ANALELEUNIVERSITĂŢII BUCUREŞTI LIMBI ŞI LITERATURI STRĂINE 2014 – Nr. 2 SUMAR · SOMMAIRE · CONTENTS LINGVISTICĂ / LINGUISTIQUE / LINGUISTICS GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ, A Few Remarks on the Vowels of Kenyan English .......................................................................................... ANDREI AVRAM, Syllable Restructuring in Early Solomon Islands Pidgin English: An Optimality-Theoretic Analysis ............................................. MARIA AURELIA COTFAS, An Objective Look at Object Control Instances in Romanian Subjunctive Complements ......................................................... SABINA POPÂRLAN, Le verbe faire pluri-fonctionnel et ses équivalents en hindi et en roumain ...................................................................................... DANIELA BORDEA, Dynamique du figement : l’adjectif en français ................. FRANCESCO VITUCCI, Gairaigo within Japanese Language: Language Suicide or Casual Culture? .......................................................................... JING DENG, On the Diachronic Development and Pragmatic Features of Chinese Public Signs ................................................................................... ALINA BUGHEŞIU, Linguistic Landscape, Microtoponymy and Unconventional Use of Anthroponymy on the Border: Vama Veche, Romania ................... 119 * Recenzii • Comptes rendus • Reviews ..................................................................... Contributors ........................................................................................................... 135 153 3 15 37 63 79 97 109 e. vocalic processes. upon the quality and quantity of exposure to the language combined with the attitude of the speaker towards English. nativization is still going on and the language is spreading gradually. or 40 languages. Keywords: monophthongs.anydora@gmail. In processing the sound files I have used the Praat software (Boersma and Weenink 2010). although the amount of data is admittedly far too limited for generalizations. acoustic measurements. from the Speech Accent Archive (SAA). Trudgill and Hannah 2002. according to some sources (Ethnologue 2009). according to some others (Abdulaziz 1991: 391). to a large extent. 1. The acoustic analysis of speech samples obtained from 10 subjects highlights a number of characteristics of the vowels of Kenyan English speakers. In the present study I analyze speech samples obtained from 10 subjects. The phonological standard used for reference and ease of * University of Bucharest. resulting in a system which has far fewer vocalic elements. Phonetic evidence is provided in support of the phonological assumptions made. in order to verify some of the features of KenE. Simo Bobda 2000 and 2001. more than 65% of the total population of Kenya use English. ATR. Kenya features a multilingual ecology made up of 69 indigenous languages. but. variation. Department of English. brozba. Of course. Schneider (2007: 196) notes that Kenyan English (henceforth KenE) is during its third phase.A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ* Abstract Kenyan English resembles other African non-native varieties of English in that most of the vocalic phonemes have undergone restructuring. Crystal (2003: 107) writes that Kenya has about 2.com. Kanyoro 1991. . according to the Ethnologue (Lewis 2009).7 million speakers who use English as a second language. individual variation in the use of English will depend. i. Introduction Research so far on English varieties in East Africa has taken the form of studies on English in the area as a whole or as a cluster of two or three varieties (Abdulaziz 1991. Schmied 2008). Mutonya 2008. the mergers are different in one variety or another.A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH 3 comparison is Received Pronunciation (henceforth RP). The standard of comparison used for vowels consists in the lexical sets in Wells (1982). 2. WAfrE and EAfrE (adapted from Schmied 1991a: 61 and Mutonya 2008: 437) Vowels systems African systems tend to merge in East African varieties of English towards vocalic made up of five vowels. compared to the seven vowel system in West Englishes. Also. Finally. in Figure 1. and two regional varieties of African English. His comparison of Standard British English (SBE). especially for those focusing on East African English. namely West African English (WAfrE). . proves to be particularly relevant as a point of reference: Figure 1: The vowel systems of SBE. in Figure 1. and East African English (EAfrE). even though most of the vowels in these simplified coincide. in Figure 1. Previous studies The research carried out by Schmied (1991a) has served as a yardstick for most studies on African English so far. As the Figure 2 below shows. I aim to look at the mergers in Mutonya (2008). the differences lie in the STRUT and BIRD vowels which merge with the TRAP and START vowels to [a]. rather than towards [o] for STRUT vowel and [e] for the BIRD vowel. as will be shown in the case of KenE among East African Englishes. EAfrE and KenE (from Mutonya 2008: 442) 3.GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ 4 the mergers may also differ within varieties of a larger group. Mutonya’s (2008) study is particularly relevant as his findings disconfirm some of the data in Schmied (1991a) regarding the vocalic system of KenE as a variety of East African English. Present study In this study. Figure 2: The vowel systems of SBE. as predicted by Schmied (1991a). to discuss a number of implications that acoustic measurements may have at the . and maybe a snack for her brother Bob. The analysis is based on 10 KenE speech samples1 from the SAA corpus (Weinberger 2010). This difference is not statistically significant and it can 1 The names of the samples indicate the mother tongues of the recorded speakers. Ask her to bring these things with her from the store: Six spoons of fresh snow peas. We also need a small plastic snake and a big toy frog for the kids. This /i/ is short. but also [+tense]. five thick slabs of blue cheese. She can scoop these things into three red bags. Finally.1.A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH 5 phonological level. Results and discussion The KIT and FLEECE vowels are almost invariably rendered as [i]2 in KenE. all of which are in terms of style the reading of the following passage: “Please call Stella. and to show whether there is inter-speaker variation (and which are some of the factors generating it). belonging to the KIT and FLEECE lexical set respectively. Consider next the acoustical analysis of the KIT and FLEECE vowels in KenE.from the corresponding sound files of the male subject Gusii1: Figure 3: KIT and FLEECE in KenE (Gusii1. I have cut and pasted the words thick and meet. I touch upon some vocalic processes which are specific to East African varieties of English.” 3. 2 . SAA) The two vowels are similar in terms of duration: the [i] sound has 159 ms in thick and 131 in meet. and we will go meet her Wednesday at the train station. a feature which characterizes long vowels in RP (Brozbă 2011 and 2012). The measurements of the current data show that things are not quite so clear-cut. as they should be marked during the reading by the subjects recorded here4. . There is a lot of variation whose sources may be multifold. it is my intuition that the FOOT/GOOSE pair behaves similarly to the KIT/FLEECE one. The length measurements show that the short monophthongs vary between 40-60 milliseconds. SAA) Given the expected length leveling observed. varying between 110 and 160 milliseconds. However. 3 The speech samples at my disposal do not comprise any words which could allow me to make any clear statements from a phonetic point of view on the status of the FOOT vowel. I have delimited some of the cells with borders in boldface in order to underline breath or sense pauses. the first step taken was to measure all tokens for the KIT and FLEECE vowels so as to ascertain whether the length difference is indeed unimportant. The two words have been cut and pasted onto the spectrogram below: Figure 4: GOOSE vowel in KenE (Gusii1. 4 This will prove important. These explanations appear to hold as I have also looked at two examples of the GOOSE vowel3 produced by the same speaker of KenE in the words scoop and spoons: the sound [u] has 106 ms in the former and about 150 ms in the latter. The table below displays the realizations for the potential targets of the KIT and FLEECE tokens in the text for all the 10 speakers whose samples were considered for this analysis. as they do not always overlap with the ones made in RP. while the long ones exceed at times the double of those values.GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ 6 be explained either as a result of phonetic environment or as an instance of intra-speaker variation. A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH WORD please bring these things with six peas thick cheese we need plastic big kids she these things into three we will meet RP target vowel F K F K K K F K F F F K K K F F K K F F K F Gusii1 F F F F K F F F F F F F F F F F F K F F K F Gusii2 Kikuyu1 Kikuyu2 Kikuyu3 Kiswahili3 Kiswahili8 Luo1 Luo2 F F F F F F F F K K K K K K F K F F F F F K F K K K K K K K F K K K K K K K K K K K F K K K F K F F F F F F F F K K K K F F F K F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F K K K K K K F K F F K K K K K F K F F K K F F F F F F F F F F F F F F K F F K F K K K K K K F K K − K K K K K K F F F F F F F F F K F F K* K* F K* K − K K K* K* K K* F F F F F F F F 7 Nandi1 F K K K K K F K F F F K F K F F K K F K K F Table 1: The KIT and FLEECE vowels in SAA samples of KenE Legend: K = KIT; F = FLEECE; F = FLEECE, K* = KIT* Note: KIT* = we + will > we’ll KIT: 40 - 60 ms FLEECE: 110 - 160 ms FLEECE: > 200 ms Table 1 reveals that the difference is still maintained between the KIT and FLEECE vowels in most of the cases. Therefore, can one really speak of a KIT/FLEECE merger? Before moving on to clarifying this issue, or at least attempting to do so, a few more remarks are in order. First and foremost, the pronunciation for these is sometimes (in the cases of Kiswahili8, Luo2 and Nandi1) [dɪs] rather than [iz]. A twofold explanation can account for this unexpected pattern: one can expect an invariant use of this (which is neither unexpected nor uncommon for a variety of New English) or we could be dealing with a case of allophonic vowel length which might function as a cue for final consonant voicing, in the sense that the voicing of the word-final consonant could be predicted on the basis of a quantity-sensitive distinction in the preceding vowel (see Roach 2000: 50). Secondly, we encounter a lot of prepause lengthening5 which is visible in the extra long FLEECE tokens (marked in boldface in the table). This being the case, one could claim that they could serve 5 Attested in Singapore English (see Deterding 2007: 38). GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ 8 as prosodic cues. However, this is not what happens as their placement does not serve prosodic functions6. Two speakers (Luo1 and Gusii1) display a similar behavior. What they have in common is a late English onset age, namely that they started learning English when they were 12. In their case, KIT tokens are used only in functional words. So do the two vowels merge to a single vocalic position in their speech? Let us consider the sample of Luo1 first. Lexical set FACE DRESS NORTH THOUGHT GOAT KIT FLEECE GOOSE TRAP BATH BIRD STRUT Word snake Stella store call go thick meet spoons plastic ask her brother F1 (Hz) 502 577 557 591 448 435 316 409 745 766 758 740 F2 (Hz) 1949 1752 1150 1135 1072 2131 2099 987 1463 1437 1397 1433 Duration (ms) 153 150 270 151 252 150 115 204 107 128 190 106 Table 2: Mean F1/F2 values of Luo1 The table above shows that there is no length distinction between the vowels that make up the KIT and FLEECE pair. However, the vowel plot below will uncover some interesting facts. FACE F1 - Backness (Hz) 22 00 21 00 20 00 19 00 18 00 17 00 16 00 15 00 14 00 13 00 12 00 11 00 10 00 90 0 DRESS GOAT 600 700 800 6 They occur rather randomly than at sense phrases. F2 - Height (Hz) THOUGHT 400 500 Figure 5: Monophthongs of Luo1 NORTH 300 KIT FLEECE GOOSE TRAP BATH 900 BIRD 1000 STRUT A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH 9 Luo (Dholuo), which belongs to the Nilotic branch of the Nilo-Saharan languages, has two sets of vowels, distinguished by one main contrastive feature, i.e. [+/−ATR] (Owino 2003: 45). Therefore, the expectation, under the influence of the mother tongue, would be for the KenE spoken by Luo1 L1 users to have ten vowels. The results of the measurements show that there are nine vowels (eight plus one coming from FOOT7, for which there are no tokens in the text). Two of the monophthongs have emerged by the monophthongization of the diphthongs in FACE and GOAT. As mentioned above, there is no difference in terms of quantity. The [+/−ATR] distinction is preserved in the high area, it is restored in the mid area by the monophthongization of the two diphthongs, and it is lost in the low area (based on the data available). It is worth mentioning that the association between vowel length and the [ATR] feature does not apply here. The following table displays the results for the Gusii1 speaker: Lexical set FACE DRESS NORTH THOUGHT GOAT KIT FLEECE GOOSE TRAP BATH BIRD STRUT Word snake Stella store call go thick meet spoons plastic ask her brother andə F1 (Hz) 429 484 543 532 474 318 311 327 709 657 676 654 535 F2 (Hz) 1939 1699 1224 1207 1011 2014 2046 905 1403 1386 1408 1429 1465 Duration (ms) 194 114 138 130 238 159 131 150 128 118 170 111 113 Table 3: Mean F1/F2 values of Gusii1 Gusii (Ekegusii), which belongs to the Bantu family of languages, has nine vowels, and the main contrastive feature is length for high vowels, while mid vowels are distinguished by means of the [−ATR] feature (Cammenga 2002: 37). This would allow one to hypothesize that the KenE variety spoken by Gusii L1 users will have a vocalic system made up of nine vowels. 7 I operate on the assumption that the GOOSE/FOOT pair behaves as the KIT/FLEECE pair, which is the case in many non-native varieties of English. For an in-depth description of the cases of Cameroon English, Black South African English and Singapore English, see Brozbă (2012, chapters 5, 6 and 9). however. By looking at the vowel plot in Figure 5. From the data in Schmied (1991b: 424) on the “Africanisation” of RP phonemes in KenE. the BATH/TRAP/BIRD merger and THOUGHT/NORTH merger are to be found again.GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ 10 FACE F2 .2 Some vocalic processes in KenE In spite of the low number of speakers and the shortness of the text. As mentioned before. Just like in the case of the Luo speaker. as is the case of THOUGHT and NORTH. one comes from the paragogic schwa and the remainder are the result of various vocalic mergers.Backness (Hz) 2000 1800 1600 1400 DRESS 1200 1000 800 NORTH 300 THOUGHT GOAT 500 KIT 600 700 800 900 F1 . FACE and GOAT) which have been monophthongized. the samples analyzed in the preceding section are illustrative of some recurrent vocalic processes. it appears that the RP GOOSE vowel is more or less approximated in KenE. which are characteristic of new varieties of English in 8 I suppose this is the case for the GOOSE/FOOT pair as well. and BIRD vowels have merged towards one single vocalic position.e. The length distinction in the high area has been lost. this time the KIT/FLEECE and 8 FOOT/GOOSE pairs have merged to one vocalic position. 3.Height (Hz) 400 GOOSE FLEECE TRAP BATH BIRD SCHWA 1000 STRUT Figure 6: Monophthongs of Gusii1 The measurements show. In terms of quality. that there are only eight vowels (Figure 6): two originating in the same diphthongs (i. TRAP. whereas the RP FOOT vowel is lengthened in this variety. . The [ATR] distinction is restored once again in the mid area with the help of FACE and GOAT. one can see that BATH. schwa occurs sporadically as a paragogic vowel. [−ATR] [ɪkɔ] ‘to prepare’ [kεlɔ] ‘to scatter’ [kʊnɔ] ‘to refuse’ [+ATR]: [iko] ‘to bury’ [kelo] ‘to bring’ [kuno] ‘to preserve’ (Owino 2003: 57) Further evidence of such harmony effects comes from the adaptation of English loanwords in Luo: (3) a. c. conductor cinema station television [kɔndakɪta] [sɪnɪma] [sitesen] [telefison] (Owino 2003: 89-90) Note also the occurrence of paragoge in (1b. e. a vowel copy. as in the examples under (4) and in (5e). (5) a. as in (1c) and (5a-d). as in (1d). examples (1a-b) also illustrate vowel harmony in terms of the [+/−ATR] feature. book hospital spring [bʊkʊ] [hosɪpɪtalɪ] [spɪrɪnɪ] (Schmied 2008: 162) As is well known. b. b. bring end raised told went [briŋgi] [εndə] [rezdə] [toldə] [wεntə] (Simo Bobda 2000: 263) (Simo Bobda 2001: 276) . Consider the examples below: (1) a. As far as the nature of the paragogic vowel is concerned. c) as well as in the following set of examples: (4) a. c. as well as of others. d.A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH 11 general. which seem to point to the uniqueness of KenE among new varieties of English as a whole. d. c. c. the occurrence of paragoge has been pinpointed as a hallmark of East African Englishes. a vowel harmonizing in terms of the [PLACE] feature. This may be accounted for as an influence of Luo phonology: (2) a. b. d. b. there are three main options: the default vowel schwa. b. and African Englishes in particular. quickly Wednesday and toy [kwikili] [wεnɪzdei] [andə] [tɔju] (Simo Bobda 2000: 263) Luo1 Gusii1 Gusii1 In addition to being cases of vowel epenthesis. c. REFERENCES Abdulaziz. Salikoko S. (2009).03). The predominance of Bantu languages in the ecology as well as the use of Swahili as a lingua franca in the area will determine the selection of features based on their frequency in the future development and stabilization process of KenE (cf. (2001). Paul and David Weenink (2010). Cambridge.-O. Praat . Amsterdam/Philadelphia.com. Conclusions The current sociolinguistic picture shows that KenE is still a non-unitary mix of elements from the whole “pool of features” (in the sense of Mufwene 2001). Kanyoro. 402-419. Jelle (2002).praat. Cammenga. also Lim and Gisbone 2011). Edinburgh. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag.) (2011). Păunescu (coords. Cambridge. Dallas. Mufwene. English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. “The politics of the English language in Kenya and Tanzania”. Cheshire (ed. Cambridge. Lewis. “East Africa (Tanzania and Kenya).Doing phonetics by computer (version 5. Cuniţă. Bucharest. 2nd edition. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Cambridge University Press. Deterding. 2010. Cambridge. English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. (1991). different levels of education and non-interference with native varieties will lead to different results and will have different implications. Editura Paralela 45. in J. in A. The Ecology of Language Evolution. F. “The treatment of monophthongs in the New Englishes”. Regards croisés sur le TEMPS. Lim Lisa and Nikolas Gisbone (eds. 391-401. retrieved on December 22nd. Phonology and Morphology of Ekegusii: A Bantu Language of Kenya.). Gabriela (2012).GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ 12 3. English as a Global Language. This is not surprising given the diverse and complex linguistic ecology of Kenya. http://www. 16th edition. The Phonology of New Englishes. which undoubtedly reflects the influence of the first language of the users of KenE.). Brozbă. Paul M. retrieved on November 29th. inter-speaker variation. . The Typology of Asian Englishes. Crystal.2. Cambridge University Press. more importantly. Cambridge University Press. David (2003). Piteşti. Florea and M. John Benjamins. David (2007).ethnologue. Editura Universităţii Bucureşti. 2009. Cheshire (ed. SIL International. 153-160. Mohamed H. Cambridge University Press. Musimbi R. Gabriela (2011). It remains to be investigated whether factors such as less careful speech styles. http://www.). Köln. in J. Singapore English. Brozbă. The analysis above has highlighted the existence of considerable variation with respect to the vowels of KenE at this stage in its evolution. (1991). Edinburgh University Press. There is both intra-speaker and.org/. Boersma. “African Englishes: Acoustic analysis of vowels”. pp. 269-284. Augustin (2000). Uganda. Joseph J. University of Pretoria. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. retrieved on March 1st. English around the World: Sociolinguistic Perspectives. London. Postcolonial English: Varieties around the World. I. http://upetd. 150-163. pp. retrieved on October 2nd. vol. Cambridge University Press. Varieties of English. Augustin (2001). Mungai (2008). Wells.edu/. Weinberger.za/thesis/available/etd-02092004-112729/ un restricted/00thesis. 53-70. Joseph J. (2007). Roach Peter (2000). 3. PhD dissertation. 2010. Schneider. 150-63. Schmied. Cheshire (ed. Schmied. 3-4. in English Studies. Accents of English.. London.ac. Daniel (2003). Steven (2010). Trudgill. “Comparing some phonological features across African accents of English”. (1991a). International English. English in Africa: An Introduction. 3. Schmied.). “National and subnational features in Kenyan English”. Simo Bobda. Owino. A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English. Cambridge. John C. in World Englishes 20. in J. Peter and Jean Hannah (2002). An Introduction. Berlin · New York. 4. (1982).). South and Southeast Asia. in R. Edward Arnold.pdf. English Phonetics and Phonology: A Practical Course. . http://accent. Cambridge University Press.A FEW REMARKS ON THE VOWELS OF KENYAN ENGLISH 13 Mutonya. Africa. “East and Southern African English accents”. pp. Cambridge. 4th edition. in World Englishes. Cambridge. 27. gmu. 83. 420-434. Phonological nativization of Dholuo loanwords.up. (1991b). George Mason University. (2008). 2012. Speech Accent Archive. Mouton de Gruyter. “East African English (Kenya. Mesthrie (ed. 434-49. 3rd edition. Edgar W. Simo Bobda. Cambridge University Press. Joseph J. vol. Tanzania): Phonology”. Longman. g. See also Avram (2007). Introduction The present paper is an analysis of the strategies employed by Solomon Islands Pidgin English to repair illegitimate syllables1.g. prothesis. the syntax and the lexicon of the language at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Consequently. * University of Bucharest. given the faulty transcriptions or the normalizing. as in e. Optimality Theory. i. They provide valuable information about e. paragoge and consonant deletion. 3 See Hancock (1977) and Avram (2000) for a discussion of this problem. but provide little insight into the phonology. epenthesis. The theoretical framework of the analysis below is that of Optimality Theory (see e.com. These consist of prothesis. Samples of early Solomon Islands Pidgin English are presented and analyzed by Mühlhäusler (1987).e. the samples in Keesing (1991a) and Tryon and Charpentier (2004: 236–240). anglicizing orthography frequently restoring English-like forms3.avram@gmail. Solomon Islands Pidgin English2 is one of the varieties of Melanesian Pidgin English whose earlier stages are hardly documented. 1. Kager 1999). It is shown that vowel harmony plays no part in determining the quality of the epenthetic and paragogic vowels. Also. the repair strategies conducive to syllable restructuring in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English are strikingly similar to those attested in other early varieties of Melanesian Pidgin English. Department of English. 2 For a general presentation of the language see Jourdan (1988 and 2007). Keywords: Solomon Islands Pidgin English. contrary to claims put forth in the literature. paragoge. Some characteristics of the Anglicized variety of Solomon Islands Pidgin English are discussed in Jourdan (1989).SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS ANDREI A.g. 1 . Keesing (1991a and 1991b) and by Tryon and Charpentier (2004). epenthesis. except for a small number of early attestations. AVRAM* Abstract The present paper proposes an optimality-theoretic account of the various syllable restructuring strategies used in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English. andrei2. The treatment of onset clusters 2. which is close to that of earlier Solomon Islands Pidgin English. b. 2. the phonology of the so-called “bush” Pidgin. Jourdan (2002). as noted by Goulden (1990: 54). section 5 summarizes and discusses the findings. Empirically. Theoretically and methodologically. Intrusive vowels appear in bold characters. Lee (2008). Consider the following examples: (1) a. In section 2 I analyze the adjustment of illicit onset clusters in the etyma. Reflexes of /s/+ oral stop clusters Jourdan and Keesing (1997: 409) note the “use of interconsonantal […] vowels” to break up illicit three.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 15 the data examined in this article consist of forms used by older speakers or of fossilized forms. . this is in accordance with what Rickford (1986: 162) calls “feed-back from current usage”4. Section 3 focusses on the treatment of complex codas. If known. taken from Keesing (1988 and 1991b). /skr/ sikarapu (< E scrub) ‘bush’ /st/ sitoa (< E store) ‘store’ /sk/ 1916 sekool (< E school) ‘school’ The prohibition against onset clusters made up of /s/ and a voiceless stop can be captured by means of the high ranked constraint *ONS/sO: (2) *ONS/sO: onsets made up of /s/ and an obstruent are disallowed.or two-consonant onset clusters with /s/ followed by an oral stop. Jourdan and Keesing (1997). the date of the early attestations is mentioned. The article is structured as follows.1. I treat /s/-initial onset clusters separately given the frequent exceptional behaviour of /s/ in English. faithfully enough. The reflexes of etyma with simple codas are discussed in section 4. c. All examples are rendered in the orthography or the system of transcription used in the sources mentioned. ““bush” varieties of [Solomon Islands] Pidgin English conserve archaic material and thus provide insights into the history and development of MPE [= Melanesian Pidgin English]”. Finally. 4 See also Avram (2000). It is assumed that such forms reflect. g. 6 . It follows that for such forms the constraint hierarchy is: (3) *ONS/sO.a *ONS/sO *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * *! DEP-IO * * CONTIG * * Two other strategies appear to have been only sporadically used. MAX-IO also outranks DEP-IO. e.a si. L-ANCHOR >> DEP-IO. Given that deletion is not an option. Both *ONS/sO and MAX-IO are ranked higher than CONTIG. Finally.a to. vowel prothesis) or deletion at the left edge.to. MAX-IO. The ranking of DEP-IO and CONTIG is irrelevant to the outcome. also dominates DEP-IO. as shown by Kager 5 In this paper I do not decompose this constraint as e. such forms are rare since. Thus. which is presumably illustrative of earlier stages of the language: isteret (< E straight) ‘good’ (6) Interestingly. the constraint militating against medial epenthesis or medial deletion5. Not surprisingly.a so. is given in the tableau below6: (4) /stɔ :/ sto. and CONTIG is prohibited. vowel prothesis occurs once in a sample of “bush” pidgin (Jourdan 2007: 80). CONTIG The evaluation of a relevant form.g. which bans epenthesis (i. deletion of /s/ is attested only in one form in the corpus (Tryon and Charpentier 2004: 368): (5) 1920s tarch (< E starch) ‘starch’ Similarly. sitoa. In all tableaux dots indicate syllabic boundaries. in Alber and Plag (1999).ANDREI A. 7 Kager (1999) uses “epenthesis” as a cover term for both prothesis and epenthesis. a fact gone unnoticed by Jourdan and Keesing (1997: 409).a is. one form in the corpus illustrates both vowel prothesis and vowel epenthesis: (7) /st/ isitapu (< E stop) ‘to stay’ This constitutes a violation of what Kager (1999: 105) calls “minimal epenthesis”7.e. AVRAM 16 *ONS/sO dominates DEP-IO since these illicit clusters are broken up via epenthesis. the constraint L-ANCHOR.to. In optimality-theoretic terms.5. L-ANCHOR. this can be straightforwardly accounted for by assuming a constraint COPY. In fact. the phenomenon illustrated by such forms is that of vowel copying. “epenthesis always applies minimally.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 17 (1999: 105). Reflexes of the /sl/ cluster Although no relevant items occur in my corpus of early Solomon Islands Pidgin English.lu is.lu si. that is. /s/ + voiceless stop onset clusters are also broken up by an epenthetic [u]. if the vowel after the cluster in the etymon is /u/: (8) a.lu ku. CONTIG The high ranked constraint COPY ensures the elimination of the competing candidate [sikulu]. b.2. defined as follows: (9) COPY: add a copy of the etymological vowel The ranking of the constraints is: (10) *ONS/sO.ku.ku. /sp/ supun (< E spoon) ‘spoon’ /sk/ sukulu (< E school) ‘school’ Jourdan (2003) writes that “speakers will tend to insert epenthetic vowels in Pijin words in order to avoid these clusters” and that “the choice of the vowel is directed by a rule of vowel harmony”9. See also Jourdan (2007: 110). modern forms give us a clue as to what must have been the fate of the /sl/ cluster in onset position: 8 9 For other relevant evidence see section 2. (6) and (7) suggest that [i] or [e] are the default epenthetic vowels8. However. with the default epenthetic vowel [i]. while securing the selection of [sukulu]: (11) /sku:l/ sku. MAX-IO.lu *ONS/sO *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR COPY DEP-IO CONTIG *! *! * * * * * * * *! *! 2.lu su.lu su. COPY >> DEP-IO. precisely to the extent that is necessary to improve structural markedness”.ku. The examples under (1). . even though it would not violate the sonority sequencing generalization. the treatment of these onset 10 Contra Jourdan and Selbach (2008: 183). 2002. Jourdan (2008: 477). It therefore provides evidence that /sl/ onset clusters are broken up by epenthesis in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English.lip is. The constraint is ranked high and dominates both DEP-IO and CONTIG since the onset cluster at issue is resolved by epenthesis.ANDREI A. .lip *ONS/sL *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * DEP-IO CONTIG * *! * * * Finally. The hierarchy of constraints is: (14) *ONS/sL. The basic pattern. CONTIG This is confirmed by the evaluation in the following tableau: (15) /sli:p/ slip sip lip si. is illustrated below: (16) /silip/ (< E sleep) ‘to sleep’ → [sisilip] ‘to be sleeping’ Reduplication is quite productive in the substrate languages of Solomon Islands Pidgin English (Lynch 1998. AVRAM 18 (12) /sl/ silip (< E sleep) ‘to sleep’ The onset cluster /sl/ does not surface. This can be captured by positing the following constraint: (13) *ONS/sL: onsets made up of /s/ and a liquid are disallowed. MAX-IO. Additional evidence can be adduced from reduplication in the verbal morphology.3. L-ANCHOR >> DEP-IO. consisting in the reduplication of the first mora of the verbal root10. However. 2. Jourdan 2008). the reduplicated form must have existed for quite a long time in the language. Lynch et al. note that [i] is again the default epenthetic vowel. Reflexes of /s/ + glide clusters Records of early Solomon Islands Pidgin English do not include any reflexes of /s/ + glide onset clusters. Given the lexical meaning of silip ‘to sleep’. Jourdan 2008) and given the lexical meaning of suim ‘to swim’. it can be assumed that the reduplicated form has existed for quite a long time. DEP-IO. which do not violate the sonority sequencing generalization. The constraint hierarchy is therefore: (20) *ONS/CG. DEP-IO and CONTIG.). The constraint is also dominated by MAX-IO. in presumably Anglicized Solomon Islands Pidgin English. c. Jourdan 2002): (17) /sw/ a. L-ANCHOR. This can be accounted for in terms of the constraints *ONS/CG and *GLIDEVOCALIZATION: (18) (19) *ONS/CG: onset clusters made up of consonants and a glide are disallowed *GLIDE-VOCALIZATION: vocalization of glides is prohibited Clearly. Beimers 1995: 50. 11 But swit (Link Komik n. L-ANCHOR. suea (< E swear) ‘to swear’ suim (< E swim) ‘to swim’ suit11 (< E sweet) ‘delicious’ The glide /w/ in the etymon does not surface in the Solomon Islands Pidgin English reflex. but appears to have undergone vocalization.d.wit su.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 19 clusters. CONTIG >> *GVOCAL This ranking is supported by the evaluation for suit: (21) /swi:t/ swit sit wit su. can be safely inferred from contemporary forms (Miller 1989: 58. . b. MAX-IO. if *ONS/CG outranks *GLIDE-VOCALIZATION the glide /w/ surfaces as the vowel [u]. This provides additional evidence that /sw/ onset clusters undergo glide vocalization in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English.it *ONS/CG *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * DEP-IO CONTIG *GVOCAL * *! * * Consider again evidence from reduplication in the verbal morphology: (22) /suim/ (< E swim) ‘to swim’ → [susuim] ‘to be swimming’ Since reduplication is quite productive in the substrate languages of Solomon Islands Pidgin English (Lynch 1998. AVRAM 20 2. d. Unfortunately. The ranking of constraints is therefore: (24) *ONS/CG. kuaet (< E quite) ‘quite’ kuik taem (< E quick.d. Consider the following examples (Miller 1989: 30 and 62.): (23) a. If so. chapter 4). an examination of data from the modern variety suggests that the glide /w/ must have undergone vocalization. MAX-IO. b. time) ‘hurry’ tuentifala (< E twenty. possibly anglicized pronunciation whereas the vocalization of /w/ in stop + glide onset clusters represents a prior stage. this confirms the generalization expressed in (18) and the correctness of the ranking in (20). Beimers 1995: 31 and 2006. . Reflexes of stop + liquid clusters The treatment of stop + liquid onset clusters in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English is better documented.5. Although this type of onset does not 12 See Avram (2005. c. DEP-IO. in principle.wik ku. Jourdan 2007: 151. CONTIG >> *GVOCAL The following tableau shows the interaction of these constraints: (25) /kwɪk/ kwik kik wik ku. This would suggest that the retention of /w/ characterizes the more recent. Reflexes of stop + glide clusters Stop + glide onset clusters do not violate the sonority sequencing generalization and are. However. fellow) ‘twenty’ The occasionally different spelling reflects variation between [w] and [u] in the modern variety.4. better candidates for retention. Link Komik n.ANDREI A. time) ‘quickly’ kwiktaem (< E quick. even in earlier stages of English-lexifier pidgins and creoles12. L-ANCHOR. the corpus of records of early Solomon Islands Pidgin English at my disposal contains no forms illustrative of the fate of such onset clusters.ik *ONS/CG *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * DEP-IO CONTIG *GVOCAL * *! * * 2. barata (< E brother) ‘brother’ b. pulande (E plenty) ‘lots’ /br/ a. As can be seen.ru ti. koros-im (< E cross) ‘to cross’ c. as analyzed by Jourdan (2003). sikarapu (< E scrub) ‘bush’ The relevant constraint is *ONS/OL: (32) *ONS/OL: onset clusters made up of an obstruent and a liquid are disallowed. karae (< E cry) ‘to cry’ b. piles (< E place) ‘place’ c. Epenthesis with vowel copying obtains from the following hierarchy of constraints: (33) *ONS/OL. bilai (< E play) ‘play’ b. tarake (< E truck) ‘truck’ c. as shown by the examples below: (26) (27) (28) (29) (30) (31) /pl/ a. birek (< E break) ‘to break’ /tr/ a. First. turu (< E true) ‘true’ /dr/ dorop-em (< E drop.ru *ONS/OL *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * COPY DEP-IO CONTIG * *! *! * * * * * . it is disallowed. CONTIG The correctness of this ranking is demonstrated by the following evaluation: (34) /tru:/ tru tu ru tu. and not vowel harmony.ru ut. in 9 of the 13 forms in (26) through (31) epenthesis involves vowel copying.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 21 violate sonority requirements. him) ‘to drop’ kalaem (< E climb) ‘to climb’ /kr/ a. L-ANCHOR. tarae (< E try) ‘to try’ b. COPY >> DEP-IO. onset clusters consisting of a stop and a liquid are invariably broken up by an epenthetic vowel. MAX-IO. The assimilation at issue is labial attraction: the [LABIAL]14 consonant /p/ enforces the occurrence of [u] as the epenthetic vowel. defined as follows: (37) CLAB-VLAB: insert a [LABIAL] vowel after a [LABIAL] consonant.de 13 14 *ONS/OL *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR CLAB-VLAB *! DEP-IO CONTIG * *! A term proposed by Clements (1993: 109).1 and 2. but not the only one. The constraint hierarchy is: (35) *ONS/OL. The constraint hierarchy is: (38) *ONS/OL. for the resolution of the illicit stop + liquid onset clusters. L-ANCHOR >> DEP-IO. This is supported by the existence of the three forms with epenthetic [i]. pulande ‘lots’ is an instance of “trans-categorial assimilation”13.rek *ONS/OL *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR DEP-IO *! CONTIG * *! * * *! * Finally. In three of the forms in (26) and (27) [i] is the epenthetic vowel. L-ANCHOR. MAX-IO.de pan. AVRAM 22 Second. The relevant constraint is CLAB-VLAB. Place of articulation features are considered to be unary.de lan. CONTIG The evaluation in the tableau below confirms this ranking: (36) /breɪk/ brek bek rek bi.rek ib. MAX-IO. In sections 2.2 I have claimed that [i] is one of the default epenthetic vowels. The constraint CLAB-VLAB outranks both DEP-IO and CONTIG. epenthesis with vowel copying is the preferred solution. who claims that the vowel is exclusively dictated by vowel harmony. . in which a vowel takes on the place of articulation of a neighbouring consonant. Compare barata ‘brother’ – with a copy of the vowel between /b/ and a liquid – to bilai ‘play’ and birek ‘to break’ – [i] in the same phonological environment.ANDREI A. contra Jourdan (2003). CLAB-VLAB >> DEP-IO. CONTIG Here is the evaluation of the candidates for the input /plenti/: (39) /plenti/ plan. 6.de 23 * * * *! *! * * 2. CONTIG The ranking is demonstrated in the evaluation below: (42) /θrəʊ-/ tro.lan.ro. the constraint hierarchy securing the emergence of this candidate is the same as in (33): (41) *ONS/OL.1.lan.wem ot. Reflexes of fricative + liquid clusters My corpus of early Solomon Islands Pidgin English unfortunately includes only one example illustrating the treatment of fricative + liquid onset clusters: (40) /θr/ torou-em (E throw.ro.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS pu.de up.wem *ONS/OL *! MAX-IO L-ANCHOR *! *! * COPY DEP-IO CONTIG * *! *! * * * * * 3.wem to.wem ro. /mp/ siambu (< E jump) ‘to jump’ /nt/ wande (< E want) ‘to want’ /nd/ endi (< E and) ‘and’ .wem ti.lan.de pi.wem to. b. L-ANCHOR. Therefore. Consider first reflexes of coda clusters consisting of a nasal and an oral stop: (43) a. c. him) ‘to throw’ The illicit cluster in the etymon is resolved by epenthesis of a copy of the vowel after the cluster. COPY >> DEP-IO. The treatment of coda clusters 3. MAX-IO. Reflexes of nasal + oral stop clusters The corpus contains only an extremely small number of forms illustrating the treatment of complex codas.ro. since both are [LABIAL]. In the constraint hierarchy CLAB-VLAB necessarily outranks DEP-IO and R-ANCHOR: (47) *CODA/NS. they cannot occur in coda position since they violate the constraint *CODA/NS: (44) *CODA/NS: coda clusters made up of a nasal and an oral stop are disallowed All these clusters are reduced by paragoge.am 15 *CODA/NS *! MAX-IO *! CONTIG CLAB-VLAB DEP-IO R-ANCHOR * Prenasalized stops occur in the substrate languages (see e. This clearly violates both DEP-IO and R-ANCHOR. paragoge) or deletion at the right edge. MAX-IO. If the reflexes of the etyma in the examples under (43) are [mb].ANDREI A. which prohibits epenthesis (i. Lynch 1998. The selection of [u] as the paragogic vowel is triggered by the /p/ in the etymon. Lee 2008: 57) it can be assumed that sequences made up of a nasal and an oral stop must have been realized phonetically either as such or as homorganic prenasalized stops. MAX-IO. Jourdan and Selbach 2008: 174. irrelevant. the exact phonetic realization of these clusters in the etyma is. [nt] and [nd] respectively. CONTIG. however. Since neither deletion nor epenthesis is an option it follows that MAX-IO and CONTIG outrank DEP-IO and R-ANCHOR.amp si. CLAB-VLAB >> DEP-IO. For the forms in (43b. CONTIG >> DEP-IO.nid *CODA/NS *! MAX-IO CONTIG *! *! * DEP-IO R-ANCHOR * *! * * * In the form siambu the paragogic vowel is [u]. Lynch et al. AVRAM 24 On the basis of the description of the phonetics and phonology of modern Solomon Islands Pidgin English (Jourdan 2003.g. [nt]. formulated in (37). [nd]15.e. Jourdan 2007: 110. [endi] as the optimal candidate: (46) /ænd/ end en ed en. This can be handled in terms of the constraint CLAB-VLAB. R-ANCHOR This tableau below demonstrates the correctness of this ranking: (48) /ʤʌmp/ si. 2002. c) displaying the default paragogic vowel [i] or [e] the constraint hierarchy is: (45) *CODA/NS. R-ANCHOR This ranking ensures the emergence of e. As will be shown below. .g. [mb]. and Jourdan 2003).di e. /t/ and /d/ as prenasalized stops is the avoidance of the closed syllables in the etyma. /nt/ and /nd/ as prenasalized stops [mb]. CLAB-VLAB >> DEP-IO.am.ndi (53) /ʤʌmp/ si.mip *! 25 * *! * * * *! * * * Consider next how the same etymological coda clusters are adjusted by speakers who realize phonetically /mp/.mp si. MAX-IO. [nt].a. The relevant constraint hierarchies are given in (44) and (45): (50) (51) *CODA/SPRENASAL. CONTIG. if the oral stop in the etymon is a coronal one it is deleted. MAX-IO. These are prohibited from occurring in coda position by the following constraint: (49) *CODA/SPRENASAL: prenasalized stops are disallowed in the coda.a. [nd] respectively.a. and the etymological cluster is thereby reduced: (54) (55) /nt/ difiren (< E different) ‘different’ /nd/ a.ap si. mpi *CODA/SPRENASAL *! *CODA/SPRENASAL *! MAX-IO MAX-IO CONTIG CONTIG DEP-IO R-ANCHOR * * CLAB-VLAB DEP-IO R-ANCHOR *! * * * * Note that a consequence of the phonetic realization of /b/.pi si. Typically. R-ANCHOR These rankings also enforce paragoge. giraun (< E ground) ‘ground’ b.pu si. R-ANCHOR *CODA/SPRENASAL. This is demonstrated by the evaluation of relevant candidates in the following two tableaux: (52) /ænd/ end e. han (< E hand) ‘hand’ Deletion of the coronal stop is enforced by a high ranked constraint: .am. CONTIG >> DEP-IO. mpu si.a.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS si. Consider next reflexes of the same coda clusters in the so-called “bush” varieties. c. Relevant examples include: (60) a. This yields the following constraint hierarchy: (57) *Coda/C+t/d. Beimers (1995).).di ha. Further.nid *CODA/C+t/d *! DEP-IO *! *! CONTIG MAX-IO R-ANCHOR * * * *! * * 3. permitted in coda position. b.d. d. their treatment in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English may be inferred from descriptions of the modern variety (Jourdan 2003. max-io and r-anchor are both outranked by *CODA/C+t/d and CONTIG. Reflexes of stop + fricative/affricates clusters Coda clusters consisting of a nasal stop and a fricative or an affricate are represented by just one example in my corpus: (59) /ns/ Pranis (< E France) ‘French’ However. and in Link Komik (n. Dep-IO. Beimers (2006).ANDREI A. AVRAM 26 (56) *CODA/C+t/d/: clusters made up of a consonant and a [−nasal. Contig >> Max-IO. CORONAL] stop are not Since epenthesis is disallowed DEP-IO and CONTIG are also ranked high. /ns/ fenis (< E fence) ‘fence’ /nθ/ manis (< E month) ‘month’ /nʧ/ branis (< E branch) ‘branch’ /nʤ/ oranis (< E orange) ‘orange’ .2. Jourdan (2002). for the input /hænd/: (58) /hænd/ hand han had han. since paragoge would incur their violation. Jourdan and Selbach 2008) as well as from forms attested in Miller (1989). R-Anchor The hierarchy of constraints if verified in the tableau below. Jourdan (2007). si *CODA/SF *! MAX-IO R-ANCHOR *! *! * *! DEP-IO * * CONTIG * * One example in the corpus illustrates the treatment of oral stop + fricative coda clusters: (64) /ks/ 1909 bokkis (< E box) ‘box’ The same form and other relevant ones are attested in the modern variety (Miller 1989.g.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 27 First. Third. it follows that MAX-IO and MAX-IO are also ranked high and that they also outrank DEP-IO and CONTIG. Second. such illegitimate coda clusters are resolved through insertion of the default epenthetic vowels [i] or [e]. Beimers 1995. such forms confirm the generalization expressed by the constraint formulated in (61). The constraint *CODA/SF dominates both DEP-IO and CONTIG. the ranking proposed in (62) accounts for the reflexes of oral stop + fricative coda clusters as well: (66) .d. d. The hierarchy of constraints for the reflexes of the clusters at issue is: (62) *CODA/SF. Since neither deletion nor paragoge is resorted to. c. CONTIG: Consider e. note that in coda position the reflex of the affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/ is the fricative /s/. MAX-IO. Link Komik n. Beimers 2006. e.nis fen. R-ANCHOR >> DEP-IO. The relevant high ranked constraint is: (61) *CODA/SF: coda clusters made up of a stop and a fricative or affricate are disallowed.): (65) /ks/ a. the reflexes of nasal stop + fricative/ affricate contain the default epenthetic vowel [i]. Jourdan 2002. b. the evaluation for the input /fεns/: (63) /fεns/ fens fen fes fe. Second. akis (< E axe) ‘axe’ bokis (< E box) ‘box’ fokis (< E fox) ‘fox’ nekes (< E next) ‘next’ sikis (< E six) ‘six’ First. as can be seen. ANDREI A. Therefore.si *CODA/SF *! MAX-IO R-ANCHOR *! *! * DEP-IO CONTIG * * * * * *! 3.kis bok. CONTIG >> MAX-IO. possibly composed during World War II (reproduced in Jourdan 2007: 84–85). Beimers 2006. Consider e. d. isti ‘East’ and westi ‘West’ in a song. Jourdan 2002. Here is the ranking of constraints: (69) *CODA/C+t/d. it follows that DEP-IO and CONTIG also outrank MAX-IO and R-ANCHOR. in violation of the constraints MAX-IO and RANCHOR. AVRAM 28 /bɒks/ boks bok bos bo.g.d. Since the illicit coda cluster at issue is not reduced by epenthesizing a vowel.): (68) /st/ a. d. tas (< E just) ‘just’ tes (< E just) ‘just’ das (< E just) ‘just’ des (< E just) ‘just’ Similar forms occur in the modern variety. fas (< E fast) ‘stuck’ jes (< E just) ‘just’ mas (< E must) ‘must’ pos (< E post) ‘post’ In the reflexes of etyma with /st/ in the coda the illicit coda cluster is normally16 reduced via deletion of /t/. formulated in (56). In optimality-theoretical terms this can be handled by the constraint *CODA/C+t/d. the following examples (Miller 1989. b. . RIGHT-ANCHOR The interaction of these constraints is shown in the tableau below: 16 There are just three exceptions in my corpus: pristi (< E priest) ‘priest’ in “bush” Pidgin.3. c. The coda cluster /st/ in the etymon is reduced by deleting /t/. this shows that the constraint *CODA/C+t/d is ranked higher than MAX-IO and R-ANCHOR. Link Komik n. b. Reflexes of fricative + coronal stop clusters This is another type of cluster whose reflexes in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English are extremely poorly attested in my corpus: (67) /st/ a. DEP-IO. c. Beimers 1995. him) ‘to shoot’ d. robu (< E rope) ‘rope’ /b/ sikarapu (< E scrub) ‘bush’ /m/ a. wokaboti (< E walk. about) ‘to walk’ /d/ loti (< E road) ‘road’ /s/ bisinisi (< E business) ‘business’ /z/ bisinisi (< E business) ‘business’ /ʃ/ finisitaemu (< E finish. tale (< E tell) ‘to say. raeholo (E < rifle) ‘rifle’ c. waetemane. koafu (< E go up) ‘to climb’ d. isitapu (< E stop) ‘to stay’ c. bata (< E but) ‘but’ b. antafu (< E on top) ‘up there’ b. solodia (< E soldier) ‘policeman’ d.(< E white man) ‘white’ d. talemu (< E tell) ‘to tell’ /v/ muvu (< E move) ‘to move’ /t/ a.sit *CODA/C+t/d *! DEP-IO *! *! CONTIG MAX-IO R-ANCHOR * * * *! * * 4. oraete (< E alright) ‘alright’ c. time) ‘worker whose indenture has elapsed’ b. sukulu (< E school) ‘school’ e. The treatment of simple codas The way in which etyma with simple codas are adjusted in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English is relatively amply documented in my corpus: (71) (72) (73) (74) (75) (76) (77) (78) (79) (80) (81) (82) (83) /p/ a. olo (< E all) ‘all’ b.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 29 (70) /ʤʌst/ dast das dat das. finisitaemu (< E finish. time) ‘worker whose indenture has elapsed’ /ʧ/ siosi (< E church) ‘church’ /ʤ/ kabisi (< E cabbage) ‘leafy greens’ /l/ a. to tell’ /r/ . kamu (< E come) ‘to come’ c. sut-imu (< E shoot.ti da. In all forms with a paragogic vowel. Diapane (< E Japan) ‘Japanese’ c. Since reflexes of word-final codas are much better represented. 18 . wanekaeni (< E one kind) ‘indefinite article’ e. MAX-IO. with the constraint COPY also outranking DEP-IO and R-ANCHOR: (88) NOCODA. k. as illustrated by the forms waetemane. the examples listed in (71)–(87) show that there is considerable variation in the quality of the paragogic vowel. In addition. NOCODA and MAX-IO dominate DEP-IO and R-ANCHOR. r/. Note that this appears to be true including of word-internal codas in the etyma. the input but: (89) /bʌt/ bat ba 17 NOCODA *! MAX-IO *! COPY DEP-IO R-ANCHOR * With partial reduplication. gobeke (< E go back) ‘to return’ b. Otherwise. d.g. fricatives /v. n. R-ANCHOR Consider the evaluation for e. A frequently occurring case is that of vowel copying. affricates /ʧ.1. finisitaemu. AVRAM 30 got bagere (< E got. in what follows I will focus on paragoge. the expected reflexes would be either [anda] and [wanekaendi] or [anda] and [wanekaendi] respectively. These simple codas do not surface in the early Solomon Islands Pidgin English reflexes. g/. tarake (< E truck) ‘truck’ e. ana (< E and) ‘and’ b. ŋ/18 and liquids /l. the simple codas in the etyma include oral stops /p.ANDREI A. as shown in 3. nasal stops /m. b. bilongo (< E belong) ‘of’ c. waetemane (< E white man) ‘white’ /k/ a. z. t. seke (< E check) ‘to check’ d. bugger) ‘forget about it’ /n/ a. laeka (< E like) ‘like’ c. Paragoge in the forms ana (< E and) and wanekaeni (< E one kind) suggest the absence of /d/ in the input. This suggests that in reflexes of simple codas the constraint NOCODA ranks high. solodia. A vowel is added to permit syllabification. bisinisi. ʤ/. longo (< E along) ‘in’ (84) (85) (86) (87) As can be seen. wanekaeni. wawaka17 (< E work) ‘to work’ /g/ bikibiki (< E pig) ‘pig’ /ŋ/ a. banga (< E bang) ‘to bang’ b. taone (< E town) ‘town’ d. COPY >> DEP-IO. s. ʃ/. In all such forms. .bi NOCODA *! MAX-IO CLAB-VLAB DEP-IO R-ANCHOR *! * * * * * *! Note that muvu may reflect either the effect of COPY or of CLAB-VLAB since both constraints would ensure the selection of [u] as the paragogic vowel: Finally. Conclusions The evidence presented in sections 2 through 4 points to a strong tendency towards a CV syllable structure in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English. This is not surprising given the influence of the substrate languages19 19 For an outline of the phonology of the substrate languages see Lynch (1998). R-ANCHOR This ranking is illustrated in the evaluation below: (93) /rəʊd/ lot lo lo.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS ba. MAX-IO. CLAB-VLAB >> DEP-IO. (2002). Lynch et al.bu ro. The relevant hierarchy of constraints is: (92) NOCODA. and not surprisingly. the relevant constraint CLAB-VLAB is ranked higher than DEP-IO and RIGHT-ANCHOR: (90) NOCODA.ti NOCODA *! MAX-IO DEP-IO R-ANCHOR * * * * 5. [i] and [e] are the default paragogic vowels as well. R-ANCHOR The following tableau illustrates the interplay of these constraints: (91) /rəʊp/ rob ro ro. MAX-IO >> DEP-IO.ta ba.ti * * *! 31 * * Another attested case is that of labial attraction in which a [LABIAL] consonant in the etymon triggers the selection of [u] as the paragogic vowel. /t/ and /d/. The strategies at issue are mostly epenthesis or paragoge employing the default vowels [i] or [e]. with a paragogic vowel after [k]. with seke (< E check) ‘to check’. as shown in sections 2 through 4. Murphy (1966)21. 1993 and 1998) and by Tryon and Charpentier (2004). birek (< E break) ‘to break’. Tryon and Charpentier (2004). For instance.g. I have shown in section 2. Identical illicit onsets or codas are occasionally subject to different adjustment strategies in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English. The strategies employed by early 20 See also Avram (2007b. This article has also analyzed the various strategies used by early Solomon Islands Pidgin English for the restructuring of illicit syllables in the etyma. AVRAM 32 (Jourdan and Keesing 1997. reflexes of simple codas normally display a paragogic vowel. whereas with those speakers who realize them as prenasalized stops. 2008 and 2009). (2003). It has also been shown that vowel harmony20 plays no part in determining the quality of the epenthetic or of the paragogic vowel. simple codas occasionally appear in reflexes of simple codas. This variability has been reported for the earlier stages of other Englishlexifier pidgins and creoles as well (Avram 2005).e. Consonant deletion appears to be more restricted. Mühlhäusler et al. identical illicit onsets or codas are occasionally subject to different adjustment strategies in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English. [m] and [n] may occur in word-internal codas. the /st/ cluster in coda position in the etyma is simplified by deleting the /t/. It therefore presents the Tok Pisin of the 1940s. as discussed in 3. However. Jourdan 2003. as seen in 3.ANDREI A. Actually. Third. published in 1943. Similarly. the simple coda may surface as such. with speakers who have /b/. [nt] and [nd] respectively. Jourdan and Selbach 2008. nasal codas are excluded even word-internally. where [k] appears in coda position. Further evidence in support of the analysis of syllable restructuring in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English comes from early records of Tok Pisin – analyzed by Hall (1943). Simple codas are not excluded altogether. the clusters /nt/ and /nd/ are reduced either by means of paragoge or through deletion of the oral stop. Clearly. This also accords rather well with the variability typical of early pidgins. etyma ending in an identical consonant may have reflexes with or without a paragogic vowel: compare e.1 that /s/ + oral stop clusters are normally simplified by means of epenthesis.1. As shown in 4. This is the second edition of the book. Jourdan 2008. but occasionally via deletion of /s/ or via both vowel prothesis and epenthesis. i. [s] is attested in the reflexes of stop + fricative/affricate coda clusters. as [mb]. First. and of Bislama – analyzed by Crowley (1990. epenthesis or paragoge with labial attraction. Lee 2008.1. abundantly documented in the literature. As seen in 3. epenthesis or paragoge with vowel copying. Avram 2011). 21 .2. reproducing the first one. Second. Avram 2005: 151). Avram. 1-15. For instance. Epenthesis. edu/roa.rutgers. On the Syllable Structure of English Pidgins and Creoles. To conclude. Even the rare case of violation of the so-called “minimal epenthesis” – via a combination of both vowel prothesis and vowel epenthesis – in reflexes of /s/-initial onset clusters is attested in early records of other (unspecified) varieties of Melanesian English: Schuchardt (1883/1980: 22) lists forms in which both a prothetic vowel and an epenthetic one break up /s/ + oral stop onset clusters. For a detailed account see Tryon and Charpentier (2004). “On the phonological interpretation of early written records of English pidgins and creoles”. Similar strategies are also attested in early records of other (unspecified) varieties of Melanesian Pidgin English. Note that in these cases the intrusive vowels are either [i] or [e]. Thus. (2000). Also. as shown by Mühlhäusler (1997: 134). as in the early Solomon Islands Pidgin English forms discussed in 2. Avram. This is not surprising given the historical-linguistic circumstances in which the three varieties emerged22. in both early Tok Pisin (Avram 2005: 150) and early Bislama (Avram 2005: 153) the labial intrusive vowel [o] is selected due to labial attraction. (2005). Andrei A. /s/ is occasionally deleted in these clusters.2. Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. 22 For a summary see Holm (1989: 526-529). while early Bislama has [i] and [e] (Avram 2005: 90. early Tok Pisin and early Bislama also have two default intrusive vowels. In the former [i] and [ə] function as default intrusive vowels (Hall 1943: 16. . http://ruccs. Birgit and Ingo Plag (1999).1 and 2.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 33 Solomon Islands Pidgin English for the resolution of illegitimate onsets or codas present many similarities with those attested in these closely related varieties of Melanesian Pidgin English. The similarities extend to the different vowels selected for epenthesis or paragoge. deletion and the emergence of the optimal syllable structure in creole. Bucharest.html. 117. this analysis of syllable restructuring in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English will hopefully contribute to a more comprehensive picture of the syllable structure typical of earlier stages of Pacific Englishlexifier pidgins and creoles as well as of the repair strategies used by these varieties for creating well-formed syllables. in Lancaster University Working Papers of the Centre for Language in Social Life. Rutgers Optimality Archive 335. REFERENCES Alber. Both varieties also resort to vowel copying (Avram 2005: 90. Finally. epenthetic vowels breaking up onset clusters are found in forms recorded by Churchill (1911). Andrei A. pp. 153 and 198-199). 153 and 198-200). Jourdan. “The epenthetic and paragogic vowels of Pijin: Internal development or substrate influence?”. in P. Pijin. (1943). “On the alleged occurrence of vowel harmony in Solomon Islands Pidgin English”. Kortmann (eds. pp. Avram. Solomon Islands Pijin: Morphology and syntax’. (2007b). Terry (1998). 219-230. 3. 87-98. Wrocław. LIV. in Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti. Dana Ober (2008). LVI.ca. Lancaster University. Histoire sociale et description du pidgin des Îles Salomon. 3rd edition. The Melanesian Content in Tok Pisin. Christine (2002).). Robert A.pidgin. (2008). pp. vol. langue de tout le monde: le Pijin à Honiara”. Andrei A. Beach-la-Mar to Bislama. Crowley. pp. John (1989). Melanesian Pidgin English. Gerry (2006). “Recovering pidgin genesis: Approaches and problems”. The Australian National University. in B. Andrei A. “The Bislama lexicon before the First World War: Written attestations”. Ernie Lee. AVRAM Avram. 7-23. in K. Beimers. 207-226. 1. pp. in Papers in Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. Andrei A. Avram. The Emergence of a National Language in Vanuatu. 8. Peter Mühlhäusler. Vocabulary. Holm. New York. Jourdan. Rialland (eds. Balzer. Wei fo Raetem Olketa Wod long Pijin. Vowel harmony in Pijin?. L’Harmattan. Varieties of English. Christine (2008). IX. pp. Pijin phonology. www. pp. George N. 3. Beach-la-mar. pp. Honiara. 101-145. P. in World Englishes.htm. Crowley. Terry (1990). Pidgin Phrasebook. Reference Survey. in Études Créoles.34 ANDREI A. Valdman (ed.net/lexicon/lexindex. 467-487. Pijin dictionary. Churchill. Parlons Pijin. Grammar. Jourdan. Andrei A. CNRS Éditions. Solomon Islands Christian Association. Christine (1989). Clarendon Press. Lonely Planet Publications. 277-294. in Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Mouton de Gruyter. 2.pijinplus. 5. Jourdan. Philologica Wratislaviensia. “Lieu d’articulation des consonnes et des voyelles: une théorie unifiée”. Cambridge University Press. The Jargon or Trade Speech of the Western Pacific. pp. (1993). Avram. “Syllable restructuring in early Solomon Islands Pidgin English”. 61-106. 1. Canberra. 3-4. “Nativization and Anglicization of Solomon Islands Pijin”. pp. Chruszczewski. Jourdan. in Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics. Canberra. 25-37. Denise Angelo. Clements. Paul Monaghan. “Père Pionnier and late nineteenth-century Bislama”. Languages in Contact 2010. Christine (1988). Laks and A. Andrei A. Trevor. Washington. pp. Avram. The Pacific and Australasia. Terry (1993). http://www. Rick (1990). XI. 365-382. (2007a). Paris. pp. vol. Ams Press. Wydawnictwo Wyższej Szkoły we Wrocławiu. Crowley. talk given at the Research Group in Phonology. Ian F. Gerry (1995). Hawthorn. Jourdan. Bloomington & London. A Trilingual Cultural Dictionary [Pijin·Inglis·Franis] [Pijin· English·French] [Pijin·Anglais·Français]. Texts. Christine (2003). Wąsik (editori). in Revue roumaine de linguistique. Indiana University Press.) Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. Cambridge. “The epenthetic and paragogic vowels of Pijin”. Hall. 128-147. Goulden. Burridge. Acta et Studia 4.) Architecture des représentations phonologiques. Limbi şi literaturi străine. B. in A. The Carnegie Institution. (2011). William (1911). Beimers. Berlin · New York. (2009). 14 February 2008. Lancaster. Paris. 7. “Langue de personne. Oxford. The Australian National University. . II. Pidgins and Ceoles. Hancok. (1977). Christine (2007). Z. “The expansion of Melanesian Pidgin: Further early evidence from the Solomons”. in Language in Society. University of Westminster Press. Traugott and B. Rickford. Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. Keesing. An Introduction. “Tracing predicate markers in Pacific Pidgin English”. “Solomons Pidgin pronouns: A further look”. B. Brisbane. in Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. 159-163. Lynch. pp. pp. 97-121. Lynch. Smith & Paterson. 1. in E. Selected Essays by Hugo Schuchardt. Mühlhäusler. in English World-Wide. Miller. Dutton. Peace Corps. Cambridge. Focus on Theoretical and Methodological Issues. 164-187. in G. University of Hawaii Press. Honolulu. pp. Heine (eds.) Pidgin and Creole Languages. (1988). Link Komik (n. (1986). Optimality Theory. Thomas E. Laura (1989). “Substrates.) Approaches to Grammaticalization. (1991b). in English World-Wide. 2nd edition. Tok Pisin Texts. Growth and Development. (1966). 26. Jourdan. Darrell T. vol. Hugo (1883/1980). Richmond. 14-23. John Benjamins. expanded and revised edition. Roger M. and Jean-Michel Charpentier (2004). 53-96. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia. 1.) Varieties of English. René (1999). John. Tryon. Pacific Languages.d. W. Honiara: Murphy. in K. Amsterdam/Philadelphia. Origins. Keesing. in Balzer et al. Kager. Peter (1987). “Solomon Islands Pijin”. Peter. Berlin · New York. 401-420. 6. pp. Christine and Rachel Selbach (2008). 9. Malcolm Ross and Terry Crowley (2002). The Oceanic Languages. . Mühlhäusler.) Honiara. pp. pp. “Short note”. Burridge. 3. Cambridge University Press. Mouton de Gruyter. From the Beginning to the Present. 315–-42. John J. London. Roger M. 8. Pacific Pidgins and Creoles. in Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Berlin · New York. Christine and Roger Keesing (1997) “From Fisin to Pijin: Creolization in process in the Solomon Islands”. John (1998). John Benjamins. The Pacific and Australasia. R. Ernie (2008). Gilbert (ed. “Solomon Islands Pijin: Phonetics and phonology”. John R. Kortmann (eds. I. Mouton de Gruyter. The Book of Pidgin English. 2. Schuchardt. Mühlhäusler. 215-229. 2. Lee.. Keesing. Peace Corps Solomon Islands Pijin – English Dictionary. 1. vol. C. Cambridge. (1991a). G.SYLLABLE RESTRUCTURING IN EARLY SOLOMON ISLANDS PIDGIN ENGLISH: AN OPTIMALITY-THEORETIC ANALYSIS 35 Jourdan. Cambridge University Press. Suzanne Romaine (2003). pp. Roger M. 271-292. Curzon. “Melanesian English”. Peter (1997). 3. calquing and grammaticalization in Melanesian Pidgin”. 36 ANDREI A. AVRAM . Introduction The paper is divided into three main sections. nor the one(s) arguing for PRO as the empty embedded subject are on the right track. starting from clear empirical evidence as well as the results of a questionnaire. starting from previous analyses which argue that verbs of (object) control (‘ask’. the characteristics of (OC) PRO and previous analyses of object control in Romanian (a much less discussed topic as compared to subject control). ‘convince’. Section 2 introduces Control Theory and its main tenets – as discussed initially for English infinitival complements: the Obligatory Control (OC) vs. . as follows. infinitive complement. control shift and (very frequently) split control. Such evidence goes hand in hand with similar findings regarding subject implicative verbs (the ‘try’ and ‘manage’ class) and corroborates the more general claim that Romanian is a ‘subjunctive language’ and as such does not exhibit syntactic control. optional control. A brief section 4 summarizes the main findings and draws the conclusions. object control verb. 1. ‘order’. Keywords: obligatory control. Section 3 elaborates on the idea that what have been dubbed “obligatory object control verbs” do not impose OC in Romanian and hence we cannot speak of syntactic control in the subjunctive complements selected by these verbs. NonObligatory Control (NOC) dichotomy. subjunctive complement.and ca-subjunctives).AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS MARIA AURELIA COTFAS* Abstract The paper sets out to discuss instances of object control in Romanian subjunctive complements (both să. The complements of the object control verbs above will be shown to freely display NonObligatory Control behavior: they allow disjoint embedded subjects (overt or null – and thus retrieved by the distinct phi-specification on embedded inflection). but also the results of a questionnaire. maura_cotfas@yahoo. ‘encourage’. overt disjoint embedded subject. * University of Bucharest. ‘urge’. We aim to show. ‘oblige’) impose obligatory control readings on the (necessarily) null embedded subject. Department of English. null subject. Supporting evidence for this is provided not only from naturally-occurring examples.com. that neither the controlled pro analysis. e. (1) I forced themi [PROi to leave]. (3) a. according to which PRO can also bear case). requiring that sentences (in English) have (overt) subjects. in (1) below). Importantly. but merely to satisfy the EPP. for cases when the EC itself functions as an antecedent of anaphors.1.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 38 2. Besides the R-index. if it moves from Spec. given its specification as both [+anaphor] and [+pronominal] – on account of the fact that sometimes it behaves like an anaphor (3a) and other times like a pronoun (when it receives arbitrary interpretation) (3b). Briefly on Control Theory 2. Consequently. however. the internal properties of an empty category (EC) – and thus of PRO as well – represent a subset of the set of properties that characterize lexical DPs. Unlike other empty categories (NP-trace. PRO must be licensed. wh-trace). an R-index should be among the obligatory properties of PRO for reasons of semantic coherence and wellformedness. the case of PRO is somewhat more complicated. John was asked [how PROi to behave oneselfi in public] Theyi didn’t know [how PROi to prepare themselvesi for the event]. PROarb to forgive divine. Johni wants [PROi to learn from his mistakes]. However. PRO discharges the theta role of the embedded predicate (i. PRO therefore differs from DPs in point of phonological content and case. as in (2): (2) a. which are actually connected – since case cannot be assigned to null categories (but see refinements in more recent literature. Thus. b. phi-features must also be specified.e.VP to the specifier position of the clause it does so not for case reasons. OC and the properties of (OC) PRO in English infinitival complements As an empty category (the subject of infinitive complements in English). Thus. . pro. i. This points out it should obey both Principle A and B. PROarb To err is human. its postulation must be derived from some general principle of grammar: The Theta Criterion (which states that the subject role in any verb’s theta grid should always be discharged to some syntactic position) and the Extended Projection Principle (EPP). it is not case-assigned in virtue of the very fact that it is null (it has no phonetic content). the Agent role of ‘leave’. b. Thus. the controller which at PF surfaces in the matrix clause has moved from the lower infinitival clause where it was originally projected. he maintains that the distribution of PRO can be explained without recourse to the notion of government. represent complications of the theory of PRO in GB. a special type of case that only non-finite inflection can assign and which only PRO is compatible with. too needs case so as to be visible and interpretable at LF. assigned by non-finite inflection. it does not have a(ny) governing category (the PRO Theorem). b. The authors propose that PRO. its specification as both [+anaphor] and [+pronominal] and the fact that besides its lack of case it has to bear a distinct theta role from that of its antecedent. which bear structural nominative assigned by finite inflection. More plainly. such that obligatory control was treated on a par with anaphoric binding and optional control instances were likened to pronominal reference relations. among others. but theta-marked PRO found a solution in Chomsky and Lasnik’s (1993) proposal that PRO should bear a special type of case.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 39 The fact that GB PRO is both bound and free in its governing category leads to a contradiction. PRO will bear null case.e. The ungoverned position of PRO. on a par with lexical DPs. However. null case. solved by the claim that PRO is ungoverned. stopping to the next theta-position of the main clause and finally to the case position of the matrix. His answer to the above problems is to provide an alternative to the classical theory of control. In GB Control Theory and the interpretation of PRO were approached using the basic claims and concepts of Binding Theory (BT). which were later tackled in various ways. proposing to analyse it as a case of DP movement. i. control was seen as an extension of BT. hence be visible for theta-marking at LF. advocating a modification in the GB chain theory. In other words. Romarioi tried [PROi to score the winning goal] *Romario tried [Bebeto to score the winning goal] (Cornilescu 2003: 227) Hornstein (1999. In his view. tackles the problematic different interpretation of PRO in OC and NOC and draws attention to the theory-internal flavour of null case. unlike the latter. 2001) takes issue with some of the earlier accounts on the interpretation and distribution of PRO. whereas NOC PRO was analyzed as a pronoun free to pick up a (non-)local antecedent or otherwise bear arbitrary reference. PRO in OC instances was analyzed as an anaphor which needed to be bound in its domain governing category (the main clause). According to this . The GB problems of ungoverned and caseless. The fact that PRO is incompatible with any other type of case explains why it is disallowed in regular case-marked position as well as its complementary distribution with lexical DPs: (4) a. versus (6b. b. By this token. bearing (at least) two theta positions. c) as instances of NOC on the basis of the (im)possibility of a for-complement: .MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 40 assumption. Landau (1999) is the first account which analyzes control as mediated by the (temporal) specification of the C head of control complements – a view that we have also adopted in our account of the Romanian data. Landau (1999) points out the shortcomings of the movement analysis of control (see above) and is the first account to finds another – more reliable – factor able to tease apart OC from NOC. (ii) Greed is enlightened self-interest. it is simply the residue of movement” (Hornstein 2001: 37). showing that OC readings are directly linked to the lack of tense specification of the complement. When a DP ‘receives’ a theta role. i. (iii) a DP gets theta role by checking a theta feature of a predicate phrase it merges with.) presents a different analysis of control in English (and crosslinguistically). Assuming a movement theory of control. He seemed [ t to be crying]. the only difference between control and raising that still holds is the number of theta roles each construction has: two in control (5a). (iv) a chain can have more than one theta role. Landau departs from the classical view that interprets (6a) below (Landau’s (5)) as OC. (see Cotfas (2012) on subject control in Romanian) Starting from the “common observation that not all infinitival complements are alike as far as control is concerned” (Landau 1999: 13). For the rest. Hornstein (2001: 38) purports. the null hypothesis that underlies his study is to assume that “OC PRO is identical to NP-trace. He tried [ t to come]. brings about “a radical simplification of the grammar of Control and a derivation of the basic properties of OC structures”. The key ingredient is the tense specification of the complement. Finally. assuming as it does that control forms one chain (similar to raising constructions). The radical innovation is the one in (d). As such.e. t Agent): (5) a. the same DP actually bears two theta-roles (the one of the complement verb and the one of the verb in the matrix). but only one in raising (5b). At the same time. a pre-requisite if we are to assume that OC is the result of movement. it means it has checked the relevant features of the predicate. encoded in its C head. Landau (1999 and subseq. the chain in (5a) contains two theta roles of the type (DP Agent. Theta roles are therefore treated as morphological features. as well as to operate a distinction within the OC class itself into Exhaustive and Partial Control. Thus. they are the same since both are the result of a moved constituent. one that departs from the view that control is an extension of binding theory.This. The basic assumptions of his theoretical framework are the following: (i) theta roles are features on verbs and can trigger movement. there must be some test to verify this assumption. dare. b. differentiated in terms of both the type of identity relation obtaining between PRO and its controller as well as the temporal properties of the infinitival complement. (7) (8) a. continue. believe). The chairi preferred [PROi+ to gather at 6]. . b. PC obtains (since PRO need merely contain the antecedent. a. To account for this irregularity within the OC class. c. only EC still abides by the classical view that the relation between PRO and its controller must be one of strict identity. The conclusion Landau draws is that the examples in (6 b. In other words. (ii) modal (need. (v) factive (regret. pointing out that there are many instances (particularly in English. * Mary knew that Johni began [PROi to work together on the project]. (vi) prepositional (claim. be able. If – as stated above – EC requires strict identity between PRO and the controller and PC requires that PRO merely contain the controller. b. The intuition is that the former are more flexible than the latter while sharing nonetheless most of the characteristics of obligatory control. start). PC introduces a new (empirical) problem in the discussion of Control Theory. prefer). (vii) interrogative (ask. Contrary to the classical view. (iv) desiderative (want.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS (6) a. This is the (im)possibility to control the PRO subject of a collective predicate. such as impossibility of Long Distance control or strict reading under ellipsis (see below). maintain. the matrix verb that bans it must belong to the EC category. the classification is (claimed to be) universal. c) display OC properties. etc.). on the other hand. hate). in a subset-superset relation. (6b.). wonder). etc. whenever a collective predicate is allowed in the infinitive complement. Although languages differ as to what sort of verbs are included in each class and even though some of the verbs may also take finite clauses (or gerundial non-finites. he proposes the distinction between Exhaustive Control (EC) and Partial Control (PC). c) belong to the OC category as well. *The chair managed [PROi+ to gather at 6]. The author breaks the domain of infinitival complements into seven classes according to the semantic characteristics of the matrix verb. not be identical with it). John wondered how to win the game. have to. being however different from the OC construction in (6a). the language Landau (1999) focuses on) where the controller is merely (referentially) included in the set that PRO denotes. The question is which of these verbs count as EC verbs and which fall under the PC class. Maryi thought that Johnj didn’t know [where PROi+j to go together]. (iii) implicative (manage. 41 John tried (*for Mary) to win the game. in English). These predicates are: (i) aspectual (begin. John wanted (for Mary) to win the game. when such a predicate is disallowed in the complement clause. Of the two. EC predicates are untensed. c) are verbs of obligatory subject control because they force their subjects to control the empty subject of the infinitival complements that they select. force is a ‘verb of obligatory direct object control’ in that it is its direct object that controls the empty PRO subject of its infinitival complement. absence of tense in the complement clause. c. suggesting the presence of distinct tense operators. Consider (10) below: (10) a. Promise and try in (10b. A word on OC vs. This is actually “the crucial factor distinguishing the two classes” (1999: 70). I forced them [PRO to leave] /*I forced [PRO to leave] I promised him [PRO not to perjure myself] I tried [PRO to give up smoking] (Cornilescu 2003: 247) In (10a) above. cf. which alongside the infinitive complement must be a co-argument of the matrix predicate. The former designates constructions that become illicit in the absence of an overt controller. He then tests all the seven classes of verbs that take infinitival complements. The author acknowledges the existence of conflicting temporal modifiers between the matrix and the infinitive clause. John had to solve the problem tomorrow. Which argument of the main verb is designated as the controller is partly a lexical property of the former. *Yesterday. Verbs of obligatory control always select PRO-TO complements and disallow FOR-TO infinitive clauses as complements . and this distinction correlates with the properties of PRO in the two types of (infinitival) complements: while in PC configurations PRO is a group name (that is. Thus.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 42 Generalizing to a higher level. John began to solve the problem tomorrow. strict agreement in phi-features) 2. control configurations were divided in two types: obligatory and non-obligatory (i. EC constructions impose a relation of strict identity between PRO and its antecedent (i. *Yesterday. NOC In GB. (9): (9) a.e.2. optional) control. Landau observes that besides the distinction between EC and PC in terms of the semantic type of the matrix predicate. b. it is semantically plural) and it need merely include the reference of the (singular) antecedent.e. concluding that modal and aspectual verbs take untensed subordinates. b. as opposed to PC predicates. the two are also syntactically distinct function of the presence vs. arbitrary readings of PRO are perfectly acceptable. b.] b.and Tom persuaded mej [PROj to pick up…. which is instead co-indexed and controlled by a more remote DP available in the structure. which are ambiguous as to the interpretation of the gap. the reconstructed constituents tend to be paired with overt NPs in different ways. [PROarb to forgive] divine. [PROarb to err] is human. PRO cannot be interpreted as having arbitrary generic reference in such syntactic contexts (i. in NOC the infinitive need not be controlled by a clause-mate DP.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 43 In OC configurations the controller DP and the infinitive clause which contains PRO are always co-arguments of the same matrix verb.and Bob persuaded Tomi [PROi to pick up….e. not with OC. b.] (Cornilescu 2003: 250) . a. Consider (15) below: (15) Bob persuaded me to pick up the sandwiches and Tom the liquor. (Cornilescu 2003: 249) (ii) Arbitrary Control is only possible with NOC. This can either be absent altogether (cases of arbitrary control – (11)) or may be in a clause higher than the one containing the infinitive (long-distance control – (12)): (11) (12) a. in LD cases the controller of PRO and the infinitival dependent need not be clause-mates. not with OC. b. (14) a. not with OC. [PROarb to vote for Vadim] would be a tremendous mistake. Since OC requires a local overt controller. but it is not the controller of PRO. Maryi knew that it would damage Johnj [PROi/j to perjure himselfj/herselfi] There is significant empirical evidence distinguishing the two constructions: (i) Long distance control is only possible with NOC. the controller can be hierarchically lower than PRO (cf. Strict vs. …. be interpreted as ‘one’). neither is there the need for c-command. i. as we have seen above. sloppy readings are visible in contexts with gapped material. As already stated. Actually.e. (17b)): (13) a. *John tried [PROarb to be quiet] *Mark remembered [PROarb not to smoke in the classroom] (ii) Strict Reading of PRO is only possible with NOC. Johni said that Maryj thought that [PROi to shave himselfi] would bother Suek [PROi storming out of the room like that] convinced everyone that Johni is immature. Conversely. In NOC. It usually describes the situation when a local antecedent is available in the structure. Thus. …. (17b). there is clear empirical evidence so as to support the classical control dichotomy into obligatory and non-obligatory control structures. according to which I/me is the one who picks up the liquor illustrates the strict reading (identity established with the remote antecedent). while the interpretation in b). see Landau (1999). identity of PRO with a remote antecedent).e. Control Shift (semantic effects. Only Billi expects that it will make a strong impression on Maryj [PROi to read the play]. 1 We do not insist on such matters here. a more comprehensive picture of NOC contexts is offered: besides the known cases of Long-Distance Control (controller and infinitive are not clause-mates) and Arbitrary Control (there is no argumental controller for PROarb).e. i. For details. Landau (1999) shows that PRO in NOC is a logophor. However. in the sense that PRO is always an anaphor. syntactically identified in OC situations. a semantic anaphor (whereas PRO in OC is a syntactic anaphor) and that the distribution of NOC PRO is different from that of regular pronouns depending on the semantic prominence of the antecedent DP1. and Billj did too (OC. Johni tried to leave early. b. the key differentiating element being the necessity or otherwise lack thereof of the controller and the infinitive complement to be arguments of the same matrix predicate. which. Also. As far as the OC/NOC opposition is concerned. because it closely resembles PC.e. since they are not relevant to the present discussion. can license a (semantically) plural (i. other instances are discussed: Split Control (two matrix arguments jointly control a (syntactically) plural PRO). illustrates the sloppy identity (identity established with the closest possible antecedent). together with the infinitive complement are co-arguments of the matrix PC predicate and which.e. . Split Control is an instance of NOC whereby two overt controllers which occupy distinct syntactic positions in the matrix jointly control into the infinitival dependent. in which Tom is the one who picks up the liquor. that is sloppy reading. when singular. Therefore. collective PRO) (17a). either the Agent or the Goal can be the controller of PRO) Split Control is an interesting case. (16) a. As for more recent developments.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 44 The interpretation in (15a). semantically in NOC. Implicit Control (controller is not syntactically expressed). i. only the latter allows for strict readings (i. the two should be teased apart: whereas PC describes a situation where only one controller is overt. The author maintains a unitary nature of PRO. whereas the former requires strict identity between the controller and PRO. Needless to say that these DPs need not be clause-mates with the infinitive (17c) and that in such cases a syntactically plural PRO is entailed. Billj tried [PROj/*i to leave early]). only sloppy identity possible. there are two routes that authors take with respect to the nature of the (null) embedded subject of their subjunctive complements.3. Maryi thought [that Johnj said [that [PROi+j helping each other is vital]]]. complements introduced by the specific subjunctive complementizer – whenever embedded material is dislocated to the left periphery of the complement clause). the (im)possibility of a subject control verb to take a ca-subjunctive has been taken as evidence for the presence or absence of OC.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 45 such that syntactically plural anaphors are licensed in these contexts (see the italicised anaphor in (17c)): (17) a. This is also the case of English: a look at the seven classes of verbs taken by Landau (1999) as the “domain” of control are all subject control verbs. Since object control verbs of the type mentioned above freely select casubjunctives. a ordona ‘order’. OC in Romanian (and Balkan) subjunctives selected by object control verbs Let it be noted that most of the studies dealing with control data in the Balkan languages (Romanian included) have mostly focused on subject control – i. such that Controlled-subjunctives (in Landau’s terminology) disallow the complementizer whereas Free-subjunctives freely accept it2.e. Johni told Maryj [hei didn’t know [which club PROi+j to join together](PC) Johni agreed with Billj [PROi+j to kiss Mary]. By the same token. etc. their being more than TPs clearly discredits the availability of a raising account of such constructions – such as has been proposed. we refer the reader to Landau (2004) and Landau (2013). a convinge ‘convince’. This may be due to the fact that – at least for Romanian – the subjunctive complements of object control verbs like a ruga ‘ask’. c. their status as CP projections is straightforward. This is either taken to be a (controlled) pro or a PRO (a case of “finite control”). As far as the control abilities of such verbs are concerned. for example. we refer the reader to Cotfas (2012). b. for subject control verbs by Alboiu (2007). Actually. in claiming that object control verbs in Romanian select CP subjunctive 2 For a detailed description of the typology of “finite control” as discussed by Landau (with a focus on subject control). 2. Alboiu (2006) takes the first option.e. on verbs whose semantics imposes the subject argument as the controller of the empty embedded subject. . so that they should be analyzed as phasal domains (with saturated T and available nominative position). can easily select ca-subjunctives (i. unlike (some) subject control verbs. For a detailed discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of adopting the bi-partite classification of controlled subjunctives in Romanian (again with a focus on subject control). 3sg to school with the. consequently. Pro) is Landau’s: the author chooses to notate the empty embedded subject as neither PRO.acc have. (4c). Lihim.’ .1sg convinced pe Matei să leave-3sg he first-the ‘I convinced Matei to leave (himself) the first (himself).’ (iii) proi Ik -am ordonat servitoareik [să şteargă eak masa. or a discourse referent. nu valetulm.’ (ii) proi Lk -am convins pe Mateik [să plece elk primulk. that their empty subjects must be PROs.1sg Pro prt recite. (ii) and (iii) support similar claims (see the subscripts): (i) Mamai a obligat -ok pe Anak [să mănânce prok toată supa] mother-the have. filled by a am rugat pe Ioni ca mâine să plimbe proi/eli câinele.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 46 complements with an available Nominative controlled/anaphoric pronominal/pro (18)3: (18) position.am îndemnat ca de mîine Pro1/*2 să meargă la şcoală cu bicicleta. nor pro.1sg ordered maid-dat să wipe-3sg she table-the not butler-the ‘I ordered the maid the maid to wipe the table herself. him-I. namely the fact that the object control verbs in question induce OC. The embedded subject must be null. (3b). him asked. not the butler. in Landau 2004: 827) I1 kërkova Pro1/*2 të recitojë një poezi. these are 3 The examples under (i).] pro her-dat have./that hei should walk…. in Landau 2004: 827) The notation used in the examples above (i.’ (Alboiu 2006: 35-36) Landau (2004: 826-827) analyzes verbs such as ‘urge’ and ‘ask’ on a par with other subject control verbs like ‘try’ and ‘manage’ and claims that these predicates select Controlled-subjunctives – and. Regardless of the notation adopted.1sg asked pe Ion that tomorrow sbj walk-3sg pro/he dog-the ‘I asked Ioni PROi to walk the dog tomorrow. but as a combination of the two before actually proceeding to demonstrate that the examples undoubtedly display OC properties and hence that the null subject of the embedded subjunctives must be a formative of the PRO type.have urged that from tomorrow Pro prt go.3sg obliged her-acc pe Ana să eat-3sg pro all soup ‘Mother obliged Ana to eat up the soup. control by a distant antecedent. In Landau’s own words: “these constructions display all the typical properties of obligatory control.’ (Albanian: Dobrovie-Sorin 2001. lexical subjects excluded in this position. Furthermore. it must be coreferential with a c-commanding matrix antecedent.e. the indices clearly show what the authors claim. Thus.3sg a poem ‘I asked him to recite a poem. He quotes Comorovsky (1985) as well as Dobrovie Sorin (2001) to support his claims: (19) (20) L1.] pro him-acc have.bike ‘I urged him to ride his bike to school from tomorrow on (Romanian: Comorovsky 1985. is impossible. Pro only permits a sloppy reading under ellipsis […] and supports a de se but not a de re interpretation – just like PRO does. While these were tenable arguments for pro (and against PRO) in GB. while we bring clear evidence that the empty subject of the subjunctive complements selected by object control verbs does not exhibit the typical characteristics of PRO. we also depart from an analysis that argues for a controlled pro. a încuraja ‘encourage/urge’. with the peculiar property that the controlled subject occurs in a subjunctive clause.e. More precisely.e. while distancing ourselves from both of the previous trends. this empty subject seems to bear its own case. evidence will be given that the embedded nominative position is available not only to lexical DP subjects but also to disjoint null subjects retrieved as such by the different phi-specification on the subjunctive verb. a convinge ‘convince’. we will discuss data which supports an analysis of the empty subject of verbs of object control as (free/referential) pro. we will show that these object control verbs are not obligatory control verbs. contra Landau (2004) and the authors quoted therein. In the next section. but not PRO. As is the case with subject implicatives (verbs in the class of ‘try’ and ‘manage’).AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 47 definitely OC constructions. we argue against OC altogether in such constructions in Romanian and show that they actually display NOC properties. That is. That is. these are less controversial or problematic in that their complements have been analyzed as non-anaphoric CP projections. i. which do away with the notion of government (see above) and claim that PRO can bear standard case as well. the advantages of the (controlled) pro analysis come (traditionally) from government and case: [+Agr] governs the null empty pro. Compared to subject implicatives. Object Control in Romanian revisited 3. Alboiu 2006: 35-36) Our aim here is to show that the CP status of the complements of these verbs allows for more than just a controlled nominative embedded position.1. the distinction becomes less clear according to more recent theories. rather than an infinitive or gerund. alongside a obliga ‘oblige’. visible on secondary predicates present in the complement. i. split control is an option that these dependents . a ordona ‘order’ (directive). which is classified as ‘implicative’. The data In this section we are going to consider the complements of some verbs analysed in the literature as object control predicates. 3. just as with subject implicative predicates. hence phases (cf. Moreover. The verbs taken into account are a ruga/a cere ‘ask/beg’. as triggering control of the embedded subject position by the direct or indirect matrix object. that this nominative position can also be occupied by elements other than bound/co-referent pronominals or a controlled version of pro.” (Landau 2004: 827) For Balkan languages. Also. This. Kemenici left the unit and ordered me that nobody should enter the office until he came back’. as well as the bolded notations in the glosses.3sg happened ‘The boy’s mother begged the teachers that his father not be told about what happened.3sg ordered to Oprea that planes-the să fly-3pl like cum merg tancurile in Irak how go-3pl tanks-the in Irak ‘Boc ordered Oprea that planes (should) fly the same way as tanks roll in Irak. Semantically.’ părăsit unitatea şi miia Colonelul Kemenicik a colonel-the Kemenici have. we have bolded and italicized the selecting verbs.’ In all the four examples above the complement features an overt disjoint lexical subject. In the examples below. In (21c). this is the negative pronoun nimeni ‘nobody’. b. c. but my colleagues encouraged me that there should be a Romanian. only happens as long as the embedded subject is null. the control reading mostly occurs with agentive controllers who are interpreted as directly responsible for securing the truth of the complement proposition. d.3sg ordonat ca nimenim să nu intre în birou înainte de a se întoarce el ordered that no one să not enter-3sg in office before comp come back he ‘Col. his what have.3sg asked of professors să not find out-3sg fatherlui ce s-a întâmplat. so as to allow – but not impose – a control interpretation. all taken from various literary and non-literary sources found online. However. Bock ii a ordonat lui Opreai ca avioanelem să zboare aşa Boc him-dat-3sg have.3sg abandoned unit-the and me-dat has. Likewise.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 48 allow quite frequently. a null embedded subject is not locally bound by default. of course. [Ai plecat la All Star Game cu gândul de-a participa la competiţia de Slam Dunk?] [‘Did you go to All Star Game intent on taking part in the Slam Dunk competition?’] La început nu.3pl încurajat să be-3sg and one românm la concurs Romanian at contest ‘Not at first. further strengthening our claim that an obligatory control analysis is not on the right track. (hence the impossibility for it to be a PRO). dar colegiik miau încurajat să fie şi un at beginning not but colleagues me-Acc have. licensed by embedded (local) negation.’ Mamak băiatului s. too in the competition. Please note the subscripts included. disjointedness can be signaled by the presence of a floating quantifier whose features retrieve a lower subject different from the matrix . given the evidence below.a rugat de profesorii să nu afle tatalm-the mother-the boy-gen have. which emphasize the different markings on the matrix object and the embedded (null) subject: (21) a. as attested by the following example. such that the reference of the null embedded subject (syntactically marked for . concert ‘Maria convinced her parents that she should go (alone/too) to the concert.3sg convinced pe parents să go-3sg (alone-fem/and she) at concert. These predicates show that it is not the direct object that controls into the complement.’ a ordonat să nu se execute foc prom generalulk Milea miigeneral Milea me-dat have.3sg ordered să not se execute-3sg fire asupra demonstranţilor onto demonstrators ‘Gen.’ Another important piece of evidence is that with a convinge ‘convince’ for example.3sg has. too’ or singură ‘alone-fem’) – given the homonymy of 3rd person singular and plural subjunctive forms in Romanian – the example could mean that ‘Mary convinced her parents to go’. Milea ordered me that no gun shots should be fired onto the demonstrators.S.’ [mi-am despărţit de elj pentru că au aflat parinţiik mei] şi mi[I broke up with him because my parents found out] and me-acc. them-dat have. Colonelulk ii a ordonat (locotenentuluii) să participe colonel-the him-dat.’ Finally.S. c.S.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 49 object (22a) or merely by the phi-features of the subjunctive. In (22c & d) the embedded verb appears in a passive-reflexive construction which identifies a null disjoint subject: (22) a.3pl obliged să us. ordered them that fire should not be opened on the premises….3sg ordered să not se open-3sg fire in interiorul clădirii interior-the building-gen ‘D.S. Were it not for the secondary predicates in italics in the complement (şi ea ‘she.S.S.3sg să participate-3pl toţim în raidul de a doua zi. but the more distant subject: (23) Mariai ik a convins pe părinţik să se ducă (singurăi /şi eai) la Maria them. d.1sg au obligat prok să nei+j despărţim proi+j have. Contol Shift is definitely a possibility. b.’ D.acc have. all in raid of second day ‘The colonel ordered the lieutenant that they should all take part in the next day raid.3sg ordered lieutenant-dat.’ not ‘Maria convinced her parents to go to the concert.refl break up-1pl ‘I broke up with him because my parents found out and obliged me that we should break up. the following set of examples illustrates the extent to which these verbs allow split control (see above for a brief account of this type of NOC).k leia ordonat să nu se deschidă focul prom în D. ] reception a-gen truck from at Timişoara ‘General Nuţă asked me that we organize together the reception of a truck from Timişoara.1sg convinced să make-1pl baby ‘I convinced him that we should have a baby. d.’ li am obligat prok [să mergem prok+i împreună acolo] him-acc-3sg have.’ mai bine ar fi să îii convingi prok [să traversaţi prok+i Bulgaria better would be să them-3pl convince să cross-2pl Bulgaria noaptea] night ‘It would be better if yousg convince them that youpl should cross Bulgaria at night. In (24e). when available. which.3sg asked să organize-1pl together primirea unui camion de la Timişoara. as shown by the plural phi-features on the subjunctive verb) includes that of both the matrix subject and (direct or indirect) object.’ Spre seară. abia iiam convins prok [să nu plecam prok+i hardly them-acc-3pl have. c. my host convinced me that we should pay a visit to one of the neighbours.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 50 plural. The next examples illustrate split control with a cere ‘ask/beg’ (25a) and a obliga ‘oblige’ (25 b-e) in the matrix: (25) a. for example.’ Vârciuk a convins -oi [să facă sex prok+i în zece Vârciu have. e. lack of the PP cu X ‘with X’ can be taken as a (syntactically) plural predicate. [G]eneralul Nuţăk mii a cerut [să organizăm prok+i împreună general Nuţă me-dat-1sg have.1sg obliged să go-1pl together there ‘I obliged him that we go there together.1sg convinced să not leave-1pl în ziua când avem cazare in day-the when have-1pl accommodation ‘I had a hard time convincing them we should not leave on the very day of our check-in. b. b. with italicized collective predicates. the embedded VP is a face sex ‘have sex’.3sg found out that be-1sg pregnant me-acc-1sg a obligat prok [să ne căsătorim prok+i] . c.’ când a aflat prok [că -s însărcinatăi proi] [mi when have. (24) a. gazdak mea mi a convins [să mergem towards evening host my me-acc-1sg have.3sg convinced să go-1pl prok+i la un vecin] at a neighbour ‘Around dusk.3sg convinced her-acc-3sg să make sex-3pl in ten minute!] minutes ‘Vârciu convinced her in ten minutes that they should have sex!’ Examples (24a-e) have a convinge ‘convince’ in the matrix.’ li am convins prok [să facem prok+i bebe] him-acc-3sg have. being thus better analyzed as NOC predicates. în şi măi and me-acc-1sg oblige-3sg să get out-1pl on field in întâmpinarea lor] welcoming-the theirs ‘and he obliges/obliged me that we go out into the fields to welcome them. since it goes against most claims in the literature on both Romanian and the Balkan languages more generally.3pl encouraged să it-dat make-1pl and un videoclip acestui nou single a video this-dat new single ‘It was again the fans who encouraged me that we should also have a video done for this new single.’ A încuraja ‘encourage’ and a ordona ‘order’ are no different in this respect (see (26) below): (26) a.’ a ordonat prok să aşteptămi+m noi ordine de la elk Miime-dat-1sg have. să facă curat proi him-acc-3sg have. that we speak on the phone.1sg encouraged să cook-3sg să make-3sg clean cu mine. să vorbim prok+i la telefon with me să talk-1pl at phone ‘I encouraged him that he should cook. e. b. . 51 have. l iam încurajat prok să gătească proi. c.’ la începutul lui 2007 am încurajat prok un grup de tinerii at beginning-the of 2007 have.refl get married-1pl ‘When he found out that I was pregnant. tidy up the house with me.’ obligă prok [să ieşim prok+i pe câmp.1sg encouraged a group of youngsters să facem prok+i o echipă de jurnalişti creştini să make-1pl a team of journalists christian ‘At the beginning of 2007 I have encouraged a group of youngesters that we should set up a team of Christian journalists.’ Tot faniik miau încurajat să -i facem proi+m şi still fans-the me-acc-1sg have.’ Eak măi obligă să nu mă lenevesc şi să mergem prok+i she me-acc-1sg obliges-3sg să not me-acc get lazy-1sg and să go-1pl dimineaţa şi seara la plimbare morning-the and evening-the at walk ‘She obliges me not to laze about and that we should go for walks in the mornings and evenings. This is an important conclusion.’ In conclusion. the object control verbs considered – directive/exercitive verbs of command/order as well as the (more) implicative ‘oblige’ – have been shown not to trigger obligatory control effects.3sg obliged să us. see Dobrovie-Sorin (1994) and Kapetangiani (2010). d. he obliged me that we get married.3sg ordered să wait-1pl new orders from him ‘He ordered me that we should await new orders from him.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS d. Given the evidence above. the two sentences featuring the same type of matrix verb were not given one 4 Thus. Nom. a încuraja ‘encourage’. whereas the other a ca-complement (i.1. should yield somewhat different results from its exercitive object control ‘sisters’. a convinge ‘convince’. had embedded material displaced to the complement’s LP – sometimes the disjoint subject DP itself.2.e.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 52 3. In the present paper. Therefore. Further evidence: a questionnaire 3. Nonetheless. să-subjunctives are no different from ca-subjunctives as far as their CP status is concerned. complements without lexicalization of ca) can also be phasal (i. etc).2.e. a reuşi ‘manage’.e. case position. Method The aim of our questionnaire was to test whether disjoint lexical subjects are accepted by speakers in the complements of subject implicatives and object control verbs. we will focus on the data and results for verbs of object control. temporally independent. of which we mainly focused on the five subject implicatives and the five object control predicates just mentioned. a căuta (să) ‘try/endeavour’. our expectation was that this should be easily accepted. . given its semantics (implicative). a izbuti ‘succeed/manage’. Notice that under our approach. we take the subjunctive complements in the control environments under analysis as CP projections (either CFins with covert ca or CforcePs)4. să-subjunctives are CFinP projections. all the sentences involving these matrix verbs featured subjunctive complements with overt disjoint DP subjects. Also. i. Next to these – which were our target –. Moreover. a ordona ‘order’ and the implicative a obliga ‘oblige/coerce’). As previously stated. two more matrix verbs were included as ‘distractors’: the modal a putea ‘can’ and the implicative/psych verb a-şi aminti ‘remember’. The sentences featured five implicative verbs of ‘subject control’ (a încerca ‘try’. whereas ca-subjunctives would be CForceP projections. as far as object control verbs are concerned. a number of 12 verbs were tested. we expected that a obliga ‘oblige’. CFinPs (i. other times adverbial expressions). The fact that our questionnaire actually contains 24 sentences instead of 12 is easily accounted for: each of the 12 verbs tested appeared twice.e. a risca ‘risk’) and five verbs of ‘object control’ (four directive: a ruga/cere ‘ask/beg’. This is in accord with more recent accounts in Landau (2012). for each of them there were two distinct sentences on whose correctness respondents had to make judgements. As stated above. The two sentences with the same selecting predicate differed in that one was a să-complement. who distinguishes between “desiderative” object control verbs and implicative control verbs and associates them with different syntactic behaviour (see the Discussion) Our questionnaire consists of 24 sentences whose grammaticality speakers were asked to decide on. More precisely. Naturally. we provide the percentages for the “No” answers as well. whereas a score of 1 stood for ‘ungrammatical/incorrect/unacceptable’. The respondents were 40 people of various ages – roughly between 22 to 60 – and professional backgrounds (students. Its aim is to show how felicitous such disjoint subjects are in such contexts as far as our informants are concerned. involving predicates like a ordona ‘order’ and a convinge ‘convince’. which has not been the case. for a better homogeneity of the test. our questionnaire contains 24 sentences featuring (twice) all the 12 above-mentioned predicates as matrix verbs selecting either să.or casubjunctives with overt disjoint subjects. the bulk of respondents equally accepted as correct (or less than correct/incorrect. as are the relevant disjoint phi-features in the corresponding glosses: 5 Namley. for that matter) sentences with disjoint embedded subjects within both să. colleagues.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 53 after the other. Importantly. so different matrix subjects/objects as well as different embedded DPs and predicates were used each time. but were jumbled with the others. if one chooses to treat să-subjunctives as different from ca-subjunctives in that the latter would allow disjointedness readings more readily than the former. Below are a few samples of the sentences in our questionnaire. depending on the scores received. They were also given the opportunity to make any observations they saw fit in a special rubric provided after each sentence in part. they were asked to provide grammaticality scores from 1 to 5 for each sentence. most of the “No” answers revolve around a score of 3 or 4. Our expectation was that the presence or absence of ca should not in principle influence the interpretation of the given sentence5 – an expectation borne out by the results. mainly people activating in various fields). next to choosing “Yes” or “No”. we would expect to have different interpretations for the same matrix verb with the two types of complement. the choice of a “Yes” triggered a score of 5. In the discussion of the results below. To sum up. they did not dismiss it as altogether ungrammatical. this was an expectation we put to the test. we tried to make them as different in content as possible.and ca-subjunctives. Another prediction was that the bulk of respondents should allow for the possibility of disjoint subjects in the complements of these verbs. as we shall see. such that a score of 5 meant ‘perfectly grammatical/correct’. Most significantly. whereas a “No” answer could be associated with a score on a 1-4 scale. Next to keeping them apart. That is. The disjoint embedded DP subjects appear in boldface. which shows that even though the respondents did not consider a certain example perfectly acceptable. . They were asked to pass grammaticality judgements on the 24 statements by choosing either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ as an answer to the requirement “State whether you find the following examples grammatical/interpretable or not”. Results Below we present the results of our questionnaire for the five “object control” verbs.dat have. etc. Let us then look at the results for the five object control verbs we have chosen to test.’ Ia ordonat secretarei să nu intre nimeni în her. we also provide the percentages relative to the 1 to 4 scores. whereas the “No” ones give the numbers corresponding to those answers which disallowed this option – to various degrees.gen să survoleze zona.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 54 (27) a.dat-3sgi să not enter-3sgj nobody in birou până nu se termină şedinţa.e.) is performed by an Agent (the matrix subject) onto a(n animate) Patient/Theme (the matrix object). c. to see to what extent the judgement of ungrammaticality translates into “totally unacceptable” (i.3sg ordered secretary.e.’ Cu greu am reuşit să îl convingem pe Mihai with difficulty have. This might be due to their semantics.2.1pl managed-1pl să him. who should as such be the logical subject (agent) of the event denoted by the embedded subjunctive.1pl convins pe colonel-3sg să leave-3pl and soldaţii în permisie peste weekend soldiers-the in leave over weekend ‘We finally convinced the colonel that the soldiers. They are thus less permissive with . scores ranging between 3 and 4).e. With some of these verbs the results are lower than the ones observed for subject control implicatives of the ‘try’ and ‘manage’ type.2.acc convince-1pl pe Mihai-3sgi ca masa festivă să aibă loc la Marriott that dinner festive să have-3sgj place at Marriott. ‘We had a hard time trying to convince Mihai that the farewell dinner should take place at Marriott’s’ Într-un sfârşit lam convins pe colonel să plece şi in one end him. i. The “Yes” columns provide the percentages corresponding to those answers which confirmed the possibility of control suspension. office till not finish meeting-the ‘He ordered the secretary that no one was to enter the office before the meeting was over.acc have.dat have. to the fact that most of them are directive/exercitive verbs (as well as the “force” type implicative) that signal that a certain action (asking/ordering/convincing/encouraging. d.3sg ordered-3sg to Oprea-3sg that planes-the army. din două în două ore să fly over-3pl area-the from two in two hours ‘Boc ordered Oprea that the army’s planes should fly over the area every two hours. As far as the total number of “No” answers for each of these verbs is concerned. a score of 1) or else “marginally acceptable” or even ‘quite acceptable’ (i. b.a ordonat lui Oprea ca avioanele armatei Boc him.’ 2. too should have a weekend leave. Boc i. As seen in Table 2.7%) Score 3 2 (22.75%) Table 1: Grammaticality judgements for a ruga ‘ask/beg’ Score 4 4 (57%) Score 3 3 (43%) Score 2 0 Score 1 0 Table 2: Percentages of ungrammaticality scores for a ruga ‘ask’ Next. a ordona ‘order’. Nonetheless. with slightly decreasing scores: YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 57 (71.25%) 7 (8. contexts with this matrix predicate received a lot of grammaticality judgements (almost 89%). and scores of 3 and 4 for the remaining ungrammaticality ones: YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 71 (88.2%) Score 2 0 Score 1 0 Table 4: Percentages of ungrammaticality scores for a ordona ‘order/command’ The results for a convinge ‘convince’ are given below.75%) 9 (11. the 7 choices of ‘no’ (out of a total of 80) have been given scores of either 4 (4 answers) or 3 (3 answers). Like in the case of the previous one.25%) 23 (28. first the grammatical vs. Tables 1 and 2 below give the results for a ruga ‘ask/(beg)’. especially if this is signaled by an overt disjoint DP in situ (see more in the Discussion below).AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 55 respect to the possibility of allowing disjointedness in their complement clauses.25%) Table 3: Grammaticality judgements for a ordona ‘order/command’ Score 4 7 (77. the majority of ungrammaticality judgements for object control verbs ranges around a score of 3 or 4. the ungrammatical answers and then the percentages corresponding to the scores of ungrammaticality. YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 73 (91. in Tables 3 and 4 we illustrate the results for another “object control” verb.75%) Table 5: Grammaticality judgements for a convinge ‘convince’ . 21%) Score 3 7 (30.5%) Table 7: Grammaticality judgements for a încuraja ‘encourage’ Score 4 15 (50.5%) Score 3 16 (40%) Score 2 5 (12%) Score 1 0 Table 10: Percentages of ungrammaticality scores for a obliga ‘oblige’: To sum up the data regarding these “object control” predicates on the whole.25%) Table 9: Grammaticality judgements for a obliga ‘oblige’ Score 4 19 (47.5%) Table 11: Grammaticality judgements for object control predicates (a ruga ‘ask’. YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 290 (72. Table 11. the bulk of these scores still revolve around 3 or 4. YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 50 (62. whereas the remaining 110 disallowed this possibility – while not dismissing it as downright ungrammatical (see the percentages for the “no” choice). the next two sets of charts (7 & 8 for a încuraja ‘encourage’ and 9.43%) Score 2 0 Score 1 1 (4.5%) 110 (27.MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 56 Score 4 15 (65. in spite of the fact that the number of ungrammaticality judgements is higher. let us have a look at the last table. However.5) 30 (37. 10 for a obliga ‘oblige/make’) show that with these last two verbs respondents have been more reserved in allowing control suspension. a încuraja ‘encourage/urge’. a obliga ‘oblige’) . a convinge ‘convince’. a ordona ‘order/command’. which gives the general percentage across all the five verbs considered. Out of a total of 400 answers.5%) Table 6: Percentages of ungrammaticality scores for a convinge ‘convince’ Finally. 290 confirmed the possibility of control suspension.21%) Score 3 12 (40%) Score 2 3 (10%) Score 1 0 Table 8: Percentages of ungrammaticality scores for a încuraja ‘encourage’ YES (score: 5) NO (score 1-4) 39 (48.75) 41 (51. casubjunctives. concentrating on key issues. a point where s/he hasn’t yet “bumped into” the lexical disjoint subject. necessarily hosted by ca would make it sound even better. Most likely. it is actually the first embedded element available for interpretation. It is interesting to notice that there were no significant differences in the interpretation of these sentences depending on the introductory element (să vs.e. speakers who accepted the possibility of control suspension in the subjunctive complements of the ten verbs under analysis did so regardless of whether these dependents were să. once the parser sees the complementizer. generally speaking. when some respondents mentioned in the observation rubric corresponding to a să-subjunctive (with a disjont subject in situ) that – though the sentence may sound interpretable and correct as it was – a word order according to which the (disjoint) subject appears leftmost. In such cases therefore. proving that the majority of speakers (72.3. followed by the embedded subjunctive. the presence of a disjoint subject might be perceived as disruptive. Discussion The most important fact to be emphasized is that the percentages above confirm our initial expectations. this might be taken as a (more) reliable cue that the complement domain is truly self-standing.2. the parser first sees the matrix subject. At this point. this has to do with parsing reasons: while reading through the sentence from the matrix down. the verb and the (in)direct object. i. the presence of an overt ca alongside the topicalized embedded subject immediately following it allows the parser to understand that somebody else is performing the embedded action even before knowing what that action actually is. (ii) the position and type of embedded subject. Conversely. Let us analyze the results in more detail. That is. What is more.or casubjunctives. ca). Thus. however. . when the embedded DP subject appears topicalized. Similar observations apply to those cases where the respondent dismissed such a possibility: the choice of “no” was roughly consistent across the two types of complements.5% for “object control” verbs) allow disjoint subjects in their complements. There were cases. as well as the empirical data illustrated in the previous sub-section.AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 57 3. and (iii) type of matrix verb. – particularly if the phi-features of the subjunctive happen to match those of the matrix tense – the parser has most probably already identified the matrix object as the agent of the action denoted by the subjunctive. followed either by the left-dislocated disjoint subject itself or by topicalized embedded material. să-subjunctives vs. since it forces one to overwrite an already formed (or at least preferred) interpretation. Thus a ruga ‘ask’ seems to be the less restrictive of them. the type of subject used and its position within the complement also seems to have influenced speaker’s judgements. It must then be their sematics that can account for this difference. Actually. Thus. such that EC verbs need an explicit controller (because EC control is syntactic predication6). in decreasing order. 6 The condition on syntactic predication is that the argument predicated of must be syntactically represented.e. i. and these are quite permissive in allowing split control. Had we included such types of complement clauses among the sentences in our questionnaire. as discussed. Hence. as documented in Landau (2012). Discussing the duality of (Obligatory) Control (i. whereas PC complements are intensional (only they can introduce possible worlds with diverging temporal coordinates) are hence tensed ([+T]). generally. Structures with null (disjoint) subjects (retrieved via subjunctive inflection) do not seem to pose problems. it fails with an implicit controller” (Landau 2012: 14). Let us remember that all the 24 examples featured overt disjoint subjects in the complement. The next three. the author argues that EC complements are semantically extentional and untensed ([−T]). null) and its position in the clause (post. depending on both the type of subject (overt vs. some of the lower percentages in the tables above might find an explanation if we focus on this particular criterion. In spite of the difference in results. He further correlates this distinction with the (in)visibility of implicit arguments as controllers. certain configurations are preferred to others. therefore in the absence of overt disjoint subjects. 25%). “because EC control is syntactic predication. Actually.or pre-verbal – with lexicalization of ca in the latter case). are: a convinge ‘convince’ (71. Obviously. some more agentive than others. That is. a quick look at the empirical data presented above will show that there are more examples with a null pro embedded subject than with overt ones. As for object control verbs.58 MARIA AURELIA COTFAS Bearing in mind the above observations concerning the availability of ca and să. As for those with overt subjects. a încuraja ‘encourage’ (62. It is closely followed by a ordona ‘order/command’. it is precisely this unavailability of implicit . by exposing respondents to the least “user-friendly” scenario. whereas PC verbs allow implicit controllers.e. allowing for control suspension in over 90% of the cases. mainly the EC/PC cut – in English and “infinitive” languages or (to a much lesser extent) the OC/NOC one in “subjunctive” languages). these verbs share clear NOC properties (see above).5%) and finally a obliga ‘oblige’ (48.75%). Disjointedness can also be signaled by mere mismatch in phi-features across the two verbs. we have chosen to test the possibility of control suspension “the hard way”. a similar gradability obtains. the results might have been “stronger” in some cases.75%. there seems to be a preference for the post-verbal/topicalized position of the subject (with overt ca) – most likely for parsing reasons. with 88. AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 59 We do not expand on these here, mainly for space reasons and because further investigation in required. The relevance of this analysis to the discussion at hand about our object control predicates is the following: discussing object control crosslinguistically7, Landau (2012) points out a cut within this class into what he calls a) desiderative object control verbs (persuade/ask) and b) implicative object control verbs (force-type predicates). Importantly, the difference lies, again, in their ability to omit the object controller, such that a) desideratives (order, command, entrust) freely allow object drop whereas b) implicatives (compel, force, influence) resist it. Before we (briefly) look at the behaviour of our verbs with respect to object drop, let us notice that the proposed cut nicely reflects the gradability of our five object control predicates above. From the proposed framework, we understand that desiderative object control verbs pattern with/are PC verbs, whereas implicative object control verbs pattern with EC ones. Hence, verbs like ask or order/command are less restrictive on their complements than verbs like force/compel or influence. This is exactly what our results reflect: a ruga/a cere ‘ask’ and a ordona ‘order/command’ (alongside a convinge ‘convince/persuade’, whith slightly lower scores), as irrealis desiderative object control verbs not entailing their complements, have shown themselves quite permissive as far as control suspension is concerned, unlike a încuraja ‘encourage’ (to be likened, perhaps, to Landau’s “influence”) and a obliga ‘oblige’ (= ‘force/compel’), which, as implicative object control verbs have revealed themselves more restrictive with respect to this possibility. Of course, since all the five verbs display NOC behaviour in Romanian, we are not arguing here that they evince different “control” constructions – as they may well do in “control” languages such as English (alongside Polish, Hebrew, a.s.o.). Interestingly, this cut seems to be coherent with respect to the (im)possibility of object drop. Bearing in mind the above gradability from most/ more to least/less permissive (a ruga ‘ask’ > a ordona ‘order/command’ > a convinge ‘persuade’ > a încuraja ‘encourage/urge’ > a obliga ‘oblige/force/ compel’), the examples below confirm that while object drop is acceptable with the first two, it is definitely less so with the other ones. Given that the data as well as the results have confirmed the possibility of control suspension in these complements, we represent the embedded subject (when empty) as ei/k: (28) a. Am rugat ei [să îmi aducă ei/k o carte] / [să nu mai stea have.1sg asked să me.dat bring-3sg/pl a book / să not more stay-3sg lumeak aici] control with EC verbs which defines the EC/PC dichotomy. For more details, see forthcoming work of the author on this issue. 7 The examples are from Hebrew and Polish, languages that offer fertile testing ground for object drop because they “do not abhor object drop as mush as English” (Landau 2012: 11) MARIA AURELIA COTFAS 60 b. c. d. e. folk here ‘I have asked [that s/he/they should bring me a book]/[that people should not cram the stairs] Am ordonat ei [să nu (se) mai tragă (ei/k)] have.1sg ordered să not more shoot-3sg/pl ‘I have ordered [that s/he/they should cease fire] ei/k] ??Am convins ei [să nu mai vină have.1sg convinced să not more come-3sg/pl *‘I have convinced [that s/he/they should not come anymore] ??/*Au încurajat ei/k [să plece lumeak mai devreme] have.3pl encouraged să leave-3sg folk more early *‘They have encouraged [that everybody should leave earlier] *Am obligat [să plece cu toţii (abia mâine)] have.1sg obliged să leave-3pl with all (barely tomorrow) *‘I have obliged [that they should all leave only tomorrow] To conclude, while both “desiderative/irrealis object control verbs” like ‘ask’ or ‘order’ and ‘implicative object control verbs’ like ‘oblige/compel’ (if we adopt Landau’s (2012) terminology) allow control suspension in Romanian, they seem to do so to different degrees. The stronger restrictiveness of the latter is a side effect of their (more restrictive) semantics and it nicely correlates with the exhaustive type of control relation that such predicates impose on their dependents in “control” languages. This further supports the view that control is ultimately a semantic phenomenon in Romanian, depending on “favouring conditions” and, most importantly, on the semantics of the selecting predicate. 4. Conclusions In our paper, we have brought conclusive evidence against the claim that Romanian exhibits obligatory control with object control verbs – or with any type of control verb, for that matter. The conclusions we reach in this paper are valid for control predicates throughout – that is, for subject implicative verbs as well. Consequently, Romanian is not a “control language” – and it would seem that this is valid for other languages of the Balkan Sprachbund as well, Greek in particular. Evidence in favour of control obviation, as well as for semantic tense (the possibility of disjoint (future-oriented/irrealis) temporal adverbials in the complements of both subject implicatives and object control verbs has prompted us to depart from the classical binary classification of (Balkan) subjunctives in control environments and argue for a tripartite one in Independent, Restricted and Anaphoric subjunctives, with the afore-mentioned predicates selecting the second type of subjunctive complements. As such, the data discussed above in section 3 have been crucial not only in order to prove previous theories on object control wrong, but also – and more importantly, perhaps – in order to re-asses the previous binary classification of Balkan subjunctives in control configurations. AN OBJECTIVE LOOK AT OBJECT CONTROL INSTANCES IN ROMANIAN SUBJUNCTIVE COMPLEMENTS 61 REFERENCES Alboiu, Gabriela (2007), “Moving Forward with Romanian Backward Control and Raising”, in W. Davies and S. Dubinsky (eds.), New Horizons in the Analysis of Control and Raising, Springer, Dordrecht, pp.187-211. Alboiu, Gabriela (2006), “Are we in agreement?”, in C. Boeckx (ed.), Agreement Systems, John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, pp.13-39. Chomsky, Noam and Howard Lasnik (1993), “The theory of Principles and Parameters”, in J. Jacobs, A. von Stechow, W. Sternefeld, Theo Vennemann (eds.), Syntax: An International Handbook of Contemporary Research, De Gruyter,Berlin, pp. 506-569. Cornilescu, Alexandra. (2003), Complementation in English: A Minimalist Approach, Editura Universităţii din Bucharest. Cotfas, Maria Aurelia (2012), On the Syntax of the Romanian Subjunctive: Control and Obviation, PhD dissertation, University of Bucharest. Dobrovie Sorin, Carmen (2001), “Head to head Merge in Balkan subjunctives and locality”, in M. L. Rivero and A. Ralli (eds.), Comparative Studies of Balkan Languages, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 44-74. Kapetangiani, Konstantia (2010), The Minimalist Syntax of Control in Greek, PhD dissertation, University of Michigan. Hornstein, Norbert (1999), “Movement and Control”, Linguistic Inquiry, 30, pp. 69-96. Hornstein, Norbert (2001), Move! A Minimalist Theory of Construal, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford. Landau, Idan (1999), Elements of Control, PhD dissertation, MIT. Landau, Idan (2004), “The scale of finiteness and the calculus of control”, Natural Language and Linguistic Theory, 22, pp. 811 – 877 Landau, Idan (2012), Towards a dual theory of obligatory control, handout at Annual Conference of the English Department 14, June 2012, University of Bucharest. Landau, Idan (2013), Control in Generative Grammar: A Research Companion, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Spyropoulos, Vassilios (2007), “Finiteness and control in Greek”, in W. Davies and S. Dubinsky (eds.), New Horizons in the Analysis of Control and Raising, Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 159-183 . en échange. The comparison of this verb to its Hindi and Romanian heteronyms (karnā ‘to do’. Quand le terme « factitif » est . In Hindi. As a “support” verb it appears in verbo-nominal constructions. en tant que tel. il permet. as a “support” for a noun and as an auxiliary verb. but only the Romanian a face may be used in co-verbal structures. to these values. une première classification de ses emplois. d’exécution. as an auxiliary.com. Keywords: lexical and auxiliary verb. * Université de Bucarest. Le verbe faire dont la signification est celle d’accomplissement. agentive values. Introduction Nous proposons. non-anaphoric lexeme. pourront être considérés. but only karnā and a face function also as lexical or “submissive” anaphoras. 1 Les autres verbes d’action. pragmatic interpretation. Section de Langue Hindi. une analyse des divers emplois du verbe faire de même que de ses hétéronymes hindi (karnā et banānā) et roumain (a face). lexical and “submissive” anaphora. the different values are expressed by a basic verb (the eventive) or a derived one (for the factitive and the causative meaning). non-anaphoric use. Theban et Theban 2005: 58). en vue de son analyse. it is used in co-verbal structures imposing to the main verb a certain type of agentivity: causative (directive).
[email protected] VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN SABINA POPÂRLAN* THE PLURI-FUNCTIONAL FRENCH VERB FAIRE AND ITS EQUIVALENTS IN HINDI AND ROMANIAN Abstract The French verb faire ‘to do’ may function as a lexical verb. comme des factitifs implicites (cf. The agentive prototype may also be used as a “full”. we have added the quasi-perlocutionary role. Regarding their “full verb” status. factitive or eventive/ “instrumentative”. hyponymes de faire. lexical verb when it functions as an anaphora (lexical or “submissive”) or as an autonomous. représente le factitif explicite1 prototypique et. dans cette étude. Faculté des Langues et Littératures Étrangères. karnā/ banānā and a face can be used as nonanaphoric items. banānā ‘to make’) and a face has shown that in both languages the verbs function as a “support” for a noun. 1. où il sous-tend le segment antécédent. ou le support d’un autre verbe (à l’infinitif en français) dans des structures coverbales. Le second type structural. 2 Ce type agentif occupe une position centrale dans la sphère de la factitivité. une reprise semi-substitutive de l’expression causative gouvernante: < causation + factitivité → factitivité > (Popârlan 2010: 177). isoler son fonctionnement global en tant que verbe « plein » (i. au niveau lexical. Pour arriver aux emplois substitutif et semi-substitutif ou « soumissif » de faire. cas où il est simultanément Causateur (les situations d’auto-causation). « envoyé faire » ont un sens causatif. fondé sur faire co-verbal. < dire de faire … (et) faire>. ravānā karnā. en premier lieu. intéresse en premier lieu pour les structures d’agentivité initiale et médiane2. Comme verbe d’aide ou auxiliaire. important à distinguer surtout dans le cas des anaphores « soumissives ». vu que ces deux types de factitivité sous-tendent les segments de cette anaphore: < fairei fairem → fairem >. le Lieu median/ le Trajet et le Lieu final/ le Bénéficiaire). L’auteur décrit sept actants (l’Agent initial/ le Causateur. l’Agent final: la Force ou l’Instrument. de même que sa description des trois types d’agentivité (initiale ou causative. à un usage simple (non-marqué. L’emploi en tant que verbe « plein » de faire correspond.e. en premier lieu. dont les profils analysés dans ce chapitre nous ont aidée aussi dans l’analyse de l’anaphore méronymique « soumissive »3. l’Agent median/ l’Exécutant.64 SABINA POPÂRLAN On mentionnera ainsi qu’il peut fonctionner comme verbe « plein ». marquée. verbo-adjectivales. par exemple. L’anaphore « soumissive » peut être définie comme étant « l’expression de la réaction factuelle. À côté du verbe faire en tant que verbe « plein ». Nous nous sommes également arrêtée sur le premier type structural où faire est verbe « support » vu que. vu que la plupart des actions humaines sont des accomplissements d’une requête formulée par un Causateur distinct de l’Exécutant. Avant de passer à l’analyse proprement dite de ce verbe. Dans cette étude. certaines expressions verbonominales comme faire signe/ iśārā karnā en hindi ou. Nous précisons aussi que faire est . Une seconde signification de ce terme est celle d’agentif (au sens général). litt. 3 Nous avons dédié un chapitre à ce type anaphorique. nous avons d’abord distingué son emploi de verbe « support » dans des expressions verbo-nominales (apelées ainsi de manière générique) et co-verbales (quand il représente un auxiliaire). aussi bien qu’en tant que verbe « support ». d’obéissance. il peut être le « support » d’un nom. toujours en cette langue. nous avons suivi la théorie des actants (conçus en tant que rôles sémantaxiques ou de la sémantique propositionnellle) de Theban (1980. constituant avec ces parties du discours des expressions verbo-nominales. le Patient. à la requête formulée dans l’antécédent. dans notre thèse de doctorat portant sur l’anaphore verbale. en second lieu. non-substitutif) recouvrant diverses valeurs sémantiques du verbe opérationnel. que nous avons identifié à partir des theories étudiées et des exemples analysés. cet accomplissement représente. nous avons dû. ou bien des actions pratiques projetées ou initiées par l’Agent médian lui-même. et. ou d’un adjectif. médiane ou factitive et finale: éventive/ « instrumentative »). employé comme adjectif il pourra être remplacé aussi par « factuel ». le Lieu initial/ la Source. qui concerne les emplois mentionnés aussi bien que les structures non-anaphoriques. non co-verbal. non « support »). à la fonction anaphorique. nous pensons apporter une motivation pour la description ci-dessous. 2007). À part les structures trans-existentielles qu’on vient d’énumérer. cuisiner »). ghar banānā ou un énoncé. 2.1. les anaphores événementielles connaissent aussi le type 1 ou endo-temporel – les événementielles proprementdites (Popârlan 2010: 51). infra. Le troisième type est exprimé par les anaphores temporelles. ce factitif correspond aussi aux transitions équationnelles (obiectus affectus). citra banānā (« faire un dessin. Banānā peut fonctionner comme verbe plein qu’on emploie quand il s’agit d’un obiectus effectus. un fonctionnement quasi-perlocutoire de l’auxiliaire faire. le second. . dans des situations comme celles de construire une maison. le verbe faire représente l’ingrédient central et stable. finale. d’habitude il est non-anaphorique4. faire accroire. cf. en dernier lieu. aux actions des forces de la nature (comme le vent. mais il se réfère. exemple 9. en français et en roumain. Le premier (karnā) est le verbe « support » typique des structures nomino-verbales. de même que substitut segmental et « soumissif ». dont le sens spécifique est celui de « confectionner ». « attente faire » (« attendre »). complète l’aire sémantique du premier. comme celle de renverser un objet quelconque par manque d’attention. exemple 8: yadi Īśvar ne mujhe kurūp banāyā hotā « si Dieu m’avait fait laide » (toujours obiectus affectus). aussi le troisième type d’agentivité. il peut fonctionner comme verbe autonome et il apparaît souvent dans des structures nomino-verbales. etc. pour ce qui est des référents humains. nous précisons qu’en hindi. qui rend compte. Faire en tant que verbe « support » 2. Avant de commencer notre exposé. dessiner ») ou yojnā banānā (« faire un plan. la pluie. vākya bānānā. il représente plutôt un verbe « support » dans des expressions comme khānā banānā (« préparer un plat. infra. planifier »). Tandis qu’en roumain et en français. apparenté à l’agentivité initiale ou causative (fonction illocutoire). nāśtā karnā « petit-déjeuner faire » (« prendre le petit-déjeuner ») ou kām karnā. dans les structures co-verbales faire croire. 4 Le verbe karnā apparaît comme verbe « support » dans des structures nomino-verbales comme intazār karnā. cf. en premier lieu. Dans des expressions verbo-nominales Dans les expressions verbo-nominales. il y a deux factitifs explicites: karnā et banānā. selon nous.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 65 Le même tour co-verbal peut exprimer. infidèle ou résomptif) et les événementielles « soumissives » (en tant que marqueur spécifique d’accomplissement d’une requête formulée dans l’antécédent). à la différence des langues romanes où les verbes agentifs représentatifs sont faire et a face. Nous avons identifié. des actions involontaires de ceux-ci. « travail faire » (« travailler »). il peut être aussi le « support » d’un autre verbe dans la structure bi-verbale de l’habituel (participe perfectif invariable de V1 + karnā). le même sens représentatif pour deux des trois types de notre classification des anaphores verbales: les anapores lexicales ou segmentales (en tant que substitut fidèle.). Maĩ tumhẽ manuṣyõ ke machue banāū̃gā « Je vous ferai pêcheurs d’hommes » ou qualificatives. ou par un autre verbe autonome (factitif implicite). dérivées à partir du verbe karnā. toujours à valeur trans-qualificative. a vindeca sâmbăta? Ca să-l învinuiască. construit une autre expression cãgā banānā. Î ÉxÉM É É É xÉÔ É É ÉÉ ÉÉ. Dans des expressions co-verbales Faire peut être aussi le support d’un verbe. « ÉÉ Ì É ÉÉ É Må Ì É cÉÇ ÉÉ M Éå M Ð AÉ¥ÉÉ æ ? » Vahā̃ ek manuṣya thā. en hindi. 12. zicând: Cade-se. À l’expression verbo-nominale du français faire une guérison qu’on peut paraphraser. bien qu’on rencontre. de manière plus rare. DxÉÉ É ÉåwÉ É ÉÉ Éå Må Í É ÉÉå ÉÉåÇ Éå E É xÉå ÉÔ É. aussi des variantes monoverbales: kharīdārī karnā / kharīdnā.2. artefactuel. correspond en roumain le verbe curatif plein a vindeca. la structure typique en français pour faire coverbal est < faire + l’auxilié à l’infinitif >: faire écrire. verbe auxiliaire ou auxiliant. au féminin. a face traducerea unui text / a traduce un text. plus fréquent dans cette langue. sont les plus fréquentes: kisī pāṭh kā anuvād karnā (faire la traduction d’un texte). tandis qu’en hindi la variante bi-morphologique est adjectivo-verbale: cãgā5 karne (karnā étant à l’infinitif oblique. ils lui posèrent une question: « Est-il permis de faire une guérison le jour du sabat? » C’était pour l’accuser. qui signifie globalement « corriger. faire des achats / acheter. (1) Or se trouvait là un homme qui avait une main paralysée. 2. . accompagné du second verbe faire. kī. faire des achats / acheter. signifiant ici « de »). Şi L-au întrebat. par le factitif implicite guérir. Īsā par doṣ lagāne ke lie logõ ne un se pūchā. À cette structure correspond parfois en roumain le tour < faire + l’auxilié au 5 Le même adjectif. On l’appelera alors co-verbe. (Matthieu. améliorer ». En hindi les variantes nominoverbales. jiskā hāth sūkh gayā thā. oare. a face cumpărături/ a cumpăra. on rencontre le plus souvent la variante à verbe support. banānā. ce qui n’exclut pourtant pas les solutions monoverbales. Voilà quelques exemples qui illustrent les variantes analytiques et les solutions monoverbales en français et en roumain: faire la traduction d’un texte / traduire un texte. dans le contexte plus large: cãgā karne kī ājñā hai serait « existe-t-il la permission de faire ou rendre sain / guéri [le jour du sabat] ». Du point de vue syntaxique. dans ce contexte biblique. plus rares.SABINA POPÂRLAN 66 lexical peut être rendu par une expression analytique.10) É É M É ÉÑw É ÉÉ. forme marquée par le suffixe « -e » et reclamée par la postposition kā. dont le sens. « Kyā viśrām ke din cãgā karne kī ājñā hai?» Şi iată un om având mâna uscată. Au cas où le même syntagme faire écrire et a face să scrie correspondrait à la signification « dicter » et « a dicta ». son élève) d’accomplir l’action en question. comme celle de dicter un texte à quelqu’un.formé à l’aide du suffixe « -ā » qui introduit non plus le sens factitif initial ou causatif (cf. faire en tant que verbe auxiliaire peut être aussi le porteur d’un sens agentif final (< fairef >). dans ce qui suit. Nous allons inventorier et analyser trois types de faire coverbal: faire en tant qu’auxiliant agentif initial. suffixe spécifiquement causatif + la terminaison de l’infinitif -nā attachée à la nouvelle racine likhvā-: « enjoindre à qulqu’un d’écrire ». auxquels nous ajouterons le faire coverbal perlocutoire. comme précédemment. correspondant à l’agentivité médiane (< fairem >). ici transitive. (2) Maître à danser: Est-ce quelque chose de nouveau? . L’article de Theban et Theban (2005) nous a inspirée dans le choix de cette organisation conceptuelle. dans des structures comme faire (ac)croire quelque chose à quelqu’un. racine du verbe likhnā « écrire » + -vā. a face să cadă. À part les significations agentives initiale et médiane qu’on vient de mentionner. mais le sens factitif proprement dit ou central. likh-. likhā. l’agentivité initiale dans la théorie sémantaxique de Theban). intégrant. Tandis qu’en roumain on peut rencontrer la structure factitive ci-dessus. si on se réfère. l’auxiliant faire de l’expression faire composer impose à celle-ci une valeur agentive initiale correspondant à l’acte directif par lequel le Causateur (Ai/ C. Dans l’exemple ci-dessous.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 67 subjonctif >: a face să scrie. qui indique une action pratique (non-discursive) spécifique. likhvānā: likh-. par exemple à l’action du vent qui. correspondant à la signification directive. a pune să scrie. en hindi. comme c’est le cas pour une expression du type faire tomber. compte tenu du type d’agentivité ou factitivité que faire en tant que verbe agentif ou factitif explicite impose au syntagme dans lequel il apparaît. En hindi. mais aussi (et assez souvent) la structure bi-verbale < a pune + le subjonctif du verbe auxilié >. classifiées selon un critère fonctionnel sémantaxique. sous la forme déjà mentionnée < faire + l’auxilié au subjonctif >. le sens correspondant à faire écrire en tant que structure agentive initiale ou causative (< fairei >): « demander à quelqu’un d’écrire » est rendu par un lexème synthétique. on aurait en hindi le premier dérivé à partir de la racine. havā se peṛ ke kuch patte gir gae. dans ce cas. Les expressions coverbales seront. mais une séquence du type < à cause du / par le vent quelques feuilles de l’arbre tombèrent >. on n’aura pas une variante structurale analogue. le maître de musique) a exigé de l’Exécutant (Am/ E. fait tomber quelques feuilles d’un arbre. médian et final. soufflant. l’expression à faire coverbal du français est rendue. le même sens agentif initial ou causatif est rendu. le Bénéficiaire. (Don Quichotte. « achevé ». la composition mélodique désignée par les verbes composer et a face représente un événement trans-existentiel (obiectus effectus). (vol. « préparé j’ai demandé de faire ». 141) xÉæÇM Éå. assumée par l’Exécutant thématisé. (3) Je voudrais avoir assez d’haleine pour parler posément. 25) É× É-ÍvɤÉM : M ÉåD ÉD cÉÏÄ É æ ÉÉ? xÉÇ ÉÏ É-ÍvɤÉM : ÉÇ. l’Exécutant n’est explicite qu’en français. de la séquence preyasī . o arie de serenadă. litt.SABINA POPÂRLAN 68 Maître de musique: Oui. dans cet exemple. Éå Ï M ÉåO Ï ÉxÉ ÉÏ ÉåÇ Éå É æ . Vah yadi utnī der ke lie merā pĩḍ choṛ detī to maĩ tumhārī bhūl ko acchī tarah samajhā detā. p. et que la douleur dont je souffre à cette côte brisée se calmât un peu. ÉoÉ ÉM ÌM ÉÏ ÉÉ É E å Ç. Merī ek choṭī paslī mẽ bhayāyak dard ho rahā hai. jab tak ki śrīmān uṭhẽ (p. (pp. Dans celui-ci.śikṣak: Hā̃ . ÉÌ É ÉÉ ÉM Ac Ï É ÉÑ É ÉåÇ É Éå ÉÉ ÉÉå ÉæÇ ÉÑ É Ï oÉÉ ÉÉåÇ M É Ä ÉÉå É E É å ÉÉ. p. par un verbe causatif. Au niveau de la configuration actancielle. Don Quichotte. l’expression coverbale faire comprendre indique une action à venir. 98) Saĩko.ÉÏ É M Ð M ÉÄ É æ Î ÉxÉå ÉæÇ Éå É ÏÇ É Éæ ÉÉ M ÉÉ ÉÉ æ .gīt kī ek tarj hai jise maĩ ne yahī ̃ par taiyār karvāyā hai « c’est l’air d’une sérénade que j’ai fait faire ici ». 89) Profesorul de dans: Ceva nou? Profesorul de muzică: Da. vol. par la structure toujours coverbale am pus s-o facă dans laquelle l’auxiliaire a pune să est un support causatif de nouveau exclusivement verbal. É ÉÌ E É ÉÏ å Må Í É Éå É Ì ÉÇQ ÉåÄQ å ÉÏ ÉÉå ÉæÇ ÉÑ É Ï ÉÔ É M Éå ÉÑ å Ç xÉ É ÉÉ å ÉÉ. yadi mujh mẽ dam hotā to maĩ tumhārī bātõ kā zordār uttar detā. . preyasī – gīt kī ek tarz hai jise maĩ ne (C) yahī̃ par taiyār karvāyā hai. c’est un air pour une sérénade que je (C) lui (E) ai fait composer ici. 377 . En roumain. en attendant que notre homme fût éveillé. Nritya-śikṣak: Koī naī cīz hai kyā? Sãgīt. dans la séquence je lui ai fait composer. dans l’expression taiyār karvāyā hai. ô Panza! dans quelle erreur tu es.378) Vu qu’en hindi on ne rencontre pas de structure syntaxique équivalente. Le fragment qui suit illustre le rôle d’auxiliaire agentif median de faire. qui veut expliquer quelque chose à son écuyer. pour te faire comprendre. Am pus s-o facă aici. I. Éëå ÉxÉÏ. ici karvānā (à l’infinitif marqué par la terminaison -nā) « demander de faire » dérivé d’une racine en l’occurrence transitive kar. tandis qu’il est implicite dans les deux autres langues. (Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. I.du verbe karnā « faire ». de manière typique. Le causatif synthétique karvāyā hai joue ici le rôle de support verbal pour l’adjectif taiyār « preparé ». p. până s-o scula jupânul. à l’aide de l’affixe de causation exclusivement verbale -vā. Le fragment ci-dessous a été choisi pour illustrer la fonction agentive finale de l’auxiliaire faire. Dorine. M ÐÄQå ÉÉ Éå æ Ç Prithvī par apne lie pū̃jī jamā nahī̃karo. unde molia şi rugina le strică Le fragment qui suit illustre l’emploi quasi-perlocutoire de l’auxiliaire faire: Orgon. 180) La structure est similaire en roumain. kīṛe. fait une certaine action (on écrit avec un crayon). forme le projet d’imposer à celle-ci d’épouser Tartuffe. co-verbale en français. le sens du radical nouveau samajhā. tandis qu’en hindi l’on rencontre le factitif spécifique. ca să-ţi vorbesc mai în voie. I. l’Exécutant. et assumée par des agents naturels comme les mites et les vers qui font tout disparaître sur la terre. il représente l’Instrument à l’aide duquel l’agent immédiatement supérieur. jahā̃ morcā lagtā hai. la pluie. le père de Mariane. (Matthieu. să te pot face să pricepi.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 69 . involontaire est typiquement associée aux actions des forces ou des entités de la nature. est exprimée dans les deux autres langues par des prédicats mono-verbaux. « où la rouille attaque (litt. synthétique ou dérivé à l’aide du suffixe -ā de la racine samajh. qui oriente l’action vers le destinataire. en l’occurrence. morcā. cât de greşit judeci! (vol. La structure agentive finale. dont les sujets agents sont « la rouille ». les mites mangent » et celui du roumain. qui entend cette intention. l’actant correspondant étant l’Agent final6 Af (F / I). . (4) Ne vous amassez pas de trésors sur la terre. L’hétéronyme hindi est bi-prédicatif: jahā̃ morcā lagtā hai. dans la séquence să te pot face să pricepi. la structure faire croire est paraphrasable par « (Je sais bien le moyen) de vous faire adhérer à ce que je viens d’annoncer/ de vous en persuader ». p. kīṛe khāte haĩ Nu vă adunaţi comori pe pământ. ou bien les Forces de la nature comme le vent. correspondant à l’action pratique en question. Panza. şi măcar de mi s-ar ostoi durerile din coasta asta. Dans la réplique d’Orgon. 6. Responsable de l’agentivité « instrumentative » ou éventive. la suivante de Mariane.« faire comprendre ».Mi-ar plăcea să pot răsufla mai uşor. molia. rugina et les mites. non-humaine.19) É× ÉÏ É A É Éå Í É ÉÔ ÉÏ É ÉÉ É ÏÇ M Éå. refuse de s’y fier. par l’opérateur verbal denā. s’attache). dans la structure prédicative au conditionnel samajhā detā « je t’expliquerais ». mono-prédicatif: unde molia şi rugina le strică. kīṛe khāte haĩ. Le factitif est intensifié. dont l’action n’est pas contrôlable par les humains. La factitivité rudimentaire.« comprendre ». É ÉÇ ÉÉå cÉÉ É É ÉÉ æ . où les mites et les vers font tout disparaître. 6 L’agent final est le troisième actant agentif dans la théorie de Theban. 3. 34) Orgon: Am leac eu la-ndemână. nous proposons une analyse du même lexème en tant que verbe « plein ». Dans ce qui suit. tout d’abord. et décrire. . auxquelles l’auteur fait correspondre quatre types de transitions (qui se déroulent.SABINA POPÂRLAN 70 (5) Orgon à Dorine: Je sais (Molière. Orgon: Aur maĩ jāntā hū̃ ki kaise tumhẽ viśvās karāyā jāy. nous rencontrons l’expression au passif tumhẽ viśvās karāyā jāy. auxquelles nous avons ajouté l’emploi quasi-perlocutoire (cf. Le Tartuffe. premièrement dans des expressions verbo-nominales. (p. ensuite. AÉå ÉÉåÇ: AÉæ ÉæÇ ÉÉ É ÉÉ Õ ÌM Mæ xÉå ÉÑ å Ç Ì É ÉÉxÉ M É ÉÉ ÉÉ É . « faire ») remplit. En hindi. des valeurs factitives ou agentives (initiale ou causative. et finalement en emploi semi-substitutif ou méronymique « soumissif ». en l’absence d’une structure comparable. 37) La séquence coverbale est rendue de manière similaire en roumain ca să te fac a crede. entre des états de départ et finals concatégoriels). en usage autonome ou non-anaphorique. et ensuite dans les structures co-verbales. 2010: 110-114). qualificatives. Popârlan. en l’occurrence. équationnelles. p. trans-qualificatifs et trans-locatifs/-possessifs. «Faire» en emploi non-substitutif En suivant la théorie de la « sémantaxe » (ou « sémantique propositionnelle ») de Theban (1980: 26-28). Faire en tant que verbe « plein » Nous avons suivi jusqu’à present le comportement du verbe faire en tant que verbe « support ». 93) bien le moyen de vous le faire croire. (p. nous affirmons la possibilité de l’identification dans l’Univers de quatre types de structures statiques (ou d’états): existentielles. un rôle quasi-perlocutoire. des événements transexistentiels. la structure viśvās karānā. dont le sens initial est celui de « confiance faire faire à quelqu’un » (vu qu’elle se fonde sur le dérivé causatif du verbe karnā. ca să te fac a crede. Nous pouvons ainsi assister à. en tant qu’auxiliant. trans-équationnels. 3. possessives et locatives. où il est responsable. de manière nécessaire. Nous commencerons notre analyse par la partie qui revient au verbe faire en emploi non-substitutif. médiane ou pratique et finale: « instrumentative » ou éventive).1. en tant que substitut verbal. « qu’à toi confiance soit faite ». confectioner ». 32) åxÉÉ ÉåÄQ oÉ É ÉÉ æ ÌM AÉM ÉvÉ Må ÉÇ Ï AÉ M ExÉM Ð QÉÍ É ÉÉåÇ ÉåÇ oÉxÉå É M Éå æ Ç.a se face >.2. 3. le verbe karnā. L’exemple intéresse aussi pour l’équivalence < devenir . spirituel. « demeurer ». en échange. devenant par la suite des apôtres. 3. qui étaient en train de jeter le filet dans la mer.1.1. les structures transéquationnelles concernent les changements contingents (ou de type intra-sortal) se déroulant à l’intérieur de la même catégorie ontologique.bannā « se faire. a se sălăşlui. à la place de banānā. il les fera. se face pom. où l’on rencontre. faire trans-existentiel. . supposant le passage d’un état de non-existence à un état existentiel (l’événement ou la transition se déroulant entre des états de même type) est rendu en hindi par l’expression baserā karnā.1. dans cette situation). sous-tendue par le même « faire » trans-existentiel. pêcheurs d’hommes. si bien que les oiseaux du ciel viennent faire leurs nids dans ses branches. Dans la citation ci-dessous. Dans des structures événementielles trans-équationnelles À la différence des événements trans-existentiels. il s’agit d’évolutions sortales ou ontologiques). L’on peut remarquer que tout en restant des êtres humains. aisā peṛ bantā hai ki ākāś ke pãchī ā kar uskī ḍāliyõ mẽ baserā karte haĩ. devenir » . « faire ». constructifs. en l’occurrence. fréquent dans les contextes artefactuels. 13. (6) elle [la moutarde] devient un arbre. par l’apparition ou la création d’un objet/ Patient (l’on aurait pu avoir aussi des disparitions. mais directement le verbe désignant l’action visée dans la préparation d’une habitation (des nids. « habitation faire ». dont faire est le marqueur explicite.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 71 Vu que la dimension dynamique ou transitionnelle de l’Univers est gouvernée par les divers types d’agentivité ou factitivité. d’habitude verbe support ou anaphorique. comme l’on vient de voir dans les exemples ci-dessus. Le faire trans-équationnel du français est rendu. Dans des structures événementielles trans-existentielles Dans un premier exemple. încât vin păsările cerului şi se sălăşluiesc în ramurile lui L’hétéronyme roumain n’est pas. dans les deux cas. les deux frères changeront en fait de statut social. Jésus propose aux frères Pierre et André. de manière attendue. caractérisés. de manière plutôt a-typique. nous organiserons la section sur faire autonome ou nonsubstitut selon les événements ou les transitions qu’il indique. « construire. de le suivre. par les hétéronymes banānā en hindi et a face en roumain. (Matthieu. le verbe analogue a face. .1. Mais. 169 .» (Matthieu.pratāp kī āvāz sunāī dī. I. Maĩ tumhẽ manuṣyõ ke machue banāū̃ gā. (9) Ils n’eurent pas fait deux cents pas que leurs oreilles furent frappées par un grand bruit d’eau (Don Quichotte. (vol. « Éå å ÉÏ å cÉ Éå AÉAÉå. 4. aşa cum ziceţi voi. m’eût faite laide. » Īsā ne unse kahā. (…) si le ciel. de la même catégorie ontologique (de type intrasortal). p. (…) dacă cumva.) ÉÌ D É Éå ÉÑ Éå MÑ É oÉ ÉÉ ÉÉ Éå ÉÉ Īśvar ne mujhe asīm saundarya kā vardān diyā hai (…) yadi Īśvar ne mujhe kurūp banāyā hotā (vol. le second est exprimé par le verbe banānā.170) Les lexèmes roumains sont des équivalents fidèles des termes français. à l’idée de déplacement d’un Patient d’un Lieu initial (Source) dans un Lieu final (Bénéficiaire/ But). ca de ape (vol. când le ajunse la ureche un vuiet mare. au lieu de me faire belle. m’a faite belle (…). Dans des structures événementielles trans-locatives/ . 3. de nouveau. 3. en hindi. vol. (Don Quichotte. pp. « Dieu m’a fait (le) don d’une beauté infinite ». I. I.» Şi le-a zis: Veniţi după Mine şi vă voi face pescari de oameni.1. 134) dar nu făcuseră nici două sute de paşi. Dans des structures événementielles trans-qualificatives Les structures trans-qualificatives concernent des changements qualitatifs à l’intérieur. I. (8) Le ciel.4. I. vardān denā.possessives Les événements trans-locatifs ou trans-possessifs correspondent. p. p. en parcourant un Lieu médian (Trajet) plus ou moins implicite.72 SABINA POPÂRLAN (7) Il leur dit: «Venez à ma suite et je vous ferai pêcheurs d’hommes. symptomatique pour la fonction de verbe plein de faire/ a face. dans la séquence Īśvar ne mujhe asīm saundarya kā vardān diyā hai. en essence. m-ar fi făcut cerul urâtă (vol. p. « faire don ». 134) D É Éå ÉÑ Éå AxÉÏ É xÉÉæ É M É É É É Ì ÉÉ æ (. întocmai aşa cum m-a făcut frumoasă. le premier hétéronyme est une expression verbo-nominale. 92) Vru cerul să mă facă frumoasă.19) DxÉÉ Éå E ÉxÉå M É. Ve thoṛī dūr gae hõge ki unhẽ jal . p. ÉæÇ ÉÑ å Ç É ÉÑw ÉÉåÇ Må É Ò oÉ ÉÉF ÉÉ. vol. 240) .. «Mere pīche cale āo. 181) Éå ÉÉåÄQ Ï Õ É ÉåÇ Éå ÌM E å Ç É É .Éë ÉÉ É M Ð AÉ ÉÉÄ É xÉÑ ÉÉD Ï. à ce que vous dites. I.3. aller » déterminé par le nom à valeur adverbiale dūr « distance ». macro-segmentale ou phrastique. quand il représente une anaphore résomptive. le futur antérieur du français): Ve thoṛī dūr gae hõge « ils auront parcouru une courte distance quand ». gens de peu de foi! (Matthieu. quand tu fais l’aumône. qui est là aujourd’hui et qui demain sera jetée au feu. ÉÉå ÉÑ É É oÉÉ ÉÉ É É É É ÉÉ É Éå ÉÉ Éå ÌM ÉÑ É É É ÉÉ É É ÉÉ M É æ.) ÉoÉ ÉÑ É É É å Éå Éå. să nu ştie stânga ta ce face dreapta ta. ÉÌ ExÉå ÉÏ D É CxÉ ÉëM É xÉ ÉÉ ÉÉ æ . Jab tum dān dete ho. Le transfert de l’objet se passe entre un donateur (la Source) et un récepteur (le Bénéficiaire) humains. une présomption. L’exemple qui suit illustre la valeur d’anaphore lexicale infidèle de faire.30) å A ÉÌ É ÉÉÍxÉ ÉÉå! Éå É M Ð ÉÉxÉ AÉ É É æ AÉæ M É cÉÔ å ÉåÇ ÉÉåÇM Ï ÉÉ Éå ÉÏ. to tumhārā bāyā̃ hāth na jānne pāye ki tumhārā dāyā̃ hāth kyā kar rahā hai. 3. Les hétéronymes habituels de faire substitutif sont a face en roumain et karnā. le verbe faire peut reprendre ou bien un segment lexical – noyau prédicatif unique plus ou moins complémenté – dont l’extension peut correspondre à une proposition (en tant qu’anaphore fidèle ou infidèle) ou bien une séquence phrastique (reprise pluri-verbale). modalement. Tu însă. en hindi. que ta main gauche ignore ce que fait ta main droite. când faci milostenie. Un dernier fragment extrait de la Bible illustre le faire trans-possessif: (10) Pour toi. en contraste avec les structures trans-locatives où les actants Li (Lieu initial ou Source) et Lf (Lieu final ou Bénéficiaire) correspondent d’habitude à des référents non-animés.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 73 Si en français et en roumain les structures trans-locatives sont comparables. Yadi use bhī Īśvar is prakār sajātā hai. La variante hindi est la seule différente lexicalement. le verbe étant au perfectif futur (cf. 6. ne fera-t-il pas bien plus pour vous. 6. indiquant. (11) Si Dieu habille ainsi l’herbe des champs. elle exprime le faire du français par l’expression à complément interne dān denā « faire don ». (Matthieu. la version hindi propose un hyponyme factitif exprimé par le verbe jānā « se déplacer. En emploi substitutif ou anaphorique Quand il est substitut (anaphore lexicale).3. to vah tumhẽ kyõ nahī̃ pahanāyegā? . ÉÉå É ÉÑ å Ç ÉÉåÇ É ÏÇ É ÉÉ Éå ÉÉ? Re alpaviśvāsiyo! Khet kī ghās āj bhar hai aur kal cūlhe mẽ jhõk dī jāyegī.2. En emploi semi-substitutif en tant qu’anaphore événementielle méronymique « soumissive » Le verbe faire comme semi-substitut verbal correspond à l’action « soumissive » par laquelle le futur Exécutant s’engage à effectuer l’action proposée par le Causateur ou procède directement à son exécution: < demander de faire l’action X → s’engager à faire l’action X (exprimer son engagement)/faire ladite action >. ExÉ Éå oÉÄQ Ï AÉx ÉÉ Må xÉÉ É É M É É ÌM ÉÉ … ExÉM Ð M É ÉåÇ É É ÉÉ M Éå ÉÑ ÉÉ Éå xÉ É É C É ÉÉ M .SABINA POPÂRLAN 74 Iar dacă iarba câmpului. care astăzi este şi mâine se aruncă în cuptor. par la mise en pratique d’un projet intimatif. comme attendu. Dumnezeu astfel o îmbracă. en hindi. 3. Vu que cette semi-substitution à origine pragmatique (l’anaphorisé directif) renvoie. dont l’antécédent est le verbe a îmbrăca « habiller ». Le type semi-substitutif se définit ainsi. La semi-substitution concerne ainsi la reprise. « Si Dieu l’a ainsi ornée [l’herbe des champs (les lis)]. quasi-synonymes. à une partie du syntagme antécédent. nous y reconnaissons aussi un cas spécifique de méronymie. hyponymes de karnā (faire): Yadi use bhī Īśvar is prakār sajātā hai. L’exemple qui suit illustre ce type de faire: (12) Cela fait. les membres verbaux en relation sont: sajānā « orner. vu qu’il correspond à l’acte que nous avons appelé « soumissif » par lequel l’Agent médian (Am / E) annonce l’exécution ou procède directement à l’accomplissement de l’action que l’Agent initial (Ai / C) lui impose par sa requête. embellir » et pahanānā « habiller ». vol. 67) cÉÑM Éå Må oÉÉ ExÉ Éå M Éåv ÉÉ M Éå AÉ åvÉ Ì ÉÉ ÌM É ÉÏ ÉÉå®É M Ð M É Må cÉÉ ÉåÇ AÉå É É ÉÉ M Éå ÉÑ ÉÉ å. I. à un niveau sémantaxique.3. oare nu cu mult mai mult pe voi ø. en tant qu’action soumissive. puţin credincioşilor? Les configurations des paires anaphoriques sont distinctes: tandis qu’en français c’est le verbe faire qui remplit. ce qu’elle fit avec beaucoup de grâce et de retenue … En lui ceignant l’épée (Don Quichotte. en premier lieu. les anaphores semi-substitutives s’appelant aussi « soumissives » méronymiques. il commanda à l’une de ses dames de lui ceindre l’épée. p. to vah tumhẽ kyõ nahī ̃ pahanāyegā? . Le roumain présente cette fois-ci une anaphore nulle. de l’ingrédient factuel ou factitif de l’action initiale verbale: < dire de faire … (et) faire >. cette tâche. alors pourquoi ne vous habillera-t-il [vous aussi]? ». Le prototype agentif fonctionne aussi comme verbe « plein » quand il remplit le rôle d’anaphore (lexicale ou méronymique « soumissive ») ou en tant que verbe autonome (non-substitutif). un verbe du même champ sémantique. comme en français. 26) Acestea fiind împlinite. I. le noyau verbal kiyā complémenté d’un nom déterminé par un adjectif pronominal démonstratif yah kām « cette action » partageant le même rôle semi-substitutif. aux hétéronymes parfaits karnā du hindi et faire du français correspond. Le prédicat anaphorique yah kām kiyā « il fit cette action » comprend. Si l’antécédent représente un acte directif ou de causation. I. Uskī kamar mẽ talvār ko ghumāte samay et Încingându-l cu spada. En hindi.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 75 Itnā kar cukne ke bād usne ek veśyā ko ādeś diyā ki vah vīr yoddhā kī kamar ke cārõ aur talvār ko ghumā de. Dans la séquence ce qu’elle fit. ceea ce ea îndeplini cu multă dibăcie şi înţelepciune … Încingându-l cu spada (vol. p. Conclusion Le verbe faire démontre ainsi sa capacité de fonctionner aussi bien comme verbe « plein » (ou lexical) de même qu’en tant que verbe « support ». le fait que. en consonance avec l’occurrence fit. Usne baṛī āsthā ke sāth yah kām kiyā … Uskī kamar mẽ talvār ko ghumāte samay (vol. hyponymes actionnels de faire ou factitifs implicites spécifiques. le pronom démonstratif ce que. le segment ceindre l’épée de l’antécédent il commanda (à l’une de ses dames) de lui ceindre l’épée. en outre. p. . dete poruncă uneia dintre cele două femei să-l încingă pe don Quijote cu spada. Faire reprend ainsi en tant que semi-substitut méronymique « soumissif ». la proposition subordonnée traduisant le composant factuel: ādeś diyā ki vah vīr yoddhā kī kamar ke cārõ aur talvār ko ghumā de « il donna ordre qu’elle attachât à sa taille l’épée ». Quand il s’emploie comme verbe « support ». mais aussi dans des constructions bi-verbales. 55). En roumain. il apparaît dans des structures verbo-nominales. en roumain. en tant qu’auxiliaire d’agentivité initiale. 4. médiane ou finale. représente une anaphore de même type. dans la structure de ce prédicat méronymique. la situation est similaire à celle du hindi pour ce qui est de l’antécédent: dete poruncă să-l încingă pe don Quijote cu spada. rôles auxquels nous avons ajouté l’emploi quasi-perlocutoire. On remarque. la structure coverbale française est remplacée par une séquence hypotaxique. tandis que le segment anaphorisant est plus proche de la séquence française ceea ce ea îndeplini. l’anaphore correspond à l’acte soumissif par lequel l’Exécutant accomplit l’action imposée par le Causateur. Les segments anaphoriques commentés ci-dessus sont continués par les expressions de l’action proprement dite: En lui ceignant l’épée. le quasisynonyme a îndeplini « accomplir ». Presses Universitaires de Lille. Iliescu. Sahitya Akademi. in Travaux et documents. 1970. XIII. Le Tartuffe. 203-217. Don Quijote. 103. 119-148. Clarendon Press. 1969. 32. pp. Burghezul gentilom). Cervantes. Sahitya Akademi. Evidence from English and French. Bucarest. Charolles. *** „Evanghelia după Matei“. de l’Académie de Littérature. traduction en hindi par Chhavinath Pandey. Problèmes de délimitation ». M. 1969. traduction par Gilles Lane. Bucarest. Dān Kvigjoṭ. Georges (1994). Paris. 3. Les verbes karnā / banānā et a face s’emploient également comme verbes « pleins » non-anaphoriques (en hindi. 297-305. pp. traduction en français de Louis Viardot. éditeur Sataprakāśan Sãcārakendra. Quand dire. Editura Univers. Bucarest. En hindi. « L’Anaphore associative. 117166. in Langue Française. Le Temps. traduction en roumain par A. Hindī rūpāntaraṇātmak vyākaraṇ ke kuch prakaraṇ. interprétation et mémoire: approche standard vs. John (1970). Yamuna (1973). *** « Sant Mattī ke anusār Susamācār ». surtout le second) et comme anaphores karnā et a face. Michel (1990). 4. in Verbum. 1991. in Nayā Vidhān. La Bible. Maria (1993). Kacrū. in C.SABINA POPÂRLAN 76 La comparaison avec le hindi et le roumain nous a dévoilé les faits suivants: dans les deux langues. Kendrīya Hindī Sansthān. Lille. 1988. Cervantes. *** « Évangile selon Matthieu ». c’est faire. « De quelques formes verbales du roumain et de leurs emplois injonctifs ». L’Ingénieux Hidalgo Don Quichotte de la Manche. Oxford. Nouveaux Classiques Larousse. « Le factitif roumain ». Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. 1982. Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române. approche cognitive ». pp. in « Le Nouveau Testament ». de l’Académie de Littérature. Paris. . Molière. Delhi. les diverses valeurs agentives sont rendues par un verbe basique ou un derivé factitif ou causatif. Delhi. Kleiber. Garnier . Paris. « Lorsque l’anaphore se lie aux temps grammaticaux ». Toma. Cuniţă. mais seulement le verbe roumain peut apparaître comme auxiliaire agentif dans les structures co-verbales. Anaphora. Éditions du Seuil. Paris. Molière. traduction en hindi par B. Alliance Biblique Universelle – Le Cerf. Cornish. 1983. les hétéronymes karnā / banānā et a face acceptent l’utilisation en tant que verbes « support » pour un nominal. Teatru (Tartuffe sau Impostorul. SOURCES DES EXEMPLES Cervantès. de la phrase au texte. Agra. Vetters (éditeur). 9-22. Georges (1993). « Contexte. Alexandra (2006). Francis (1999). Paris.Flammarion. traduction en roumain par Ion Frunzetti et Edgar Papu. in Revue roumaine de linguistique. pp. 1995. Kleiber. 1965. Vajpeyi. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Austin. Biblia. 1973. Editura pentru Literatură. pp. Molière ke do nāṭak. Éditions Sociales. in „Noul Testament“. Discourse and Understanding. Molière. Theban. pp. Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. pp. 51-62. Dix auxi-verbes modaux. Laurenţiu-Ioan Theban (2005). Tuţescu. roumain. in Revue roumaine de linguistique. Searle. Editura Univerisităţii din Bucureşti. Sabina (2010). in Lexikalische Analyse romanischer Sprachen. Domaine typologique: français. L’Anaphore verbale.LE VERBE FAIRE PLURI-FONCTIONNEL ET SES ÉQUIVALENTS EN HINDI ET EN ROUMAIN 77 Kleiber. deuxième édition revue et augmentée. Mariana (2007). Minuit. L. 1-2. Bucarest.et interculturels. roumain. « Anaphores associatives méronymiques: définition et propriétés ». XXV. . 57-71. L’Auxiliation de modalité. John (1982). « Kāraka. Laurenţiu (1980). « Sémantique et syntaxe du verbe faire en français. Bucarest. Tübingen. Mariana (1979). latin et portugais (I) ». Georges (1996). Maria. 23-36. pp. 1. in Revue roumaine de linguistique. Actant. Laurenţiu (2007). theta-role. Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. Bucarest & Paris. Des termes à la notion ». Études de théorie des actes de langage. 65-92. « Pour une sémantaxe roumaine ». Theban. (deep) case. in Alexandra Cuniţă (éditeur). Max Niemeyer Verlag. Tuţescu. Klincksieck. pp. traduction en français par Joëlle Proust. Concepts trans. Précis de sémantique française. Popârlan. Sens et expression. Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică & Librairie C. Theban. Paris. hindi. Bucarest. . Keywords: adjective. blocking tests. we have witnessed an evolution of the conceptions and analyses of the adjective. L’objet de notre recherche a été la variation du comportement de l’adjectif lors de son passage de la combinatoire libre où il est incident à un nom aux séquences figées où l’adjectif est partie composante. along the years. The structures and values of the blocked phrases are also stated. explain and illustrate the parameters that underline the complexity of the blocking process. to blocked combinatorial dynamics. blocking. aussi assiste-t-on à une évolution de la conception sur l’adjectif et des modèles de description de cette partie du discours le long de l’histoire. blocking parameters.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS DANIELA BORDEA* Abstract The adjective has preoccupied grammarians since the dawn of time. The blocking mechanism is also explained and illustrated. where the adjective is incidental to the noun. Département des Langues Modernes. blocking degree. 1. We define. daniela.bordea@yahoo. blocking mechanism.com. . * Université de Bucarest. Our research aims at analyzing the behavior of the adjective along the lines of its transition from free combinatorial abilities. Introduction L’adjectif a constitué une préoccupation pour les grammairiens dès l’Antiquité. The paper analyzes the properties of the adjective in blocked structures in contrast with the properties of the adjective in free combinations on the basis of blocking tests. jusqu’à présent. where the adjective is an integral part. blocked combinatorial abilities. The two types of combinatorial dynamics (free and blocked) are presented comparatively. We analyze the transition of the adjective from the dynamics of free combinations to blocked combinations by explaining the way of establishing blockage and stating the conditions and elements taking part in the blockage. Faculté des Langues et Littératures Étrangères. so that nowadays this category benefits from the latest developments in language studies. having been an object of study even since antiquity. absence des degrés d’intensité et de comparaison : (1) a. quand on fait la précision que les éléments constituants sont généralement eux-mêmes des mots de la langue. . b. à plat-ventre. faire la sourde oreille. e. d. un coffre fort /vs/ * un coffre assez fort une porte cochère /vs/ * une porte trop cochère tourner rond /vs/ * tourner plus rond des étoffes bleu clair / vs/ * des étoffes très bleu clair * des étoffes bleu très clair marcher à plat-ventre /vs/ * marcher à très plat ventre 2. le complément de N1 peut être approprié lorsque N1 correspond à un seul type de substantif ou même à un seul substantif (Picabia 1978 : 84. b. Un regard comparatif sur le comportement de l’adjectif dans la combinatoire figée par rapport à celui de l’adjectif dans la combinatoire libre met en évidence un comportement atypique de l’adjectif dans les structures figées : la place inhabituelle de l’adjectif par rapport au nom (vif-argent. Le figement dans les approches traditionnelles Les grammaires traditionnelles envisagent les expressions figées du point de vue formel et fonctionnel. 85. Par exemple. 1994 : 547). C’est aussi le cas des expressions figées contenant des adjectifs. Par exemple les éléments de petit-beurre peuvent s’employer séparément.DANIELA BORDEA* 80 2.1. distributionnelles et transformationnelles Dans ce type d’approches la combinatoire figée de l’adjectif est envisagée du point de vue de la complémentation. le premier comme adjectif et le second comme nom (Riegel et al. chauve-souris. 95 et 97) : (2) a.2. c. Recherches préliminaires 2. pour la structure N0 est Adj de N1. c. d. possédant leur autonomie syntaxique et appartenant à une catégorie grammaticale déterminée. e. pleurer à chaudes larmes) . Le figement dans les approches structuralistes. Ce livre est franc de port Jean est perclus de rhumatismes Paul est imbu de sa personne Pierre est mort de fatigue Michel est paralysé de bonheur. ni coordonner l’adjectif composant à un autre adjectif (*chaise longue et verte). ceci fait qu’on ne peut ni séparer les composants par un déterminant de l’adjectif (*sang plus froid. *sang très froid). 3. le centre d’intérêt se déplace vers le point de vue fonctionnel et sémantique. À la différence des séquences libres. de la combinatoire libre à la combinatoire figée Selon Tuţescu (1978 : 91). il ira se faire rembourser. Étude de cas: l’adjectif en français 3. b.3. tandis que dans les autres types de grammaires. propre à la syntaxe. Le processus de figement.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS 81 2. mais autre que la somme des sens de ses constituants immédiats. les expressions figées n’obéissent pas à la règle de compositionnalité : (3) a. Cf. mais non obligatoires. Ainsi. 1 Marie a acheté un cordon bleu pour sa jupe blanche. dépendant surtout des acquis socio-culturels des interlocuteurs. Tuţescu (1978 : 90. les composés se caractérisent par un degré de cohésion très élevé. le passage de la combinatoire libre à la combinatoire figée étant dû à la lexicalisation. Les éléments lexicaux qui composent une expression figée correspondent donc à un seul épisémème. Pierre a acheté un panier à pain percé. vers les transformations et les comparaisons. la combinatoire figée est le phénomène par lequel une séquence cooccurrente de lexèmes forme une unité indissociable sur les plans fonctionnel (formel ou morphosyntaxique) et sémantique ». dans ce cas. 91 et 94). « à l’opposé de la combinatoire libre. Dans ce cas le sens d’une expression figée est conçu comme une unité (épisémème). dont le sens global se calcule en additionnant le sens de chacun de leurs éléments. basé sur des traits connotatifs. Comme le fait remarquer Cuniţă (1980 : 201). le point de vue fonctionnel et le sémantisme se manifestent faiblement. On peut en conclure que les grammaires traditionnelles ont une vision descriptive. . les éléments en combinatoire figée sont des lexies saisies globalement. statique sur le figement et le présentent surtout du point de vue formel.1. la vision sur le figement devient plus dynamique. Le figement dans les approches syntactico-sémantiques Le processus du figement est envisagé notamment en sémantique structurale du point de vue de l’intégration sémantique et lexicale des constituants1 du syntagme figé/de l’expression figée. b. J’ai acheté une table ronde /vs/ J’ai organisé une table ronde Marie a acheté un cordon bleu /vs/ Marie est un cordon bleu Pierre a acheté un panier à pain percé /vs/ Pierre est un panier percé Nous proposons le schéma : On peut donc considérer que dans le cas de l’adjectif les critères minimales nécessaires pour qu’on puisse parler de figement sont respectées. 3. (iii) l’ensemble se caractérise par un « sens global » qui n’est pas la somme des sens des constituants liés (non compositionnalité du sens de l’ensemble). mais non suffisante. b. Nous analysons quelques exemples: (5) a. Ces critères sont : (i) la séquence doit être formée de plusieurs mots . qui représente une condition nécessaire. Dans ce cas leur sens est imprédictible et incompréhensible pour un locuteur moins avisé. les phrases (4) a.DANIELA BORDEA* 82 Ces phrases sont libres parce que leur sens peut être déduit à partir du sens de chaque mot qui les forme. qui n’arrivera pas à le déduire. A. B. c. à moins que le contexte ne lui donne des indices d’interprétation. Réalisation du figement : éléments. une existence autonome . Pierre est un panier percé. signifient « Marie est une bonne cuisinière » et respectivement. conditions et mécanisme Nous considérons que la relation de figement suppose l’existence des éléments suivants: (i) un élément central. Marie est un cordon bleu. Au contraire.2. par ailleurs. (ii) un élément secondaire. (ii) les mots impliqués dans le figement doivent avoir. « Pierre est un grand dépensier ». qui représente . porter un jugement défavorable à son encontre. b. un cerf-volant *une biche volante Nous proposons le mécanisme suivant pour la relation de figement : . organiser une table ronde *organiser une table carrée / ovale / rectangulaire et de rendre impossible le remplacement d’un élément par un synonyme : (7) a. mais dont on sait que c’est une carte accréditive et de paiement. b. b. mais lui donner un mauvais point. donner (à quelqu’un) un carton rouge ne signifie pas seulement lui donner n’importe quel carton qui soit rouge. Cette donnée pragmatique a le rôle de limiter ou même d’annuler la possibilité d’un paradigme tel : (6) a.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS 83 une condition nécessaire. Cette donnée. Pierre est un panier percé *Pierre est une corbeille percée ou par une unité de la même famille : (8) a. ainsi on ne peut pas dire ma carte bleue pour n’importe quelle carte de couleur bleue . Elle fonctionne comme un liant qui réalise la cohésion plus étroite des éléments impliqués dans la relation de figement : une carte bleue est une carte ayant la couleur bleue. (iii) un « savoir » qui relie les deux éléments et qui est une donnée pragmatique. la « mémorisation » (Svensson 2004 : 42). représente une condition non nécessaire pour le figement syntagmatique mais une condition nécessaire pour les autres types de figement. mais non suffisante. 1. certains « adjectifs » sont constitués de plusieurs mots sans . Paramètres qui caractérisent le figement Nous proposons les termes paramètres du figement pour désigner le degré de figement (que nous appelons paramètre intensionnel) et la portée du figement (que nous appelons paramètre extensionnel). Ainsi. 3. 3. On peut en conclure que le figement se réalise selon un mécanisme cyclique.DANIELA BORDEA* 84 Ce mécanisme fonctionne en feed-back: l’élément central exige un certain élément secondaire et l’élément secondaire ne se combine qu’avec un certain élément central pour garder le sens (et non avec des synonymes de celuici). fermé sur lui-même. une séquence est d’autant plus libre que le nombre de relations linguistiques entre les différents composants est élevé.3. la structure est totalement figée. Par exemple. C’est cette variabilité qui permet de parler du degré de figement d’une suite donnée et de faire la différence entre composition et figement (Gross 1988).3. Quand il n’y a aucune relation syntaxique entre les différents éléments. Le degré de figement Les degrés de figement illustrent le continuum entre les séquences libres et celles qui sont entièrement contraintes. bien qu’ayant le même nombre d’éléments lexicaux. accent aigu. La relation entre le nom et l’adjectif n’est pas opaque (un accent aigu est un accent). Mais une suite comme un cordon bleu. il peut désigner. qui permet de l’identifier parmi d’autres appartenant à la même famille. et les propriétés habituelles des adjectifs épithètes sont bloquées. Par exemple. Lorsque l’adjectif n’est pas entièrement figé du point de vue syntaxique et sémantique (comme c’est le cas des composés endocentriques). Pour mieux illustrer ce fait nous proposons un exemple similaire : (10) a. 28 et 38). Une table de bois / de marbre / de pierre Une table de guingois (sans possibilité de paradigme). Sur le mot cordon on peut donc construire : (i) des groupes nominaux libres « ordinaires » : un cordon solide. Ces . etc. l’adjectif désigne donc un trait caractéristique de l’objet. etc. comme c’est le cas de la séquence à l’ail (Gross 1996: 98): (9) Cette tarte est à l’ail Dans le paradigme du substantif « ail » on pourrait avoir: pommes. exactement comme les catégories simples (Gross 1996 : 16. en bloc. (figement transparent) . prunes. après un substantif-tête. . mais relève d’une gradation correspondant à des propriétés transformationnelles potentielles réalisées à des degrés différents ». quand la suite concernée fonctionne de façon compacte. il n’y a pas de possibilité de permutation pour le dernier élément. la relation est inversement proportionnelle: plus le groupe est souple du point de vue syntaxique.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS 85 être figés. une spécification dans le cadre d’une typologie: casque léger. n’a que deux constituants: un déterminant et un bloc unique soudant en une seule unité les mots cordon et bleu. mais global. un cordon de trois mètres. mais pour l’adjectif à cran dans Pierre est à cran. est composé de trois constituants. accent circonflexe. on a alors affaire à un adjectif figé. Il en découle que ce sont les propriétés syntaxiques du groupe ou de la séquence qui permettent de calculer le degré de figement. Mais l’absence de paradigme ne constitue pas un phénomène indépendant d’autres propriétés: le sens de ces suites n’est pas compositionnel. Ici. (ii) un groupe nominal semi-figé : un cordon électrique (nom composé) . Gross (1988 : 63) en conclut que « le figement n’est pas une valeur absolue. un groupe nominal du type Dét N Adj. Dans ce cas on a affaire à un figement total. (iii) un nom composé figé : un cordon (-) bleu (une bonne cuisinière). . b. dans la mesure où les éléments constituent un paradigme. Les composés à substantif-tête sont appelés par la tradition linguistique des composés endocentriques et tous les autres types de composés sont appelés exocentriques. moins il est figé. l’adjectif ne joue pas le rôle d’un modifieur. C’est pour cela que la réponse à ce test doit être toujours (+). (4) sont (Schéma 3) 2 Voir les explications sous 3. . Luc est un (panier percé. (3). Les composés exocentriques sont figés du point de vue syntaxique et sémantique. Dans le cas d’un syntagme figé à structure binaire Adj + Nom l’élément central est un substantif et l’élément secondaire est un adjectif qui peut suivre ou précéder le substantif : (12) a. (ii) figement transparent . (13) cordon bleu panier percé rouge-gorge chauve-souris Pour mettre en évidence les différents degrés de figement pour ce type de structure.DANIELA BORDEA* 86 adjectifs sont considérés comme des étiquettes et non comme des qualités (Gross 1996 : 51). et Schéma 2. Le figement se réalise selon le mécanisme présenté sous 2. notées : (1). nous proposons une grille de trois tests. l’existence de cette donnée pragmatique représente la condition obligatoire pour qu’il y ait figement2. * panier) * Un panier percé est un panier Selon nous le domaine du figement comporte trois divisions : (i) figement faible .2. a. il existe un savoir (une donnée) pragmatique qui relie B à A (la mémorisation) . b. (2). donc seulement le test I et le test II peuvent admettre des réponses variables. (iii) figement opaque. Ce sont des suites « gelées » qui ne différent d’un mot simple que par leur polylexicalité et les marques morphologiques spécifiques aux composés (Gross 1996 : 35-36). Dans ce cas. b. La grille se présente ainsi : Test I (±) : Test II (±) : Test III (+) : un A est / n’est pas un A .2. b. selon une formule mathématique de l’analyse combinatoire on a : 2n = 22 = 4 variantes possibles. Les quatre variantes. un A a / n’a pas la qualité désignée par B . comme par exemple panier percé (figement opaque) : (11) a. Test II (+) : un vin rouge a une couleur proche du rouge . alors la réponse au test II doit être toujours elle aussi négative . Test III (+) : on dit « vin rouge » pour désigner un vin dont la couleur est proche du rouge.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS 87 Du point de vue linguistique la variante (4) n’est pas possible parce que si la réponse au test I est négative : Test I (−) : Test II (−) : un A n’est pas un A. (ii) figement transparent Test I (+) : les vers blancs sont des vers . un A n’a pas la qualité désignée par B. Voici quelques exemples d’application des tests (voir Schéma 4): (i) figement faible Test I (+) : un vin rouge est un vin . . Dans ce cas de figement faible le sens du syntagme figé est quasi compositionnel. Test II (−) : les vers blancs n’ont pas la couleur blanche Test III (+) : on dit « vers blancs » pour des vers qui ne riment pas. Le figement faible représente donc un état intermédiaire entre la compositionnalité et le figement proprement dit. ou partiellement figée.3. Dans ce qui suit.DANIELA BORDEA* 88 (iii) figement opaque Test I (−) : un cordon bleu n’est pas un cordon Test II (−) : un cordon bleu n’a pas la couleur bleue Test III (+) : on dit « cordon bleu » pour désigner une bonne cuisinière. chaise longue . Nous remarquons que la division 3 représente le plus haut degré sur l’axe du figement. racine carrée b. Au fur et à mesure que le degré de figement augmente. avoir une peur bleue d. de sorte qu’au plus haut degré de figement (figement opaque) on a seulement la troisième réponse positive. un enfant sourd-muet ADJECTIF + NOM COMMUN a. calculée en nombre de mots. col-vert c. (14) (15) (16) ADJECTIF + ADJECTIF a. un livre bon marché NOM COMMUN + ADJECTIF a.2. rouler à tombeau ouvert). cas où le sens du syntagme figé est quasi compositionnel. 3. L’étendue. tandis que le reste relève d’une combinatoire libre (chevaucher à bride abattue. blanc-bec b. qui ne concerne pas le substantif-tête. donc le plus bas degré de figement (figement faible) correspond à trois réponses positives. panier percé). 3. Le figement partiel. un fruit aigre-doux b. nous allons en donner un inventaire qui ne se veut pas exhaustif. les deux premières réponses deviennent négatives.4. col-vert. peut être considéré comme périphérique par rapport au noyau du groupe nominal. de la séquence soudée. Nous remarquons que le degré de figement augmente du figement faible au figement opaque. Structures des expressions figées contenant des adjectifs Les adjectifs peuvent entrer dans des expressions figées aux structures variées. La portée du figement Il est possible qu’une chaîne donnée soit totalement figée lorsque le figement affecte l’ensemble de la séquence (cordon-bleu. lorsque le figement affecte un seul sousensemble de la séquence donnée. marcher à plat ventre (4 unités). représente la portée du figement (Gross 1996 : 38) : blanc comme neige (3 unités). Philipe le Bel b.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23) 89 NOM PROPRE + ADJECTIF (M. des cheveux coupés court b. pauvre comme Job h.5. blanc comme neige d. paralysé de bonheur ADJECTIF + PRÉPOSITION + VERBE a. Charles le Téméraire c. penser juste d. se porter fort pour c. Grevisse. se faire fort de b. laid à hurler c. bavard comme une pie c. 1988: 533): a. méchant comme un âne rouge g. tourner rond ADJECTIF + PRÉPOSITION + NOM a. Brive-la-Gaillarde f. Noisy-le-Grand ADJECTIF + ADJECTIF ADVERBIALISÉ a. voir clair h. tenir ferme f. Valeurs des expressions figées contenant des adjectifs Les exemples ci-dessous illustrent les valeurs des expressions figées contenant des adjectifs : (24) valeur nominale : a. fou à lier ADVERBE + ADJECTIF a. un enfant bien portant ADJECTIF + COMME + GN a. doux comme un agneau f. mort de fatigue d. Ivan le Terrible d. des gens malintentionnés b. une moustache coupée ras VERBE + ADJECTIF ADVERBIALISÉ a. marcher droit g. cordon bleu b. aimable comme une porte de prison b. clair comme le jour e. bête à pleurer b. sage comme une image 3. Marne-la-Coquette e. bleu de froid b. col-vert . tenir bon e. rouge de colère c. chaise longue e. Quand une suite donnée se prête à toutes les modifications envisagées. Les constructions libres ont des propriétés transformationnelles qui dépendent de leur organisation interne. panier percé d. Dans une séquence figée aucun des éléments lexicaux constitutifs ne peut être actualisé individuellement. un rouge-gorge *un rouge la gorge *un rouge cette gorge *un rouge sa gorge Entre les différents éléments qui sont dans la portée du figement il n’y a pas de relation prédicative: (29) a. c.6. un panier percé *ce panier est percé . une blouse jaune paille d. faire la sourde oreille valeur adverbiale petit à petit 3. l’opacité sémantique est corrélée à une absence de propriétés transformationnelles et il y a une relation de proportionnalité inverse entre le figement d’un groupe et le nombre de propriétés transformationnelles observables (Gross 1988 : 69). cerf-volant f.DANIELA BORDEA* 90 (25) (26) (27) c. une jupe bleu foncé valeur adjectivale – locutions adjectivales : e de bas étage f. court-circuit valeur adjectivale – adjectifs composés : a. un fruit aigre-doux c. le sens est totalement compositionnel et l’on parlera d’un groupe ordinaire. Inversement. Tests de figement Nous allons analyser les propriétés des expressions figées par rapport aux propriétés des adjectifs en combinatoire libre. b. mais ils ont une détermination globale: (28) a. en avoir le cœur net b. Propriétés des expressions figées contenant des adjectifs. si aucune des propriétés n’est réalisable. b. d. de bon poil valeur verbale (locutions verbales) : a. Dans le cas des expressions figées. alors il est légitime de parler de figement. un enfant sourd-muet b. a. À cause d’un court-circuit la lumière s’est éteinte. b. a. b. Cet enfant est extrêmement doux. c. b. a. une arme dangereuse cette arme est dangereuse une arme blanche *cette arme est blanche L’adjectif affecté par le figement ne peut pas être nominalisé: (36) (37) a. Cet enfant est très doux. . b. Jean est laid à faire peur. Ce garçon est bête à pleurer.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS (30) (31) a. c. lorsque le sens n’est pas opaque. c. b. 91 un rouge-gorge *cette gorge est rouge un blanc-bec *ce bec est blanc Cependant. Cet enfant est doux comme un agneau. *Jean est laid à faire très peur. b. b. *À cause d’un circuit particulièrement court la lumière s’est éteinte. formé d’un nom et d’un adjectif est en fait le résultat d’une phrase. d. d. b. *Jean est laid à faire beaucoup de peur. a. b. a. b. doux comme un agneau. doux comme un agneau. une variété par rapport aux autres de la même catégorie: (32) (33) a. *Cet enfant est très doux comme un agneau. b. un panier percé *le percé de ce panier un bas-bleu *le bleu de ce bas Les expressions figées (dans leur totalité) et les adjectifs impliqués dans le figement ne reçoivent pas de gradation ou d’adverbe d’intensité: (38) (39) (40) (41) a. c. *À cause d’un circuit très court la lumière s’est éteinte. le composé est moins figé. c. a. d. a. l’adjectif désigne un type particulier. *Jean est très laid à faire peur. *À cause d’un très court circuit la lumière s’est éteinte. un accent aigu *cet accent est aigu ceci est un accent aigu un vin blanc *ce vin est blanc c’est du vin blanc Il est à remarquer qu’un groupe nominal ordinaire. tandis qu’une expression figée ne l’est pas (Gross 1996 : 51): (34) (35) a. f. un compte-rendu *un compte vite rendu *un compte bien rendu *un compte correctement rendu L’ordre des éléments qui composent une expression figée ne peut pas être changé: (43) a. En ce qui concerne la motivation de l’ordre des adjectifs. c. Le syntagme adjectival bête à pleurer est en voie de lexicalisation. Dans les séquences figées l’insertion d’éléments nouveaux est très réduite. dans le cas de un enfant sourd-muet on comprend que la maladie de la mutité vient s’ajouter à celle de la surdité. b. Goes (1999: 223) fait la précision que dans ce cas les adjectifs fonctionnent simultanément comme attributs par rapport au syntagme nominal et comme adverbes par rapport au verbe : (44) a. Les expressions figées sont des suites bloquées. c. mais il revêt une valeur de superlatif (selon Goes 1999 : 177). en montrant que l’objet est plutôt vert-bleu. la qualification bleu-vert appliquée à un objet donné peut être contestée. dans le cas d’une expression comme de bonne humeur. que le second vient seulement modifier. comme une conséquence. Noailly (1999: 47) considère que la priorité matérielle de l’un des adjectifs a une incidence sur leur poids relatif dans la sémantique de leur relation et confère au premier des deux un sens prioritaire. Mais on peut dire : de l’eau distillée. c. b. . sans pouvoir dire *de l’eau très distillée. b. Par exemple. Cependant. la position adjectivale (qui est obligatoire) fait l’objet d’un paradigme de (bonne. *Ce garçon est assez bête à pleurer. d. d. Cependant. mauvaise…) humeur et permet à ce niveau l’insertion d’un quantifieur: de très bonne humeur (Gross 1996 : 19). Pierre a calculé la racine carrée de ce nombre *Pierre a calculé la carrée racine de ce nombre Il s’est produit un court-circuit *Il s’est produit un circuit-court Ils sont rentrés sains et saufs *Ils sont rentrés saufs et sains.DANIELA BORDEA* 92 b. que le locuteur ne peut pas modifier : (42) a. c’est la relation entre de et humeur qui est figée. à pleurer n’est presque plus senti comme un complément de bête. *Ce garçon est bête à assez pleurer. e. Cet enfant est sourd-muet *Cet enfant est muet-sourd. de l’eau bi distillée. c. c. a. a. on peut avoir: (54) a. b. b. a. lorsque les deux adjectifs formant un composé (suite Adj + Adj) désignent des qualités indépendantes. b. b. b. alors la relative doit être mise en apposition pour éviter le pléonasme : (55) a. c. a. qui est rouge . un enfant sourd-muet un enfant sourd qui est aussi muet un enfant muet qui est aussi sourd Nous remarquons que si l’adjectif désigne une qualité inhérente d’un substantif. Les expressions figées n’admettent pas la relativisation: (47) (48) (49) (50) (51) (52) (53) a. b. *rouge comme une tomate qui est rouge rouge comme une tomate. une chaise longue *une chaise qui est longue un pont-levis *un pont qui est levis des dépouilles opimes *des dépouilles qui sont opimes des fenêtres grandes-ouvertes *des fenêtres grandes qui sont ouvertes *des fenêtres ouvertes qui sont grandes une soie gris de lin *une soie grise qui est de lin *une soie de lin qui est grise une chauve-souris *une souris qui est chauve des fruits aigres-doux *des fruits aigres qui sont doux *des fruits doux qui sont aigres Cependant.DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS 93 Dans le cas des expressions formées d’un adjectif suivi d’un complément. c. d. Wilmet (1997 : 214) remarque la solidarisation de l’adjectif avec son complément : (45) a. b. b. a. c. *un panier percé est un panier *un cerf-volant est un cerf *une toile cirée est une toile un vin rouge est un vin e. b. a. une lettre recommandée est une lettre (figé) (figement opaque) (figé) (figement opaque) (figé) (figement opaque) (sens quasi compositionnel) (moins figé) (sens quasi compositionnel) (moins figé). un tableau beau à couper le souffle *un beau tableau à couper le souffle Le degré de figement peut être mis en évidence par la formule un X est un X : (46) a. b. b. comme substitut générique. d. *rapide comme l’éclair qui est rapide rapide comme l’éclair.DANIELA BORDEA* 94 c. il n’y a pas de possibilité de coordination avec un autre adjectif: (57) a. mais toi. une lettre recommandée une lettre qui est recommandée Étant donné que la relation entre le nom et l’adjectif est restreinte. Etant donné le fait que le sens global d’une expression figée correspond à un concept existant dans la langue (Gross 1996: 42). b. un cerf-volant *un cerf-volant et beau *un cerf beau et volant une toile cirée *une toile cirée et blanche une toile blanche et cirée Même remarque pour les suites V + Adj (Tuţescu 1978: 92) : (58) a. l’expression figée peut commuter avec un équivalent synonyme: une fine bouche commute avec gourmet. e. pour les expressions moins figées on peut avoir: Il a acheté du vin rouge et il l’a mis sur la table. Cependant il est à remarquer qu’à l’intérieur des suites figées la possibilité de substitution synonymique ou par des unités de la même famille est exclue : (60) (61) (62) a. qui est ronde Mais les expressions moins figées peuvent admettre la relativisation : (56) a. ni la pronominaliser (Tuţescu 1978: 92) : (59) a. b. a. *Elle a acheté une chaise longue et elle a mis cette chaise dans sa chambre *Il a fait la sourde oreille. d. Cependant. a. b. f. c. c. voir clair voir d’un bon œil *voir clair et d’un bon œil On ne peut pas reprendre la base seule. b. qui est rapide *rond comme une bille qui est ronde rond comme une bille. b. e. un court-circuit *un bref-circui clair comme le jour *clair comme le matin un cerf-volant . tu ne l’as pas faite. b. f. DYNAMIQUE DU FIGEMENT : L’ADJECTIF EN FRANÇAIS b. 95 *une biche volante Une séquence en combinatoire figée a rarement des correspondants contraires terme à terme : (63) (64) (65) (66) Combinatoire libre : a. une grande fenêtre /vs/ une petite fenêtre b. une fenêtre ouverte /vs/ une fenêtre fermée Combinatoire figée : a. une fenêtre grande-ouverte b. *une fenêtre petite-fermée a. clair comme le jour b. *sombre comme la nuit a. fort comme la mort b. *faible comme la vie Les expressions figées n’acceptent pas la passivation : (67) a. b. Jean a fait la sourde oreille *La sourde oreille a été faite par Jean. 4. Conclusions Notre étude sur le figement dans la classe de l’adjectif français a mis en évidence quelques conclusions : (i) le figement est un processus dynamique qui se réalise selon un mécanisme cyclique, fermé sur lui-même, qui fonctionne en feed-back ; (ii) le figement se caractérise par un paramètre intensionnel (le degré de figement) et par un paramètre extensionnel (la portée du figement) ; (iii) le figement peut être mis en évidence par des tests de figement. Quelle qu’elle soit, l’expression figée rend le message plus clair, surtout quand elle sert à illustrer des concepts abstraits, et ainsi elle améliore et facilite le processus de communication. L’interlocuteur saisit plus facilement les images mentales que les abstractions et cela justifie le fait que les expressions figées utilisent des éléments constitutifs pris au vocabulaire fondamental de la langue, le plus concret et le plus susceptible à éveiller des représentations mentales. BIBLIOGRAPHIE Cuniţă, Alexandra (1980), La formation des mots. La dérivation lexicale en français contemporain, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucarest. Goes, Jan (1999), L’adjectif. Entre nom et verbe, Duculot, Paris. 96 DANIELA BORDEA* Grevisse, Maurice (1988), Le bon usage, 12e éd., (revue par André Goosse), Duculot, Paris. Gross, Gaston (1988), « Degré de figement des noms composés », in Langages, 90, Larousse, pp.57-72. Gross, Gaston (1996), Les expressions figées en français, noms composés et autres locutions, Ophrys, Paris. Noailly, Michèle (1999), L’adjectif en français, Ophrys, Paris. Picabia, Lélia (1978), Les constructions adjectivales en français. Systématique transformationnelle, Droz, Genève. Riegel, Martin, Jean-Christophe Pellat, René Rioul (1994), Grammaire méthodique du français, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. Svensson, Maria-Helena (2004), Critères de figement, Umeå Universitet, Umeå,. Tuţescu, Mariana (1978), Précis de sémantique française, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucarest. Wilmet, Marc (1997), Grammaire critique du français, Duculot, Paris. GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? FRANCESCO VITUCCI* Abstract This paper stems from didactic module conducted in the fall semester of the academic year 2012-2013 in the course of Japanese Philology in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literature of Alma Mater Studiorum Bologna University, Italy. It aims at introducing the Japanese scholars’ different positions on the issue of loanwords within Japanese language from a historical and sociolinguistic perspective. Successively, contemporary issues concerning garaigo will be analysed from the following perspectives: (i) Can gairaigo be considered as an example of “language suicide” and as an outcome of the English language imperialism?; (ii) Can gairaigo be considered as the expression of a “casual bilingualism” that enriches the Japanese lexical panorama and augments mutual intelligibility among intercultural speakers?; (iii) Are gairaigo useful to the lexical enrichment of Japanese language if analysed in a mere Japanese communication context? The above issues will be analysed in order to understand the current position and further developments of katakanago within Japanese language. Keywords: Japanese, gairaigo, katakanago, wasei eigo, sociolinguistics. 1. Introduction According to the sociolinguist Sachiko Okamoto (2008), Japan can be defined as a monolingual country since, leaving aside the language policies followed by the government in this last century, it is geographically in a position of isolation that accentuates these characteristics. However, the increase of loanwords together with the lack of their standardization in transcription over the years, has raised many discussions among scholars and within the Japanese government so much as to talk about a外来語氾濫Gairaigo Hanran ‘foreign words flood’. According to the dictionary by Kōno et al. (1996), one should consider gairaigo “all the terms entered in the archipelago during the Muromachi period after the first contacts with European merchants and missioners and, secondly, loanwords imported from Europe and America * School of Languages and Literature, Translation and Interpretation, Alma Mater Studiorum Bologna University, Department of Asian and African Studies, Ca’ Foscari University, Venice,
[email protected]. The first garaigo reached Japan in the late medieval period. However. ブタペストinstead of ブダペスト ‘Budapest’. as described above. 2 The following list contains a number of wrong gairaigo frequently encountered in Japanese conversation: ベット instead of ベッド ‘bed’. キューピットinstead of キューピッド ‘Cupid’. brought by the Portuguese and the Dutch1. the line of elongation for long vowels (ー). given the absence of a clear framework and having to rely on subjective transcription choices. from Dutch. Among the transcription parameters suggested by Arai Hakuseki. Obviously. are not to be considered gairaigo. the use of katakana for transcription had already begun during the Muromachi period with the translation of Dutch and Portuguese lexicon. ナルシスinstead of ナルシシスト ‘narcissist’. it is clear that the probability that these terms will be reproduced incorrectly is no doubt very high. 1715) and in解体新書 (Kaitai Shinsho. バトミントンinstead of バドミントン ‘badminton’. at that time. The use of katakana was due to the fact that in Japan since the Heian period this syllabary had been utilized for the practice of kanbun kundoku in order to insert auxiliary glosses within Chinese classics (補助符号). as an example. Arai Hakuseki (新井白石) and Sugita Genpaku (杉田玄白) set the rules for transcription in their works西洋紀聞 (Seiyō Kibun. The current mode of gairaigo transcription was sanctioned in 1991 by the ministerial document 外来語の表記Gairaigo no Hyōki. オルゴール ‘music box’. . 1774). レジュメ ‘summary’. シャボン ‘soap’. It is only during the Edo period that katakana are officially formalized for the transcription of loanwords. the reader is often left confused. it is mentioning. the translation of Ontleedkundige tafelen. Unlike和製英語wasei eigo terms. ドックフードinstead of ドッグフード ‘dog food’. ティーパックinstead of ティーバッグ ‘tea bag’. イデオロギー ‘ideology’. ノイローゼ ‘neurosis’. コンペートー ‘coloured sugar candies’. from German. most of these words were still transcribed through kanji or hiragana. アンコール ‘encore’. Conversely. scholars are still arguing on the issue of garaigo transcription2. カルキ‘chalk’. A brief history of garaigo Today. スコップ‘shovel’. from Portuguese. 2. ニュースinstead ofニューズ ‘news’. from Dutch. even if. フィアンセ ‘fiancé’.シュミレーションinstead of シミュレーション‘simulation’. the kango of Chinese origin”. from French.FRANCESCO VITUCCI 98 starting from the Meiji period (mainly from English). In fact. 外来語gairaigo mainly designate loanwords imported from foreign languages and conventionally written in katakana. 1 Among these one can mention: タバコ ‘tobacco’. since no fixed rules for transcription can be found in this document. ボンベ ‘compressed gas cylinder’. カルテ ‘clinical records’. パフェ ‘parfait’. the国立研究所Kokuritsu Kenkyūjo began their investigation on gairaigo entitled (外来語の理解調査Gairaigo no rikaichōsa) which revealed garaigo intelligibility disparities among Japanese due to generational gaps and lifestyle differences between the town and the countryside (Jinnouchi 2007). names of animals and plants. technical jargon. 3 Statistical surveys are also being conducted through television and reveal how the presence of gairaigo is strongly influenced by the type of TV program broadcast. it comes to外来語乱用gairaigo ranyō ‘gairaigo misuse’. due to an increase of foreign lexicon imported from several research branches often translated through新漢語shinkango. Japanese speakers started to feel uncomfortable with the ideographic writing and began to replace kanji transcriptions with katakana. the increase of gairaigo was perceived in Japan as a threat to the survival of the Japanese language. but they soon returned to prominence with the American occupation of Japan. In the daily life of the Japanese. the habit of dealing with road signs. the myth of the国際人kokusaijin spread all over the country and the first gairaigo dictionaries began to be published (Tanaka and Tanaka 1996). with billboards written in English so as not to feel the presence of English and rōmaji as intrusive and alien. toponyms entirely transcribed with katakana (see e. During the Second World War foreign words were banned. Compared to programs that do not use loanwords (such as jidaigeki. From this point on. oral and written language produced by foreign speakers. but also of onomatopoeia.4% to 10%. station names transcribed with the Latin alphabet became widespread. obscene language. proper names of people and states. sumō matches. In the Eighties. In the Fifties. and in the Seventies to外来語氾濫gairaigo hanran ‘gairaigo overflowing’. in the Sixties to 外来語洪水gairaigo kōzui ‘gairaigo flood’. dialect expressions. Nevertheless. the percentage of loanwords. programs with a . Between the beginning of the Meiji period and Taishō period.GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? 99 Although during the Edo period one normally resorted to the use of kanji with katakana rubi for writing foreign words. In the Sixties. had risen from 1. during the period of the socalled文明開化Bunmei Kaika. It is in this climate that wasei eigo terms permeated the Japanese language due to the dominance of English in Japan (Okamoto 2008). place names. all gairaigo terms were finally transcribed through katakana trying to follow the phonetics rules of the languages which they came from. hybrids terms. According to them3. Latin characters were reintroduced in the elementary schools together with the teaching of English in junior high school.g. the term カタカナ語 katakanago was coined to indicate the transcription not only of loanwords. Kaneya 2002). if compared to late nineteenth century Japanese dictionaries. Western products and ideas invaded the Japanese archipelago. Thanks to the so-called言語改革 ‘policy of language renewal’. After the economic boom reached by Japan in the Fifties. at the time Prime Minister of Japan. the older segment of the population located in rural areas.2%).8%). there are others who use gairaigo in large quantities such as: formula 1 races (25. Koizumi. with Japanese terms. especially. founded the外来語委員会Gairaigo Iinkai committee in order to draft a document aimed pedagogical background). in 1997 a survey by the Japanese Ministry of Culture entitled国語に関する世論調査Kokugo ni kansuru yoronchōsa showed that 90% of respondents. After the外来語の表記Gairaigo no hyōki was promulgated in 1991 in order to clarify the transcription of loanwords in Japanese. All this. failing to understand the function they play within Japanese language and disregarding the fact that in Japan they are not considered as “English” terms (Kristof 1995). Labour and Welfare added vigor to the カタカナ語追求運動Katakanago Tsuikyū Undō movement in order to replace those gairaigo. music programs with Japanese idols (25.FRANCESCO VITUCCI 100 3. which were not understandable to senior citizens. had difficulty in understanding garaigo (Figure 1). Data from the survey国語に関する世論調査 Kokugo ni kansuru yoronchōsa (from Okamoto 2008) In 2002. Japanese surveys and anti-gairaigo measures In 1989 Junichiro Koizumi founded the用語適正化委員会Yogo Tekiseika Iinkai committee in order to limit loanwords in public offices and in 1997 as Minister of Health. Figure 1.7%). . and fashion programs (23. however. was unable to contain the increase of katakanago so that the phenomenon was brought to the fore by a New York Times article (2/21/1995) that made fun of wasei eigo terms. Figure 2. sex. It also insisted that the comprehensibility of gairaigo is lowered by generation gaps. it would be necessary to distinguish the various contexts in which garaigo are utilized introducing Japanese translations and explanations when possible. Another pamphlet entitled ジジババ のための パソコン 指南Jijibaba no tame no pasokon shinan was published after this experiment. not a lexical item of those examined was replaced (Figure 2). the Japanese Ministry of Culture conducted its investigation on gairaigo entitled 外来語に関する世論調査 Gairaigo ni kansuru . This statement is based on the fact that gairaigo normally enter the Japanese language from technical jargon and that they then gradually filter downward into the common language. according to the dossier. type of profession and place of residence in the country . In 2007.GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? 101 at finding viable solutions to the problem. The results of the surveys and research were first collected in 2003 in a dossier entitled「外来言」い換え提案・わかりにくい外来語をわかりやすくするため の言葉遣いの工夫Gairaigo Iikae Teian – wakarinikui gairaigo wakariyasuku wo suru tame no kotobazukai no kufū. in the end. Therefore. Even though the activity of the committee continued until 2006. The dossier was meant to replace gairaigo with Japanese terms by adding explanatory comments where necessary. Data from the Gairaigo Iikae Teian dossier Experiments of garaigo replacement were also carried out by the newspaper Yomiuri through an activity entitled 新日本語現場Shin nihongo no genba (Hashimoto 2003) which was aimed at fostering the digital literacy of the elderly bands of population. in the case of former colonies. nowadays the new generations of Japanese are increasingly exposed to a greater number of gairaigo living often in a situation of “casual bilingualism”. Japanese used to import loanwords but always katakaniz-ing them without introducing English as a real vehicle of education. intransigence towards gairaigo was diminishing. one began to notice less aversion towards loanwords by older generations and. the situation would be different. 4. even during ancient times and the Meiji period. but rather with the alphabet. the increase of gairaigo should be considered as a chance of lexical enrichment rather than as a threat. ブレーキ ‘brake’. エアコン ‘air conditioning’. For this reason. which offers transcriptions based solely on Japanese phonetics. Suzuki suggests that the introduction of gairaigo into Japanese. by women. many of the gairaigo introduced from English have served the needs of the Japanese commerce. These data revealed that with the passing of generations. However. Surely. This is because there is too much structural distance between the Indo-European language families and the Ural-Altaic one to which Japanese belongs (Palmer 1979). Although this situation has been stimulated in the twenty-first century by the need to launch Japanese products on the international market. . タイヤ ‘tyre’ have been imported from English in order to avoid confusion on the market. To solve communication problems that gairaigo often produce in daily conversation with foreigners. in particular. in fact. Moreover. English is only offered as a formal second language within the Japanese school curriculum and always in a monolingual environment4. did not affect the structure of the language itself. Nevertheless. this phenomenon also presents an active side whenever Japanese lexicon is exported abroad without being translated (let us think of the so-called gaikōgo 4 According to Suzuki.FRANCESCO VITUCCI 102 yoronchōsa that revealed interesting trends in Japanese society. In fact. but only versions transcribed in katakana in which they were able to track a greater number of gairaigo. Yūji Suzuki and the “Casual Bilingualism” The linguist Yūji Suzuki (2003) states that the reason for the lack of English skills in Japan would lie in the fact that despite the huge presence of gairaigo from English and wasei eigo. Suzuki proposes to pronounce them according to their original language pronunciation and not to transcribe them in katakana. アンテナ ‘antenna’. these statements are backed up by a research carried out by Suzuki himself which showed how a sample of Japanese adults could not read English texts written in alphabet. This position seems to exceed that of Gairaigo no hyōki. thanks to mass media. Suzuki suggests that terms such as テレビ ‘TV’. . 芸者 ‘geisha’. the latter refers to the formal culture that receives new linguistic habits from the latest linguistic trends from generation to generation. this problem is due to the fact that from the Meiji period new technical terms imported from foreign languages were no longer translated into kango. ヘッドフォン · ステレオ ‘stereo headphone’. According to Inoue (2001).GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? 103 phenomenon)5. e. jeans. there are several problems of semantic shift between Japanese loanwords and their original terms in English. On the one side. In particular. the relative complexity of Japanese language decreases in the case of foreign speakers (especially for English-native speakers). テリヤキ ‘teriyaki’. even though absolute complexity increases. Suzuki puts in contrast the so-called “casual” cultures with “frozen’ cultures” (see Hall 1976). but also of other culturally specific terms such as寿司 ‘sushi’. this quasi-bilingual condition should already be part of the Japanese language environment and that it could be further exploited to boost English language learning in Japan and to reach an almost complete bilingual environment such as those of former colonial countries. and the like. rock) together with all those linguistic habits born within oral language and gradually penetrated into the socalled “frozen culture”. This would force even native speakers to use bilingual English-Japanese dictionaries to understand the many neologisms expressed through gairaigo. Nevertheless. This process would foster the so-called “casual bilingualism” thanks to which each speaker in the world could share a common lexicon base composed by international terms coming from several languages. ホテルinstead of 旅館 ‘hotel’. the sociolinguist Fumio Inoue (2001) argues that the gradual invasion of gairaigo into the Japanese language has increased the absolute level of complexity of Japanese. According to Suzuki (2003: 102). チタン ‘titanium’ → タイタン ‘Titan’ → タイタニック ‘Titanic’. this antonymy would reveal the possibility of exporting lexical items from one source language to a given target language whenever a lexical gap occurs. This would be due to the increase of synonymic terms. Given this ongoing lexical globalization. as already mentioned. as in the case of expressions like 郵便 substituted byメール ‘mail’. thanks to the massive presence of gairaigo. Fumio Inoue and “language suicide” Unlike Suzuki.g. the “casual culture” would contain all the English lexicon shared on an international level (for example: burgers. Today. or with terms with the same root yielding different gairaigo. this problem would be further exacerbated due to 5 Let us think of terms such as ウォークマン ‘walkman’. However. From a Japanese perspective. 5. Suzuki suggests that. 住所 replaced by アドレス ‘address’. FRANCESCO VITUCCI 104 generation gaps among Japanese speakers. Nevertheless, as already mentioned, young people seem more prone to the introduction of gairaigo. In fact, on the occasion of the above mentioned 1997 survey carried out by the Japanese Ministry of Culture (文化庁・世論調査「国語に関する世論調査), to the question “what do you think about the increase of gairaigo?”, more than 60% of respondents answered ‘it is not a problem if they increase’. In particular, the highest approval was expressed by young women with an 80% rating. According to Inoue, these data should be considered as the proof of a linguistic globalization which reveals, in turn, a lack of sensitivity of Japanese speakers towards this issue. Moreover, Suzuki argues that with the increase of gairaigo more and more new pronunciations have permeated the phonetic Japanese system. This results in a lowering of the absolute difficulty of the language, but also in an increase of the relative difficulty for Japanese speakers caused by generation gaps. In fact, although new transcriptions of series such asヴァ [va], ヴィ[vi], ヴゥ[vu],ヴェ [ve], ヴォ[vo] have been introduced, older speakers still have difficulty in utilizing them, since they cannot distinguish the consonants [v] and [b] (just as they cannot distinguish [r] and [l]). In his essay suggestively entitled日本語は生き残れるかNihongo wa ikinokoreruka, Inoue points out that the presence of gairaigo has also increased the translation of movie titles from abroad. If during the period before the second World War titles were literally translated, with the time English has gradually replaced Japanese. At first, only lexical substitutions occurred, but eventually entire sentences were transcribed in katakana to slowly drift towards rōmaji. According to data collected by Inoue (2001), from the Fifties until the late Nineties, the percentage of movie titles which includes gairaigo, e.g. in Figure 4, increased from 10 to more than 50%. Figure 4. Translation of movie titles in katakana GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? 105 This increase is certainly due to marketing issues. Katakanago titles, in fact, make a better grip on the audience. That is why nowadays English tout court is preferred to Japanese translations. The same phenomenon is also observed for TV program titles (which use more and more gairaigo and transcriptions in rōmaji) and for J-pop music lyrics where rōmaji lexicon appear both in titles or within texts interspersed with Japanese syntax. According to Inoue, as early as the European colonization of the Americas and the late nineteenth century European colonization of Africa and Oceania, Latin characters found themselves in a situation of dominance against local writing (Inoue 2001: 181). This was because in terms of cognitive investment, the rōmaji proved very fruitful given the little investment of time and the fact that one could obtain the maximum efficiency with a few signs. Also in Japan, today one is witnessing the phenomenon of the so-called 振りローマ字 furi romaji which is the habit of transcribing native terms not in kana, but directly with alphabetic characters. This habit involves, in particular, station names (Shinjuku, Ikebukuro) and names of magazines and periodicals be it foreign (Focus, Friday) or native (Nonno, Hanako). Actually, the indiscriminate increase of rōmaji seems to be linked with a more cosmopolitan image sought for Japanese products as one can note from Japanese logos such as those of Toyota or Subaru. Nevertheless, the use of rōmaji remains problematic, since the Japanese are not used to including them in their written habits. Moreover, although the Hepburn system remains the most credible solution for the transcription of foreign languages, many uncertainties remain. In the end, Inoue compares the evolution of the Japanese language to that of a カステラ ‘castella’ cake which is compressed from above by gairaigo and is going to gradually wear down the body of language. This phenomenon, suggests Inoue, would represent a form of “linguistic suicide” which the Japanese seem unable to cope with. Certainly, states Inoue, the future survival of many languages will be increasingly linked to their exchange value just like that of currencies on the stock market. The higher the market value, the better the chances of survival. Yet, there are sociolinguists who cannot agree with Inoue. According to Okamoto (2008), importing gairaigo and producing wasei eigo would just reflect two of the main processes that set in motion whenever two cultures come in contact: namely, the absorption of linguistic elements from the foreign culture (文化受容) and the consecutive change within the indigenous one (文化変容). In fact, once a loanword is imported, it is often dropped in new linguistic contexts within the target culture. This would allow loanwords to become closer to speakers diluting the sense of alienation that distinguishes them in the beginning. Loanwords, suggests Okamoto, reveal the high degree of lexical dynamism of languages. From a historical point of view, Okamoto compares the impact of gairaigo on Japanese language to that yielded by kango, shinkango and rōmaji at the time of their introduction in Japan. FRANCESCO VITUCCI 106 Accordingly, loanwords prove to be an instrument of refined lexical enrichment that acts as a stimulus to the entire social development. Unlike Suzuki, who suggests exploiting the potential of garaigo for English language learning, and Inoue, who considers all loanwords as a sign of English language imperialism, Okamoto overcomes these positions illustrating how language can be continuously regenerated through the contact with the outside world while maintaining, at the same time, its own lexical identity and its own dignity. This would happen since, once placed in a given socio-cultural system, loanwords develop a semantic life of their own that is detached from their source languages contributing to the maintenance of the target society in which they develop. 6. Conclusions As Jinnouchi suggests (2007), nowadays loanwords are spreading more quickly due to the necessity of conveying new information into the Japanese society. As a consequence, in order to understand the contemporary role of gairaigo, one should analyze the Japanese language as a whole taking into consideration keigo, youth slang, dialects and the role played by the media rather than isolating gairaigo from the rest of the linguistic life of the country. Okamoto (2008) also states that penetrating from technical jargons, loanwords are often distributed in further areas of Japanese, enriching the general overview of the language with linguistic expressions which did not exist before. Moreover, being loanwords adapted to the Japanese phonetics (contributing to the creation of wasei eigo), they should be considered as a physiological outcome of Japanese lexical life. According to Okamoto (2008), terms such as ストーブ‘stove’,コネ‘connection’, インフラ ‘infrastructure’, レベル・アップ ‘level up’, サービス精神 ‘service spirit’,ドタキャンする ‘make a last minute cancellation’ reveal the great dynamism of the Japanese language which is able to create terms accessible to the entire society. In fact, a big mistake would be to consider these terms as “English” or aimed at the conversation in that language. As a consequence, Okamoto (2008) recognizes in these terms an exquisitely Japanese “citizenship” and “use”. Given these premises, it seems unlikely that one can limit the spread of loanwords in Japan since the use made in advertising, as an example, plays more and more with puns created, not by chance, with gairaigo. From this perspective, one cannot help but admit that reflecting the trend of the times, loanwords need to be analyzed for the role they play within the society (Jinnouchi 2006 and 2012). Accordingly, the spread and the acceptance of gairaigo should not be seen solely as a linguistic matter, but rather, as an issue that directly involves the realm of politics (with language policies), society (which spreads the language reflecting certain fashions and trends), economy (which increasingly globalizes foreign goods and services), and finally, marketing (which advertises products and services, see Figure 3). Fumio (2001).) (2003). even the direct government intervention through specific language policies at the beginning of the twenty-first century proved to be unsuccessful since the Japanese society itself has been able to develop an intrinsic capacity of lexical absorption refuting any hypothesis of linguistic colonialism (Kotoba to shakai henshūiinkai 2000. Tokyo. New York. Shin nihongo no genba. Edward T. Examples of gairaigo used in advertising On the basis of the above considerations. Cambridge University Press. Far from considering the use of garaigo as an act of ‘language suicide’ or a ploy to strengthen a situation of bilingualism. perhaps it would be better to focus on the life cycle and the contexts in which gairaigo are dropped (Suginamiku yakusho 2005). Japan has always depended in writing on foreign contributions and it is thanks to these contributions that it has been able to develop an extremely complex language from the lexical point of view. Language and Society in Japan. As has been demonstrated through the data from several surveys. Cambridge. Chūokōronsha. scholars. (1976) Beyond Culture.GAIRAIGO WITHIN JAPANESE LANGUAGE: LANGUAGE SUICIDE OR CASUAL CULTURE? 107 Figure 3. must continue to follow without prejudice the development of this story going beyond any form of reaction or political subjection under way in the Country. Not surprisingly. We. Nanette (2005). the changing relations with China and the import of gairaigo from languages other than English will bring additional novelty into the Japanese language and society. it will be interesting to continue monitoring the lexical evolution in Japan given the dynamic complexity of its writing system. Of course. Hall. Inoue. Hashimoto. Gorō (ed. REFERENCES Gottlieb. . Nihongo wa ikinokoreruka. Tokyo. Gottlieb 2005). PHP Shinsho. Anchor Books. Seikatsushinsho. “Japan’s favorite import from America: English”. Tokyo. Katakana Shingojitsuyou Jiten. Tokyo. Sanseidō. . Masataka (ed.ac. Ōfū. Masataka (2007). Sekaishisōsha.pdf. Kōno. Jinnouchi. Tokyo. Shakaigengogaku.108 FRANCESCO VITUCCI Jinnouchi. Jinnouchi.jp/research/pdf/treatises05/05OKAMOTOa. Sachiko (2008). http://www. Tokyo. (1979).go. Kotoba to shakai henshūiinkai (ed.) (2000). Tokyo. Harumi and Sachiko Tanaka (1996). Kristof. Suzuki. Yūji (2003). Gairaigo kenkyū no shin’hatten. Sangensha. Katakanaeigo de kajuaru bairingaru.) (2005).) (2006). Nicholas (1995). Kokuritsuinsatsukyoku. Suginamiku yakusho – kuchōshitsu sōmuka (ed. Tōkyō. retrieved on February 2nd. Tokyo. Turin. retrieved on February 2nd. Tokyo. 2013. 2013. Gairaigo to gendaishakai. Tanaka. Tokyo. Rokurō et al (1996). Toshihiro (2002). Gakken Kenkyūjo. 4. vol. Leonard T. Masataka (ed. http://libro.html. Palmer. Tokyo.jp/b_menu/hakusho/nc/k1991062 8002/k19910628002. Kotoba to shakai. Gengogaku Daijiten.mext. Gyōsei. Shakaigengogaku e no shōtai. Okamoto. Einaudi. Minerva Shobō. Gairaigo no shakaigengogaku – Nihongo no gurōbaruna kangaekata.dobunkyodai. Linguistica descrittiva e comparativa. The New York Times (February 21st). Okamoto. ALC.) (2012). Weblinks Monbukagakushō: Gairaigo no hyōki. Sachiko: Gairaigo no juyō to kanri: gengo seisaku no shiten kara. Gairaigo yakusho kotoba iikaechō. Kaneya. ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS JING DENG* Abstract This paper investigates the linguistic and pragmatic features of public signs in three distinct historical stages of the Chinese society. Introduction Language is a mirror of society. give warnings or advocate specific social norms. and School of Foreign Languages. its beliefs and values as well as the transformations it undergoes. 1. Nanjing University of Science and Technology. This paper aims to analyze the historic development of public signs and explore the linguistic features and pragmatic strategies of public signs in today’s China to shed light on characteristics of public language in China and the social life of the Chinese people.com. dengjingchina2005@aliyun. or namely. linguistic and pragmatic features. manifesting cultural qualities. in order to shed light on the characteristics of public language and social life in modern China. . It is an open and dynamic system closely related to social development and people’s daily life. words and phrases frequently used on all kinds of public occasions. It reflects a society’s structure. In different historic stages public signs prevail in every corner of cities in China to provide information. public signs. moral attainment and spiritual features of the whole society. * College of Foreign Languages and Literatures. It then focuses on the new pragmatic features of public signs. is one of the most direct and obvious linguistic evidence. Keywords: social pragmatic analysis. Fudan University. Among all varieties of language public language. As social slogans directed to the general audience the technique and art of designing public signs embodies the connotations of Chinese culture and the progress of the Chinese society. Public signs include land post. Roughly the development of public signs in China could be divided into the following three phases in terms of their respective linguistic and pragmatic features. ethical. In Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978). warns them not to do something (such as road signs or no-smoking signs). the designing of public signs is marked by times since they conform to specific national conditions and social mentality at that time. the main communicative purpose of public signs in essence is to persuade. From the above definitions of public signs. as a mode of communication. or warn the public to enact/prohibit the intended action of the speaker in the interest of public welfare. with words or drawings on it that gives people information. room. China pursued the planned economy and political propaganda was prevalent throughout the country. public signs often impose some face threat on the public. In the cultural arena thousands of years of feudalism still had great impact on people’s ideology. Third. advertising board. hence the designers have to convey their message in the most direct and prominent way to attract the public’s attention. Phase one (before the reform and opening-up policy) In this period. it is a kind of one-way communication with the general public in which the speaker conveys the information while the audience receives it without possibility of negotiation.JING DENG 110 2. and psychological factors involved and the changes in people’s life. 3. . they tend to be simple and brief in form: people seldom spend much time reading public signs. one could witness the political. First. metal. the notion of social class hierarchy still existed in people’s mind. the speaker often endeavors to alleviate the face threat through strategic use of language. Definition and characteristics of public signs Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (2000) defines the public sign as a lettered board or other public display placed on or before a building. forbid. shop or office to advertise business there transacted or the name of person or firm conducting it.1. shop and slogans in tourist attractions and the other public places. With their illocutionary force of directives. therefore. The speaker always tries to convey the largest amount of information within the limited space of a small sign. Second. the public sign is defined as a piece of paper. 3. Diachronic development of public signs in China As a type of social slogans serving the public. for instance. in public place. we can infer some basic characteristics. From the evolution of public signs. etc. in many directive public signs such as 严禁酒后开车 Yánjìn jiǔhòu kāichē. distant or even threatening with the speaker giving commands on behalf of the administrative institutions concerned. .3. For example. 3. People’s living standard at that time was further improved and they craved for a more meaningful social life. Phase two (from the reform and opening-up program to the early 1990’s) Since the reform and opening policy in 1978. qǐng búyào xīyān. The designers of public signs began to pay attention to the propriety issue by adopting a more friendly and polite tone. marking a more civilized Chinese society. Public language in this period became much more individualized and diversified with the integration of modern culture and foreign cultures into traditional Chinese culture with the advent of the information age.2. The tone of public signs at that time was rigid. it was very possible that the very opposite perlocutionary act would occur because the public was offended by the cold and blunt tone of the speaker. Otherwise you will be fined!’. ‘For the sake of your and others’ health. please do not smoke’. ‘Drunk driving is strictly forbidden.ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS 111 Public signs in this phase generally were mainly didactic by nature to discipline people’s behavior and maintain the social order. Words like 禁止 jìnzhǐ ‘… is forbidden’. fǒuzé jiāng chǔyǐ fákuǎn! ‘Trampling on the lawn is not allowed. For example. Public signs became humorous. Consequently although the illocutionary forces of these public signs were asking the public not/to take the intended actions. For example public signs 请保持安静 Qǐng bǎochí ānjìng. And the material and cultural life of the Chinese people became richer in this period. 3. 严禁 yánjìn ‘… is strictly forbidden’ or 不许 bùxǔ ‘Do not…’ frequently appeared. humanized. The most typical example is the frequent use of the politeness marker ‘please’ and some explanatory remarks in directive public signs. diversified.’ and 不许践踏草坪，否则将处以罚款！Bùxǔ jiàntà cǎopíng. in a shopping center. the tone was serious and authoritative with an unequal power relationship between the interlocutors.present) During this period the economy of China continued to develop rapidly and China enhanced its exchanges with the outside world. Phase three (the early 1990’s . ‘Please keep quiet. These public signs indicate that the speaker realized the face threat to the public incurred by the tough and overbearing language of the public signs in the past and began to consider the audience’s emotions and feelings by showing them respect.’ and 为了您和他人的健康，请不要吸烟 Wèile nín hé tārén de jiànkāng. China strengthened its exchanges with the outside world and gained great momentum in its economic drive. in locations such as streets. The public sign 家人盼望您安全归来 Jiārén pànwàng nín ānquán guīlái. 节约用 Jiéyuē yòngshuǐ ‘Save Water’ and 保持安静 Bǎochí ānjìng ‘Keep silence’ were too bland and tasteless to catch the audience’s eye. under the influence of democratic ideas from the western culture. therefore posing a serious threat to their negative face. Since most public signs are directives with face threat to the audience.1. Politeness Politeness is a symbol of human civilization present in any culture in the world. the concepts of politeness and rituals were highly valued throughout its thousands years of history. so it is very likely that the audience overlooked them and thus they failed to achieve the communicative purpose. people demand more dignity and equality in communication. some major new linguistic features of these public signs as well as the pragmatic strategies behind them will be discussed. transportation safety and the like. in modern times.’ reminds the audience to drive carefully by mentioning the family wishes. public signs exhibit some new linguistic and pragmatic features. some directive public signs such as 不许超速行驶 Bùxǔ chāosù xíngshǐ ‘Overspeeding is not allowed. The investigation of public signs was conducted in different cities in China which witness great changes with the process of urbanization.’ are compelling and speaker-centered. ‘Your family look forward to you to come back safely. In this section. Public signs regarding topics of environmental protection. Besides the . With the changes happening in today’s Chinese society. From the above analysis. 4. residential complex and universities. parks. we could conclude that some problems existed in the design of public signs before the reform and opening up of China. ‘Don’t touch me. impinging on the audience’s freedom. I hate dirtiness’. With the personification in it. the language of some public signs at that time. This sign persuades the customer not to touch the new clothes. Moreover. it achieves some humorous effect. wǒ pà zāng. Second. were collected so as to shed light on different walks of social life in China. 4.JING DENG 112 the label on clothes writes: 别摸我，我怕脏 Bié mōwǒ. First.’ or 禁止横穿马路 Jìnzhǐ héngchuān mǎlù ‘Jaywalking is forbidden. the speaker will employ many linguistic and pragmatic strategies to reduce the face threat. such as 爱护草坪 Aìhù cǎopíng ‘Take care of the lawn’. the characteristics of public signs in three distinct historical stages of China were explored. Pragmatic features of public signs in today’s China In the above section. The honorific pronoun nín ‘you’ shows the consideration and respect of the speaker towards the driver coming back from their work. In traditional Chinese culture. Among these complicated speech acts one of them is primary and the rest . Indirect speech acts According to Searle (1975) and Leech (1983) people use indirect speech acts out of politeness. an act of thanking is employed to replace the original act of request. 感谢您对花草的爱惜。 Gǎnxiè nǐ duì huācǎo de àixī. The audience could hardly sense any threat to their negative face because of the indirect speech act of the assertion. sometimes a sequence of speech acts may be used to realize the communicative purpose.’ 提布袋购物是一种时尚。 Tí bùdài gòuwù shì yìzhǒng shíshàng. Consider example (1). (1) a. b. Example (1b) is an assertion that encourages the fashion of using cloth bags to restrain the pollution caused by plastic bags. Many public signs today end with 谢谢合作 Xièxiè hézuò ‘Thank you for your cooperation’ as in 请不要大声喧哗，谢谢合作 Qǐng búyào dàshēng xuānhuá.’ In example (1a). ‘Thank you for taking care of the plants. ‘It is in vogue to use cloth bag when shopping.ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS 113 pragmatic markers mentioned above like 请 qǐng ‘please’.1.1. an auxiliary speech act and a microunit. Extended speech act Ferrara (1980) holds that in communication people do not always use one speech act. xièxiè hézuò ‘Please do not speak loudly. 4. 4. Wood and Kroger (1994) point out that a speech act is generally composed of a central speech act. Thank you for your cooperation’. the speaker also often resorts to indirect speech acts or a sequence of speech acts to adjust its illocutionary force. The speaker thanks the audience even before the intended act is performed so the audience is subject to the performance of the intended act because of the presupposition embedded in it. Many public signs today contain indirect speech acts to increase the degree of politeness.2. Thus it increases the possibility of the intended act while maintaining the audience’s face. Actually this strategic usage of 感谢/谢谢 gǎnxiè/xièxiè ‘Thank you’ has conventionalized in public sign designing today.1. Brown and Levinson (1987) also hold that indirect speech act is a strategy of avoiding face-threatening acts. Bonding In a typical eastern culture like China. which emphasizes the solidarity between the interlocutors by vitalizing the empathetic effect. we could have a blue sky in our city. qǐng jiéyuē yòngshuǐ. steal or spoil them!’ In the above examples. huànlái chéngshìde yípiàn lántiān. qièqǔ. there is more than one speech act. b. as in the examples in (3): (3) a. ‘Water is the source of life. 水是生命之源，请节约用水。 Shuǐ shì shēngmìn zhī yuán.’ 我是北京人，我做环保事。 Wǒ shì Běijīng rén. wǒ zuò huánbǎo shì.2.’ . while in example (2b) the significance of books to faculty and students. 4. thus enacting the intended behavior unconsciously. the speaker often tries to make the audience feel warm and tender by underscoring the bonding between the interlocutors. ‘With effort from each of us. In many public signs today.’ b. 用我们的一份努力，换来城市的一片蓝天。 Yòng wǒmén de yífèn nǔlì. and I will do what I can to protect the environment. the speaker provides some surplus information which violates the maxim of quantity assuming that we are concise. In this way the speaker highlights the importance of water and books and reinforces the illocutionary force of the main speech act. In example (2a) the first speech act is a statement that emphasizes the importance of water to human life. qǐng búyào sīcháng. collectivism and closeness among people is very important. two speech acts are combined: an assertion and a request. so please save water. ‘I’m from Peking. In public sign designing.JING DENG 114 are auxiliary speech acts that help to enhance the acceptability of the intended act. wūsǔn! ‘Books in the library are common spiritual legacies of all faculty and students. brief and to the point in communication (Grice 1975).e. One of the most frequent devices of showing bonding is the unconventional usage of personal deixis or shift of personal deixis. 图书馆书籍是全校师生共同的精神财富，请不要私藏、窃取、污损！ Túshūguǎn shūjí shì quánxiào shīshēng gòngtóng de jīngshén cáifù. so please do not hide. the request). Consider the examples in (2): (2) a. In these auxiliary speech acts that support the main speech act (i. To this end.3. 4. Example (3b) dates from the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Thus the speaker would adapt his style to the tastes of the audience to satisfy people’s aspiration for a loftier spiritual life. the designers of public signs nowadays attach more attention to the aesthetic value of public signs themselves. Hence the audience would find it easier to accept and perform the intended act. Consider the examples in (4). since capital Beijing is the political. 轻轻地我走了，正如我轻轻地来。 Qīngqīng de wǒ zǒu le/Zhèngrú wǒ qīngqīng de lái ‘Very quietly I take my leave/As quietly as I came here’ 谁知盘中餐，粒粒皆辛苦。 Shéi zhī pán zhōng cān/lìlì jiē xīnkǔ ‘Look at the food on our plate/Every grain of which is from hard work. various rhetoric devices are adopted to increase the readability of the text within the limited words of public signs. 4. b. Many public signs in today’s China are direct or indirect quotations from Chinese literary works. that is. which embodies a rejuvenation of traditional Chinese culture to some extent. Quotation Traditional and modern Chinese culture is a continuous source in the designing of public signs. activating a sense of belonging of the audience by deeming the speaker as a member of the same group as the audience. economic and cultural center of the country.’ .3. The “I”-perspective of the whole sentence is achieved by the use of wǒ ‘I’ as the subject. (4) a.ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS 115 According to Levinson (2001) deixis is organized in an egocentric way. For example for many public signs on college campus traditional Chinese cultural elements such as the Chinese ancient poems or lyrics are often involved to form an elegant style tailored to the audience with higher education. Sophistication Although the primary purpose of public sign is practical by nature.1. but in the some derivative usages of personal deixis the deictic center is shifted to other participants. The speaker expresses the social identity of being a citizen of Peking. the speaker is the central person. In example (3a) the sentence is organized from the perspective of the audience (the inclusive pronoun we) as if the speaker himself were one of them so as to shorten the psychological distance between him and the audience. The language of the public signs also demonstrates the unique artistic taste and distinctive personality of the speaker. who is supposed to be more cosmopolitan and broadminded than those in other regions. which gives personal attributes to inanimate objects which makes public signs more vivid and lifelike. It caters to the audience of young college students and contributes to build a civilized atmosphere on the whole campus.’ 高抬贵手，请不要给课桌纹身。 Gāo tái guìshǒu. qǐng bié jīngxǐng tā de hǎomèng ‘The grass is in a sweet dream. These are the original lines of the noted classical ancient Chinese poem Chuhe [= Toiling Farmers] by Li Shen of the Tang Dynasty. These are the first two lines of the modern Chinese poem Saying Goodbye to Cambridge Again by the modern Chinese poet Xu Zhimo. b.3. qǒng búyào gěi kèzhuō wénshēn ‘Please spare your hands and do not tattoo the desk.JING DENG 116 Example (4a) is from the university library and tells the readers to keep quiet while they study in such public places. It creates a lifelike image in the audience’s mind and gives them a sense of beauty. Example (4b) is found in student canteens of many universities as a reminder for college students not to waste food. the striking size and regular font of the words on the red slogan reinforce the cautioning effects on the audience. With the antithesis of balanced structure and symmetric rhythm it impresses the audience and conveys the maximum of information in an economical way. 小草正进入甜甜的美梦，请别惊醒它的好梦。 Xiǎocǎo zhèng jìnrù tiántián de měimèng. In addition. familiar to and welcomed by most college students. as in the examples under (5): (5) a. so please do not disturb. Example (5b) is found in universities where scribbling and .2. the speaker arouses the compassion of the audience to protect the weak. the grass is referred to as being an animate object with human sensations and emotions. Personification One of the other prevalent rhetoric devices adopted in public signs in today’s China is personification. 4.’ In example (5a). By personalizing the grass as a helpless being in pain if we step on it. Example (6b) compares grass to a carpet and the tree to veins. Particularly in our modern society people live in more and more cramped spaces and undertake great pressure. 幸福是棵树，安全是沃土。 Xìngfú shì kē shù/Anquán shì wòtǔ ‘Happiness is like a tree. Metaphor Another frequently used rhetorical device is the metaphor.3.’ In (6a). běnrén yǐhūn.4. . safety is the fertile soil. 别追了，本人已婚。 Biézhuī le. One of the principles of designing public signs is to attract their attention and stimulate the public interest. 4. By resorting to metaphor.ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS 117 carving on desks is commonplace. By humor the speaker could convey their intentions in an implicit and tactful way which brings them amusement and makes an impression. A humorous public sign could release the pressure in their life and is conducive to establishing good interpersonal relations. happiness is compared to a tree while safety to the fertile soil in which the tree grows. as in (6): (6) a. which portrays a picture of plants on the earth in the audience’s mind and stimulates their imagination of a beautiful world. 4. Humor Humor is also an important feature of public signs today. as in (7): (7) a.2. b. so the audience might be aware of the inappropriateness of their behavior. Here the desks are personalized as human beings suffering from the pain of tattoos on the body. It enhances the readability of the text by introducing images that trigger the audience’s imagination. the speaker vividly depicts an image of a green tree and the soil in the minds of the audience. One way for the speaker to achieve a humorous and novel effect in public signs is by deliberately violating the maxims of Cooperative Principle. which turns the abstract into concrete and the bald into interesting. thus reminding the audience of the inseparability of happiness and safety – safety is the foundation of happiness.’ 草是世界的地毯，树是地球的经脉。 Cǎo shì shìjiè de dìtǎn/Shù shì dìqiú de jīngmài ‘Grass is the world’s carpet and the tree is the earth’s veins. . avoid ambiguity. The above two examples are signs on the rear of cars reminding drivers behind to keep the distance. Example (7b) contains a hyperbole exaggerating the driver’s defects in the road test. and the aesthetic taste of the entire Chinese society. public signs present different linguistic and pragmatic traits in different historical periods. ‘Don’t chase me. I’m married. Example (7a) involves a pun: the Chinese character 追 zhuī has a double meaning: ‘chase’ literally and ‘court (a girl)’ metaphorically. cultural and historical traditions. and in the standard of living. which violates the Maxim of Quality. 5. This paper discussed the linguistic and pragmatic features of public signs in different historical stages of Chinese society. The main idea is that the public language. transportation problems are increasingly severe with more and more automobiles on the road. do not say what you believe to be false. The language of public signs is a window to understand the beliefs and values. In China. namely.’ Today in many big Chinese cities. People are prone to get tense when stuck in traffic jams. By deliberately violating the Cooperative Principle. The existence of the two meanings of zhuī violates the Maxim of Manner. The cartoon-shaped words or even the image of two pet cats contribute to create the lighthearted and humorous effects. advocate. such as reflected through signs.’ 路考五次不及格。 Lùkǎo wǔcì bù jīgé ‘Five failures in road test.JING DENG 118 b. these entertaining and creative signs successfully convey the implicature of not overtaking the vehicle ahead. changes in order to keep up with the shifts in democracy. or even entertain and enlighten people. warn. that is. in literacy. Conclusions Public signs as a kind of social managerial language are omnipotent in people’s daily life to persuade. Merriam-Webster. Searle. Cole and J. and Rolf O. pp. “The analysis of facework in discourse: Review and proposal”. Cole and J. Cambridge. London. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.). “Indirect speech acts”. Beijing. vol. Academic Press. 233-252. Morgan (eds. Linda A. in P. Syntax and semantics. 13. in Journal of Language and Social Psychology. pp. Morgan (eds. 248-277. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Penelope and Stephen C. Webster’s Third New International Dictionary (2000). Geoffrey (1983). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978). Leech. John (1975). 41-58.ON THE DIACHRONIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES OF CHINESE PUBLIC SIGNS 119 REFERENCES Brown. 4. in Journal of Pragmatics. Alessandro (1980). 3. Kroger (1994). Wood. Springfield. 3. 3. Speech Acts. Syntax and semantics. Longman. Stephen C. pp. L.). L. pp. Ferrara. . New York. Harlow. Pragmatics. Paul (1975). (2001). Academic Press. Levinson (1987). Longman. 59-82. Grice. New York. Speech Acts. “An extended theory of speech acts”. in P. Cambridge University Press. “Logic and conversation”. 3. Principles of Pragmatics. vol. Levinson. . by considering the trade names in Vama Veche in relation to the tourists that visit the resort (regularly or occasionally). microtoponyms. code PN-II-RU-TE-2011-3-0007. Thus. Introduction The present paper1 analyses commercial names in Vama Veche. starting with the identification and analysis of the grammatical. 1. . alina.com. Keywords: commercial names. contract number 103/2011 (project manager: Daiana Felecan). from a sociolinguistic perspective. The aim is to delineate. the sociocultural profile of the tourists that visit Vama Veche. on the border with Bulgaria. collected by the author of this paper mostly by means of field research in the area. ROMANIA ALINA BUGHEŞIU* Abstract The village of Vama Veche (meaning ‘the old customs’) is located on the coast of the Black Sea in southeast Romania.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. My study aims at delineating and describing the onomastic trends that are promoted in the contemporary public space of the settlement and performing a commercial onomastic characterisation of the linguistic landscape (LL) of Vama Veche. 1 This study pertains to a broader-scope research on Unconventional Romanian Anthroponyms in European Context: Formation Patterns and Discursive Function. sociolinguistics. two main * North University Centre of Baia Mare. linguistic landscape. In the ever-globalising public space of the resort. lexical and semantic structure of the names. from the perspective of commercial onomastics (especially names of pubs and accommodation locations). It is a small fishermen’s settlement that in summer turns into one of the most important seaside resorts in the country. Technical University of Cluj-Napoca. a project funded by CNCS. onomastic behaviour. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. by looking at the types of consumers that are targeted by the name choices. Romania. currently one of the most important Romanian seaside resorts. the present paper highlights the way in which microtoponyms have become a key means of asserting group identity. the present paper proposes a sociolinguistic approach to local microtoponyms. In the context of geographical and social borders.bughesiu@gmail. The linguistic material analysed consists of approximately two hundred names. ro. 2. as well as on postcolonial studies (in the description of Vama Veche as a border space. a commune in Constanţa county.ro. In order to note the evolution of the two above-mentioned types of naming trends (targeting a general or a specific touristic audience).ro and viaRomania. in southeastern Romania. after the two former Romanian territories were conquered by the Russian Empire. this research rests on the theoretical framework of onomastics. My approach to the microtoponyms of Vama Veche starts by taking into account the particular geographical and sociocultural configuration of the locality. The corpus investigated consists of nearly 200 names of eating or drinking houses and accommodation locations. The hamlet was originally known as Yilanlîk and later as Ilanklâc. Turist Info.ALINA BUGHEŞIU 122 onomastic behaviours can be distinguished. being the last settlement before the shoreline border with Bulgaria. implying. Pubbing. grammatical. Plaja. my paper underlines that commercial names function as key means of asserting group identity (in connection with the aforementioned vamaioţi).e. in the attempt to highlight its effect on the sociolinguistic development of the settlement and commercial onomastic behaviour implicitly. the vamaioţi. lexical and semantic) analysis of trade names in the contemporary public space of Vama Veche. a 2 These settlers came from the Gagauz communities in Bessarabia and the southern extremity of the Republic of Moldova. most of which were collected by means of field research by the author of the paper in the summer of 2011. Based on the structural (i. some specialised websites were also consulted: Booking. however.e. . The number of Gagauz ethnics severely decreased over the years. purity and untarnished natural beauty). as they can be found in other public spaces or touristic sites) or a specific group of visitors (i. love. Methodologically. Vama Veche was founded at the beginning of the 19th century by some families of Gagauz migrants (Romanian găgăuzi. the supporters of the values that were initially attached to the place named Vama Veche: freedom. Şapte Seri. they refer to the communicative relationship that business owners try to establish either with a general consumership (the commercial naming patterns are not specific to the resort in question.com. that there exist either less than three members of this community or that they are extinct (Recensământul populaţiei şi al locuinţelor 2011). literally and symbolically). It is located on the coast of the Black Sea. sociolinguistics and linguistic landscape theory. to such an extent that the results of the census of 2011 do not make any particular reference to the Gagauz minority. individuality. Identifying and defining the “landscape” in “linguistic landscape” Vama Veche is one of the four hamlets of Limanu. a Turkic group of Orthodox faith that allegedly resulted from the mixture of several nomadic tribes from the Eurasian steppes)2. Thus. another music festival was set up. however. Under the communist rule in Romania. the village started being promoted by a local rock band. a derelict and almost abandoned place. meaning ‘a place full of snakes’ (the toponym was related to the faunal peculiarity of the region) (Primăria comunei Limanu. A rock music festival was established in 2003. By the time Mişcarea de rezistenţă appeared. commuting to nearby towns and bigger villages to work or study. ROMANIA 123 name coined by the Gagauz settlers. rock or folk. sleep on the beach and 3 The frequently used term is manelizare. Along with the end of the 1990s and in the early 2000s. basically.3 Therefore. in line with the hippie atmosphere that pervaded the settlement every year in summer. suggestively and symbolically named Folk You! (one of the logos of the event was the profane middle finger whose nail resembled the headstock of a guitar). with most of the inhabitants past their middle age. in an almost overnight experience. whose broad aim was to fight against the gross behaviour and lack of education promoted by most of the popular culture in contemporary Romanian public space. traditional Romanian folk music and traditional Gypsy music –. derived from the appellative manele. eponymously called Vama Veche. family and enemies. praising its pristine landscape and the almost utopian freedom that it seemed to offer. called Stufstock (a portmanteau word coined from the Romanian neuter appellative stuf ‘reed’ + the second component of the English proper name Woodstock). Vama Veche became a fully-fledged seaside resort. Perhaps it would be more accurate to state that Mişcarea de rezistenţă occurred because of the two communities of tourists that could be noticed to visit the resort. as a result of tourist services providers’ attempt to satisfy more diverse visitors. who depicted the settlement in the lyrics of their songs as an idyllic place. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. Vama Veche goes back to being a poor hamlet. tourists began to pour in. eager to discover a site like none other on the Romanian coast and. for the very same reason. Serbian. Whereas Stufstock kept its name and tradition (the only significant change being the recent focus on Romanian bands). reciprocated or unrequited love. October to May. Folk You! was subsumed under Mișcarea de rezistență (‘the resistance movement’). the tourists of Vama Veche were already divided into two main subgroups. . Judeţul Constanţa). Vama Veche was not visited by tourists mainly because of its geographical position. and generally associated with Romanian mass culture. and year after year its Edenic aura keeps fading. starting with the 1990s. as a reaction of one of the communities (the original one) to the consolidation of the other’s existence (the “newcomers”): (1) The vamaioţi are the people that love Vama Veche for what it used to be: a place where one could listen to jazz. recurrently dealing with topics such as money. Arabic. this poor fishermen’s hamlet with its rather obscure beach became a favourite haven especially for nudists. a music genre that mixes several influences – especially Turkish. Three years later. like nowhere in Romania. However. as a representative and promoter of mass culture. Commercial names as markers of group identity This sociocultural configuration of Vama Veche is also visible in the linguistic landscape (LL) of the resort.ALINA BUGHEŞIU 124 enjoy the untarnished scenery. The term is a slang appellative derived from the first component of the toponym Vama Veche with the addition of the suffix –iot. All the items or aspects listed in the latter section of the definition are seen by the vamaiot as being the negative effects of globalisation. alterations of this kind are considered detrimental by the vamaioţi. the Other tourist. It is simply that. a beer. Jet Skis. With a place like Vama Veche. chaise longues. guitars. records another definition of the term in question. This does not mean that the mainstream tourist is the “Wicked Witch of the West” in Romanian contemporary tourism. the latter recorded as borrowed from French). my translation).ro. The last part of the definition identifies. Someone who goes to the seaside. This explanation tallies with the image that is triggered by the employment of the term vamaiot by the mass media: to the outsiders. s(he) stands for the very thing that the vamaioţi zestfully reject: swimming in the direction of the river’s flow. tents. vamaiot. Jeeps. ‘out of date’]. to Vama Veche on a regular. 123urban. A vamaiot does not love: bathing suits. Romanian. The suffix is fairly productive in colloquial Romanian and. perceived as a neutralising phenomenon that leads to the amputation of individuality. The commercial signage of the hamlet is suggestive of the two communities of tourists that pertain to Vama Veche. Nonetheless. whose sole aim in life is to lead a bohemian existence. 3. The trade names that define the commercial onomastic dimension of the public .ro. (2) The mainstream tourist is a person that is more rule-bound and follows a set of widely acknowledged and promoted standards in his/her pursuit of a holiday experience. forbidden camping. the online dictionary of urban Romanian language. fried fish.v. the blues. a bed sheet laid down on the beach. s. fads. manifesto-like note the positive qualities of the prototypical Vama Veche tourist and aiming at distinguishing him/her from the prototypical mass tourist: “1. highlighting in a jocose. leased beaches. the sea. who believe that their (natural. it often evokes pejorative or humorous connotations. more beers. Expirat [the name of a well-known pub. the prototypical Vama Veche tourist is (euphemistically speaking) an unreliable young person. orig. with disregard for any kind of order. These expectations demand that the natural landscape and the public space in a certain place be altered so that they can fulfil the tourists’ needs. yearly basis. plastic” (123urban. raids. social and cultural) place of refuge should escape the influence of globalisation unscathed. buoys. with whom the vamaiot wishes not be mistaken. literally meaning ‘stale’. which is used to form names of inhabitants. by means of negation. A vamaiot loves: the beach. of Greek origin (also found in appellatives like fanariot ‘Phanariot’ or cipriot ‘Cypriot’. according to Zafiu (2000). i. It. one and the same name can 4 The following abbreviations were used in the lexical-grammatical analysis of the names: adj. The latter situation can be found with business establishments that adjust their marketing strategies in order to satisfy a wider range of tourists. ROMANIA 125 space are indicative in this respect on the level of (a) non-verbal configuration (mostly visual cues.e. out of date’. albeit their names are still indicative of the community of the vamaioţi: e. and so on.. referring to art galleries). trying to keep up to date with the newer wave of tourists. established by the non-verbal dimension of a business entity. La Canapele (Rom. According to Kallen (2009: 275).n. Expirat (Rom. Lat. c. = Spanish. vb. = Italian. = plural. The LL in Vama Veche is determined by the business owners’ wish to meet the tourists’ demands. = common noun. i. la ‘at’ + c. and so on. m. to create a memory of the experience of travel that stands out from other experiences. obtained from the past participle form of vb. = preposition.= Latin. may sometimes be reinforced or even contradicted by the associations conveyed via its trade name. but aural cues can also occur: for instance.4 expirat ‘stale. In the LL of Vama Veche the discourses that correspond to the two touristic communities are often juxtaposed or even overlapped (Kallen 2009: 274). En. f. La Galerie (Rom.g. moreover. canapele ‘sofas’. c. = adjective. = masculine. there are four types of tourists’ needs that can influence the shaping of the local LL: “(1) the need for an authentic experience of place. pl. = Romanian. Thus. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. the latter kind of meanings. la ‘at’ + pl. galerie ‘gallery’. the name content can confirm or invalidate the categorial presupposition and even trigger new associative and emotive meanings..n. adj.n. prep. and (4) the need to return from a journey of transformation. Sp. (2) the need to feel secure. Elga’s Punk Rock Hotel (the first component is an acronym containing the truncations of the owners’ first names. = feminine. Rom. = verb. . (3) the need to break away from normal routines. ensuring that what is different is not so different as to be threatening or in some way repugnant.” While the third and fourth needs are prominent as regards the vamaioţi. indicating the type of furniture that can be found in the pub). typeface and chromatic properties. prepositional noun phrase < prep. = English. the music played in some pubs or bars can enable one to associate that business entity with a certain referential categorial subtype) and (b) lexical-grammatical and semantic construction. f. While the nonverbal elements may be used to capture the attention of prospective customers and help them to perform the first step in the identification of a given commercial entity in relation to either of the aforementioned touristic groups.e. it is the first and second needs that are manifested by the mainstream tourists.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. to see the “real” foreign land. prepositional noun phrase < prep. a expira ‘to expire’). Ella and Gabi). while also preserving the loyal consumership. the categorial marker comes first.. vilă ‘villa’. often occurring with the short form casa). The noncategorial component (occupying the final position in the onymic expression) can be derived from anthroponyms. The microtoponyms that one can come across in the LL of Vama Veche follow two naming orientations.and amenities-wise. c. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a) facilitate a tourist’s choice of a favourable location. through the associations they trigger. compound appellative. and they generally develop the pattern of what Soames (2002: 88) calls “partially descriptive names”. as in this way the contrast will be more salient: (1) Unmarked names. starting with the unmarked names). following the pattern of Romanian partially descriptive names. It is the “sum of these discourses” that makes up the “representation of the country or region” (Kallen 2009: 274).as -y-).e. especially first names (full forms or hypocoristics). define the community of the typical Vama Veche tourists) or unmarked names (which are neutral on the semantic level. as well as some names of shops or bars. scoică ‘seashell’. or Sp. c. Scoica (Rom. Primavera (It.. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a).n... they follow a well-established pattern in the field of touristic onomastics). as it may simultaneously be directed at both types of tourists (Kallen 2009: 274). with the enclitic form of the definite article –a). and vila (Rom. which consist of a categorial component (denoting the basic level category of referents to which a name bearer pertains) (see also Van Langendonck 2007: 6) and a noncategorial component (which can be proprial – anthroponymic or hodonymic – or nonproprial – appellative or phrasal). pensiunea (Rom. In the name phrase.n.126 ALINA BUGHEŞIU frequently have a polyphonic functionality (Felecan 2011: 9).. comprise especially names of accommodation locations. primavera ‘spring’). costs. f. . a variation of the Ileana and Elena.. one can talk about marked names (which. pensiune ‘boarding house’. corresponding to the two touristic groups that they are aimed at.n. I will present them in the reverse chronological order of their establishment in the public space of the resort (i. The majority of these first names are feminine and Romanian: Casa Ana. casă de vacanță ‘holiday house’. casa de vacanță (Rom. from this point of view. c. Salsa (a pub whose name is coined from the name of a Latin-American type of music and dance).. f. f. The role of the expressed categorial belonging is first and foremost practical: the widely acknowledged and even internationally recognisable asserted lexical meanings of categorial markers like hotel (the most easily spotted categorial identifier by non-speakers of Romanian). derived from the female first name Liana.. f. c. Therefore. the latest group of commercial names to become coherent in the LL of Vama Veche. Casa Ana Maria. Simple names are scarce: Lyana (the name of a restaurant and shop. used with the enclitic form of the definite article –a.n. anglicised by the spelling of -i. Most of the constructions are compound. f. although commercially-minded.. Vila Iancu. ROMANIA 127 Casa Gabriela. domniţă ‘young lady’. or cultural names related to films (e. Sometimes. Vila Toader. Vila Mariş. Vila Alex. Vila Albatros (< Strada Albatros ‘albatross street’). f.g. The owners’ name can be joined by the and symbol. Vila Simina. Vila Prelipceanu. Vila Cătălin. in which Alex may be a truncation from the Romanian male first name Alexandru or its female equivalent Alexandra). Occasionally. or of the corresponding hypocoristic Mari).. Pensiunea Mary (an anglicised variant of the owner’s first name. Vila Yanis (a Greek male first name that frequently occurs in the contemporary Romanian onomasticon as a result of the numerous Romanian temporary emigrants that went to Greece and Cyprus to work). Vila La Mariana (Romanian female first name Mariana) Vila La Maricica (Maricica. a poetic form of address. a hypocoristic form of the Hungarian male first name Attila + the English or French female first name Michelle. c. a hypocoristic form of the Romanian female first name Maria). the term was used to designate princesses or rulers’ daughters). Pensiunea Mary Elena. Casa Nikita (< Strada Nichita Stănescu). the counterpart of the English Michael). names of accommodation locations include neuter hypocoristics. neuter. “&”: Vila Aty & Michelle (Aty.n. In some cases. Vila Cosmina. in that they can be derived from both male and female anthroponyms (e. miss). Casa de vacanță Violeta. Complex Sunset Beach < Romanian appellative. Casa Vlad. Maria. The noncategorial component may be derived from hodonyms: Casa Pescăruş (< Strada Albatros. as an archaism. Vila Miss Alina (En. Casa Veronica. Casa Stanciu. complex ‘complex’. Similarly. Vila Neagu. more opacity is also obtained when owners’ first names appear as initials: Casa Double M. female first names or hypocoristics can be preceded by forms of address: Casa Domniţa Ralu (Romanian c. full anthroponymic designations occur. Casa Nicoleta. Pensiunea Lucia. Casa Cornel. Pensiunea Ramona. instead of the owner’s Romanian first name Mihaela). Casa Tudor.n. the name of an American soap opera that was aired in Romania in the late 1990s. the first name can often be preceded by the Romanian preposition la ‘at’: Hotel La John (the English male first name John. with a hypocoristic instead of the official first name: Casa Nicu Becleanu (Nicu < Romanian male first name Nicolae). instead of the owner’s Romanian name Ion). Vila Flori (a hypocoristic of Florica or Florina). Vila Anda (a hypocoristic form from Andra or Alexandra). Pensiunea Ana Emilia. made to resemble the French cognate Alexandre). MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. Some commercial names also include male forenames: Casa AlexAndre (from the male first name Alexandru..g.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. the typeface . Pensiunea Anita (of Hungarian origin). from complex turistic ‘touristic complex’ + Sunset Beach. Some names of accommodation locations can also comprise surnames: Casa Coman. At the same time. Casa Răzvan. but there was already a microtoponym derived from this hodonym). Vila Mady (an anglicised hypocoristic form of Mădălina). Pensiunea La Mihăiţă (a hypocoristic form of the Romanian male forename Mihai. ..n. c. c. hotel ‘hotel’ + Lat. f. golden + En.n. pensiune ‘boarding house’.. sunshine). hotel ‘hotel’ + Rom. hostel. Vila Martini (Martini. f. c. neuter. lagună ‘lagoon’.n. c.. c. Vama Veche (Booking. c. de ‘of’. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a). Vila Polux)..... with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom. amphora).n. f. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom. Casa Florilor (< Rom. adj. c. c. Fig. c. the owners even used the corresponding Bourbon typeface in writing the hotel name. paradis ‘paradise’). flori ‘flowers’). Vila Laguna Paradis (Rom. 1). casă ‘house’. c. flori ‘flowers’. f.n. adapted into Romanian following the model of hotel + En.n. Displaying a semantic status that is in between proper names and appellatives (as a result of antonomasia).128 ALINA BUGHEŞIU in which the name of the hotel is written imitates the one of the name of the soap opera) or mythology (e.n. c. neuter. f.com. c.. often underpinned by the language choice itself: Hotel Amphora (Rom. Hostel Sea Star (En. Pensiunea Opera (Rom.. c. f. Some names relate to the sea world or. pl. c. pl. to characteristics of the summer seaside climate: Casa Sunshine (Rom.. c. 1: Hotel Bourbon.n. referring to content + Rom.n.n. victory).. or En. casă ‘house’.. c. f. Hotel Golden Sea (Rom. hotel ‘hotel’ + En. c. The appellatives or ..n. noncategorial elements in accommodation locations may refer to types of alcoholic drinks: Hotel Bourbon (Bourbon. associatively.n. casă ‘house’..... a type of American whiskey.n. “Hotel Bourbon”) Compound names containing categorial markers may also comprise Romanian appellatives that are semantically related to flora. hotel ‘hotel’ + En.n.n.n. f. lagună ‘lagoon’. sea star).n.n.. neuter. in the genitive case florilor ‘of flowers’). c. noun phrase golden sea < En. f. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom..n. c. neuter.. prep. operă ‘opera’. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom.g. neuter. The appellative may post-modify the categorial marker: Casa de Flori (< Rom. vilă ‘villa’.. Hotel Victory (Rom.n. sea). f. Some appellatives are meant to trigger associative meanings related to prestige. a type of Italian vermouth)... c. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + En. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a). c.n. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom. see Fig.. Hotel Laguna (Rom... Gulag (< Rom. 2). especially with what they see themselves to be in the contemporary Romanian public space. with the enclitic form of the definite article -a + Rom. There are many “rustic” accommodation locations in Romania.. adj. neuter.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. hotel ‘hotel’ + *jakuzzi. rustic. c. Taverna (< Rom. coined after En.. although it might also come from En. or are semantically related to the seaside landscape: Sea Temple.. neuter.n. adjectival noun phrase pura vida ‘pure life’ + En. f. derived from anthroponyms that display a significant cultural and historical weight (e. The quality of the touristic experience is also implied by the only commercial name that comprises an adjective alongside the categorial marker: Casa Rustic (Rom. shire..n.n. ROMANIA 129 appellative noun phrases may also suggest the high standards of the touristic experience: Hotel Jakuzzi (Rom. casă ‘house’. indicative of the development and increase of basic level categories in the field of commerce. prep.. see Fig. Some microtoponyms do not include categorial markers but are indicative of the type of commercial establishment (e. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. commercial names that can be included in this onomastic orientation may be simple structures.g.. it is rendered neutral by the numerous accommodation locations throughout Romania that bear this very name). f. On the level of lexical and grammatical constructions. written in Blackletter typeface. Quick Food. fast food). gulag. Prepositional phrases can also be found. (2) Marked names make up the oldest coherent group of names in the LL of Vama Veche. Appellatives that are used as commercial names may trigger associative meanings originally related to .places or establishments: e. cherhana ‘fishery’. also known as gothic script.g. tavernă ‘tavern’.n. as a result of the development of agritourism. perhaps from the French borrowing jacuzzi. with the enclitic form of the definite article -a). while the phrase pura vida could be considered highly suggestive of the type of experience that Vama Veche is supposed to offer its tourists. a Russian borrowing).. f. la ‘at’ + Dinamo. Shire (< En. Pura Vida Beach Bar & Hostel (Sp. Cherhana (< Rom. the surname of Emiliano Zapata.n. c. the lack of gender agreement between the categorial term and the characterising adjective shows that the latter is not treated as an adjective. specialised categorial marker beach bar & hostel. Jacuzzi). but functions as proper names usually do in partially descriptive names of this kind). especially with the Romanian preposition la ‘at’ attached to other proper names: La Dinamo (Rom. . c. male form. c. Zapata. the name of a Romanian football club).n.g. a key figure in the 1910 Mexican Revolution). of Turkish origin). compound. c.. c. resonating with the ideals of the community of the vamaioţi. consisting of microtoponyms that refer to the community of the vamaioți. . c. see Fig. .n. 3).n..parts of the human body: Hand (< En.weapons: Molotov (< Molotov cocktail or cocktail Molotov. m.. 3: Crucifix. Vama Veche (Pubbing. or magic mushrooms). Vama Veche (Photo: Alina Bugheşiu.n.drugs: Shrooms (< shrooms.religious objects (Rom. Desperados (< En. hand. .mythical characters: Goblin (< goblin). c. “Shire”) . with the word order that the phrase records in Romanian. . expired’). expirat ‘stale. adj. 2: Shire. neuter. crucifix ‘crucifix’. 2011) Commercial names in Vama Veche may also be derived from simple adjectives: Expirat (Rom. out of date. desperado. . c. . corsar ‘corsair’. Fig. this was one of the most important cultural and artistic venues in the resort).ALINA BUGHEŞIU 130 Fig. one of the colloquial terms used to refer to psychedelic mushrooms. with the enclitic form of the definite article –u(l)). c. In this case. figuratively used to refer to any “deadly” combination).n.ro. perhaps a truncation of handmade.people: Corsaru’ (< Rom. probably under the influence of the 1995 action film directed by Robert Rodriquez and starring Antonio Banderas). meant to be suggestive of the many arts and crafts workshops that were often held there. . Fig. well-known bar in the resort. this link is made based on the associative and emotive meanings established in relation to the name bearer. la ‘at’ + Misha < Mișa. ROMANIA 131 as in several others that will be shown further on. prep..ro.n. an acronym based on the truncations of the owners’ first names. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. which constitute the basis of cultural names: e. 4). designating a camping site + Rom. however. the associative and emotive meanings triggered by the name form and/or content are not crucial in connecting the commercial name to the community of the vamaioţi. but these establishments are by far fewer than in the case of unmarked names and mainstream tourists respectively. nea. Vama Veche (Pubbing. They may contain categorial identifiers. M*A*S*H (< M*A*S*H. specialised categorial term punk rock hotel). characterising the basic level category to which the name bearer pertains: Elga’s Punk Rock Hotel (< Elga. Some are attached to anthroponyms. used to designate especially elderly men) and prepositions (also conjoined by the coordinating conjunction: Camping La Misha şi Bogdan < Rom. coordinating conjunction şi ‘and’ + Rom. Although rarely so. a major figure in the Cuban Revolution. camping + Rom. with the synthetic genitive ’s + compound. which appear by themselves (Bungalow Peters Ana < surname + first name) or preceded by forms of address (Camping Nea Ion < Rom. who was promoted by Fidel Castro to the rank of Comandante). obtained by means of truncation from the colloquial form of address nenea ‘mister’. an anthroponymic structure may also precede the categorial identifier. camping. male first name Bogdan). the actual establishment is a big old army tent. 4: M*A*S*H. see Fig. from Mişu. c. . a famous American television series that was aired in Romania in the 1990s and early 2000s. Some commercial names can be derived from acronyms. often a compound construction. Ella and Gabi. a hypocoristic of the Romanian male first name Mihai + Rom. referring to Che Guevara.g.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. which is an old. an English borrowing. “M*A*S*H”) Compound commercial names that can be considered indicative of the community of the vamaioţi may be derived from bynames of cultural figures: El Comandante (Sp. Casa Dor de Vamă (Rom.n.n. f. The Shot (referring to a shot of tequila). prep. epavă ‘shipwreck’). c. Terasa Povestea Ceaunului (Rom. Vila No Name (Rom. f. f. a hypocoristic form of the male first name Teodor. border’).. with the enclitic form of the definite article –ul and the apostrophe marking the elision in pronunciation of the ending consonant –l + Rom. in some instances. garden’.. c. in the genitive case ceaunului ‘of the cauldron’). Some appellative noun phrases may be post-modified by prepositional phrases: Căsuţa cu minuni (Rom. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom. here functioning as a byname). f. with the apostrophe marking the colloquial pronunciation of the word.. c.. Similarly. papa ‘food’. la ‘at’ + Mexicanu’ ‘the Mexican’. diminutive căsuţa ‘the little house’ + Rom. prep.. without the ending consonant sound of the enclitic form of the male definite article –u(l)). poveste ‘story’.n.. artă). c.. prep. prep. categorial terms co-occur with appellatives or appellative constructions: Bazart Hotel (< a portmanteau word obtained from the merger of Rom. determiner no + En. f. vilă ‘villa’.. f. adj. c.n. La . f. La Mexicanu’ (Rom.n. c.... c. La Epavă (Rom. baby-talk + Rom. a famous early 18th century pirate).. pl..appellatives: La Canapele (Rom.n.. Many commercial names in the LL of this resort contain the Romanian preposition la (‘at’) in initial position. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom.n. neuter. terasă ‘patio. ceaun ‘cauldron’.n. the Romanian cognate of Blackbeard. La Theo Vamaiotu’ (Rom. la ‘at’ + Theo. de ‘for’. f... meduză ‘jellyfish’. f.n. frontieră ‘frontier. colţ ‘corner’.. prep. from the Hungarian male first name Sándor).... la ‘at’ + Barbă Neagră.n. indicating the type of furniture that is typical of this place).. The other components may be: . c.n. the short form of the toponym Vama Veche). c. prep. La Frontieră (Rom. vesel ‘happy’).n. In other cases. canapele ‘sofas’. miracles’). casă ‘house’.132 ALINA BUGHEŞIU Anthroponyms may occur with appellatives that are suggestive of the basic level category of the named entity.. Casa La Meduza (Rom. neuter. neuter. which may be related to the type of food served.. derived from the Romanian appellative and corresponding adjective mexican ‘Mexican’.n. name).. neuter. without mentioning it clearly: Papa la Șoni (Rom. la ‘at’ + Rom. prep. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom. casă ‘house’. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + En.n.. indicating the object of longing + Vamă. f. The Stage. cu ‘with’ + Rom. c. minuni ‘wonders. f.n. f. according to the approximate pronunciation of the male hypocoristic Sanyi. with the variant Theodor + Vamaiotu’ ‘the vamaiot’. c. the categorial identifier can be missing altogether: La Barbă Neagră (Rom. c... c. c. c.n..... with the enclitic form of the definite article –a). bazar + Rom. la ‘at’ + Şoni. dor ‘longing’ + Rom. There are trade names in the LL of Vama Veche that contain English appellative noun phrases with a proclitic definite article: The Jack.. pl. f.n. m.n. c. The post-modifier can also be an adjective: Colţu’ Vesel (Rom. with the enclitic form of the definite article –a + Rom.. the owner’s nickname. c. c. galerie ‘gallery’). contributing to the virtual LL of the resort (cf. c. sometimes..n. these names do occur on specialised websites aimed at tourists. stealthily’). this happens because they occur in the core area of the resort (not necessarily the geographically central one). La Stuf (Rom.prepositional phrases with an initial temporal adverbial phrase (La Fără un Sfert < Rom. Anthroponyms in unmarked names do not have an identifying function. they are also related to feminine stereotypes of cosiness and good care.. La Piraţi (Rom. pl. The only situations in which first names help to achieve differentiation are when they are spelled . The significant representation of the marked names in the LL of Vama Veche can also be accounted for by their brand-like function in relation to this location. neuter. pe sub mână ‘secretly. Thus. what one finds displayed outside the establishment is just a sign reading Cazare ‘lodging’. there is a financial motivation behind this situation: most of the commercial establishments (guesthouses in particular) that bear unmarked names are small businesses and they refrain from putting on view their name. On the one hand. a difference in their use in these two contexts needs to be pointed out. although not so numerous. as it is common for trade names throughout Romania (and not only) to be derived from first names (full forms or hypocoristics) and. Nevertheless. the preservation of this microtoponymic stock suggests the solid structure of this group and of the people’s “feeling of belonging to a certain community” (Helleland 2009: 503). euphemistic expression functioning like an adverb of manner (La Pe Sub Mână < Rom.adjectives obtained from past participles: La Culcat (Rom. marked names are more prominent in the LL of Vama Veche. f. .LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE. c. fără un sfert ‘a quarter to’) or a colloquial. piraţi ‘pirates’). Therefore. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. m. adj. . Conclusions Curiously. culcat ‘laid down’).. Therefore. On the other. family names.n. in most cases. as an expression of its existence in the LL. when they comprise female first names in particular (as most unmarked names in Vama Veche tend to do). ROMANIA 133 Galerie (Rom. microtoponyms in Vama Veche are mostly based on anthroponyms. c. Puzey 2011: 22). such commercial names convey familiarity and. Whether marked or unmarked. Nevertheless. As the commercial names that became marked names were established by the community of the vamaioţi.. stuf ‘reed’). Marked names define especially the brand image of the resort (what the tourists deem representative of it).n.. 4. whose own name has developed the qualities of trademark use. it is only natural that they became associated with this community. in W.library. Kallen. Editura Mega. Routledge. as their main role is to ensure the association of a business with a certain sociocultural pattern. therefore. Cambridge University Press. globalisation and localisation. Cluj-Napoca. By being in between commodification and individualisation. Embleton and A. the model of the LL that takes account of tourism must incorporate transience and diversity as an essential part of the social environment”. Felecan. Shohamy and D. Theory and Typology of Proper Names. Aspecte ale polifoniei lingvistice.pdf?Seq uence=1. 87-105. Cambridge.com/issues/23/15. Linguistic Landscape: Expanding the Scenery. . pp.). Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Onomastic Sciences. The currently booming development of the unmarked group of commercial names confirms Kallen’s (2009: 272) statement: “Rather than focusing primarily on territory and tradition.ALINA BUGHEŞIU 134 unconventionally (see Şoni for Hungarian male hypocoristic Sanyi in Papa la Șoni). mass culture and underground culture. Adrian (2003). Toronto. August 17-22.cssaame. in E. Florian (2010). “An exercise in fictional liminality: The postcolonial. S. Lapierre (eds. Names in Multi-Lingual. http://www. Sociolinguistics: The Study of Speakers’ Choices. Abingdon. Helleland. van Langendonck.). REFERENCES Coulmas. Berlin · New York. in Comparative Studies of South Asia. when they lead to acronymic formations (Elga < Ella and Gabi in Elga’s Punk Rock Hotel) or when they consist of bynames and nicknames (La Mexicanu. In other words. pp. while also creating a context for the marked names to stand out and actually be perceived as a language code defining group identity (Coulmas 2010: 182). Willy (2007). 501-510. liminally following the logic of “both/and” (Oţoiu 2003: 88). Therefore. revised. rather than its individualisation in the linguistic and socio-economic landscape of the resort.yorku. Canada. 2008. Gorter (eds. the postcommunist. pp. one can state that anthroponyms in the microtoponymy of Vama Veche function unconventionally.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10315/3986/icos23_501. Oţoiu. “Place names as identity markers”. Theo Vamaiotu’). 270-283. York University Toronto Canada. and Romania’s Threshold Generation”. Jeffrey (2009). Vama Veche proves to include both directions of sociolinguistic and cultural development in its existence. York University. Africa and the Middle East 23 (1&2). http://yorkspace. it is precisely the stereotyping of the commercial landscape of Vama Veche that ensures its existence as a resort. 2nd edition. Botolv (2009). This twofold onomastic orientation in the LL of Vama Veche highlights the symbolical border on which the resort is situated. Mouton de Gruyter. Daiana (2011). Multi-Cultural and Multi-Ethnic Contact. “Tourism and representation in the Irish linguistic landscape”. Ahrens.pdf. ‘sloboziot’…”. “‘Iaşiot’. . 46.turistinfo.ro/portal/portal. 211-226.). Pubbing. http://www.d.LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE.ro/ rezultate-2/.ro. Oxford.ro. Oxford University Press.ro/localuri/vama-veche. Plaja.ro. http://www. Turist Info. ONLINE SOURCES 123urban. retrieved from <http://cazare-vamaveche.plaja. ROMANIA 135 Primăria comunei Limanu. romlit. “New research and directions in toponomastics and linguistic landscapes”.eu>.com/city/ro/vama-veche. http://www. Beyond Rigidity: The Unfinished Semantic Agenda of “Naming and Necessity”. http://www.ro/ro/locuri/cluburi-si-baruri/vama-veche. in România literară 17. viaRomania.ro. http: //www. Booking. Scott (2002). Guy (2011). html. Recensământul populaţiei şi al locuinţelor 2011 (n.123urban.primaria limanu.ro. Rodica (2000). Şapte Seri.pubbing.ro/iaiot_mangaliot_sloboziot. Zafiu. http://www.ro. http://www.html. Soames. Puzey. MICROTOPONYMY AND UNCONVENTIONAL USE OF ANTHROPONOMY ON THE BORDER: VAMA VECHE. http://www.booking. Judeţul Constanţa (n.. “Istoricul comunei”.ro/vama_veche/cazare-hoteluri-vile-pensiuni-vama_veche.recensamantromania. ‘mangaliot’.d.ro/vama_veche.com. in Onoma.).sapteseri.viaromania. pp. http://www.nsf/AllByUNID/00000AD6?OpenDocument. . romans-poèmes et territoires du féminin » (pp. le chapitre 3 – « Aventuriers et sédentaires : l’héritage du conte » (pp. remplacés. appuyée sur le travail agricole (pratiqué par les paysans. 243 pp. les sédentaires). Dans le chapitre 4. qui traite de la littérature française québécoise. politiques. 159-179). en plus d’être une histoire de l’évolution du roman québécois. le chapitre 6 – « Théories-fictions. 81-107). choisis par l’auteur. par ceux qui aimaient voyager à travers les routes et les chaussées pour se faire embaucher (à court terme pour des travaux agricoles ou pour d’autres types de tâches). d’un index des noms propres des lettrés mentionnés au cours de l’ouvrage (pp. Parcours du roman québécois. Le livre constitue une présentation générale concise du roman québécois du 20e siècle. le chapitre 2). Ce titre s’appuie sur le dualisme primaire de la culture et de la société françaises québécoises. tels les contes populaires (v. par ceux qui aimaient vivre dans les grandes villes. attribuées par la critique littéraire à la littérature orale de la Nouvelle-France. à leur tour. 17-43). Les sept chapitres sont suivis d’une conclusion (« Une culture et une littérature comme références » – pp. puisqu’à cette époque-là il y avait effectivement deux modes de vie et d’exploitation du territoire pour la survie des communautés françaises : d’une part. 45-79). remplacés.RECENZII Lise Gauvin. disent-ils » (pp. qui correspondent aux chapitres mentionnés ici. Honoré Champion Éditeur. le chapitre 2 – « Le romancier et ses doubles : écrire. au 20e siècle. d’autre part. pratiqué par les aventuriers. Lise Gauvin explique aussi le choix du titre de son livre (dans le chapitre 3) : Aventuriers et sédentaires. Ces thèmes sont accompagnés d’explications incluant certains facteurs historiques. qui trouvent leurs . La matière du livre est organisée en fonction de quelques grands thèmes et de symboles importants. 2012. Cet ouvrage comprend une introduction. par les voyageurs ou les engagés (qui possédaient des congés de traite émis par le roi et qui gagnaient un salaire). le chapitre 4 – « Comment peut-on être Montréalais : une ville et ses fictions » (pp. qui étaient représentés d’abord par les coureurs des bois. Parcours du roman québécois est en premier lieu un ouvrage de critique littéraire. le chapitre 5 – « Il était une fois dans l’ouest : les road novels québécois » (pp. 233-236) et d’un index des romanciers et des romans mentionnés (pp. 237-242). 226-232). Aventuriers et sédentaires. à partir du milieu du 18 siècle jusqu’au 19 siècle. l’existence rurale. remplacés ensuite. « Post ou péri-colonialisme : l’étrange modèle québécois » (pp. 7-16) et 7 chapitres : le chapitre 1 – « Questions de langue : variantes et variations » (pp. Les aspects les plus importants qui sont relevés par Lise Gauvin dans son ouvrage se réfèrent à l’utilisation des voix narratives par des romanciers qui attribuent la création de leurs œuvres à des personnages inclus dans le schéma narratif des romans (v. surtout du roman québécois du 20e siècle. Paris. depuis les commencements de la colonie dont le nom était la Nouvelle-France jusqu’à la fin du 19e siècle. c’est-à-dire par les chasseurs et par les trappeurs professionnels français canadiens du nord des États-Unis et du Canada (les commerçants de fourrures). Le livre de Lise Gauvin intitulé Aventuriers et sédentaires. Lise Gauvin se réfère justement aux romans urbains. 131-157). d’une bibliographie générale de langue et de littérature québécoises et d’une bibliographie spécifique du roman québécois (pp. le chapitre 3). Néanmoins. autofictions. mais aussi aux sources d’inspiration de certains romans québécois. le mode de vie opposé. cet ouvrage est aussi un commentaire critique de certains éléments considérés comme typiques de cette littérature. 181-219). sociologiques et anthropologiques qui ont influencé la littérature francophone du Québec. 220-225). le chapitre 7 – « Ces « étrangers du dedans » : l’écriture dite migrante » (pp. 109-129). fondée par l’écrivain d’origine haïtienne Jean Jonassaint. 112). Le chapitre 7 est consacré à « l’écriture dite migrante ».] .] avec les romans québécois qui ont comme sujet la traversée de l’Amérique.] [l]a notion de littérature migrante est ainsi apparue pour désigner les textes d’écrivains de diverses origines [haïtienne. choisi par Lise Gauvin pour désigner ce statut de la culture et de la littérature françaises québécoises par rapport au français de la Métropole.] [b]ien avant cette décennie. le roman du voyage ou le road novel peut être considéré comme la métaphore de tout récit dans la mesure où il vient doubler. ainsi que par la fondation par Ghila Benestry Sroka de la Parole Métèque (1986). qui se définit comme « magazine du renouveau féministe » [. Une histoire américaine de Jacques Godbout et Copies conformes de Monique Larue. etc. Faites-leur boire le fleuve. l’exploration du continent nord-américain a également séduit les écrivains qui.. d’origine haïtienne (établi en 1976 à Montréal) (Comment faire l’amour avec un Nègre sans se fatiguer .] ayant choisi de publier en français [. 116). inspiré du modèle On the Road de Kerouac [. [d]e leur côté.. dernière halte du récit de Poulain [. Ainsi. 131). Gabrielle Roy inaugure. Cette grenade dans la main du jeune Nègre) et Marco Micone. juive polonaise. mais .. par exemple : « en 1945. Le chapitre 5 est consacré aux romans du voyage. la littérature québécoise est engagée dans diverses pratiques de décentrement.] . où voisinent le naturalisme d’un Bessette (La Bagarre). à partir des années 1980. [d]ans ce contexte. le parcours narratif sur lequel se fonde le genre romanesque » (p. [d]eux autres romans. Lise Gauvin relève également des aspects linguistiques qui caractérisent le français québécois.. les voyageurs d’Un train pour Vancouver de Nicole Lavigne et du Joueur de flûte de Louis Hamelin parcourent le Canada d’est en ouest » (p. Ainsi. avec Bonheur d’occasion. Nous ne mentionnerons ici que deux des exemples présentés par Lise Gauvin parmi ces auteurs immigrés : Dany Laferrière.. la prose critique d’un Girouard (La Ville inhumaine) […] » (p. telles les pièces Gens du silence. d’origine italienne (qui avait immigré avec ses parents en 1958 à Montréal). situent leur intrigue à San Francisco. Lise Gauvin mentionne quelques exemples de ce type de romans.. ont promené leurs héros d’est en ouest et de Gaspé à San Francisco [. Nous présentons ici les traits essentiels de ces aspects linguistiques qui sont abordés par Lise Gauvin : – le statut de la francophonie dans cette région du monde. tels Québec et Montréal. – le terme de péricolonialisme. Par ailleurs. puisqu’« on donne généralement la date de 1837 et L’Influence d’un livre ou Le Chercheur de trésors de Philippe Aubert de Gaspé fils comme premier roman.. témoigne éloquemment [. Carré Saint-Louis. pratiques dont la revue Dérives. qui traitent des déplacements des personnages à travers des espaces géographiques immenses. asiatique d’ExtrêmeOrient. Centre-Ville).. parmi lesquels tout d’abord Volkswagen Blues de Jacques Poulin. » (p. Lise Gauvin montre que « bien que la ville soit le cadre romanesque privilégié par les romanciers québécois au cours des dernières décennies.. mais aussi de traductions pour le théâtre. des auteurs avaient immigré au Québec sans que leur présence ne soit soulignée par une désignation particulière » (p.. dans son ouvrage. auteur dramatique (ses pièces de théâtre prenant pour sujets des aspects de la vie de plusieurs générations d’immigrés. 181). ainsi que le souligne Lise Gauvin. ce nouveau cycle de fictions. son état jeune et récent. italienne.] . 109). c’est-à-dire à la littérature écrite par les immigrants vivant au Québec.] [c]e lieu d’échanges interculturels de première importance est bientôt suivi par la création de la revue Vice Versa (1984) par les Italo-Québécois Fulvio Caccia et Lamberto Tassinari. tel que l’explique l’auteur : « au cours des années 1980. Addolorata et Déjà l’agonie)... mais c’est surtout « avec Michel Tremblay et ses Chroniques du Plateau MontRoyal [que] le roman québécois prend définitivement possession de la ville […] [l]e Montréal romanesque de Tremblay commence dans les années 1940 et se déploie jusqu’aux années 80 » (p... Montréal devient un cadre romanesque privilégié. » (p. par son sujet même. où « appétit d’espace et désir d’écriture sont intimement liés [. auteur d’un manifeste (Speak What) et d’un récit (Le Figuier enchanté). dans les années 50 et 60..138 sujets dans les villes françaises canadiennes. y compris dans des villes importantes. 13) . « [à] la suite de Gabrielle Roy. 132).. « ce qui se vérifie [. les sarcasmes et gauloiseries d’un Jean-Jules Richard (Ville rouge.] ». l’une des figures importantes d’écrivaines citées est Nicole Brossard. par une nouvelle donne politique. à de nombreux auteurs français québécois fameux. sa complexité et son originalité.139 aussi à l’anglais : « Aussi me semble-t-il que le terme le plus adéquat pour décrire l’étrange modèle québécois. de plusieurs registres de langue française (le français standard utilisé en France. Lise Gauvin et Jean-Marie Klinkenberg (1985). tantôt à l’autobiographie et à l’autofiction les formes de leur agencement » (p. rend compte d’une variance infinie des poétiques. du vernaculaire québécois (de ses particularités locales. 159) . aventuriers et sédentaires sont représentés dans le roman québécois. qui intègre « la langue populaire au récit » et qui produit un « effet joual du texte » (pp. 224) [nos soulignements]. Bruxelles. de la traversée de la ville à celle du continent américain. 1) . mais aussi par rapport à l’axe colonialiste ou postcolonialiste. etc. Une culture marquée également par un questionnement constant quant à la légitimité et à la fonction du littéraire dans l’espace social. par exemple. 159) et qu’« elles se sont nommées écrivaines. ouvrage publié en collaboration avec des collègues de la Belgique francophone » (pp. il est généralement admis que les années 1970 ont été surtout remarquables par les prises de position et les mouvements féministes » (p. 159) : l’auteur explique le fait que ce sont ces « questions [qui sont] posées à la langue et au langage [. sans abdiquer son devoir de vigilance concernant le statut accordé au français dans l’ensemble de la collectivité. tantôt au récit ou au poème en prose. Bien que Lise Gauvin fasse des références. qui écrit des théories-fictions telles que L’Amèr ou le chapitre effrité. comme à toute pensée dualiste qui ferait l’économie des nombreux réseaux d’appartenances et d’influences qui la traversent et en font la spécificité . tels le romancier Jacques Ferron. si ce courant littéraire devient intéressant sur le plan linguistique. est celui de péricolonialisme. Littérature et institutions au Québec et en Belgique francophone. L’écrivain au Québec est celui qui. dans une littérature qui cesse d’être traditionnelle au cours de la deuxième moitié du 20e siècle. 12) . Une culture portée par la forte présence des écrivaines et riche des apports des nouveaux arrivants. selon Lise Gauvin. Entre le désir d’enracinement et le besoin de nomadisme s’inscrivent les étapes d’un parcours qui passe du roman paysan au roman urbain. » (p. tout au long de chaque chapitre. Nous les illustrons ici par les propos mêmes de Lise Gauvin : (i) « Une culture et une littérature comme références. arrimée à une culture marquée par l’hétérogène et le non-conventionnel. (ii) « Depuis les premiers écrits. – la « féminisation » du français québécois par les auteurs féminins de la littérature québécoise : par exemple. le chap. 223-224) 1 . telle était la caractéristique que je signalais comme une nouveauté de la littérature québécoise en 1983 dans Trajectoires.] [et qui sont] formulées dans des énoncés de type programmatique. dans les romans québécois de la deuxième moitié du 20e siècle. 26-27) . Trajectoires. mais aussi dans une série de textes mixtes qui empruntent tantôt au manifeste ou à l’essai. . mais également un français standard québécois.. du français. voir la représentation de la pièce de théâtre les Belles-Sœurs de Michel Tremblay. l’utilisation. comme des traits du joual) et du multilinguisme. – l’adoption à l’écrit. le français populaire québécois. mais aussi d’autres langues . de l’anglais et de l’italien. par les mêmes locuteurs appartenant à la communauté linguistique québécoise. Le français qui s’y affiche renvoie à une langue décomplexée. c’est parce que « les femmes ont voulu penser d’abord la langue. 159) . fières de cet e que l’on disait muet » (p. où elle se propose de féminiser le langage en français québécois. articulant leur théorie à des pratiques transgressives et provocatrices » (p. le poète Gaston 1 V. – l’affirmation. accompagnée d’une réflexion soutenue de la part des écrivains sur le rôle et la fonction sociale de la littérature.. Deux conclusions du livre nous semblent importantes. car on indique que cette littérature reste périphérique dans l’ensemble de la francophonie. au Québec. ce concept rejoint ce que Rownald Smith appelle le « side-by-sidedness » » (p.) (v. ces « étrangers du dedans » devenus peu à peu les témoins privilégiés et les porte-parole d’une collectivité en mutation. Lise Gauvin précise que « si les années 1960 ont été marquées. Labor. filólogo o no. si l’ouvrage de Lise Gauvin retient en premier lieu l’attention des lecteurs intéressés par la littérature. Împrumutul lexical în procesul modernizării limbii moderne [El préstamo léxico en el proceso de modernización de la lengua rumana] de N. 2013. Ştefan Vasile Episcopescu. transcriere. con la necesidad de adoptar nuevos términos y también con la capacidad del rumano de representar igualmente un instrumento de comunicación a nivel científico. También puede interesar a los filólogos y los apasionados por la lengua rumana en general y por su evolución en especial. Terminologie şi terminologii [Terminología y terminologías] – un estudio en dos volúmenes coordinado por Angela Bidu-Vrănceanu. Iacob S.A. Petre Maior. Bucarest. de la linguistique romanes et des études francophones. Iulius Barasch. Parcours du roman québécois ne traite pas uniquement de l’histoire du roman québécois. antonia_ferihan@yahoo. D’autre part. Medicină. para los terminólogos o para los que se dedican a los ámbitos abarcados por la autora: medicina. l’utilité du livre pour le domaine de la linguistique est loin d’être négligeable. zoología. Otro mérito de este estudio es el esfuerzo de haber transcrito en el alfabeto latino los textos * Institut de Linguistique « Iorgu Iordan – Al. Pavel Vasici-Ungurean) y otros a las ciencias de la naturaleza (Amfilohie Hotiniul. . De plus. Ainsi le livre Aventuriers et sédentaires. Parcours du roman québécois de Lise Gauvin est-il destiné à toutes les catégories de lecteurs : aux spécialistes de la littérature . percibidos en general como menos accesibles y comprensibles (como las crónicas de los historiadores moldavos y valacos del siglo XVII o la Istoria ieroglifică de Dimitrie Cantemir). Brândză). ştiinţe ale naturii (botanică. « cet ouvrage s’est voulu une invitation à lire le roman québécois davantage qu’une histoire de son évolution » (p. Par conséquent.140 Miron et d’autres. I. cautivante para un contemporáneo. Alexandru Teodori. selecţie. comentarii şi glosar. geologie) – Studiu introductiv. botánica. geología. Ursu. 273 pp. 221). acorde con el progreso de la ciencia en el mundo. mais également aux amateurs des belles-lettres. Din începuturile terminologiei ştiinţifice româneşti. Además. Paralela 45.com. Dimitrie Iarcu y D. les observations de l’auteur concernant le français québécois s’avèrent remarquables pour le champ de la linguistique. el volumen de Liliana Soare es un estudio científico riguroso que continúa la investigación de unas obras de referencia bastante recientes de la misma área como Formarea terminologiei ştiinţifice româneşti [La formación de la terminología científica rumana] de N. El estudio Din începuturile terminologiei româneşti presenta y comenta textos científicos (una manera de rescatarlos del olvido y de situarlos en los focos del análisis lingüístico) pertenenciendo unos al ámbito de la medicina (los textos de Amfilohie Hotiniul.A. La lectura del primer volumen del estudio Din începuturile terminologiei ştiinţifice româneşti [Sobre los principios de la terminología científica rumana] realizado por Liliana Soare puede resultar fascinante. la présentation de l’auteur est réalisée dans un langage qui est accessible au grand public. sin lugar a dudas. mais aussi aux titres des oeuvres écrites par ceux-ci. que necesita una guía que le acerque a la interpretación de los textos antiguos. ainsi que nous l’avons vu : selon les propos de Lise Gauvin dans sa conclusion. Ursu y D. Rosetti » de l’Académie Roumaine. vol. Ursu. Piteşti. El presente estudio concentra la información que podría servir como punto de partida para otras investigaciones o incluso para creaciones literarias con propósito reconstitutivo. l’ouvrage Aventuriers et sédentaires. zoologie. tel que nous avons essayé de le démontrer. ANTONIA CIOLAC* Liliana Soare. Cihac. Brândză. Zoologia de D. M. además. representada a nivel internacional por Victor Babeş. 34-52. del año 1796) hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XIX (Curs elementar de istoria naturală. a través de las cuales se intenta establecer una relación entre la noción nueva y los conocimientos anteriores de los lectores. sobre todo con propósito de divulgación. donde se convierte en asignatura para estudiar en las escuelas aun desde el siglo XVII. igual que la medicina. Fischer. por las estructuras interrogativas. Esta franja temporal incluye. Gheţie y Al. que. inserciones de etimones populares. se mencionan y se analizan los siguientes autores: – Amfilohie Hotiniul. 34-115). entre 1780 y 1860-1870.Dictionariul valachico-latinum [Diccionario valaco-latino]. . el interés para las ciencias de la naturaleza. la ciencia médica era más desarrollada en Transilvania comparativamente con los Países Rumanos bajo la influencia del Iluminismo. por las indicaciones etimológicas. pp. después de 1860. las explicaciones. «Din începuturile studiului ştiinţific în limba română – repere istorice» [Sobre los principios del estudio científico en rumano – referencias históricas] (pp. entre otros. al nivel de la enunciación (que concierne la relación locutor/interlocutor: «raportul locutor/interlocutor şi poziţia acestora faţă de obiectul cunoaşterii». 6-7) y «Notă asupra ediţiei» [Prólogo] (pp. el estudio incluye tres capítulos introductivos. creando la apariencia de un diálogo con el lector. Para el ámbito de la Medicina (pp. se va a manifestar pronto en primer lugar en Transilvania. que contiene una tabla útil de las correspondencias entre las letras del alfabeto cirílico y las letras latinas. práctica a evitar para no dar lugar a ambigüedades. y la segunda. igual que por la utilización de sinónimos para algunos términos científicos. de origen popular o préstamos. representante del iluminismo en Moldavia. ordenados cronológicamente y comentados desde una perspectiva terminológica. de absorción y de formación del estilo científico rumano. El volumen incorpora el estudio sobre los textos científicos escritos entre finales del siglo XVIII (Gramatica de la învăţătura fizicii de Amfilohie Hotiniul. mientras que uno está escrito con alfabeto ruso). Dimitrie Brândză. Dimitrescu. dividido a su vez en dos etapas: antes de 1640 (caracterizado por un número reducido de obras) y después de 1640 (cuando se puede constatar un aumento del interés por las ciencias en los Países Rumanos). según las especificaciones ofrecidas por la autora. los ejemplos. representado por numerosos textos y caracterizado por un léxico especializado de formación temprana. el centro de gravedad se desplazara hacia los Principados de Moldavia y Valaquia. p. el texto científico es de tres tipos: especializado. cuyo lenguaje se caracteriza por préstamos léxicos. ya que se añade también un listado de términos y sintagmas terminológicos del ámbito médico o de las ciencias de la naturaleza. A estos capítulos introductivos les sigue la parte más amplia del estudio que incluye los textos científicos. Mareş. Fl. didáctico o de divulgación (popularización). Nicolae Teclu. 22-33) muestra que. Además del «Argument» [Argumento] (pp. que marca un principio de autonomía de la investigación científica rumana. Gramatica de la învăţătura fizicii [Gramática sobre la enseñanza de la física] (1796). por las definiciones. un listado de nombres de plantas se incluye en el primer diccionario de la lengua rumana . «Didacticismul – trăsătură definitorie a primelor texte ştiinţifice» [El didacticismo – rasgo característico de los primeros textos científicos] (pp. las taxonomías y las ilustraciones. Anghel Saligny. 12-17) se refiere a la actividad científica desarrollada antes del período comentado en el presente volumen. conoce un período de florecimiento sobre todo después de 1830. El didáctico se manifiesta a través de los textos estudiados por las formulaciones dirigidas directamente al interlocutor con intención pedagógica. 17-22) se constata que hasta el año 1830. del año 1872). para que después de este año. I. pero justificable por aquellos principios de las escrituras con carácter científico en el espacio rumano.141 impresos en el alfabeto cirílico. según los sistemas propuestos en los estudios de I. dos etapas: la primera. ya que cinco textos están escritos en cirílico. Finuţa Asan. 811. 22). En «Schiţă de istorie a medicinii şi a ştiinţelor naturale în limba română» [Esbozo de la historia de la medicina y de las ciencias naturales en la lengua rumana] (pp. conocedor de varios dominios científicos. Avram. pp. Aunque los análisis de las obras de los autores mencionados contienen también enumeraciones de los términos populares o neológicos. pp. Cihac. – D. según la autora. pp. autor del primer tratado de ciencias naturales impreso en rumano. el padre de la ciencia botánica rumana. – Dimitrie Iarcu. pp. cuya significativa actividad médica incluye también la preocupación por crear un léxico médico rumano especializado. 210-243. fundador del Jardín Botánico de Bucarest y miembro de la Academia Rumana. a la traducción y a la adaptación de textos extranjeros. en caso de una posible reimpresión. no sólo las edades de la terminología en los Países Rumanos. a la terminología popular. en buena medida. que sienta las bases de la terminología médica en Valaquia. pp. pp. Oglinda sănătăţii şi a frumuseţii omeneşti [Espejo de la salud y de la belleza humana] (1829). sino también el desarrollo de la ciencia en este espacio rumano. A este vasto capítulo dedicado a los textos del ámbito médico y de las ciencias naturales le sigue un «Glosario» (pp. se trata de la primera escritura que representa un principio de terminología científica botánica. geología). 259-262) que reúne términos arcaicos de todos los ámbitos mencionados con sus correspondientes de la terminología rumana actual. a nivel lingüístico. con Elemente de istorie naturală [Elementos de historia natural] (1860). representa un momento de madurez del lenguaje científico rumano. a préstamos del italiano. 85-102. el año. según la autora. con Historia natural [Historia natural] (1837). Învăţătura pentru ferirea şi doftorirea boalelor [Enseñanza sobre la prevención y el tratamiento de las enfermedades] (1816). zoológica y geológica en rumano. retomar estos vocablos en un glosario final haría más visible la continuidad o la detención/suspensión de la evolución terminológica de . zoología. con Gramatica de la învăţătura fizicii [Gramática sobre la enseñanza de la física] (1796). Zoologia [Curso elemental de historia natural]. Una recomendación en cuanto a la construcción del glosario sería que éste fuera más extenso y contuviera. En cuanto a las ciencias de la naturaleza (botánica. Brândză.116-146 – ya que. Scurtă arătare despre om şi despre întocmirile lui [Corta presentación del ser humano y de su constitución] (1825). Las obras de estos autores reflejan. pp. se analizan textos que pertenecen a los siguientes autores: – Amfilohie Hotiniul. unas cuantas menciones en lo que concierne la obra de procedencia (el autor. 53-72. – Iacob S. para facilitar las investigaciones de los que quisieran continuar este estudio. en su gran mayoría. con su Curs elementar de istoria naturală. que recurre a préstamos léxicos para crear un lenguaje especializado utilizable en los ámbitos científicos rumanos. 244-257. – Iulius Barasch. el título. Antropologia sau scurta cunoştinţă despre om şi despre însuşirile sale [Antropología o corto conocimiento sobre el ser humano y sobre sus características] (1830). introduce en su obra términos anatómicos internacionales. 183209. – Alexandru Teodori. la página). pp. miembro de honor de la Sociedad Académica Rumana. caracterizada por la frecuencia de los términos populares y de los calcos. 147-182.142 – Petre Maior. autor y traductor de obras científicas francesas. – Pavel Vasici-Ungurean. autor al que se debe la forma final del Lexicon de la Buda [El diccionario de Buda]. pero también del aromuno. según la autora. pp. se sigue utilizando incluso en los manuales actuales de la enseñanza media y por haber adoptado términos científicos del francés. autor dedicado a varias áreas científicas. sigue siendo vigente. – Ştefan Vasile Episcopescu. aunque su obra también contiene términos populares. que recurre también a calcos. que se ha hecho importante por haber introducido la terminología especializada que. 116-257. 103-115. 73-85. cuya obra contiene términos científicos que siguen siendo utilizados aun en el presente. ya que utiliza en el manual analizado en Din începuturile terminologiei ştiinţifice româneşti una terminología que. pp. con Minunele naturei [Las maravillas de la naturaleza] (1852). especificando para la mayoría de ellos su equivalente griego. caracterizándose por la presencia de los préstamos y de los términos populares. five appendices.com. mioara. 23-47). In chapter 2. mientras que Izvoarele [Las fuentes] (pp. Chapter 3. data from on-line postings on the internet discussion forum “BruDirect”. i. . Dordrecht. extracts from texts printed at the “Kampong Ayer Cultural and Tourism Centre”. an extensive informal interview with Umi. Brunei English: A New Variety in a Multilingual Society. 19-21). es posible que algunos términos sean presentes en los textos de varios autores o. Facultad de Lenguas y Literaturas Extranjeras. sean específicos de un solo autor. “Introduction” (pp. 7) in favour of using the latter label. In this context. El estudio de Liliana Soare puede representar un importante punto de partida tanto para sus propias investigaciones como para los demás investigadores que se propongan adentrarse en un cierto ámbito y seguir la evolución del lenguaje científico rumano. and account (p. Lenguas y Literaturas Ibero-románicas e Italiano. 13-21). written data from issues of the two local English-language newspapers (The Brunei Times and the Borneo Bulletin). Springer. eight chapters. and attempted phonetic transcriptions * Universidad de Bucarest. 1-11). “Education in Brunei” (pp. MIOARA ADELINA ANGHELUŢĂ* David Deterding and Salbrina Sharbawi. Chapter 1.143 una obra a otra situadas en intervalos temporales diferentes. Sin lugar a duda. The data analyzed consist of the 53 UBDCSBE recordings of the “Wolf” passage. Departamento de Lingüística Románica. highlighting the bilingual education policy implemented via the socalled dwibahasa ‘dual languages’ bilingual system of education. the “References” and an “Index”. “English in Brunei” or “Brunei English”. The authors argue (p. the extensive interview with Umi. 263-272). 21) for their decision to use data illustrative of “the proficient and fluent variety of English that exists among well-educated young Bruneians” to the exclusion of the “learner English” of the less welleducated. a 33-year-old female fluent speaker of English. todo lo contrario. is a detailed description of the pronunciation of Brunei English. su aproximación paulatina de los requisitos terminológicos internacionales. Los «Anexos» incluyen fotos de las hojas de titulo/portadas y algunas páginas de las ediciones consultadas (pp. 273) contienen una enumeración de las obras científicas en orden alfabético según los autores. the 53 five-minute interviews of the same UBDSCSBE speakers. 2013. the longest in the book. demographic profile and sociolinguistic situation of Brunei. pero justamente estas coincidencias o diferencias pueden representar puntos de interés en un futuro estudio terminológico. Also discussed is the considerable variation typical of Brunei English. the list of “Abbreviations”. David Deterding and Salbrina Sharbawi’s book consists of the “Conventions in the transriptions”. The chapter ends with a detailed presentation of the data analyzed in the book: recordings from 53 formal interviews (38 female and 15 male subjects).angheluta@gmail. the authors discuss the history of the educational system in Brunei. Particular attention is paid to the status of this variety. “Phonetics and phonology” (pp. is an overview of the history. data from the University of Brunei Darussalam Corpus of Spoken Brunei English (UBDSCSBE). 170 pp.e. they also address the issue of the “educational divide” in Brunei (pp. while acknowledging the fact that this is a controversial option. the absence of the definite article before names of countries. the realization as a glottal stop [ʔ] of word-final /t/ and /k/. The authors deal in turn with: the discourse particles bah – “perhaps the favourite particle for Bruneians” (p. the occurrence of null subjects. rhoticity. the widespread occurrence of words with similar meanings connected by and. deaccenting. obstruent devoicing in word-final position. e. the classifier-like use of piece. the use of the auxiliary verb do in affirmative declarative sentences. the diabetes disease. is based on the interviews in the UBDCSBE and it focuses on a selected number of salient morphological and syntactic features of Brunei English. the variable usage of determiners. sentence stress. e. the occurrence of subject-auxiliary inversion in embedded questions.g. the occasional occurrence of ever in affirmative sentences. Cambridge. the tendency towards the monophthongization of the FACE and GOAT vowels. the use of yeah to signal the end of the turn or a change of mind. /l/-vocalization.g. e. the complementation patterns “Adj to V” and “Adj Ving”.144 by students. reduplication. the occurrence of -s with modal verbs.g. which triggers the use of the suffix -s. lah and kan. the effect on agreement patterns of an intervening noun between the head of the subject and the main verb. my grandparents they speak Hakka. the omission of the plural suffix -s after one of. with -s either unexpectedly occurring on or missing from present tense verbs. instances of spelling pronunciations and of idiosyncratic pronunciations. 49-70). I wouldn’t mind any job that lets me travel.g. the widespread use of would to express tentativeness and also as a stylistic variant of will. the occurrence of redundant prepositions. the use of there’s with plural noun phrases. the occurrence of plural forms such as brother-in-laws or runner-ups. the former are from the UDSCSBE interviews while the latter come from the two national English-language newspapers The Brunei Times and the Borneo Bulletin and from texts displayed at the “Kampong Ayer Cultural and Tourism Centre”. i. e. Cambridge University Press. the use of affirmative answers to negative questions. rhythm.e. the treatment as count-nouns of nouns which are uncountable in standard varieties of natively spoken English. or of were. the particle tsk (where <tsk> stands for an alveolar click). the performance of the participants were satisfactory. “Discourse” (pp. 84). intrusive [t] in word-final position. subject-verb agreement. the use of -wise to mark a noun as the topic. instances of tautology. the tendency towards the levelling of the length distinction in the lexical sets2 KIT and FLEECE. the borrowings from Malay of terms such as for 2 The lexical sets (see p. “Morphology and syntax” (pp. discuss about/on. the reduction of word-final consonant clusters. Wells (1982). via consonant deletion. frequentative will. love and affection. The sections on segmental phenomena (pp. and the utterance-final rising pitch. “Lexis” (pp. FOOT and GOOSE.g. the tendency towards what the authors call “overdoing explicitness” (p. The suprasegmental phenomena discussed (pp. 72). e. job-wise.g. the tendency towards lengthy sentences. . the confusion of the vowels in FACE and TRAP. Chapter 6. the tendency towards using whereby as an all-purpose connector.g. e. grasp at. the absence of reduced vowels. total overall. most of the words of English comes. Accents of English. Chapter 5. 23) are taken from J. Chapter 4. /l/-deletion. the repetition of lexical items. the influence of other languages is illustrated: the borrowings from Arabic via Malay. the occurrence of compared to instead of than. the tendency towards the substitution of the stops [t] and [d] for the fricatives [θ] and [ð] respectively. C. the use of the present tense for past time reference. the cooccurrence of such as and and so forth/and so on in the same sentence.g. enhance and upgrade. the use as discourse markers of the phrases sort of/kind of. consisting mostly of religious terms. 24-41) are concerned with the following topics: TH-stopping. The issues covered are: the occurrence vs. compound stress. is an overview of the most typical discourse patterns of Brunei English. is concerned with the characteristics of the vocabulary of Brunei English. 89-106). non-occurrence of the plural suffix -s. topic fronting. she’s in UK right now or US would be good.g. emphasize on. e. The analysis is based on data of both spoken and written discourse. e. First. 71-87). 41-47) include word stress. e. the occurrence in written discourse of ill-formed run-on sentences. the unmarked option3 of speakers. which makes it accessible to a wide readership. Schneider (2011). The analysis of Brunei English data includes references to other “New Englishes”. 107-116). sober ‘ashamed’. Varieties around the World. “The dynamics of New Englishes: From identity construction to dialect birth”. e. the existence of a special terminology for participants in various sports. See also Edgar W. the occurrence of semantic shifts. Next. Singapore English. given the insufficiency of the data in many areas of interest. 4 First presented in Edgar W. to food and to other elements of local culture. e. i. David Deterding (2007). 128). “hybrid mature” (p. There are very few inaccuracies: “with is about” (p. title. Language. the lack of English equivalents for terms relating to the Islamic religion. in particular to those spoken in Malaysia. focuses on code mixing and code switching involving Malay and English.g. to designate items of clothing. “The female UBDCSBE speakers” (pp. 128-129). e. the need to explain something. calques from Malay. Deterding and Sharbawi’s monograph is the first book-length description of Brunei English. In chapter 8. though only tentatively. the authors first assess the status of Brunei English in terms of the called “Dynamic Model”4 and conclude that Brunei English is still in the third stage.145 addressing or referring to the royal family. Social Motivations for Codeswitching. consists of the passage used for the readings. The book is written in a lively and engaging style. The other issues covered in this chapter are the place of Brunei English within World Englishes. four-eye meeting. shuttler ‘badminton player’. i. Schneider (2003). stylistic reasons.g.g. e. 151-153). chapter 2. 129-151). Postcolonial English.e. blends.e. traditional dances and festivals. see e. Also addressed. 117-125). Chapter 7. 116). the (probably Chinese-influenced) use of three or/to five years. Controversial issues and less well documented facts are discussed in a remarkably objective way. BSB ‘Bandar Seri Begawan. provides the identification code. the capital city of Brunei’. English around the World: An Introduction. Singapore5. e. 79. 110) instead of hybrid nature.wav files of the extensive interview with Umi. bring ‘take’. promex ‘promotion exam’. Oxford. including the influence of Malay and Chinese. as well as to natively spoken varieties.g. analyzed in chapter 7. Clarendon Press. Appendix E. “Transcripts of the interview with Umi” (pp. direct quotations. There are five “Appendices”: Appendix A. e. “Brunei English in the world” (pp. Due consideration is given to the complex interplay of factors in the emergence and development of Brunei English. ethnicity. Edinburgh University Press.g. . is repeatedly underscored.g. the authors discuss phenomena such as: the widespread occurrence of initialisms. stay ‘live’. for specific cultural items. ex-coms ‘ex-committee members’. Edinburgh. 127128).g. Cambridge University Press. “The male UBDCSBE speakers” (pp. lists the age. the use of specific clippings. 120) instead of Schneider’s 3 In the sense of Carol Myers-Scotton (1993). Cambridge. The authors conclude that both code mixing and code switching appear to be “the norm” (p. “Schneider’s modal” (p. “Mixing” (pp. e. Appendix D. chapter 3. date of the initial post. Appendix C. and URL of the 15 discussion threads from the “BruDirect” internet discussion forum. are the factors that account for the widespread occurrence of both code mixing and of code switching: what the authors call the “inability to think of a word” (p. Cambridge. the Philippines and Hong Kong. lists those of the male subjects. is the orthographic transcript of the . 233-281.g. pp. 5 The first author is a well-known specialist in Singapore English. “The Wolf passage” (pp. “The BruDirect data” (pp. nativization. 111). 78) instead of which is about. The frequently tentative nature of the findings. Schneider (2007). Appendix B. and Edgar W. and the pedagogical implications of the findings in light of the paradigm shift away from strict adherence to the norms of native-speakers. first language and second language of the female subjects in the UBDCSBE corpus. The volume has been very carefully edited and indexed. the intelligibility of Brunei English in international settings. The last part of the chapter is a brief review of these methods and approaches. However. Brunei English: A New Variety in a Multilingual Society is a welcome description of a hitherto under researched variety of “New English”. presents the main methods and approaches currently used in EFL classrooms. Each of the eight sections presents the principles of the respective method. Chapter 1. individual techniques. or they can choose the deductive way of teaching grammar and give the students all the rules they need to know. 15-117). 118-157). the Silent Way. we should not be blinded by the criticisms of any of these methods. ANDREI A. 2013. the Total Physical Response Method. The second part of the chapter provides communicative activities for the three stages of teaching grammar. the author goes beyond the simple presentation of the different methods of teaching English as a foreign language. Thus. the Communicative Approach. its distinguishing features and techniques. The chapters are freestanding and can be used independently of one another. Its main part is divided into five chapters. may prove to be successful in certain cases and may lead to good results. Bucharest. 157 and 166). For instance. such as the Direct Method. and ends with the most flexible and widely praised approach.avram@gmail. as well as the criticism(s) it has received during the years. and if yes. It is addressed to second and third year BA students. The book under review here is a course in foreign language teaching.com. and gives her own opinion about which method would be appropriate in Romanian schools. the Audio-Lingual Method. The book starts with a “Foreword”. This is a good starting point for such a book as I do not believe that the study of language teaching methods should be excluded from language teacher education. The Methodology of Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Throughout the chapter. even if combined. by means of which they let students discover the rules themselves. andrei2. Community Language Learning. In conclusion. “Teaching grammar” (pp. she discusses the strong and weak points of each of them. 159) to Noor Azam Haji-Othman (2012b) does not include the page numbers. The first part confronts teachers with the two ways grammar can be taught: teachers may choose the inductive way of teaching grammar. the Grammar-Translation Method. followed by an “Introduction”. and closes with a short “Bibliography”. . as well as second year MA students. AVRAM* Mihaela Tănase-Dogaru. and it contains the key to exercises. not “Athura” (pp.146 model. The tight teacher-controlled activities of the first stage (the presentation and explanation of new material in a clear and comprehensible way) are followed by students’ performances (practice to consolidate knowledge). Between these two. we are reminded of the fact that despite their drawback. advancing our understanding not only of south-east Asian Englishes but also of World Englishes. the reference (p. and Suggestopedia. is dedicated to the hotly-debated topic whether grammar should be taught at all or not. The chapter starts with the most traditional and widely criticized method. “Methods and approaches to the teaching of English as a foreign language” (pp. Ishamina’s first name is Athirah. Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti. and thus fail to see their invaluable contribution to teacher education. for which the authors are to be commended. Department of English. then how. 293 pp. Chapter 2. we find other methods and approaches. each devoted to one aspect of language teaching. and these in general culminate with the final * University of Bucharest. And this should come as no surpise. while-reading. i. The chapter talks about ways and techniques of memorizing and remembering vocabulary.147 stage. Nonetheless. while-listening. and post-reading activities. 220-258). special emphasis is laid on pre-reading. Moreover. speaking shows differences from writing. and this implies different reasons for teaching this skill and different types of exercises. in order to show that language can be taught through literature. emphasizes the fact that teaching and learning literature is very important. The reasons for teaching listening may be different as well. or postlistening activities. involves active participation on the part of the reader. “Teaching literature” (pp. As far as writing is concerned. which offers great learner freedom (free production). listening. an equal importance is given to both the receptive and the productive skills. and practice. and clarifies some principles and aspects of the nature of reading. as vocabulary expansion is one of the central aspects learners express interest in. Dalloway. Chapter 3. These stages may not occur only in this order. in getting them to acquire the abilities and skills they need in order to produce a range of different kinds of written texts. the author gives the example of the novel Mrs. Some of the reasons why we should be in favour of including literature in courses are the following: (i) it arouses and maintains students’ interest in literature and contributes to enjoyment. which. “Teaching vocabulary” (pp. as Chapter 5. Chapter 4. they do not represent a rigid linear classroom routine.e. Evidently. as well as some of the basic conventions of writing. First. “Teaching integrated skills” (pp. unfortunately it is often considered the “forgotten skill” and does not attract great attention. As spoken language differs markedly from written text. and reasons for. it is a rich source of language. teachers should prepare differently and should pay attention to other aspects of pre-listening. and it would not be an exaggeration to say that most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak. in helping students learn the grammatical structure of the foreign language. focuses on teaching the four basic skills: reading. (iv) last but certainly not least. it attempts to explain a number of specialist skills which learners have in their own language but which need to be re-activated when it comes to reading in a foreign language. Finally. Then. what the author emphasizes is that teachers should not underestimate the role of correction of written work and should know how to provide feedback on writing. it discusses some ways of. (ii) it helps them explore their own responses to literature. The core of the chapter is based on the pattern we are already familiar with: the three important stages of teaching vocabulary are presentation.e. reinforces the importance of teaching vocabulary and reconsiders its once marginal status relative to the main purpose of language learning: the acquisition of grammatical knowledge about the language. discovery techniques. (iii) it has intrinsic educational and aesthetic value. and it is possible to both start and finish a lesson with the same stage. they may sometimes be combined within one and the same activity. As reading. focus on other aspects of language and demand different levels of correctness. and the listening material itself can come in at least two different forms: audio tapes and video. The largest part of the section proves that there are numerous activities and tasks that can stimulate writing. Although most learners can cope with a higher level in receptive skills than they can in language production. speaking seems to be the most important skill. in which Virginia Woolf makes use of free indirect discourse. just like listening. writing activities can be very helpful in reinforcing the new language. reading a text. Finally. in their turn. 158-219). English. the response to the well-known question whether literature should be included in the course or not is affirmative. and what students need to know when it comes to vocabulary teaching. In order to make sure the readers understand the main ideas of the chapter. writing. the author discusses some problematic lessons and explains what seems to be wrong with them. and speaking. the criteria that should be taken into account when selecting vocabulary. i. . Also. To give only one example. 259-287). but training students in the former skills presents problems not found in reading material. The teaching of listening skills follows the methodological model of the teaching of reading skills. She concludes by extracting some general principles of teaching this integrated skill. El presente volumen es una edición bilingüe de las Etymologiae (Originum sive etymologiarum libri viginti) escritas por San Isidoro. obispo de Sevilla en 627–630 A. La edición en su conjunto resulta impresionantemente generosa en ofrecer informaciones minuciosas tanto desde el punto de vista cuantitativo como cualitativo. motivate their standpoint.148 Generally speaking. Readers are invited to answer questions. “What would you do to change that?” (p. Faculty of Letters. Iaşi. edición bilingüe. The author’s style of presenting the material is easy to read and she speaks directly to her readers. 123). the author mentions that this book can be used “as a textbook meant to teach future teachers about English taught as a foreign language” (p. and some of its material may also be found interesting and helpful by more experienced practitioners. contextualizado por un estudio y una cronología emplazados a principios del libro y seguido por unas notas en el apartado posterior de éste. she invites her readers to reconsider the lesson procedures and redesign them so as to include the newly-discovered features of teaching listening. I consider that they may be used by anyone looking for new ideas or teaching resources. farkas. Attached to each chapter is a special section entitled Checking understanding.D. Take a look at the following examples: “What I want to make you understand is that …” (p. The author provides very many examples and there are a lot of practice exercises. etc. 280 p. 122). 2014. IMOLA-ÁGNES FARKAS6 Isidor de Sevilla. this is a well structured book. precisely because it is both a scientific and a methodological approach to teaching English as a foreign language. but also for trainee or novice teachers. 13). 173). Then. from which she summarizes the most important things to remember when devising a listening activity. In the “Introduction”. I consider that this is an underestimation: the present book. La estructura del volumen se integra del corpus de textos mencionado anteriormente. estudio introductorio. manteniendo una 6 “Babeş-Bolyai” University. they are encouraged to elaborate upon their reasons. think about possible approaches and solutions to various problems or difficult situations.agnes@gmail. The author first mentions (pp. select from the multitude of activities. cronología y notas por Anca Crivăţ. “In order for you to see the importance of language planning. 174-176) two (negative) versions of the same lesson plan. We witness a student-friendly approach and a student-centered way of explaining the methodology and it is precisely this approach that I liked best. “Before establishing together some of the most important principles …” (p. Let me mention only one example related to teaching listening. Polirom. is a useful tool not only for future teachers. El original latino viene acompañado por su traducción al rumano de dos de los libros de las Etimologías: Liber XI – De homine et portentis (Libro XI – El hombre y los monstruos) y Liber XII – De animalibus (Libro XII – Las bestias). which presents a wide variety of communicative activities and seminar worksheets. or design their own activities.imola. Department of English Language and Literature. . I …” (p. It provides an excellent overview for teachers who need some background about terminology and methods that is not too technical.com. 120). traducción del latín al rumano. Etimologii XI-XII. En lo relativo a las influencias que tuvo en las producciones posteriores. Paulo Orosio. la música y la astronomía – el quadrivium. Disciplinarium libri de Marco Terencio Varrón. entre los cuales el estudio introductorio destaca un tratado de dogmática y moral cristiana. Ricardo de San Victor y Siger de Brabante. Isidoro de Sevilla. quien recibe como regalo a las siete artes liberales: la gramática. La autora también muestra que a San Isidoro se lo conocieron como histórico y naturalista. enfocando en los más impactantes e ingeniosas. copiadas y citadas obras medievales. la edad de oro del «enciclopedismo medieval». De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii. el estudio establece las auctoritates para San Isidoro. al son de una canción de una harmonía perfecta. Boecio. Anca Crivăţ parte en su estudio de una hermosa imagen del Paraíso de Dante. como por ejemplo lo fue el Fisiólogo latino B. se pueden mencionar como ejemplos de obras de tipo enciclopédico anteriores a las Etimologías de San Isidoro. En lo que concierne al contexto de la obra. en primer lugar están los escritos de San Ambrosio. y en el tercero. las Etymologiae sive Origines. con la virgen Filología. Así. quien practica el humanismo cristiano enseñado por las lecciones de San Agustín. Enfatiza que la enciclopedia pagana que instituye las siete artes liberales como esqueleto fundamental del sistema educacional medieval es el tratado escrito por Marciano Capella en el siglo V. la dialéctica y la retórica – el trivium – y la aritmética. Con vistas a demostrar desde el principio el hecho de que a San Isidoro no se le podía pasar por alto en cualquier enumeración de los espíritus científicos de la Edad Media. Prata de Suetonio. la autora apunta datos significativos sobre los textos que informan de los escritos de San Isidoro comenzando con el siglo VII y explica la naturaleza que el concepto de enciclopedismo podía tener en aquella época. el del Sol. la geometría. Anca Crivăţ advierte que. considerado como una Summa theologica del siglo VII y un escrito de carácter místico. la cual trata del momento en que el poeta florentino viene acompañado por Beatrice hacia el cuarto cielo. Se encuentran allí las más importantes personalidades: Tomás de Aquino. que más tarde se convirtió en la fuente de los bestiarios franceses. Nocte satticae de Aulo Gellio y Saturnalia de Macrobio. Alberto Magno. casi matemática. Pedro Lombardo. debido a su obra de proporciones impresionantes. Con respeto a las fuentes de las Etimologías. el último siendo el más importante por encontrarse citas agustinianas a cada paso en las Etimologías. de los lapidarios y los bestiarios. para que posteriormente sumergiera en las entrañas de la estructura interior de la obra explicando el hilo de su filosofía. San Beda el Venerable. El estudio introductorio ofrece antes que nada detalles sobre el contexto externo a las Etimologías isidorianas que influyó en su creación. el sabio rey Salomón.149 estructura detallada pero sin embargo muy clara. Graciano. Añade que ésta fue una de las más conocidas. Este tratado representa la boda del dios de la Retórica. había circulado entre los siglos VII y XVI en más de mil copias manuscritas. Casiodoro y Gregorio Magno. Synonyma/ Soliloquia con el subtítulo De lamentatione animae peccatricis. Dionisio Areopagita. San Jerónimo y San Agustín de Hipona. En segundo lugar los autores cristianos. Mercurio. y enfoca sobre todo en su importante papel como enciclopedista. sobre todo durante el siglo XIII. la enciclopedia de San Isidoro se configuró como el fundamento de todas las enciclopedias medievales. A continuación nos explica la autora que la inclusión de San Isidoro en esta encantadora imagen dantesca viene justificada por el éxito que debió de tener sus escritos durante los siglos VII–XV. Naturalis Historia de Plinio el Viejo. Sententiae/ De summo bono. para que el final se dedicara a unos ejemplos prácticos de etimologías isidorianas. aunque el término enciclopedia en el sentido que hoy conocemos y utilizamos se consagra después del año 1559. . los escritores de la Antigüedad pagana. Sus apartados siguientes tratan primero de sus fuentes y luego de las influencias que tuvo posteriormente en otros escritos. Ahí los espíritus felices de quienes se hubieran dedicado la vida al estudio y al conocimiento se mueven en círculos de luces brillantes. que. hasta que se publicó la edición princeps en Augsburgo en 1472 por Günter Zainer de Reutlinger. por el otro.7. sino más que nada la asimilación de ésta como propedéutica sine qua non para el entendimiento de las sagradas escrituras. Renotatio. El hombre y los monstruos. quien se remonta en la tradición de Filón de Alejandría en virtud de la cual Moisés y los profetas no fueron sino predecesores de los filósofos antiguos. La conclusión de este apartado mantiene que las Etimologías son de hecho un inmenso «base de datos» del siglo VII. la superioridad frente a los animales por un lado y su propensión hacia la contemplatio mundi. a la datación de la obra. Braulio explica la división de las Etimologías en libros. como indicaciones sobre la modalidad de organización de este contenido de conocimientos. advierte la autora. Las cosas presentes. La siguiente parte del estudio ofrece datos y explicaciones amplias y detalladas sobre el escrito en frente del cual estamos. así como lo que está en frente de los ojos se halla en la vista. praesensibus. praesentia. cómo fue posible que aproximadamente en el año 552 Casiodoro escribiera Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum. Siguiendo a San Agustín. genae. Dios les había hablado a los hombres por medio de los filósofos. en su trabajo. anima. de Noé a Abraham. para el análisis del modo de encadenamiento de los capítulos. hacen que el alma. puesto que la naturaleza.150 Este conjunto de disciplinas que habían formado en la Antigüedad la έγκύκλιος παιδεία (enkýkliospaideía ‘la cultura general’) se conservó a lo largo de la Edad Media a través del canon educacional del trivium y el quadrivium que permite no solamente la conservación de la cultura antigua. Ésta viene como motivo para recalcar la construcción binaria del hombre. quiso recordar que antes de que salieran a la luz.4. ofrece el programa esencial de la cultura eclesiástica en una síntesis del cristianismo y la cultura griega y latina. Esto se da sobre todo comenzando con la época y los escritos de San Agustín de Hipona. se refieren a laceratio mentis ‘laceración de la mente’. se localizan frente a los sentidos. mueva el cuerpo entero a través de la fuerza de las sensaciones. Los sentidos. las Etymologiae. enumeramos a continuación unos cuantos ejemplos de etimologías de San Isidoro. También nos proporciona Anca Crivăţ informaciones sobre la primera mención de las Etimologías por Braulio. Los datos se refieren al título original. cuya coherencia se debe al método explicativo empleado sistemáticamente por San Isidoro: la etimología. a la vez que consagra la idea de la philosophia ancilla theologiae. De trinitate 4. Anota la autora del estudio que los está conectando al «tiempo grande» de los seis días de la Creación según la Biblia y a los seis períodos de la historia de la humanidad: de Adán a Noé. duplex est homo. fue San Agustín quien promulgó la idea de que anteriormente a la Encarnación. Las lágrimas. Capítulo 1. La autora describe el trayecto del fenómeno de la cristianización del saber antiguo desde el inicial rechazo de las artes liberales por parte de los padres de la iglesia hasta el momento en que el tratado de San Agustín. lacrimas. Para que lector se percatara de tal método. Los hinojos. de los puentes que dan coherencia al conjunto y de las referencias encrucijadas. al hecho de que inicialmente se dedicó al monarca visigodo Flavio Sisebuto. que inmediatamente empiezan a llorar. se llaman así porque en el vientre materno se hallan cara a cara con los párpados. es decir el estatuto ancilar de la filosofía antigua frente al conocimiento de la Sagrada Escritura y al acercamiento a Dios. quien falleció el año 621. obispo de Zaragoza y discípulo de San Isidoro. nada más se prosternen de hinojos. da razón de la concepción isidoriana de tales conocimientos y de tal modalidad de la organización de éstos. un programa de estudio para los monjes del monasterio de Vivarium. Como ya se conoce. Ello explica como los hombres. se habían encontrado juntos en la oscuridad. Harto fundamento para que el estudio ofrezca explicaciones sobre el sistema organizativo de la materia en 20 libros. Del hombre y sus partes empieza con una de las etimologías confirmadas por la filología moderna: homo ex humo. interior et exterior. Todo ello explica. por lo cual tienen rasgos en común con los ojos. San Isidoro enumera en el segundo capítulo del mismo libro a las seis edades del hombre. El Libro XI. por ejemplo. que se fundara en los siete artes liberales. de David a la . genua. y además. por haber dispuesto a los hinojos aplastantes en las mejillas. sensus. de Abraham a David. por ofrecer tanto indicios obvios sobre los conocimientos comprendidos en ellos. desentrañando su estructura y filosofía. De doctrina christiana. y sepultado. que tenían alas y garras. la juventud es la más poderosa de todas hasta los 50. Su natura es tan caliente. la madurez hasta los 70. que trata de los pájaros. porque una vez que encuentra oro. El cuervo. ostenta. hircus. corax.151 esclavitud babilónica. Para entender mejor y contextualizar tal inéditas e interesantes explicaciones de palabras y conceptos. Difunto. se dijo que les hacían naufragar. Explica San Isidoro que los latinos consideran que lleva este nombre porque reconoce. se disuelve solamente en sangre de chivo. que proviene de su hábito de dar forma a su cachorro con su propia boca. de la de caballo los escarabajos. pueritia. El cuarto capítulo. volvemos a la teoría sobre la ciencia de la etimología y encontramos en el estudio introductorio la clasificación de Jacques Fontaine. le sirven a estos etiopios para hacerse sombra. la visión de San Isidoro parece emplear a la etimología como el método para definir el valor auténtico de las palabras. nombre que viene de la palabra griega hagnós ‘puro’. También la grajilla. la retórica. corvus. Ellas hacían que los marineros naufragaran al ser hechizados por su música. monedula. de ésta a Cristo. Entre ellas. la dialéctica. coracinare. que equivale a ‘santo’. habiendo dejado a los pasajeros pobres. Al otro extremo. el que ya no tiene pulso. que incluso el diamante. El Segundo libro de las Etimologías incluido en el presente volumen es el XII y trata de las bestias. ciertas. San Isidoro explica que de hecho se trataba de tres prostitutas de los que. la adolescencia hasta los 28. functiofficio. es decir la edad pura hasta los 14 años. agnus. tiene su nombre de monetula. mostrar (ostendere). es un animal lascivo. el chivo. ore suo. que ni el fuego ni el hierro lo pueden romper. De esta forma el hombre atraviesa la infancia. siendo infans mientras no sabe hablar y fari hasta los siete años. El capítulo tercero trata de los monstruos (portenta. de llama el que ya haya concluido su oficio de vida. de la del asno los saltamontes y de la del cangrejo los escorpiones. de cuerpo mitad virgen. sino que se desplazan en direcciones no determinadas. ursus. y la sexta. Por ejemplo. porque Venus había nacido de las olas. De los esciápodas llamados en griego skiopodas se conoce que vivían en Etiopía y que sólo tienen un pie. pero a la vez permite el conocimiento de la realidad por medio del . sine pulsu. que la autora utiliza para desarrollar las seis tradiciones que configuran este tipo de reflexión lingüística: la etimología popular. de la carne pútrida de vaca nacen las abejas. otra tocaba la flauta y la tercera la lira. sin vergüenza. cuya última parte se llama senium. y de ahí su nombre. y la vejez. viae. la filosófica o iniciática derivada de la convicción neopitagórica de que ciertas prácticas etimológicas son capaces de desvelar la verdadera naturaleza de la realidad. sobre las metamorfosis. defunctus. que mira siempre en diagonal. una cantaba. Gregorio Magno cuenta en Moralia que este pájaro alimenta suficientemente a sus hijos sólo después de que les hubiera crecido el plumaje negro oscuro típico. sepultus. la niñez. que. Las alas y las garras eran símbolos del dios Amor quien vuela y hierre a la vez y también se dijo de ellas que vivían en las olas. En el primer capítulo hay explicaciones sobre el cordero. También se imagina que hubo tres sirenas. Del séptimo. Del segundo capítulo citamos las explicaciones sobre el nombre del oso. de modo similar al predicador que se niega a nutrir a sus discípulos con las verdades sutiles de la fe hasta que éstos no se hubieran convertido conscientes de la «negrura” de sus pecados. o bien su cara verdadera: vis verborum. avia. agnoscere. por lo cual se le conoce como que roba el oro. y el sexto período después de Cristo. demostrar (mostrare) y predecir (praedicere) los hechos del porvenir. a su madre entre los otros animales aún en una manada numerosa por su manera de balar. Entre éstas. mitad ave. tiene su nombre del sonido de su voz. da cuenta entre otras de las transformaciones de varios cuerpos y de la consecuente aparición de varios tipos de formas de vida. monstra y prodigia) que se llaman así porque parecen prever (portendere). al alzárselo en tiempo de mucho calor. y de ahí orsus significa comienzo. Ésta última se establece a partir de su origen. que surge de la exegesis cristiana. la tradición gramatical. porque hirqui se usa para designar las partes laterales de los ojos. y a la que se denomina «compleja» por englobar la tradición hebraica de interpretación de los nombres bíblicos. se lo lleva y lo esconde. aprendemos que las aves se llaman así porque no siguen vías. Anca Crivăţ advierte que el obispo sevillano apoya el viejo debate a encontrar también en el dialogo platónico Cratylos. una coexistencia que no permite el desvelo de la realidad entera por medio de las palabras. however. both linguistically and culturally. the background of the source text and the author. el de la coexistencia de los dos tipos de etimología. For this. en base de la clasificación de las tradiciones etimológicas hecha por Fontaine. * Universidad de
[email protected] origen de las palabras que designan. Liu (2010). One of the most common remarks one hears when it comes to Chinese culture is about its uniqueness. could be loosely grouped around visual or performing arts. clothing or traditional painting. nursery rhymes or poetry. London and New York. Además. where the authors touched upon many of the problems young translators encounter when dealing with Chinese texts. 2014. . etc. London and New York. Departamento de Lingüistica Románica. Routledge. Lenguas y Literaturas Iberorománicas e Italiano. each of them dealing with a specific area of expertise. It is this kind of attitude that the book fights against and the authors are quite successful in showing that translating Chinese culture for a Western audience is not necessarily doomed to fail. The book discussed here comes as a natural continuation of Thinking Chinese Translation. Liu. considerados unas auctoritates durante la Edad Media. Thinking Chinese Translation: A Course in Translation Method: Chinese to English. Routledge. and Yalta Ya-Yun Chen. Eric T. la autora del estudio considera que San Isidoro emprende un método gramatical etimológico. about how Chinese culture has got an intimate structure which is very hard for an outsider to understand and virtually impossible to translate. The present book goes a step further and explores the very specific challenges young translators face when dealing with texts which are intimately related to the Chinese culture. hay que darse clara cuenta de que se trata de unos conocimientos provenidos de los autores antiguos prestigiosos. dado que la gramática es la «ciencia piloto» que facilita el acceso a los textos fuentes del saber. la secundum naturam y la por convención arbitraria. The Process of Chinese-English Translation. such as writing or calligraphy. SILVIA ŞTEFAN* Valerie Pellatt. The nine chapters of the book. sino que aún más. 7 Valerie Pellatt and Eric T. A Course in Translation Method: Chinese to English7. los valores de una cultura que muchos ya no pueden entender». the target audience. starting with the similarities and differences between the cultures involved. the translator must pay attention to many extra-linguistic elements.ro.unibuc. Each chapter follows the same pattern. viii + 191 pp. Con referencia a San Isidoro y en apoyo de la importancia de su impactante obra que apunta a la transmisión del saber. en medio de un mundo de guerreros que amenazan a caer en la barbarie. Translating Chinese Culture. Anca Crivăţ puntualiza no sin cierta emoción que «decir que los antiguos hablan por medio de tu persona significa asumir conscientemente la posición de alguien que se siente capaz de llevar el conocimiento adonde está en peligro de desaparecer definitivamente y de salvar. Este método no solamente conserva el valor metafísico que tuvo en ciertos corrientes de pensamiento de la Antigüedad. silvia. that the translated text must be linguistically as close as possible to the original text. the authors encourage the translator to use his/ her creativity and spontaneity and became aware of the fact that classical Chinese poetry would be extremely difficult to be translated from classical into modern Chinese. The need for a translator to be bold and daring is shown in the sixth chapter dealing with translation of poetry. to come up with a coherent and natural text in the target language. when writing about traditional Chinese culture. Needless to say that. The authors do not forget to provide the reader with possible translations for the examples and exercises in the book. By looking at the process of translating poetry as transcreation. just as the authors observed. with linguistic analysis of the choices they make. or nursery rhymes. such as clothing. in many universities. helping the young translator get a better understanding of their work and avoid a common mistake made by many inexperienced translators. as shown in the fourth chapter. most of the times. because. etc. There are many Chinese authors who feel that. drama. who are supposed to understand the vocabulary as such. painting. But what happens when the text is destined to a larger audience? How should these terms be translated when they refer to a type of reality inexistent in the target culture? The chapters dedicated to calligraphy and clothing are very good examples of how to deal with this type of texts. The way people dress. or by imitating well-known classical poems or poets in the source culture. was extremely important since it said a lot about the status a person enjoyed in the society. this vocabulary is not translated. therefore the poem needs to be translated in such a way that it reaches the new audience and it allows for them to identify with it.153 starting with an introduction of the area of expertise. but this does not make them less important. It is also the translator who needs to decide how to translate the specific terms and how much information his/ her translation should contain in order to make the text as informative as needed. and. let alone a foreign language. the third chapter shows not only the difficulty of translating the vocabulary specific to this art form. more than in any other case. especially in a highly hierarchized society such as imperial China. and finish with practical exercises. Most of the areas of expertise chosen for discussion are familiar to all students in Chinese: calligraphy. The translator needs to show a lot of skill in order to preserve the flavor of the text. but also touches upon the different ways of organizing a text in Chinese and English. The book can help students in translation find the fine line between excessive domestication or foreignization of a text. most of the times. There are many instances where translators tried their best to recreate the poem either by employing the same composition rules as in Chinese. They pay very much attention to the cultural background of the texts chosen as examples and the extra-linguistic elements that influence the process of translation. from the less to the more complex ones. Dedicated to calligraphy. can help the translator make the right choice based on the function and the appearance of the term to be translated. How can a translator use words to make the reader visualize the clothes characters wear. by choosing the right register. especially because it is highly probable to encounter them when translating Chinese literature. or discussions regarding various methods of translation. it involves both the content and the form. Translating poetry is notoriously difficult. followed by case-studies organized hierarchically. poetry. at the same time. There are also elements which might not be covered by a special course. especially when appearing in texts destined to people familiar with the Chinese culture. Similar problems pose the translation of clothing. . one needs to use long elaborate sentences with structures borrowed from the classical language. especially when transliteration or contextualization does not work the magic? The answer given by the authors is “semantic fields” – hyponyms or hyperonyms. corroborated with knowledge about dressing culture. Good mastery of the semantic fields. the results are disappointing. Most of the areas covered in the book have their own specialized vocabulary and. The translator needs to reach an audience which is absolutely different from the one for which the poem was composed. After all. or of the actors. can actually contribute to a successful translation. paying less attention to the concrete text analysis than to the cultural background. how domesticated the text should be to ensure that it reaches the audience. so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril”. cannot neglect the body that surrounds it.unibuc. is a rich book which gives food for thought not only to young translators from Chinese. to quote Bassnett (2002: 23)8. The two case studies described in this chapter. 3rd edition. I can understand that emphasizing the role of culture to a successful translation never seems enough. but also to other people interested in the Chinese culture. * Susan Bassnett (2002). might be ideal cases where the team involved in producing and staging the play also acts as translator. MUGUR ZLOTEA* 8 York. and it is the interaction between the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. operating on the heart. but from the point of view of someone involved in teaching students how to deal with a Chinese text. such as the director or the actors. the translation of Cao Yu’s Peking Man and Wang Fang’s Poison. It is rarely the case that the team acting the play be also the one that translates it. In the same way that the surgeon. what role the director.zlotea@g. dedicated to drama translation. Thus. the chapter emphasizes the importance of collaborative work when it comes to translating drama. . whether it should be more literal or more performance-oriented. Nevertheless. Translation Studies. “language is the heart within the body of culture. but also to accommodate their colleagues’ understanding of the plot and anticipate the potential problems related to staging the text. Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures.ro. It might seem that the authors overemphasize the introductory part of some of the chapters. Department of Oriental Languages and Literatures. the fact that people who might have no special knowledge of the source culture. Due to the special destine of the text – to be staged in front of the audience. mugur. when they needed to take into account not only the text. Collective translation was a very common phenomenon in China. The Process of Chinese-English Translation. the students involved in the process became much more aware of the difficulty of their task. London and New University of Bucharest. where most of the Buddhist sutras in the local language are the result of the corroborated efforts of a large team of monks. should play in the process of translation. Translating Chinese Culture.154 Translation as a collaborative project is discussed in the eighth chapter. there is a lot of discussion regarding drama translation. Routledge. Bucharest). Papia. Bucharest (2000). du figement à l’affranchissement. He holds a PhD in linguistics from the “Iorgu Iordan – Al. Her publications include Once upon a Time in Angela Carter’s Magic Toyshop: Fairy Tales. Her research interests are phonetics and phonology. The title of her PhD dissertation in philology is “L’Adjectif. Myths. Lengua y migracón. Bucharest). Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti. On the Syllable Structure of English Pidgins and Creoles (2005. such as nicknames and user names. She is Lecturer in the Department of English of the University of Bucharest. She teaches English phonetics and phonology as well as pragmatics at the University of Bucharest. Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti. Her publications include Between Reality and Myth: A Corpus-based Analysis of the Stereotypic Image of Some Romanian Ethnic Minorities (2010. . Her areas of interest are linguistics and mathematical notions applied to French linguistics. together with Ovidiu Felecan.French (1996). Analele Universităţii “Ovidius”. GABRIELA ANIDORA BROZBĂ defended her PhD dissertation in 2011. Newcastle upon Tyne). Journal of Language Contact. especially in relation to commercial names and unconventional anthroponyms. Onomastics in Contemporary Public Space (2013. His research areas are pidgins and creoles. The Phonology of New Englishes (2012. Munich).CONTRBUTORS ANDREI A. and sociolinguistics. Bucharest). Rosetti” Institute of Linguistics of the Romanian Academy. English Today. Linguistica Atlantica. University of Bucharest. Her publications include articles in Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics. Linguistics in the Netherlands. Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures. ALINA BUGHEŞIU received her PhD from the University of the West in Timişoara. She is currently a research assistant at the North University Centre of Baia Mare (Technical University of Cluj-Napoca). Romano-Arabica. Saarbrücken) and articles in The Journal of Linguistic and Intercultural Education – JoLIE. and phonology. Modèle mathématique tridimensionnel”. and articles in English World-Wide. AVRAM is Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Bucharest. MARIA AURELIA COTFAS received her PhD from the University of Bucharest in 2012. DANIELA BORDEA is a graduate of the Faculty of Chemistry of the University of Bucharest (1980) and of the Faculty of Orthodox Theology. and the Sixties (2012. Fonologia limbii japoneze contemporane (2005. and ESP (mainly English for business and economics) at the Romanian-American University in Bucharest. articles in Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics. non-native varieties of English. Bucharest). Her research area is generative syntax. Caiet de semiotică. She also edited. language contacts. The title of her PhD dissertation is “On the Syntax of the Romanian Subjunctive: Control and Obviation”. His publications include Pidginurile şi creolele cu bază engleză şi franceză ca tip particular de contact lingvistic (2000. Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti. Her main research interest is in the field of onomastics. Revue roumaine de linguistique. She is currently Lecturer at the Department of Modern Languages (specializing in French). obtaining a PhD in chemistry (2002) and another in philology (2011). British and American Studies. and a PhD in linguistics from Lancaster University (2004). Acta Linguistica Hafniensia. Cochlear Implants International. Acta Linguistica Asiatica. Department of Theology . She is currently conducting post-doctoral research at Fudan University in Shanghai. She received her PhD in philology in 2009 from the University of Bucharest. SABINA POPÂRLAN is Lecturer at the University of Bucharest.156 JING DENG is Lecturer of English and Linguistics at Nanjing University of Science and Technology in Nanjing. Bologna). Il Giapponese per viaggiatori (2011. Analele Universităţii din Bucureşti. hindi. the grammar-pragmatics and sociolinguistics interface. where she teaches courses on Hindi language and culture. Department of Oriental Languages and Literatures. His research interests are the multimedia teaching of modern Japanese. Her publications include L’Anaphore verbale.Teoria e pratica glottodidattica degli audiovisivi (2013. Venice. with particular attention to audiovisual translation. Nihon JP-2 (2010. but also on Indian culture. Her research interests focus on Hindi linguistics. the monograph La didattica del giapponese attraverso la rete . Interpreting and Translation and of the “Alma Mater Studiorum” University of Bologna and teaches Japanese Language at the Department of Asian and Mediterranean Africa Studies of “Ca’ Foscari” University. roumain (2010. mostly from a typological perspective and comparing Hindi to French and Romanian. Eserciziario Orale di Giapponese Moderno (2009. Bologna). Bologna). pragmatics of the Chinese language. Bologna). Her publications include articles in Linguistica Atlantica and Bucharest Working Papers in Linguistics. FRANCESCO VITUCCI is Professor of Japanese Language and Linguistics and Japanese Philology at the School of Foreign Languages and Literature. Domaine typologique: français. . Bologna) as well as numerous articles in international journals. Bucharest) and articles in Revue roumaine de linguistique. His publications include Nihon JP-1 (2007. Her research focuses on cross-cultural pragmatics. Articolele trebuie să fie trimise pe suport electronic (e-mail sau CD) în format WORD (. dacă articolul este în altă limbă decât engleza) precedă textul articolului (font Times New Roman. se va trimite şi tipul de font folosit. Autorii sunt rugaţi să predea şi o scurtă prezentare auto-bio-bibliografică (cca. franceză. italic) urmează rezumatului. ArborWin etc.). la un rând). Rezumatul (însoţit de titlul articolului tradus. Titlul articolului trebuie să fie centrat. Articolele trimise trebuie tehno-redactate cu font Times New Roman.ANALELE UNIVERSITĂŢII BUCUREŞTI (AUB) LIMBI ŞI LITERATURI STRĂINE ÎN ATENŢIA COLABORATORILOR Pentru o cooperare eficientă între editori. sub titlu (font Times New Roman. autori şi casa editorială. corp 11). română. Executive. italiană. corp 11). antet – 4.rtf).75 cm.75 cm. dacă sunt folosite fonturi speciale (Fonetic. Formatul documentului: pagină A4 (nu Letter.25 cm .doc or . la un rând. 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