilor. 1991 Alter. 1963 Drabble. Romul. Robert. Oxford University Press. Romanticism. 3). The Image of Childhood (with an introduction by F. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1993 Allen. Gulliver’s Travels. Robert A. 5). Bucureşti: Editura Enciclopedică Română. Bucureşti: Editura Ştiinţifică. Garden City: Doubleday & Company. 1967 Cuddon. Inc. The Metaphysical Poets. London: Penguin Books Ltd.. A Short History of English Literature (transl. Penguin Books Ltd.). The New Pelican Guide to English Literature (vols. The Odyssey to Tom Jones. Michael.Bibliography SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Abrams. New York. An Annotated Text with Critical Essays. Aiden. V. Margaret (ed. (vols. London: Secker and Warburg Ltd. Penguin Books. 1969 Day. Norton & Company. 2003 McDermott. Jonathan Swift. Twayne Publishers. 1660-1837. New York: W. London: University of California Press. Donne to Marvell¸ Cambridge University Press.. Peter. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. The Poetry of Alexander Pope.). The Novel as a Self-Conscious Genre.. London and New York: Routlege. Clive (ed. Ed. 1988 Butt.R. Martin. 1988 Hunting. 3. Ioan Aurel Preda (eds. W. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd. Norton and Company. Hubert. Gerald (ed. 1975 Bloom. The Poetry of William Blake. W. Macmillan Education Ltd. Joseph Andrews. The Cambridge Companion to English Poetry. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1965 Macsiniuc.F.. 4. 1979 Cartianu. M. Boris (ed. David.).. 1992 Daiches.). Los Angeles. 1991 Greenberg... London: W. 1985 Fairer. 2. David. Penguin Books Ltd. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. Editura Universităţii Suceava. 1996 Day.). London: Penguin Books. J.. Jacobean Poetry and Prose: Rhetoric. (ed.). Inc. 1970 Corns. 1989 Munteanu. I. H (Gen. Thomas N (ed. David. 1971 Legouis. Novel and Romance. Émile. The Macmillan Press Ltd. Penguin Books. The English Novel. John. Jonathan Swift. Cornelia. 1961 Hammond. Robert. II New York. Berkeley. Dicţionar al Literaturii Engleze. 1974 Nokes. 1989 Ferber. A. Leavis). Boyson and J. A Critical History of English Literature.. 1987 216 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural .. The English Eighteenth Century. Partial Magic. Walter. Vols. Coulson).). Bibliography Olteanu. Ian. Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică. Bucureşti: Editura “Grai şi suflet – Cultura naţională”. Fenomenul englez (vol. 1983 Preda. studiu introductiv şi note de Dan Grigorescu. ediţie îngrijită. Dragoş. London: George Allen and Unwin. English Literature and Civilisation. 1991 Watt.” 2000 Watt. Studies in Eighteenth Century Fiction and Romantic Poetry. Luminiţa Elena. George. Editura Universităţii Suceava. From Beowulf to Paradise Lost. Ian.). Ioan-Aurel. Cambridge University Press. Blake and the New Age. 2003 Raine. Bucureşti: Editura Univers. The Renaissance and the Restoration Period. 1979 Richetti. 1970 Turcu. Kathleen. Marthe. 3). Bucureşti: Editura Univers. 1994 Protopopescu. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press. Four Myths of Individualism. Richardson and Fielding. 2003 Volceanov. 1983 Sampson. 1996 Robert. The Cambridge Companion to the EighteenthCentury Novel. The Rise of the Novel. Tudor. 1974 Preda. John (ed. George. Studies in Defoe. Morfologia romanului european în secolul al XVIIIlea. Editura Universităţii Bucureşti. 1974 Proiectul pentru Învăţământul Rural 217 . The Concise Cambridge History of English Literature. Ioan-Aurel (ed. Romanul începuturilor şi începuturile romanului. A Survey of English Literature from Beowulf to Jane Austen.). The Literature of the Beginnings. Chatto & Windus. Bucureşti: Editura Fundaţiei “România de Mâine.