PBrabuddhaharata or Awakened India A monthly journal of the Ramakrishna Order started by Swami Vivekananda in 1896 Vol. 112, No. 1 Contents January 2007 Traditional Wisdom 1 To Our Readers 2 This Month 2 Editorial: The Contemplative Mood 4 Prabuddha Bharata—100 Years Ago 6 Amrita Kalasha Editorial Office Prabuddha Bharata Advaita Ashrama PO Mayavati, Via Lohaghat Dt Champawat · 262 524 CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICES Uttaranchal, India The Contemplative Life 8 E-mail:
[email protected] Swami Atmasthananda Publication Office Contemplation in an Active World 12 Swami Smaranananda Advaita Ashrama 5 Dehi Entally Road The Contemplative Tradition in the 15 Kolkata · 700 014 Ramakrishna Order Phs: 91 · 33 · 2244 0898 / 2245 2383 / Swami Prabhananda 2245 0050 / 2216 4000 All-inclusive View of the Vedic Seers 23 E-mail:
[email protected] Swami Tattwavidananda Internet Edition at: Contemplation on Om, the Gayatri, 29 www.advaitaashrama.org and the Mahāvākyas Cover: From Darkness to Light: Worship at Swami Mukhyananda Rameshwaram. Photo by Balamurugan Nagarajan. Continued on next page PB January 2007 Prabuddha Bharata 34 Contemplation in the Upanishads Swami Atmajnananda LIVING THE TRADITION 39 Meditation and the Way of Yoga The Jain Contemplative 109 Swami Adiswarananda Tradition Acharya Mahaprajna 45 Preparations for the Contemplative Life Swami Gokulananda Contemplating the 113 Theravada Tradition 50 Japa: Instrument of Love Ajahn Amaro for God’s Name Swami Tathagatananda The Heart of Mahayana 120 Buddhist Practice in the West 57 Prayer in Contemplative Life Rev. Heng Sure Swami Amarananda 63 Worship and Contemplation Knowledge, Love, and Union: 128 A Glimpse into the Swami Sarvadevananda Christian Contemplative Tradition 70 Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Father Paul of Jesus Play: Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana Swami Atmajnanananda Contemplative Spirituality in Islam 133 Maulana Wahiduddin Khan 76 Obstacles in Contemplative Life Swami Brahmeshananda Some Thoughts on the 139 Contemplative Life 83 Fruits of Contemplation: Vimala Thakar Some Reflections Swami Bhaskarananda Gamma: Active Thought Beta: Alert, Working Alpha: Relaxed, Reflective, Meditative THE SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT The Contemplative Mind 140 Prof. Somnath Bhattacharyya The Neurophysiological and 146 Psychoneural Aspects of ACROSS TRADITIONS Meditative Practices Dr S Sulekha, Dr P N Ravindra, 87 The Vaisnava Contemplative Tradition Dr T R Raju, and Dr Bindu Kutty Swami Purnananda The Contemplative Life and 150 95 The Śākta Contemplative Tradition Psychopathology Swami Vimalatmananda Dr Alan Roland 102 Contemplative Practices in Śaivism Swami Tadananda Reviews 157 Reports 165 PB January 2007 Traditional Wisdom Wrút²; std{; ŒtËg JhtrªtctuÆt; > Arise! Awake! And stop not till the goal is reached! Cintana: Contemplation January 2007 Vol. 112, No. 1 J{;ul =eÌttbtËltur; =eGgt~~Ëltur; =rGKtbT > =rGKt ¶°tbtËltur; ¶°gt mÀgbtËg;u >> By self-dedication one obtains consecration, by consecration one ob- tains grace; by grace one obtains faith, and by faith is truth obtained. (Yajur Veda, 19.30) rJ bu fUKto v;g;tu rJ aGwJeo=k ßgtur;†o=g ytrn; g;T > rJ bu bl´thr; =qhytÆte& rfk rôJÅÌgtrb rfUbw lq brl˜gu >> My ears are turned (to hear him), my eyes (to see him); this light that is placed in the heart (seeks to know him); my mind—the receptacle of dis- tant (objects)—hastens (towards him). What shall I declare (him)? How shall I comprehend (him)? (Rig Veda, 6.9.6) l mk=]Nu r;˜Xr; Ávbôg l aGwMt vˆgr; fU´talilbT > †=t bleMt blmt~rC¢j]Ë;tu g Y;rÅ=whb];tô;u CJrà; >> His form is not within the field of vision; nobody sees him (this Self ) with the eye. He is revealed by the intuition of the higher mind (free from oc- cupation with sense objects), which resides in the heart and controls all thinking. Those who know this become immortal. (Katha Upanishad, 2.3.9) g=t rJrlg;k raútbtÀbàguJtJr;˜X;u > rl&ôv]n& mJofUtbuÇgtu gwÿ RÀgwåg;u ;=t >> When the well-controlled mind rests in the Self alone, free from longing for objects, then is one said to have attained yoga. (Bhagavadgita, 6.18) It is a joy to merge the mind in the Indivisible Brahman through contem- plation. And it is also a joy to keep the mind on the Lila, the Relative, without dissolving it in the Absolute (Sri Ramakrishna) 11 PB January 2007 To Our Readers We live in a conflict-ridden world where newer and on the diverse facets of ‘The Contemplative Life’ more sinister forms of violence appear by the day. and invites us to reassess our own outlook and ac- Power and dominance continue to define much tions to improve our personal health and help re- of our social interaction—from the interpersonal duce conflict in society. to the international. If our society is able to main- This is also time for us to convey our greetings tain its sanity, it is because of people who retain and good wishes to all of you—our readers, contrib- the ability to introspect and think prudently. This utors, reviewers, advertisers, and well-wishers—who uniquely human capacity is at its best in the con- ensure the successful dissemination of the noble and templative, and it is to contemplatives that we need invigorating ideas for which Swami Vivekananda to turn to steer us clear of the numerous conflicts commissioned this journal. As we step into the new that threaten to pull our society apart. It is for this year we look forward to your continued help and reason that this inaugural number of the hundred support in exploring newer vistas and reaching out and twelfth volume of Prabuddha Bharata focuses to our global audience in greater numbers. This Month A creative imagination and mastery over emotion overview of The Contemplative Tradition in the go into the making of The Contemplative Mood. Ramakrishna Order. This is the editorial opinion. The contemplative life is as much a matter of one’s In Prabuddha Bharata—100 Years Ago Brahma- world-view as that of practising specific techniques chari Gurudas takes us on a visit to Belur Math. of contemplation. All-inclusive View of the Vedic Swami Atmasthanandaji Maharaj, Vice President, Seers, by Swami Tattwavidanandaji, Principal, Vi- Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission, in- vekananda Veda Vidyalaya, Belur Math, presents a augurates the number with his personal reflections glimpse of the Vedic world-view. on The Contemplative Life. Contemplation on Om, the Gayatri, and the Swami Smarananandaji Maharaj, General Secretary, Mahāvākyas, a part of the ancient Vedic tradition Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission, pro- that remains relevant even in modern times, is elu- vides us practical insights on living a life of Con- cidated by Swami Mukhyanandaji, a senior monk templation in an Active World. of the Ramakrishna Order residing at Belur Math. Spiritual culture and God-centred life and work The numerous contemplative techniques termed underpin all activities of the Ramakrishna Order. upasanas and vidyas which have been developed in This tradition has been nurtured by a host of seri- the Upanishads and which culminate in the knowl- ous contemplatives for over a hundred years. Swami edge of Brahman have been highlighted by Swami Prabhanandaji, Secretary, Ramakrishna Mission In- Atmajnanandaji, Editor, Viveka Prabha, Mysore, in stitute of Culture, Kolkata, gives us an illuminating Contemplation in the Upanishads. PB January 2007 12 Meditation and the Way of Yoga is a succinct Swami Tadanandaji of the Vedanta Centre of Syd- survey of the the yogic psychophysical techniques ney review The Śākta Contemplative Tradition aimed at awakening one’s higher consciousness by and Contemplative Practices in Śaivism. Swami Adiswaranandaji, Minister-in-Charge, Ra- Acharya Mahaprajnaji, Head, Terapanth Jain Vish- makrishna-Vivekananda Centre, New York. va Bharati, Ladnun, brings his scholarly insight to Swami Gokulanandaji, Secretary, Ramakrishna bear upon The Jain Contemplative Tradition, and Mission Ashrama, New Delhi, takes us through its vital place in the Indian way of life. the Preparations for the Contemplative Life. Contemplating the Theravada Tradition is a lu- Japa: Instrument of Love for God’s Name is Swa- cid introductory narrative by Ajahn Amaro of the mi Tathagatanandaji’s explication of a fundamental Abhayagiri Monastery, Redwood Valley, California. contemplative technique, Japa. The author is Min- ister-in-Charge, Vedanta Society, New York. The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West is a personal account of the values and prac- Swami Amaranandaji, Minister-in-Charge, Cen- tices of Mahayana Buddhism by Rev. Heng Sure of tre Vedantique, Geneva, discusses the forms, facets, the Berkeley Buddhist Monastery, Berkeley. and role of Prayer in Contemplative Life. Knowledge, Love, and Union: A Glimpse into Swami Sarvadevanandaji, Assistant Minister, Ve the Christian Contemplative Tradition is pro- danta Society of Southern California, Hollwood, vided by Father Paul of Jesus. He teaches advanced surveys the ritual traditions of various religions theological French in the Divinity School at Har- to underscore the mutuality of Worship and vard University, Cambridge. Contemplation. Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, Founder, Cen- Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Play: tre for Peace and Spirituality, New Delhi, shares Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana provide natural his thoughts on Contemplative Spirituality in ways for developing one’s inner life, suggests Swami Islam. Atmajnananandaji, of the Vedanta Center of Great- er Washington, D.C. Smt. Vimala Thakar, who has lived a rich life of contemplation and action, has sent us Some The spiritual life has been likened to walking on the Thoughts on the Contemplative Life from Shiv razor’s edge. Swami Brahmeshanandaji, Secretary, Kuti, Mount Abu. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Chandigarh, takes a look at the Obstacles in Contemplative Life as The scientific section of this number comprises of well as the recommended remedies. The Contemplative Mind by Prof. Somnath Bhat- tacharyya, former Head, Department of Psychol- Fruits of Contemplation: Some Reflections on ogy, University of Calcutta; The Neurophysio- the powers released and changes wrought by con- logical and Psychoneural Aspects of Meditative templation is authored by Swami Bhaskaranandaji, Practices by Dr S Sulekha, Dr P N Ravindra, Dr Minister-in-Charge, Vedanta Society of Western T R Raju, and Dr Bindu Kutty of the Department Washington, Seattle. of Neurophysiology, National Institute of Men- The diverse streams of The Vaiṣṇava Contem- tal health and Neurological Sciences (NIMHANS), plative Tradition have been examined by Swami Bangalore; and The Contemplative Life and Psy- Purnanandaji, of Ramakrishna Math, Belur, while chopathology by Dr Alan Roland, a practising psy- Swami Vimalatmanandaji, also of Belur Math, and choanalyst from New York City. 13 PB January 2007 EDITORIAL The Contemplative Mood T he Vedas conjure up in our minds visions our thought world is being constantly bombarded of seers immersed in contemplation, of by such images and associations derived from the rishis engaged in fire-sacrifices, of priests subconscious mind. In his commentary on the Yoga filling the air with their melodious chants, and of Sutra, Maharshi Vyasa cites seven ‘unperceived’ teachers expounding the knowledge of Brahman (aparidṛṣṭa) functions of the mind, which essentially to eager students. Men and women intermingling delineate the way the subconscious mind functions: freely with devas and devis, with yakshas, gandhar ‘Nirodhadharmasaṁskārāḥ pariṇāmo’tha jīvanam, vas, and other celestial beings crowd our imagi- ceṣṭā śaktiśca cittasya dharmā darśanavarjitāḥ; Sup- nation when we attempt a glimpse into the Vedic pression (of thoughts or mental modifications), realm. seeds of action and memory traces (loosely called The Vedas are the repository of supersensory saṁskāra), (internal) transformation, life (move- knowledge, so our vision of the Vedic world is not ment of prana), activity (which makes the senses likely to be dominated by the commonplace. But function), and (psychic) powers constitute the un- this imagined world is also a distant entity, diffi- seen or subconscious characteristics of the mind.’ cult to reify in contemporary circumstances. For Vāsanās or memory traces are responsible for the we live in a world from which gods and angels seem images that keep flitting across our minds. Often to have been exorcised as much as ghosts, wherein these tend to coalesce into vivid associations—our the supersensory has become synonymous with the fancies and fantasies. But they take a more concrete imaginary. shape when they rouse up and get linked to karma- saṁskāras (more commonly termed karmāṣaya), The Power of Imagination the residues of previous actions (our habits) impel- Imagining the real and realizing the imagined are ling us to act on our fantasies. central to the contemplative process. Imagination The mind also has its conscious (paridṛṣṭa) com- powers all creativity. Even the mundane tasks of ponent (and this alone is what we are aware of ) daily living, when carried out imaginatively, turn which can choose to structure or guide the vṛttis into creative acts. It is imagination that results in (mental modifications) sprouting from the uncon- the insights that lead to scientific discovery, the scious, giving them direction and coherence. And production of artistic masterpieces, revolutions this is what we call imaginative thinking. in religious and social life, and daring displays of The unconscious is not, however, merely a seeth- sporting brilliance. It is imagination again, when ing cauldron of dark desires and passions as we of- turned morbid, that results in unimaginable acts of ten imagine it to be. Being the seat of prana (life- cruelty and violence. Imagination clearly has both force) as well as ceṣṭā and śakti (the mental forces), a life and a power of its own. it is the repository of all our powers—the dynamo Imagination involves the formation of men- that drives all psychophysical activity. And it is for tal images and associations that are not directly us to choose how we channelize and utilize this or immediately available to the senses. Normally power. PB January 2007 14 Editorial If our imaginings are derived from the uncon- therefore a prerequisite for the contemplative life. scious, it is our beliefs and imaginations that in turn It is also termed brahmacharya—‘the ideal of the structure the unconscious. This is because our be- life of the student, with its mingling of solitude, liefs determine the way we act, and it is repeated austerity, and intense concentration of thought’. action that forms habits. The workings of the sub- A true contemplative, by the very virtue of brah- conscious are usually represented in our mind as macharya, is also a student. And it is Goddess Saras- images (termed primary process) in contrast to the wati who is the deity of the student. Sister Nivedita more elaborate rational and language-dependent points out that Swami Vivekananda believed this secondary process of the conscious mind. The im- ‘worship of Saraswati—by which he meant perfect ages we send down into our subconscious there- emotional solitude and self-restraint’, was ‘an essen- fore determine the way the subconscious powers tial preparation for any task demanding the highest our actions. powers, whether of heart, mind, or body. Such wor- The subconscious is also not a closed person- ship had been recognized in India for ages as part al chamber. The element of śakti (psychic power) of the training of the athlete, and the significance structured into the subconscious enables it to tune of this fact was that a man must dedicate all the itself to other psyches as well as to the natural intel- force at his disposal, if he were now and again to ligence inherent in the cosmos. More importantly, reach that height of superconscious insight, which the subconscious has the ability to hold itself in appears to others as illumination, inspiration, or abeyance—a capacity termed nirodha—which al- transcendental skill. Such illumination was as nec- lows the light of the superconscious to shine freely essary to the highest work in art or science, as in through our being. Images (and sound symbols) religion.’ again are what help us tap these powers. It is for Is brahmacharya then some sort of self-depri- this reason that successful contemplation is also vation or emotional drought, or an antisocial atti- successful imagination. tude? Our emotions, after all, are an integral part of The Vedic world was no less human than the our being, and form the very basis of social interac- world of today. But even the best historical efforts tion. And if we are to believe Sigmund Freud, ‘to to reconstruct this distant world are likely to bor- love and to work’ is the ultimate the human being der on the imaginary. The vision captured in the can hope for. Vedas, however, is there for each one of us to recre- In the company of Swami Vivekananda, Sister ate in our imagination and realize in the depths of Nivedita recalls, ‘it was impossible to think with our being. This realization depends as much on the respect of a love that sought to use, to appropri- knowledge of our own selves as on the knowledge ate, to bend to its own pleasure or good, the thing of the Vedas. loved. Instead of this, love, to be love at all, must be a welling benediction, a free gift, “without a Emotional Solitude reason”, and careless of return. This was what he The creative imagination that opens the doors to meant, by his constant talk of “loving without at- the superconscious is no ordinary imagination. It tachment”.’ ‘Love is always a manifestation of bliss,’ requires that the instinctual forces of the samskaras Swamiji said in England, ‘the least shadow of pain be attenuated and greater control be obtained over falling upon it, is always a sign of physicality and mental processes. The prime requirement for this selfishness.’ attenuation of samskaras is isolation from emotion- It is this physicality and selfishness that the con- al surges, for it is these surges of attachment, hatred, templative wishes to transcend. It is brahmacharya, and selfishness (technically termed kleṣas) that give therefore, that sets the mood for effective contem- life to the samsakaras. This ‘emotional solitude’ is plation. P 15 PB January 2007 Prabuddha Bharata—100 years ago A Visit to the Belur Math: January 1907 A fter having been connected with the Ra- together, and monasteries at all times and in all makrishna Mission work in America, for places have served to give men an opportunity the last eight years, it is quite a new ex- to approach their God under less difficult con- perience to find myself in India, an inmate of the ditions, than they would have found elsewhere. Belur Math, the headquarters, from whence all But with the thought of loftiness and sublimity the workers of this great Mission go forth. … there is much in the word monastery that hints at As a rule, the monks or Sannyasins in India gloom and depression; emaciated features, hushed do not have a fixed place where they reside or are voices, noiseless movements and severity every- taken care of. The monk in the West, in a certain where. There is very little of that in the Belur sense exchanges one home for another. Entering Math. Failure, disappointment or fear of future the monastery he is provided for during the rest punishment are not the motives which prompt the of his life. But when in India one becomes a San- Hindu monk to join the holy order. In the West nyasin, he henceforth begs his food from door to we so often find this to be the case. And the life door and he wanders from village to village, rest- of austerity and self-denial, instead of bringing ing under shelter or in the open air, as chance may freedom to the soul, often creates a being centred be. And he is cared for only in this sense, that in the little self, with a heart devoid of sweetness, no true Hindu householder, be he ever so poor, mellowness and simplicity. will refuse to share his meal, with the religious In the East it is different. The attempt is not mendicant. being made to make the imperfect perfect, but by Such then was the life of the Swamis belong- a dwelling in the Divine, a drawing away from ing to the Ramakrishna Mission, before the Math the imperfect is brought about; by bringing in the had been established. But the time came, when Light, darkness leaves of its own accord; by fill- their activity should be directed in a different ing the mind with the sublime, there is no room way. Called by their leader to a life of combined for what is low. A remembrance of the real Self, action, a nucleus had to be formed and a place to makes [one] forgetful of the little self. A very be built where they might meet and prepare them- different process! The heart expands, it includes selves for the task before them. The Math was all, it is filled with love for all that lives. There is erected and provisions were made for those who no room then for pessimism and morosity in the wish to live a retired life, as well as for the work- monastic life here. We find the massive building, ers. Room was also provided for Brahmacharis or white walls and cement floors and extreme simplic- neophites who assist the Swamis in their work and ity everywhere. But the rooms are full of light who receive from them, spiritual instructions. and air; no seclusion in little cells, but everything It is not strange that we find the life here dif- open and free. The inmates hold one common ob- ferent from what we picture monastic life in the ject, one common purpose and we find very lit- West. There is much that is good and holy and tle of “mine and thine” amongst them. The as- praiseworthy in all places where sincere men live sociation between them is much as we like to see PB January 2007 16 Prabuddha Bharata—100 Years Ago it amongst brothers; easy, free from unnecessary Still, when external practices and means are ceremonies and still an appreciation of the good helpful to bring about the realization of one’s qualities in each one. The Brahmacharis, mostly ideal, such means are not rejected. And an op- young lads, serve the older Sannyasins in many portunity to satisfy the devotional yearning of little ways. But one is not impressed with the idea the devotee is found in the little chapel, where a of servility. It comes so natural with them, so simple ceremony is performed every morning and spontaneous. In their obedience there is no ques- evening. Some flowers gathered in the garden, are tioning. They love the Swamis, they admire them offered to the Deity. But the flowers stand only and that is expressed in their actions. To live with as a symbol, for every act, every thought. So also the Swamis is a privilege, which they appreciate. the food is put on the altar of the Divine. And To describe the life of the monks here, can be here God is worshipped not in a sectarian way, done in a few words. Having realized the divin- but first of all as that All-pervading, Universal ity within, knowing themselves to be the witness Being and then in His different incarnations. And of all that takes place, knowing the mind and the when the worshipper places one of the flowers on body to act, while the true Self never acts, they his own heart, he meditates on that same Deity as offer up whatever is connected with their external residing in his heart. and mental life, to the Lord of all and they serve Such then is the life here. There is in it much Him through His manifestations in the whole of of grace, much of sweetness; a spirit of gentle- humanity. In other words, their life has become ness which one meets at all times. How quietly a life of service, in whatever form that may be. it works, imperceptible, except in its results. A When living in the Math, they may do such work simple, cheerful, holy life—a life of service and as has to be done there. When called elsewhere, devotion, a life of love for God and man. they may answer such call, be it to nurse the sick, It is then not strange that many flock to this bring food to the famine-stricken, instruct those beautiful place on the Ganges side. In easy reach who ask for spiritual advice, give shelter to the from Calcutta they spend their hours of leisure destitute, or bring to other nations the glorious in the company of the Swamis. And especially teaching of Vedanta of which they stand so much on Sundays we may find little groups of men in in need. And all this is done without any personal conversation or singing those beautiful Bengali considerations. The question will be discussed hymns full of devotion and feeling. whether or not, the help is needed. This being de- There may not be so much of austerity here, cided in the affirmative, the person best fitted for but there is the constant withdrawing from the the work will be selected and then, without fur- little self and a centering in the Divine. And the ther questioning or delay, the work is executed. heart becomes pure and simple and loving. And Understanding the life of the Sannyasin, we this is what draws so many to the Belur Math and will then not be disappointed to find their life what fills their hearts with love for the Lord and devoid of much external show of religious senti- His holy workers. And they return to their respec- ment as far as ceremonies are concerned. Religion tive duties, strengthened and encouraged and filled is to be practised every moment of the day, never with a determination also to reach the goal. to leave our life, no matter in what way we may Vedanta stands for freedom and that principle be occupied. During eating or working or resting is carried out in the Math. All are welcome, who or play, nay even during sleep the mind should are sincere. The meanest, the lowest finds a place be fixed on God. Such is the teaching. We need in the heart of these monks. And never does one therefore not mistake the cheerful countenance call for help in vain. and hearty laugh for a worldly state of mind. —Brahmachari Gurudas 17 PB January 2007 The Contemplative Life Swami Atmasthananda S adhan-bhajan or spiritual practice—japa, of God is unaccount- prayer and meditation—should play a very able love. You can- vital role in the lives of all. This is a sure way not explain why they to peace despite all the hindrances that one has to love you. They don’t face in daily life. The usual complaint is that it is ask anything in return. very difficult to lead an inward life of sadhana or They do not ask that contemplation amidst the rush and bustle of every- you become a monk or day life. But with earnestness and unshakable deter- do anything in return. mination one is sure to succeed. Sri Ramakrishna They just love you. This has said that a devotee should hold on to the feet of is something very, very the Lord with the right hand and clear the obstacles wonderful. Whenever Swami Gadadharananda of everyday life with the other. I visited Belur Math, I found this to be true. But There are two primary obstacles to contempla- the first monk to leave a deep impress on me was tive life. The first one is posed by personal internal Swami Gadadharananda. weaknesses. One must have unswerving determi- I was then doing my intermediate at Cotton nation to surmount these. The second one consists College, Gauhati. During summer vacation, when of external problems. These we have to keep out, I was visiting my home at Dinajpur, I came down knowing them to be harmful impediments to our with serious malaria with several complications. My goal. father, who was a big Sanskrit pandit and a special- For success in contemplative life, one needs ist in the Bhagavata, had gone to deliver a lecture earnestness and regularity. Study of the scriptures, at a function in a nearby school. Swami Gadadhara holy company, and quiet living help develop our nanda was at that time the head of the Dinajpur inner lives. I have clearly seen that all the great swa- centre (now in Bangladesh). He happened to meet mis of our Order have led a life of contemplation my father at this function and found him very wor- even in the midst of great distractions. They lived ried. He enquired about the reason and, on learn- this life amidst engagement in service to the Lord ing about my illness, asked if he could come and through whatever responsibility they were assigned. see me. My father of course welcomed him. Next I have been very fortunate to have come in close I found a monk placing his hand on my head and contact with some of the very illustrious monks chest—and to my surprise, and everybody else’s, all of our Order like the revered Swamis Virajananda, problems were soon over! He had also spoken in Achalananda, Shantananda, Jagadananda, Mad- such an affectionate and loving manner that I had havananda, Nirvedananda, and Gadadharananda. at once felt drawn to him. So when I was cured I Their lives have been wonderful. There was always asked my father who the sannyasin was, and com- a glow on their faces, and association with them ing to know that he was the head of the nearby was spiritually very inspiring, assuring one of the Ramakrishna Ashrama, went to meet him one day priceless value of sadhana. with some friends. One thing that is a very great power in all men Swami Gadadharananda was very pleased to see PB January 2007 18 The Contemplative Life us. He took us to the shrine there and introduced of thakur seva (service to the family deity). In the us to Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Sarada Devi, and Swami hostel also I used to do sandhya-vandana (daily Vivekananda. He gave us prasad and asked us to devotions prescribed by the scriptures) regularly. come again. So I started frequenting the Ashrama. That, however, was traditional. What I got from The swami gave me books like Swami Vivekananda’s the ashrama was something totally different. An Lectures from Colombo to Almora, which I started ashrama is a place full of spiritual vibrations. That reading. Knowing that I came from a Brahmin fam- is something inspiring, lively. But in one’s home ily with the tradition of worship at home, he asked and family, it is a mere me to do arati in the shrine and then also puja, even traditional way of life, though I had not had my spiritual initiation as yet. and religious practice, a After the arati he would ask me to meditate a little routine thing; there is before returning home. I was deeply impressed. not that life there. In the morning, after mangalarati, he used to Another person go out walking on the bank of the Kanchan riv- who greatly inspired er. Sometimes he would ask if I would like to go me to take to monas- with him. During the walk he would suddenly ask: tic life was Swami Ach- ‘What are you thinking as you are walking? Always alananda, popularly think of Him, of God. “Ho jaye tere nam vasa, ho known as Kedar Baba. Swami Achalananda jaye tere nam vasa; may your name become my ref- He was a very austere sadhu. When I first saw him uge, may your name become my refuge.” Whenever at Belur Math, he was walking about clad only in you walk here and there, you must mentally think a kaupina (loin cloth). Oh, his regular prayer, japa, like this.’ He would find a nice place to sit by the and meditation! Even when his health was com- riverbank, and would soon close his eyes and start pletely broken, out of twenty-four hours, his rest meditating. What could I do? Not knowing what and other personal activities would take up at most meditation was, I started imitating him. He would six to eight hours. be very still and appear very happy. I imitated him, I was in close contact with him. He used to and in this process, discovered something happen- come to Belur Math every year for two to three ing within. months and stay in the Leggett house, in the room The swami also allowed me to occasionally spend where Holy Mother had lived. Whenever he used the night at the Ashrama. There were not many to come, I would go and clean his room and serve rooms there, so he let me stay in his own room. him a bit. Every day he would ask me to read the And there I saw something wonderful. Whenever Kathamrita and would ask me, ‘How much japa I happened to wake up, at midnight or any other have you done?’ time, I found the swami sitting and meditating! I Once there was a feast at the Math. Next day Ke- was amazed! You see how holy company works! dar Baba asked us how many rasgullas we had eat- Swami Gadadharananda was nothing short of a en. When I said that I had had two, he exclaimed, saint. I have never seen him hating anyone. He was ‘What? Two rasgullas, and that at night! And you always ready to serve anybody in need. Even his way want to be a monk and follow Swamiji! Impossible! of collecting flowers, making garlands, and prepar- Those who want to live a pure life must eat a very ing for the arati impressed me. I could not help fol- light meal at night and be careful about sweets.’ He lowing him and assisting whenever possible. was a terrific inspiration. As mentioned earlier, even before I met Swa- I was in the Calcutta Students’ Home while pur- mi Gadadharananda, I used to do puja at home. suing my graduate studies, and there I came in close Ours was a religious home, and we had a tradition contact with Swami Nirvedananda, a real inspira- 19 PB January 2007 Prabuddha Bharata tion in every sense. He difference between their work and the service ren- emphasized brahma- dered by a monk to the sick. The monk’s spirit is charya and a God-ori- that of service to Narayana, God. The other person ented life, especially for doesn’t necessarily look upon the patient as an em- students. bodiment of God or any such thing. ‘He is a patient, Swami Shantanan- I give treatment, and I get my fees, that’s all’—that da was another great is the professional attitude. contemplative. He was For those who have heavy work responsibili- a quiet man and talked ties, will the simple maintenance of this attitude of very little, but you service to God improve their meditative life? Yes! would always find him Swami Nirvedananda There is no doubt about it. Relief work or hospital doing japa. I think, out of twenty-four hours, he work or school work or kitchen work or whatev- would be doing japa for eighteen to twenty hours. er—it is all His service. That spirit must be there. Very sweet and very kind—that was Swami Shan- Then your inner life improves automatically. This tananda. Even when he was down with tuberculosis, is my own personal experience. I have derived tre- there was no change in his routine. When he was mendous joy from hospital work. I worked at the asked not to strain himself doing prolonged spirit- Ramakrishna Mission Sevashrama in Rangoon, a ual practice, he said that he could not do otherwise. busy general hospital. I was also involved in the And never did he give any external expression to the building of the tuberculosis sanatorium in Ranchi, distress of disease. practically from the beginning. Oh, the joy! And Then there was Swami Madhavananda. Though when you worked with devotion, help came from he was the General Secretary, and very active, his the most unexpected quarters. We had to work life was very regular. He hard. But I worked keeping in mind that this was was very strict in mat- service to the same Being to whom I offered flow- ters of principle. But he ers in the shrine. If He came in this shape and form, also knew when to be this was how I had to serve Him. But I also prac- considerate. Those who tised japa and meditation every day, irrespective live this contemplative of the time. That is the support one has to hold on life regularly also work to. For everybody that is a must, there is no ques- better. There is no tion about that. doubt about it. There There were also occasions when I took time out is nothing haphaz- from work. That time I spent in spiritual practices Swami Madhavananda ard about their work. and scriptural study. I used to go to Swami Jagada Whatever they do they do with all their heart, and nanda and study Vedantic texts. Swami Jagadanan- as service to God. da was a living embodiment of the spirit of Vedanta. Does it work the other way round too? For I shall describe the scene of his passing, and from those who work well, do their inner lives also im- that you can have an understanding of his person- prove? Well, work alone will not do. The spirit be- ality. He had had a heart attack and was gasping hind the work is important. If you work with the for breath. We had brought him to the Vrindaban spirit that it is service to God, then that work will Sevashrama for treatment. The doctors had de- be spiritually fruitful. Otherwise, well, everybody clared that there was no hope of recovery and that works. But their work and the work of a Rama- he would collapse very soon. His legs were turn- krishna Order monk is not the same. There are ing ice-cold. The doctors asked us to massage the many doctors attending to patients. But there is a legs with brandy. While I was doing that, he sud- 10 PB January 2007 20 The Contemplative Life denly looked at me and hope and many sadhus had gathered in his room. exclaimed in his native When he saw that the sadhus were preparing to Sylhet dialect: ‘Kita chant ‘Hari Om Ramakrishna’ (which is usual- karo? Kita karo? What ly done at the final hour) he quipped: ‘Ekhon na, are you doing? What ekhon na, deri ache; Not now, not now, there is are you doing?’ ‘Your still time.’ But when the actual time came it was a legs are turning cold, so sight to see: a beaming face, hair standing on end, I am massaging them a and tears trickling down from the outer corners of little.’ ‘Massaging them the eyes—all signs of divine joy according to the a little!’ he retorted. scriptures. Swami Jagadananda ‘Satchidekam brahma! Can householders also have equally inspiring Brahman is Absolute Knowledge and Existence! lives? Yes, they can. Let me recall just one incident, Have you understood that, or not? Sarvam khalvi- again a parting scene: I heard that a certain devotee dam brahma, all this is verily Brahman. Know and was on the verge of death. I went to see him. His hold on to this!’ And he was gone! wife was massaging his feet. He looked up and, see- Are the joys of work and that of quiet con- ing me, said, ‘Bless me, so that I can reach the goal, templation and study equivalent? Yes, they are. the feet of the Master.’ He was quiet for some time. But both are necessary for harmonious spiritual Then he looked at his wife and said, ‘Now the mo- development. ment has come. Put charanamrit (holy water) here I had also the opportunity to serve Swami Vira- (in my mouth).’ Having swallowed the charanamrit jananda, the tenth president of the Order. His life he uttered: ‘Ramakrishna, Ramakrishna.’ And that too was very regular, in was the end. its own way. And he So, both householder life and monastic life can was very hard-working equally be ways of developing oneself spiritually. also. Everything that he But one must follow the right route. A monastic did, he did thorough- life that ends with the taking of gerua robes alone is ly—everything! And nothing. You have your mantra; you have to make he was a hard task- that mantra practically realized in your life. Then master too. He had his alone is your sannyasa worthwhile. hours of deep contem- Let me conclude plative moods. And he by recalling my own had a great sense of hu- Swami Virajananda initiation from Swami mour. Sometimes he would prepare some sweets Vijnanananda Maha- and snacks and send them for the monks after hav- raj, a direct disciple of ing checked the number—you could not get two! Sri Ramakrishna. As he We knew that there would be more in his stock, and was giving us the man- that all of it was turning stale. Coming to know tra and reciting God’s what we were thinking, he would remark sarcasti- name, it appeared as if cally, ‘Rotten! Rotten!’ Then he would do some he was intoxicated. The trick and send those foodstuffs to us; and lo! it was atmosphere was in- Swami Vijnanananda all very good and fresh! He would then ask, ‘Now describable. It is this divine intoxication that one what are they doing, what are they doing?’ seeks in leading the life of a contemplative. And on Even at the time of his passing away he retained obtaining even a bit of that divine joy, one attains this sense of humour. The doctors had given up fulfilment. P 21 PB January 2007 11 Contemplation in an Active World Swami Smaranananda A mong the many developments in the post– latest management gurus. It seems that they do Second World War period, the popularity derive some benefit from these physical and men- of contemplation and meditation is partic- tal exercises. ularly significant. With the advancement of tech- But the basic question remains: Is activity op- nology, the hope of getting more leisure dawned on posed to contemplation? In India, for centuries modern man. But, alas, instead of increased leisure, it has been thought that meditation is not com- increased activity has become the order of the day! patible with activity—this in spite of the fact that Instead of rest, restlessness has taken hold of the the most sought-after scripture of the Hindus, the human heart. What went wrong? Bhagavadgita, advocates intense activity along with In this age, when progress is reckoned in terms deep contemplation. of material development, economics takes centre All activity begins in the mind. It may be to ful- stage. Activity calls for more activity, resulting in fil some desire or to work towards a goal that we increased production. This, in turn, demands more act. Activity and contemplation seem apparently markets for selling the goods produced. Advertis- contradictory. But both can go on simultaneously. ing creates more markets, and that again leads to The Gita describes this graphically: ‘With the mind increased consumerism. Thus the rat race goes on! purified by devotion to performance of action, the In the Bhagavata there is the story of the great body conquered, and senses subdued, one who real- king Yayati, who, at the threshold of old age, felt that izes one’s Self as the self in all beings, though acting, his desire for worldly enjoyments had not been sati- is not tainted. The knower of Truth, being centred ated. So he requested his four sons—one after an- in the Self, thinks, “I do nothing at all”, though do- other—to exchange their youth for his old age. The ing many things. He who acts forsaking attachment, first three sons refused to do so, but the fourth son, resigning himself to Brahman, is not soiled by evil, Puru, agreed. Yayati, with the borrowed youth of his just as a lotus leaf is untouched by water.’2 son, continued with his enjoyment of worldly pleas- Emerson, the nineteenth-century New England ures. After some years he suddenly realized that de- philosopher, says: ‘It is easy in the world to live after sires can never be satiated by more enjoyment, and the world’s opinion—it is easy in solitude to live uttered this great truth: ‘Na jātu kāmaḥ kāmānām- after your own; but the great man is he who, in the upabhogena shāmyati, haviṣā kṛṣṇavartmeva bhūya midst of the world, keeps with perfect sweetness evābhivardhate; Desires are never appeased by more the independence of solitude.’ enjoyments; rather they grow all the more fierce, If we try to understand our mind, we will find like a smouldering fire fed with ghee.’1 that it is the source of all action. This manifests as Modern people, finding no respite from intense volition, the activity of the ego. The mind is work- activity on the one hand and boredom on the oth- ing ceaselessly. Either it is going towards something er, are seeking ways and means of bringing a little or it is turning away from something else. The peace and quiet to their disturbed minds. In this senses are drawn towards their objects, but it is the scenario, they clutch at various kinds of contem- mind that gets connected with the senses. It then plative and meditation practices marketed by the gets connected with the ego, which makes us think, 12 PB January 2007 22 Contemplation in an Active World ‘I am doing this, or I am not doing this, or I will not pends on how we spend the time outside the hours do that’ and so on. Thus we identify ourselves with allotted for prayer and meditation. If periods of ac- the ego and the senses through the mind. tivity were also well utilized for contemplation, our All spiritual practice is concerned with the con- ability to pray and meditate during allotted hours trol of the mind—to direct our thoughts through would be more effective. a channel. Thus, one part of our mind can always It is not work which makes it difficult for us to be directed towards a goal to be attained meditate. It is attachment and ego-con- while the other parts of the mind sciousness which together carry our may be busy with other things: minds away from God. But once ‘Guṇāḥ guṇeṣu vartante iti we have fixed God as the goal matvā na sajjate; It is the of life, the mind will return [three] guṇas (which con- again and again to God in stitute the senses) that act spite of distractions. upon the guṇas (as sense ob- It has been said, ‘Take jects); with this understand- care of the means, the ends ing the sadhaka does not get will come of themselves.’ In- attached (either to actions or stead of paying attention to to their results)’ (3.28). the path we are treading, we Here lies the secret: to be in- keep our minds occupied with the tensely active, but all the time remain- results yet to come. Thus our attention ing a witness of one’s actions, keeping one part is split and, as a result, full concentration is of the mind directed towards God, the supreme not achieved. goal of life. Whenever the mind, in the midst of The Gita says clearly: ‘One who has renounced various activities, forgets this goal, one has to take attachment to the results of karma, who is ever con- notice and turn it back to God again. Brother Law- tented and totally non-dependent—such a person, rence says that with him the time of prayer is not even though very actively engaged in work, in real- different from that for any other work. He further ity does not do anything.’4 says: ‘That useless thoughts spoil all; that the mis- One seeks solitude only to quieten the turbu- chief began there; but that we ought to reject them lent mind. But once the mind is well-controlled, as soon as we perceived their impertinence to the it does not matter whether one is in solitude or matter in hand, or our salvation, and return to our in a crowd. What we need to do is to develop the communion with God.’3 He was kept busy all the power to withdraw the mind and establish it in the time with the various activities of the monastery Divine—the Atman. where he lived. But by this practice of keeping his Now, what is the way to bring the mind under mind always tuned to God, he had come to love control? The Gita, as well as Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra, God and, in spite of his being very little educated, prescribes abhyāsa and vairāgya: (repetitive) prac- even many of his superiors found it spiritually prof- tice and dispassion; or in other words, withdraw- itable to converse with him. al from the many and concentration on the One. It is true that, in order to develop deep faith and Without this, and with an uncontrolled mind, it love for God, one has to turn away from all things is impossible to ascend the ladder of yoga, says Sri worldly and make God alone one’s goal in life. In Krishna in the Gita. this way, in spite of being busy due to the call of We may be engaged in work which demands our various duties in life, one can continue with con- full-attention, but we keep on worrying even when templation of God at all times. In fact, much de- the hours of work are over. If we can regulate our 23 PB January 2007 13 Prabuddha Bharata The warfare inside our bodies and minds goes The different Upanishads prescribe methods for on endlessly. Only when peace is restored can re- seeing Brahman everywhere and realizing one’s Self ally effective contemplation be possible. For this everywhere through various meditations on Brah- purpose viveka and vicāra—discrimination, and man. Further, it is accepted that progress on the reflection on the world around us—are necessary. path of realization occurs in stages—this being a But for most people, the paths of karma yoga and ceaseless expedition from the smaller to the greater. jnana yoga are difficult. That is the reason why Sri Common objects of our everyday world are also not Ramakrishna has prescribed the bhakti mārga as excluded from the sweep of this all-pervasive vision. preached by Narada. This is the path of love, the art The Taittiriya Upanishad prescribes meditation on of loving God. This is possible only when we try to food, vital force, mind, and other things as Brahman. remember God more and more till love sprouts in Considering all this, Swami Vivekananda reached our hearts. Whatever we may be doing, the object the conclusion that at least in the age of the Upani- of our love should occupy at least a corner of the shads meditation on Brahman was thus harmonized mind. Thus contemplation of God, in spite of an and identified with life and as a result the whole of active life in the world, would be possible. life became transformed into one single meditation. No doubt, practice in solitude is necessary in —Swami Gambhirananda the beginning. Later, when the mind gets trained to separate itself from its surroundings and remain daily life with fixed hours for work and meditation, fixed on God, it is not difficult to be in an active the mind will gradually get accustomed to think of world and still be a contemplative. Sri Ramakrishna higher things at particular hours. Sri Ramakrishna used to say that a sapling needs to be protected says: ‘When you are engaged in many things in the from cattle by putting up a hedge around it; similar- world, do them with one hand and with the other ly a sadhaka needs to practise in solitude for a while. hold on to God. But, when the work is over, take When the mind has learnt to flow towards God in a hold of God with both hands.’ natural way, there is no more need for solitude. When a person has spent some time practising Another method of converting all work into meditation in solitude, to test how much success worship is to do everything for God. ‘Yadyat-karma has been achieved, he or she will have to come into karomi tat-tad-akhilaṁ śambho tavārādhanam; All the crowd in active city life and see how the mind my actions, O Shambhu, are Thy worship’.5 Ram- reacts. The proof of the pudding is in the eating; prasad, the great devotee of Mother Kali, says: ‘O our success in the control of the mind will be meas- my mind, take going to bed as salutation (pran- ured in terms of our reactions in an irritating atmos- ama), in sleep meditate on Mother, and think of phere. In a favourable situation anyone can feel and eating as an offering to Mother Shyama …’ taste a little success in meditation. But until it is Thus can activity and contemplation be harmo- proved in an unfavourable atmosphere, we cannot nized, by making God the focus of our lives and be sure of success. then carrying on with our day-to-day activities, Many wonder why the Lord chose the battle- dedicating the fruits of our actions to God. P field for teaching Arjuna—and his successors for millennia—the profound truths of spiritual life. References But if we think for a while, we can understand that 1. Bhagavata, 9.19.14. 2. Bhagavadgita, 5.7–10. the battlefield of the world, wherein we are fight- 3. Brother Lawrence, The Practice of the Presence of ing this battle of life, is perhaps the best place to test God, Second Conversation. our spiritual sensibility. ‘Mām anusmara yudhya ca; 4. Gita, 4.20. Remember Me and fight’, says Sri Krishna (8.7). 5. Vyasa, Shiva-manasa-pujana-stotram, 4. 14 PB January 2007 24 The Contemplative Tradition in the Ramakrishna Order Swami Prabhananda T he period of eight and a half months that Sri idealism with immense practicality.’1 He wanted Ramakrishna lived at the Cossipore garden the members of the Order to be no less than the house is popularly considered to be the be- great rishis of ancient India. He also gave them the ginning of the monastic community that later be- motto ‘Atmano mokshartham jagaddhitaya ca; For came known as the Ramakrishna Order of monks. one’s own liberation and for the good of the world’ What began with a handful of fiery young men to guide them in their life. Thus we find that Swa- gradually became a religious community belong- mi Vivekananda’s life is the perennial guide for the ing to the Puri sect of the Dashanami tradition. Ramakrishna Order, inspiring its members in all These monks then took up the mission of living the their activities. ideal that Sri Ramakrishna had placed before them and also of spreading his teachings—teachings that Some Personal Recollections their leader, Swami Vivekananda, believed to be About a hundred and twenty years have passed the gospel for the modern world. since the founding of the Order. Before looking Sri Ramakrishna’s own sadhana was rooted in ahead to the future, let us take a look back. My renunciation—spontaneous renunciation. And re- strong curiosity about the mystery of contempla- nunciation formed the heart of the monastic com- tive life brought me in touch with some great souls munity that he founded. When Sri Ramakrishna of the Order. Following are a few brief accounts of chose Narendra (Swami Vivekananda) as the leader some meetings with them: of this group, he also made him its role model. For • In the winter of 1959, when I was a young brah- Sri Ramakrishna recognized that Narendra was a macharin, I went to the Ramakrishna Mission TB dhyana-siddha (an adept in meditation), that he Sanatorium at Dungri, Ranchi. Soon after I arrived, was never attached to lust and gold, that he was I found a senior swami sitting alone in the court- free from ignorance and delusion, and that he be- yard of the monks’ quarters. After I prostrated at longed to the class of ever-free souls. Moreover, he his feet, he looked at me and said, ‘Do you hear knew that renunciation was the very soul of Naren- the anahata sound?’ Anahata means ‘unstruck’. It dra’s life. is the primordial spiritual vibration. Startled by Even when Swamiji was in the West, spreading such a question, I could only utter, ‘What?’ He his master’s message, he kept the inner flame of re- quietly asked again, ‘Do you not hear the sound of nunciation burning in the hearts of the monks of omkar?’ ‘What do you say, Maharaj?’ I replied. At the Order with his fiery letters. Later, after he re- this he said, ‘Why? I hear it continuously.’ Then he turned to India, he inspired them even more with straightened his back, shut his eyes, and dived deep his own life and words. In one address to the mo- within his heart. His woollen wrapper dropped nastic community, he described renunciation as from his back, and his partly unbuttoned shirt ‘love of death’. But he also told them that they must showed his chest. Before my amazed eyes, the flush adapt themselves to a changing world. Further, he on his face spread to his chest, and an ethereal smile said, ‘You must try to combine in your life immense spread over his countenance. Four or five minutes 25 PB January 2007 15 Prabuddha Bharata passed. Then he said softly, ‘When I sit straight I went down the stairs, I noticed that his steps were hear the sound quite distinctly.’ After a moment unsteady. I was sitting by his side when he was eat- he said, ‘I first heard this holy sound in 1911. Since ing his noon meal, and I began to ask him some then I have heard it continuously. … This sound questions. But I quickly realized that I should not does not come from outside. It emanates from the have done so, for I clearly observed that until he core of the heart and merges back into it. Japat sid- had eaten a little food, he could not talk distinctly. dhi—one attains it through japa.’ I understood that he was still overwhelmed with a This was Swami spiritual mood from his meditation in the shrine, Shantananda (1884– and naturally it took some time for him to regain 1974), a disciple of his normal state. This happened every day. Holy Mother, Sri • During the summer Sarada Devi. Once he of 1964 I spent two gave me his personal weeks in the holy com- diary to read, and in pany of Swami Atul it I found some of his ananda (formerly Cor- spiritual experiences re- nelius J Heijblom of corded. Later he again Amsterdam), a disciple asked me several times of Holy Mother. He Swami Shantananda if I had experienced the was then staying at Sri anahata sound, and I said no. But he encouraged Sarada Kutir at Barlow- me to practise intense japa. When I was leaving gunj, in the foothills of Swami Atulananda for the Himalayas for six months of tapasya, he the Mussoorie Hills. Normally indrawn, he was a reminded me to strive for this experience. He also typical contemplative. When he sat for meditation, gave me some money to get milk regularly, for such his face seemed to get bright with a light. His an- meditation requires strenuous brainwork. On my swers to our questions revealed something of the return, the first question he asked was if I had heard richness of his spiritual experiences. These things the sound of omkar. When I said no, he encouraged have been recorded in the book Atman Alone me to continue striving for the experience. Abides. Whenever he spoke of Swami Turiyananda, • I first met Swami Premeshananda (1884–1967), a change came over him. Swami Atulananda passed also a disciple of Holy Mother, in 1948 or 49 at away at the age of 97 on 21 August 1966. During the the Sargachhi Ashrama, and I began visiting him last three or four days of his life he was repeating regularly. He was a charming man. Every day after ‘Jai Ma’. And the last words he uttered were ‘Om his bath he would go Ma’ and ‘Hari Om’. to the shrine upstairs • In the tradition of the Ramakrishna Order, the and meditate for about outward expression of spiritual experience is scru- half an hour. I watched pulously avoided, for often such expression betrays him closely. Soon after a desire for special recognition. This obstructs one’s he sat for meditation progress and even leads one astray. Yet we have seen he would undergo a a few swamis—such as Swami Gadadharananda, strange transformation. a disciple of Swami Shivananda—who could not His face brightened control their spiritual ecstasies. Swami Gadadha- with a flush, which rananda passed away in 1971. His experiences ac- gradually spread to his corded with the signs of genuine spiritual experi- Swami Premeshananda chest. Later, when he ence as they could be experienced by others also 16 PB January 2007 26 The Contemplative Tradition in the Ramakrishna Order and they did not contradict reason. • Swami Yatiswarananda and Swami Premesh ananda were not public speakers as such, but their talks before groups of devotees always touched the core of one’s heart. These talks were unforgettable. • Though some of the previous incidents were rare, there was anoth- er kind that was quite common. For example, I lived with Swami Pur- Swami Hitananda at puja natmananda, a disciple of Swami Brahmanan- • In October 1958 I met Swami Sadashivananda da, at Almora—once (d. 1960), a disciple of Swami Vivekananda, at for five months and the Varanasi Sevashrama. As I made pranams to Swami Purnatmananda another time for two him, he lovingly embraced me and showered his months. As head of the Almora centre, he had many blessings on me. He repeatedly told me how hap- duties. But throughout the day, whenever he had py Swami Vivekananda would have been to see a any time, he would sit with his back straight tell- young man like me. I was overwhelmed by his per- ing his beads. There would be a glow on his counte- sonality, but I could hardly understand him. He nance that would bring joy to my heart. It reminded tried to impress upon me of something ‘M’ had said: ‘You have to see a me that Swamiji was all monk at his best, when he is meditating.’ love. Swami Sadashiva • Swami Saswatananda (1894–1963) was known nanda would become as a staunch Vedantin. He taught another young a changed person in swami and me the Mandukya Karika. His words the presence of bright had such conviction young men. Later I met and were so powerful him again and had a Swami Sadashivananda that they went deep similar experience. in our hearts. Once he • One sweltering summer afternoon in May, 1963, said: ‘All that you see is I went by bus to Belur Math. I was to hand over an apparent and illusory. envelope given by Swami Lokeswarananda to the It is only the all-pervad- General Secretary, Swami Vireswarananda (1892– ing Brahman that you 1985). When I reached the General Secretary’s of- really see.’ There was so fice it was 2.30 p.m., and I was perspiring. Swami much force and convic- Vireswarananda was then going through the mail, Swami Saswatananda tion in these words that and he quietly asked me to sit down on a chair. Then for about three days I strongly felt that what he he went over to a cupboard and began preparing a said was true. glass of sherbet. Assuming that he was preparing it • Swami Hitananda (d. 1984) was a disciple of Swa- for himself, I immediately offered my services. But mi Shivananda. As soon as he would begin per- the swami bade me sit quietly. In those days there forming the worship in the shrine at Belur Math, was only one office assistant in the headquarters he would become an altogether different person. office. The swami sent that boy to Belur Bazaar to He would seem to radiate spirituality. bring some ice and gave him two paise. Then he re- 27 PB January 2007 17 Prabuddha Bharata turned to his mail. added inspiration of Sri Ramakrishna’s teachings After some time they took on fresh vigour and a new outlook. This the boy returned. new outlook demanded that the monks live to- When the Swami gether in groups and forge a community. Such a life was satisfied that itself is a great discipline; especially since Hindu the pieces of ice monks have always maintained a fiercely independ- were clean, he put ent spirit. them in the tum- The mystical tradition in Hindu religious life bler of sherbet and has its roots in the Upanishads. For example, the offered it to me. Katha Upanishad (2.1.1) says: ‘God made people’s Swami Vireswarananda Overwhelmed at senses directed outward from their very birth; so this development, they always look outside and never within. Rare is I quietly drank the sherbet with tears rolling down the wise person who, desiring immortality, directs my cheeks. his senses inward and perceives the truth of his own • Swami Nrisimhananda (d. 1992), a disciple of innermost Self.’ Swami Nirmalananda, served leprosy patients in Accordingly, the Indian mystics took up the the village of Adur in Kerala for forty years. The study of the inner life and succeeded in penetrat- patients there did not want him to leave them. I ing some of the great mysteries of life. But this calls went to see him in the company of a senior swami. for living an inward life. It requires a shift from the It was a winter morning, and Swami Nrisimhanan- external world to the internal world and demands da, who was then over seventy years old, was in tat- a reorientation of one’s lifestyle, attitudes, and val- tered gerua robes. I humbly offered him my wool- ues. The Mundaka Upanishad (3.2.4) makes it clear len wrapper, but he refused to accept it. I talked that one cannot attain the Atman without sannya- with him for some time about his experiences, and sa. Naturally then, spiritual seekers chose secluded later I corresponded with him. He repeatedly as- places to concentrate their minds, and they prac- sured me that he had realized the truth that our tised detachment from everything material. yogis aspire to achieve through japa and meditation. I was deeply impressed by his experiences. Tradition, Contemplation, and Meditation All these incidents, and many more, touched Let us take a fresh look at the terms ‘tradition’, ‘con- my heart. Such things are not seen in mundane life. templation’, and ‘meditation’. The word ‘tradition’ They hinted at the joy of spiritual illumination and comes from the Latin noun traditio (handing over), seemed to invite me to enter the inner chamber of which is derived from the verb tradere (hand over, spiritual life. deliver). Tradition then is something that is handed down from one generation to another and is gener- The Foundation of Contemplative Life ally accepted by the latter. If it were not accepted Contemplation is a traditional part of Indian mo- it would cease to be a tradition. Something that nastic life. Acharya Shankara was the first to or- is a heritage can be preserved as a remembrance ganize and systematize Hindu monasticism, and of the past, but a tradition is something that con- he enjoined the abbots of the monasteries to keep tinues into the present. It is a standard or set of the spirit of tapas (austerity) and jnana (learning) standards consisting of established beliefs, customs, burning in the lives of monks, and also to under- practices, and even patterns of thought and behav- take pravasa (tours) to disseminate religious teach- iour. But this does not mean that these standards ings. These things then naturally became a part of are passed down intact in their form, meaning, or the Ramakrishna Order of monks, but with the spirit. Again, sometimes apparent breaks in a tra- 18 PB January 2007 28 The Contemplative Tradition in the Ramakrishna Order dition are actually a kind of transformation engen- dispense with them entirely. Japa, prayer, contem- dered by circumstances. plation, and meditation are all important tools in Meditation and contemplation are closely con- spiritual life that help us develop and use a mystical nected, and these words have different meanings mind and heart. and interpretations in different religious systems. A contemplative is one who practises contem- When these words are used interchangeably, con- plation. And contemplative life means a life charac- fusion arises. According to the Western tradition, terized by contemplation. The contemplative mind meditation involves concentration—that is, the is sometimes compared to a bee hovering and buzz- focusing of the conscious mind on a single idea, ing around a flower and the meditative mind to the system, doctrine, etc. At the same time, it remains bee which is already seated on the flower and sip- a cognitive and intellectual process. The English ping the honey. word ‘meditate’ comes from the Latin meditari, which connotes deep and continued reflection— Baranagore Math—the Evolution of that is, concentrated and sustained thinking. Monastic Community Life The word ‘contemplation’ is derived from the The contemplative tradition in the Ramakrishna Latin cum (with) and templum (a consecrated Order of monks is a living tradition. Here we want place). Contemplation is considered by some to to carefully consider the beliefs and practices that be the end of an ascetic quest, but it is also consid- are in the community’s consciousness, as also the ered to be a spiritual stage in itself. Dom Cuthbert ideas that have been passed down from earlier days, Butler pointed out two distinct meanings in the along with their modern interpretations, if any. We Western contemplative tradition—that is, the ob- also need to get an understanding of the source and jective meaning and the subjective meaning.2 In- growth of the tradition. dian mysticism, however, does not admit any such Sri Ramakrishna initiated his monastic disci- distinction. ples—most of them still in their teens—into the According to the Hindu tradition—especially mysteries of spiritual life, and from then on they in the Yoga and Vedanta systems—meditation is devoted themselves heart and soul to practising of a higher order than contemplation. It is different the disciplines prescribed by him. The Cossipore from reflective reasoning, and its goal is to attain garden house then became the crucible for the direct perception of something. While contempla- formation of the Ramakrishna Order. Later, af- tion is thinking about the Divine, meditation is a ter the Master’s passing away, the disciples banded spontaneous flow of the mind towards the Divine. together under the leadership of Narendranath in At the outset, meditation may proceed through an a dilapidated house in Baranagore, not far from effort of the mind; but with the help of a symbol the Dakshineswar temple. There they took formal or image, and strengthened by faith, it should end vows of sannyasa, and engaged in intensive japa and in absorption in the Divine. Again, contemplation meditation. The whole life of the monastery cen- means thinking about the form of and stories about tred round the shrine, where the sacred remains of the Divine or an Incarnation, while meditation Sri Ramakrishna (reverentially referred to as Sriji) means keeping the mind fixed uninterruptedly on were installed and worshipped. Recalling those him or her. blessed days, Swami Vivekananda later said: Prayer and japa are also practices that help We used to get up at 3 a.m. and after washing our deepen one’s spiritual life. Japa means repetition face etc.—some after bath, and others without of the divine name. Prayer uses words, images, and it—we would sit in the worship room and become thoughts to communicate with God, but contem- absorbed in Japa and meditation. What a strong plation and meditation use fewer of these or even spirit of dispassion we had in those days! We had 29 PB January 2007 19 Prabuddha Bharata ticism built a tradition of its own that was plainly opposed to ‘devotion to work’. Following this tra- dition, monks led a life of prayer, worship, medita- tion, and study. But some time after the monks of the Rama- krishna Order had shifted their Math to Alambazar, some changes took place in their lifestyle that creat- ed agitation in their minds. In fact, the changes oc- curred on both the ideational level and the physical level. When Swami Vivekananda returned from his first visit to the West, he said one day, ‘I shall revo- lutionize the monastic order.’ Previously, ‘liberation for oneself ’ was the ideal of the monks. Now, at the Swami Vivekananda and others at the Baranagore Math Alambazar Math, Swamiji added the ideal ‘and also no thought even as to whether the world existed doing good to the world’. While this new ideal ap- or not. … It was he (Sashi) who would procure, pealed to some of the monks, as also to the novices mostly by begging, the articles needed for the who had recently joined, other senior monks disa- Master’s worship and our subsistence. There were days when Japa and meditation continued from greed with it, as they were apprehensive of its affect morning till four or five in the afternoon. Sashi on the future of the monastic Order. But Swamiji waited and waited with our meals ready, till at last ignored all opposition. he would come and snatch us from our meditation No doubt, it was a sharp turning point in the by sheer force.3 life of the Math. And it is doubtful if either the Again, describing the severe austerities of those days, senior or the junior members of the Order could Swamiji said: grasp at that time the import of Swamiji’s revolu- tionary move in the larger context of the Rama- There were days at the Baranagore Math when krishna Movement. Even later, occasional chang- we had nothing to eat. If there was rice, salt was es were made when necessary. However, history lacking. Some days that was all we had, but nobody cared. Boiled bimba leaves, rice and salt—this was shows that the monastic community was able to our diet for months! Come what might, we were maintain a balance between continuity and inno- indifferent. We were being carried along on a vation, maintaining both a progressive outlook and strong tide of spiritual practices and meditation. faithfulness to the tradition. Oh, what days! Demons would have run away at Thus, owing to the dynamic vision of Swami Vi- the sight of such austerities, to say nothing of men. vekananda, the sadhana of service was given a very (62–3) prominent place in the activities of the Ramakrishna The saga of the first six years of austerities at the Math and Mission. According to Gwilym Becker- Baranagore monastery greatly inspired the mem- legge: ‘The fact that the systematic practice of the bers of the Order in later years. In fact, it continues sadhana of social service has come to occupy such to be thought of by the members as their model. a place in the institutional life of the Ramakrishna movement might be attributable to Vivekananda’s The Alambazar Math—a Turning Point own foresightedness and astuteness; his appeal to In the Gita (13.24) it is said, ‘Some by meditation Hindu paradigms, his reliance upon the symbol of perceive the Self in themselves through the mind, the sannyasi and his rejection of “reform” rooted in some by devotion to knowledge, and some by de- criticism and condemnation of Hindu norms.’4 votion to selfless work.’ But post-Shankara monas- During the past one hundred years, the Rama- 20 PB January 2007 30 The Contemplative Tradition in the Ramakrishna Order krishna Movement—with the Ramakrishna Or- guises. Lust appears in two forms—physical and der at its centre—has moved forward, and has wit- mental. But comparatively speaking, the second nessed the interplay of several historical forces. We is the more difficult, for it manifests as a craving shall mention just a few here: for social recognition, praise, honour, etc. Both of • The religious nationalism generated by Swami these have deluded many advanced souls and ru- Vivekananda raised the national awareness of In- ined their spiritual life. Increased exposure today to dians and ultimately led to the political liberation a larger section of society that is steeped in rampant of the country. Though the Ramakrishna Mission materialism has made the situation for monastics incurred the British Government’s wrath for alleg- more complex. edly sheltering freedom fighters, it also faced criti- No doubt, with the heavy load of responsibili- cism from the public for not actively participating ties and the organization’s many social commit- in politics. ments, the monks are engaged in various kinds of • In post-independence India the Mission has had mundane activities. The responsibilities of their a share in the national reconstruction programme, work also press upon them more and more. In such in keeping with Swami Vivekananda’s general a challenging situation a monk must perforce learn directive. to strike a balance between contemplation and ac- • In recent times socio-economic changes have tion—which are, in fact, intimately related. And brought some prosperity to the monastic com- this balance needs to be sought both ideationally munity, while progress in science, technology, and through proper allotment of available time. and management skills have brought changes in But even in very strenuous situations, many monks outlook. In addition, the increased expansion of succeed in keeping the lamp of their inner spiritual the Mission’s activities has compelled the limited life burning. number of monks to switch from direct service ac- tivities to administrative and supervisory jobs. A Study of the Inner Life of Monks • Last but not least, recent advances in mass com- Two decades after India had achieved political inde- munication and globalization have also affected to pendence, when the Math and Mission had taken a great extent the lifestyle and vision of the monas- up a large number of developmental activities in tic community. education and health care, many monks began to The net impact of these things can be seen—in wonder if we might lose the great spiritual legacy the language of A Gidden, an authority on Western handed down to us by our pioneers. At that time I political science and philosophy—in the form of de- had a chance to make an objective study of the in- traditionalization and re-traditionalization of the ner life of some of the monks of the Order. In the monastic community’s sacred tradition.5 Through early 70s I was serving as the Assistant Secretary these processes customs, beliefs, and traditions are of the Ramakrishna Mission Seva Pratishthan in scrutinized and gradually reconstituted in different Kolkata, a 550-bed general hospital. As it is the larg- forms. This process of reconstituting new values est hospital of the Mission, monks from all centres and traditions has been taking place in the Rama- are admitted there. For more than four years I had krishna Order, giving rise to new procedures. the opportunity to be at the bedside of monks as Besides these hitherto unforeseen socio-politi- they were dying, and my observation of them at cal pressures on the monastic organization, there these last moments was quite revealing. are several other dangers and stumbling blocks A dying person cannot hide his true nature. See- to living a contemplative life in a world of action. ing how these dying monks faced the hour of death The most powerful among them are lust and greed, with grace and dignity, I was thrilled. And when I which more often than not appear in various dis- compared their dying moments with those of other 31 PB January 2007 21 Prabuddha Bharata people, I was convinced that the disciplined and heart and remember their spiritual goal. As Sri Ra- spiritually-oriented life of the monks helped them makrishna often sang: ‘Lighting the lamp of Knowl- face death without fear, frustration, worry, or anxi- edge in the chamber of your heart, / Behold the face ety. Moreover, some of them correctly predicted of the Mother, Brahman’s Embodiment’ (ibid.). If their time of departure, while others gave expres- the monks keep this advice in mind, it will unfail- sion to their spiritual visions, and again others had ingly guide them like the needle of a compass.P nothing but blessings for those around them. This simple study convinced me that the current of our References spiritual tradition is quite strong among the mem- 1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), bers of the monastic community. 3.447. 2. Dom Cuthbert Butler, Western Mysticism (London: Conclusion Constable, 1966), 221. Thomas Merton (1915–68), a revered American 3. Swami Prabhananda, The Early History of the Ra- Trappist monk, once wrote: ‘Without this con- makrishna Movement (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, 2005), 52. templative orientation we are building churches 4. Gwilym Beckerlegge, Swami Vivekananda’s Legacy not to praise Him but to establish more firmly the of Service (New Delhi: Oxford, 2006), 259. social structures, values and benefits that we pres- 5. A Gidden, Cited by Thauh-Dam Truong, ‘Asian ently enjoy. … Without true, deep contemplative Values and the Heart of Understanding: A Bud- dhist View’, in Asian Values: Encounter with Diver- aspirations, without a total love for God and an sity (Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, 2000), 43. uncompromising thirst for his truth, religion tends 6. Thomas Merton, Contemplative Prayer (New York: in the end to become an opiate.’6 Image, 1971), 118. Like other monastic traditions in India, the new 7. M, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami Ni- type of monasticism of the Ramakrishna Order khilananda (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, 2002), 637. puts emphasis on the life of contemplation, which stresses the inner life. But nowadays, with their heavy workload and comfortable living conditions, It seems to be the invariable rule that every newly the monks need to adjust their perspective on their started movement should pass through the two stages life as a whole in order to keep their inner life in- of opposition and indifference before its principles are tact. They may also need to adjust their living hab- accepted by society and humanity at large. … at the end its. Here especially, Sri Ramakrishna is their guide. of this second stage we find it accepted by a consensus According to him, one should mix with people as of public opinion, as it were, and the ranks of its votaries, much as possible and love all, but then one must henceforth, swell speedily. … But this third stage of pub- dwell by oneself in one’s own chamber. In this re- lic acceptance is not to be regarded as the millennium. gard, he gave the example of the cowherd boys and … For, security of position brings a relaxation of spirits their cows. He said: ‘You can see your true Self only and energy, and a sudden growth of extensity quickly within your own chamber. The cowherds take the lessens the intensity and unity of purpose that were cows to graze in the pasture. There the cattle mix. found among the promoters of the movement. Hence They all form one herd. But on returning to their in place of outside opposition we find the budding forth sheds in the evening they are separated. Then each in it of an internal opposition due to the varied opinions stays by itself in its own stall. Therefore I say, dwell of its members, and later, in place of the former spirit of by yourself in your own chamber.’7 sacrifice for truth, of a struggle to maintain the secure In their daily life the monks need to attend to social position by compromising truth with half-truths their duties skilfully and efficiently, but at the same and a clinging more to the appearance than to the spirit time they must fervently enter the chamber of their of things. —Swami Saradananda 22 PB January 2007 32 All-inclusive View of the Vedic Seers Swami Tattwavidananda A traditional verse attributed to the great through his wisdom and wise actions. Legend Mahabharata sings the glory of the Vedas has it that once King Nimi requested him to offici- thus: ate as priest in a grand sacrifice. Since Vasiṣṭha had sv¡ ivduvRedivdae vede sv¡ àitiótm!, earlier committed himself to going to heaven and solemnizing a sacrifice for Indra, he asked Nimi to vede ih inóa svRSy y*diSt c naiSt c. put off his sacrifice till his return from the world of One who is conversant with the Vedas knows the gods. But Nimi was not agreeable to Vasiṣṭha’s everything, for everything is established on advice. In his haste, he called Agastya and got his the Vedas. Verily, the present, the past, and the sacrifice performed through him. future—all exist in the Vedas. When he came to know this on his return from According to tradition, the Vedas are the in- heaven, Vasiṣṭha pronounced a curse that Nimi spired utterances of seers or sages called rishis. The lapse into unconsciousness. Nimi too was quick tradition further assures us of their unquestion- to reciprocate the curse. Ultimately, Brahma had able authenticity. There is a galaxy of Vedic seers to to intervene, and Vasiṣṭha was reborn as the son of whom Truth was revealed in its different aspects. In the Vedic deities Mitra and Varuṇa. this article we shall restrict ourselves to the experi- ences of a few Vedic seers who do not figure in the Vasiṣṭha’s Wisdom Upanishadic literature. Vasiṣṭha’s wisdom lies in his sincerely seeking the good of others. The refrain of many a ṛk in the sev- Genesis of Vasiṣṭha enth mandala runs as follows: ‘ yUy< pat SviStiÉ> sda Among the Vedic seers, Vasiṣṭha shines in his own n> ; Protect us always through your benevolence.’ brilliance. The ṛks or Vedic mantras ascribed to him The term svasti denotes ‘unending welfare’. This speak volumes for his integral vision of life, ranging is significant. ‘Unending welfare’ means reaching from noble conduct and dexterous, dispassionate the highest good of life, which includes both ma- performance of action to renunciation of egotism, terial and spiritual attainments. It is interesting to pride, and anger. These qualities also indicate his note that to the Vedic seers life was an integrated high spiritual attainments. The seventh mandala of whole where all the different aspects were happily the Rig Veda goes by his name, as he is the seer of and purposefully blended. the mantras given therein. This Vasiṣṭha Maṇḍala In this context we may refer to the daśa-rāja war records a mantra beginning thus: described in the same seventh mandala. In this war, #d< vc> ztsa> s<shömud¶ye jin;Iò iÖbhaR>, King Sudāsa emerged victorious though simultane- ously attacked by ten kings. These latter kings did Vasiṣṭha, illustrious in both heaven and earth, not care to perform sacrifices. Despite being heavily rich with a hundred and a thousand (cattle), has addressed this hymn to Agni.1 armed and firmly united, the kings could not strike Sudāsa, as he was favoured and protected by Indra Commenting on this, Sāyanācarya observes that and Varuṇa because he sincerely discharged his du- Vasiṣṭha owned countless cows, and that he became ties. That one should not neglect one’s daily duties 33 PB January 2007 23 Prabuddha Bharata and responsibilities is the obvious lesson. ÈyMbk< yjamhe sugiNx< puiòvxRnm!, Scriptural injunctions must be adhered to under %vaRékimv bNxnaNm&TyaemuR]Iy ma=m&tat!. all circumstances; no compromise is to be enter- We worship Tryambaka, the three-eyed one, tained in this matter, for these injunctions often sweet augmenter of prosperity. As from its issue directly from God or from authoritative per- stem the cucumber, so may we be released sons. God descends on earth for the well-being of from the bondage of death, but not deprived of people in the world, and god-like persons, being immortality (7.59.12). free from all personal concerns, can have concern Repetition of this mantra is said to be highly effec- only for the welfare of the world. tive in delivering us from the snare of maya or world- In our day-to-day life, two things—happiness liness. The mantra is also employed in performing and peace—are important. Every living being seeks a certain fire sacrifice with pāyasa or rice-pudding. happiness and hates misery. Happiness is normal- Here too the aim is the same—escape from death. ly derived from our experience of material things The deity prayed to here is Lord Mahādeva, the through the senses. Following this common trend, three-eyed God. In granting spiritual liberation or like some other Vedic texts, the Vasiṣṭha Maṇḍala mukti to individuals, Mahādeva has an important abounds in prayers to gods for material prosperity. role to play. He has an unusual third eye, which is But the thirty-fifth sukta or hymn is an exception. said to be the wisdom-eye, the eye that emitted fire Here the sage Vasiṣṭha is keen on something greater and reduced Kāma—Cupid or the love-god—to than what we normally call happiness. All the fif- ashes. This has a symbolic significance. teen mantras except the last two are the outpour- Seeking sensual pleasures is denoted in Sanskrit ings of Vasiṣṭha’s heart for peace, the most elusive by the word kama. In its widest sense kama denotes element in our lives. In saying his prayer, Vasiṣṭha desire. The view that God directly intervenes in does not make any distinction between animate bringing us into human life is uncommon in Hin- and inanimate existence. It is the general view that duism. Rather, it is generally accepted that various inanimate objects are lifeless and hence lack in im- desires latent in our mind are responsible for our portance. But strangely, the objects Vasiṣṭha prays embodied life and our experience of the miseries to include mountains, stones, the ocean, noble of the world. The mṛtyuñjaya mantra is a sincere deeds, the measure of sacrificial posts, and the sac- prayer to Lord Shiva to sever all our worldly ties. rificial altar. Herein we find the wonderful solu- The severance of these ties is presented herein with tion presented by the Vedic seers to the problem the beautiful simile of a fruit called urvāruka, a of peace. To them the whole universe is a well-con- species of cucumber. This is a creeper that most- nected, integrated whole, where gross objects have ly grows along the ground. When fully ripe, the their presiding deities—the different cosmic pow- fruit detaches spontaneously from the vine. Simi- ers—which in turn have their physical counterparts larly, when ignorance falls off totally, the highest in the human body. This discovery of cohesion un- freedom is obtained. Except for overcoming igno- derlying the universe helps us appreciate the con- rance, no other sadhana or spiritual practice is re- cept of unity of existence. Thus, prayers to stones quired for obtaining this freedom. The Advaitins, and mountains, to animals and plants, elicit rever- followers of non-dualistic Vedanta, hold freedom ence instead of ridicule. to be but the removal of ignorance. The mṛtyuñjaya mantra, upholding such a view, lends authority to The Tryambaka Mantra the Advaitic position. Moreover, through this man- The Vasiṣṭha Mandala also has the renowned tra, the sage calls our attention to a sincere but sim- mṛtyuñjaya mantra—the great destroyer of death ple worship of the Lord for the attainment of the in the form of bondage: highest liberation. 24 PB January 2007 34 All-inclusive View of the Vedic Seers Vāstoṣpati Sūkta termined to see it. The Gāyatri Mantra is a prayer Another important feature of the seventh mandala to the Supreme Divine to guide our intellect. This is the prayer to the vāstu devatā, the guardian deity divine intervention in guiding our intellect is most of one’s homestead. People currently attach great welcome, as it saves us from the many false steps importance to vāstu—the land where a house is that we are prone to take. Complete self-surren- to be built, its location, angular position, and such der to the Supreme Being for guidance ensures the other details. Residential complexes, temples, sacri- growth and progress we need. ficial places, and such other constructions can avert With the opening up of the higher intellect and danger if the vāstu (location) is purified or ren- spiritual faculties through repetition of the Gāyatri dered free from evil influences. The fifty-fourth su- Mantra, people become capable of grasping sub- kta that goes by the name Vāstoṣpati Sūkta contains tle entities, which leads them to realize the Truth, only three ṛks. Each ṛk begins with the address: ‘O subtler than the subtlest. Thus everyone belonging Lord of vāstu’. Significantly, in the opening stanza to and pursuing the Vedic cult owes a profound the sage prays to the vāstu devatā to awaken us. This debt of gratitude to Viśvāmitra. He visualized and awakening is important as it places us in the right delivered this important mantra to the people of condition to pray and act for our own welfare. The all times and places. Through this universal prayer, invoker or sacrificer seeks wealth, protection, peace, Viśvāmitra sets in motion the Vedic ideal of diviniz- and happiness from the deity. ing one’s personal life and giving it the integrity and fulfillment that are ubiquitously sought after. Rakṣoghna Sūkta Like Vasiṣṭha and other Vedic seers, Viśvāmitra The hundred and fourth hymn of the seventh man- held aloft the ideal of renunciation, personal effort, dala is called Rakṣoghna Sūkta. There the twin gods perseverance, firmness of resolve, and asceticism. Indra and Soma are repeatedly invoked for unleash- Even in his row with Vasiṣṭha these traits were glo- ing their wrath on demons. Oppression by demo- riously in view. Viśvāmitra realized that lust, anger, niac forces is a cause of concern to all; their annihi- and such other inner enemies are detrimental to lation alone can enable people to walk the path of spiritual progress. Though they seem insurmount- peace and prosperity. Therefore, in other sections able, we must get rid of them if our spiritual aspira- of the Vedas too prayers are available in plenty for tion is to make any headway. Viśvāmitra succeed- extermination of evil forces. ed in his fight against these enemies and took to the path of intense penance that ultimately earned Vaiśvāmitra Maṇḍala sainthood for him and made him a legendary seer. The third mandala of the Rig Veda is called He had the distinction of guiding Sri Ramachan- Vaiśvāmitra Maṇḍala, where the seer is Viśvāmitra. dra, the incarnation of Viṣṇu, who even took some He is the seer of the famous Gāyatri Mantra, which lessons in the art of warfare from Viśvāmitra. The is widely accepted as the mother or sustaining pow- ninth mantra of the fifty-third sukta of the third er of the Vedas, the vedamātā. The Gāyatri is the mandala describes Viśvāmitra in glorious terms as tenth mantra of the sixty-second sukta in this man- an eminent sage who is the source of all effulgence dala. It is a universal prayer for the spiritual awaken- and strength. He controlled the gushing waters of ing of the person repeating it. Our intellect plays a mighty rivers; such was his priestly attainment that vital role in all our actions. The intellect is an inner even Indra, the lord of gods, was fascinated by his faculty that determines the way voluntary actions meticulous performance of sacrificial rites. are carried out; all actions are invariably preceded by this determination. For example, I can apply Vāmadeva Maṇḍala my eyes to seeing something only when I am de- Among the Vedic seers other than those of the 35 PB January 2007 25 is deva, which means, among other things, ‘that which shines or reveals’. The organs of knowledge are sometimes called deva because they contribute to the light of knowledge. Here Vāmadeva tells us that birth and death belong to the physical body, of which the sense organs are integral parts, and not to the Self or Atman. Before this truth was revealed to him, he had to pass through numerous births, which were like putting the Self behind strong iron bars over a long period of time. Our strong infatu- ation with the physical body, and wrongly consid- ering it to be the Self, is what is indicated by this metaphorical imprisonment. But when spiritual knowledge, the experiential knowledge that ‘At- man alone exists and other things are false’ dawns, infatuation falls off immediately. The instantane- ous dawn of knowledge is allegorically presented by the hawk’s taking to sudden flight. Through this wonderful verse, Vāmadeva in- spires us to rise above all attachment and identifica- tion with the body. The Self is cit or Consciousness, and is in no way connected with body or sense- organs, which are material. All connections and associations are only on the physical and mental planes. The Self is beyond everything material and Upanishads, Vāmadeva is widely admired for his cannot have any connection with anything or any- insight and rare spiritual experiences. The fourth body. Vāmadeva, having realized that Self which is mandala of the Rig Veda is ascribed to Vāmadeva. one, undivided, and without a second, became one Even while in his mother’s womb he realized the with all, even with the so-called inanimate objects. supreme Truth and solved the mystery of life and The glorious verse embodying this experience is death. The opening mantra of the twenty-seventh given below: sukta in this mandala runs as follows: Ah< mnurÉv< sUyRíah< k]Iva~ \i;riSm ivà>, gÉeR nu sÚNve;amvedmh< devana< jinmain ivña, Ah< k…TsmajuRney< Ny&Ãe=h< kivézna pZyta ma. zt< ma pur AaysIrr]Úx Zyenae jvsa inrdIym!. I have become the sage Manu, I Sūrya, the sage [Vamadeva says] While still in womb, I knew Kakṣīvān, Kutsa, the son of Ārjuni and Uśanā, all the different births of the gods. Before the the great inspirer. May I be looked upon as the ensuing birth I had many others in the past, Self of all (4.26.1). when I had hundreds of strong bodies that firmly Sourī Ṛk protected my body-consciousness. But now, like a hawk, I have rushed out of the body (4.27.1). In the Vāmadeva Maṇḍala there occurs a mantra beginning h<s> zuic;dœ that goes by the name Sourī Let us have a look at the inner meaning of the ṛk. Ṛk (4.40.5), where Sūrya is praised. The Supreme The different gods mentioned here may denote the Being in the form of the sun is invoked through sense organs and mind. The original word for god this mantra, though his all-pervading nature is well 26 PB January 2007 36 All-inclusive View of the Vedic Seers indicated therein. It is recommended that with all Let the son act according to the wishes of his necessary purification (and precaution) one should father and be like-minded with the mother. Let look at the sun while repeating this mantra. One the wife use sweet words with her husband. can make an entry into the abode of Brahman May brother and sister not act against the good of each other. May all family members have while repeating this text even at the time of one’s common goals of life and act collectively so that death. This verse is found at a number of places in even in their regular talks they may speak of the Vedic literature, which fact points to its gran- mutual good.2 deur and the wealth of meaning that it represents. Akṣa Sūkta Family Bonds In the Vedas, the value of labour is highlighted and The above brief account of three among the host the common trend of making a quick buck is dis- of Vedic seers draws our attention to their integral couraged and criticized. Illegal betting and gam- vision of life and action. What strikes us most is bling have have become popular nowadays. The the spiritual humanism that they propagate. This huge transactions involved therein have been a high ideal can be actualized by fostering solidar- cause of great worry for administrators, since such ity among different members of society. Here our practices escalate accumulation of black money and individual families come first. The Vedic seers too the consequent crime and violence. We may refer were not unaware of this. We are reminded of an to a secular hymn in the tenth mandala of the Rig immortal prayer of the seer Brahmā that occurs in Veda which goes by the name Akṣa Sūkta and is di- the Atharva Veda (1.31.4): ‘SviSt maÇ %t ipÇe nae ; Let rectly associated with dicing. Here the sage Ailūṣa there be peace and well-being of our mother as well Kavaṣa describes graphically the plight of a gambler as our father.’ who, in the long run, came to his senses and real- In India, parents are traditionally considered ized his folly. The dicing-episode of the Mahab- as God in human form. We must, therefore, serve harata may have some relation to this. them and follow their advice sincerely. We should The following mantra gives a vivid picture of the neither show them indifference nor hurt them pain and suffering that the family of the gambler through our conduct. The profound debt that we has to undergo: owe them can be repaid to some extent if we can ANye jaya< pirm&zNTySy ySyag&xÖedne vaJy]>, make them happy through loving service. In the ipta mata æatr @nma÷nR janImae nyta bÏmetm!. Sāṁmanasya Sūkta of the Atharva Veda, the fam- ily is viewed in a wide perspective, and love, amity, Others caress the wife of him whose riches the potent dice covet. His mother, father, brothers mutual trust, and respect among family members say, ‘We know him not, bind him and take him are prayed for. The seer, Atharvā, prays: away.’3 sùdy< sa<mnSymivÖe;< k«[aeim v>, After describing the helpless condition of the gam- ANyae ANymiÉ hyRt vTs< jatimva¸Nya. bler in a very realistic way through a few other stan- Anuìt> iptu> puÇae maÇa Évtu s<mna>, zas, the seer of the Akṣa Sūkta pronounces his im- jaya pTye mxumtI< vac< vdtu ziNtvam!. mortal advice: ma æata æatr< iÖ]Nma Svsarmut Svsa, sMyÂ> sìta ÉUTva vac< vdt ÉÔya. A]EmaR dIVy> k«i;imt! k«;Sv ivÄe rmSv b÷ mNyman>, [O quarrelsome people], we associate you with tÇ gav> iktv tÇ jaya tNme iv còe sivtaymyR>. such actions which will free you from all mutual Never play with dice; take to agriculture, remain hatred and enmity and bring you close to each contented with wealth gained therefrom; in other. Like the mother cow, very interested in agriculture are your cows and wife. The Lord her calf, may you have mutual love and affection. Savitṛ, the visible inspirer, tells me this (10.34.13). 37 PB January 2007 27 Prabuddha Bharata mae"mÚ< ivNdte Aàceta> sTy< ävIim vx #t! s tSy, In the Upanishads, the rishis were those who nayRm[< pu:yit nae soay< kevla"ae Évit kevladI. had practically abandoned their attachment to Vainly he procures and owns food who does not the affairs of the world and had taken their abode care to share or distribute it to others. He is a in the forests. But in the Rig Vedic literature, the person of low intellect. Truly I tell you, that food rishis were the advanced citizens of the period, does him more harm than good. He propitiates the gifted poets. They had not abandoned their neither gods nor friends. He eats alone (that interest in the problems of life in this world. They is, eats for his own sake) and thus incurs sin (10.117.6). lived as members of the family, propitiating gods with their sacrifices and with their prayers. They The same idea is echoed in the Bhagavadgita and prayed for family happiness; they prayed for Manu Samhita, where great emphasis is laid on the heroic children and grandchildren and also for liberal distribution of food. success in social life. —C Kunhan Raja The eighth verse of the same sukta brings out nicely the insatiable human greed for wealth. Even The ‘dice-hymn’ delivers this eternally important wealthy people always look for wealth from others message of the fairness of purpose and process in wealthier than themselves. The rishi says: action. Life without action is impossible, and those actions alone can lead us to the threshold of Truth @kpaуyae iÖpdae iv c³me iÖpat! iÇpadm_yeit píat!, which are done honestly, dispassionately, and with- ctu :padeit iÖpdamiÉSvre s<pZyn! p“Iépitóman>. out any ulterior motive. The person having one part of wealth pursues When we take to easy and clever ways, we deny relentlessly the way of the person with two parts the importance of and the honour associated with of wealth. The one having two parts of wealth true labour. As soon as we fall prey to this, we in- runs after him who possesses three parts. The person with four parts too feels inclined to dulge in a life of luxury and indolence. By leading follow suit, having observed the actions of the such a life we ruin ourselves and also ruin our so- persons possessing lesser wealth (10.117.8). ciety. The sage Ailūṣa, therefore, exhorts us to es- chew avarice and follow the path of contentment. The commentator Sāyana brings out the message His advice to the gambler to take to agriculture as contained in this stanza: ‘In gathering wealth a profession may emphasize both agriculture and (even) rich persons depend on each other. There- any other profession where people can earn money fore, let no one brag, “I possess wealth.”’ and ensure sustenance by exerting themselves. This could be a lesson to the people of present-day so- In Conclusion ciety, where unemployment and poverty are wide- The Vedic seers teach us in clear terms that life is spread. The currently popular self-employment a well-connected whole, all aspects of which need movement may trace its origin to the most ancient to be taken care of. The great and illustrious sages Vedic literature. make no distinction between the sacred and the secular and passionately invite us to foster amity Bhikṣu Sūkta and solidarity: ‘ imÇSy ma c]u;e]Xvm! ; Let us see The tenth mandala also has the hymn known as through the eyes of our friend.’4 P Bhikṣu Sūkta. Through the nine verses comprising References the hymn, the sage Āṅgirasa praises eloquently the 1. Rig Veda, 7.8.6. path of charity and condemns close-fisted miserly 2. Atharva Veda, 3.30.1–3. people for their narrow, self-centred attitude. The 3. Rig Veda, 10.34.4. sixth stanza of the hymn runs thus: 4. Shukla Yajur Veda, 5.34. 28 PB January 2007 38 Contemplation on Om, the Gayatri, and the Mahāvākyas Swami Mukhyananda The Aims of life H uman beings pursue several aims in which then acquires the power of discrimination life. They strive to attain them accord- between the priya (pleasant) and the śreya (good), ing to their conception of the goal of life, the ephemeral and the eternal. They renounce all their own nature and aptitude, stage of life, and selfish worldly interests based on the physical per- capacities. In Hindu thought these are called the sonality, and devote themselves to spiritual life in puruṣārthas (the human ends). Hindu socio-spir- order to attain the supreme goal of life. By study of itual thinkers have classified them broadly into four the scriptures and instructions from the spiritually categories, in a graded manner, according to the enlightened ones, they strive to attain moksha, the inner growth of the individual, namely: (i) kāma, summum bonum of human life. fulfilment of various psychosomatic desires, and advancement in social life; (ii) artha, acquisition The Hidden Self of wealth, property, and status for the fulfilment Children do not know their latent talents and ca- of kama; (iii) dharma, development of moral and pacities. But parents and teachers know that chil- ethical virtues in the context of society, to elevate dren have intelligence and various talents dormant personal life and character to gain honour and in them which can be developed and manifested esteem; pursuit of dharma leads to unselfishness through instruction and training. Similarly, the and broadens one’s vision. It generates power of spiritually enlightened seers (rishis) tell human- discrimination and makes people fit candidates kind that apart from their physical bodies, their for the pursuit of (iv) mokṣa, attainment of their inner being is of a spiritual nature; that the im- highest end, the summum bonum, the supreme mortal Atman (Self )—sat-cit-ānanda—is within goal of life as spiritual beings, which is their real all as their real Being; and that they can realize it by nature. They attain freedom from identification practising spiritual disciplines (sadhana) prescribed with the ephemeral physical personality and realize in the scriptures. In the mango seed lies hidden the the identity of their inner being (Atman) with the capacity to produce a mango tree and luscious man- universal spiritual Reality (Brahman), the ground goes, when properly cultivated. We cultivate a man- and source of the universe and all its beings, and go tree for its fruits, though its wood and leaves are thereby realize their spiritual oneness with all in also useful, and the tree also gives shade and adds Brahman (sarvātma-bhāva). to the beauty of a place. Likewise, in human life As in secular education, in spiritual develop- we attain kama, artha and dharma (the trivarga), ment too people are in different stages of devel- which, being based on the mortal physical body opment. Most people are at the first two stages of and an ever-changing universe, are ephemeral; but kama and artha. But after reflection on life’s experi- people find their supreme fulfilment (niḥśreyasa) ences and the teachings of the seers and scriptures, only when they realize their real, divine Atman and some rise to the higher stage of dharma. The culti- its oneness with Brahman, the infinite, supreme, di- vation of dharma leads to purification of the mind, vine Reality. Worldly achievements relate to human 39 PB January 2007 29 Prabuddha Bharata beings’ socio-physical personalities and not to their vadgita, Acharya Shankara points out: ‘Śāstra- immortal divine Self. ācārya-upadeśa-śama-damādi-saṁskṛtaṁ manaḥ ātma-darśana kāraṇam; The mind that has been Approaching the Self purified by the instructions of the scriptures and But the attraction of the senses and worldly life the guru and by śama-dama (physical and mental are very strong, for people generally live their life restraint) and other spiritual disciplines is the in- based on their external psychosomatic personali- strument for the perception of the Atman.’4 The ties and are not aware of their inner divine nature. Mundaka Upanishad declares: ‘Satyena labdhaḥ The Katha Upanishad points out that our senses tapasā hi eśa ātmā samyak jñānena brahmacaryeṇa and mind by nature go outward towards sense ob- nityam; This Atman is attained by unceasing prac- jects and do not see the inner divine Self tice of truthfulness, austerity, right knowl- (antarātman).1 But some wise persons, edge, and continence.’5 who have examined all that the When by virtue of spiritual dis- senses and worldly life can give ciplines the mind is purified and and have become thoughtful, made subtle and one-point- discriminate and turn their ed, and overcoming the ex- eyes inward, renounce trovert tendencies is filled ephemeral worldly attrac- with an intense desire to tions, and strive to attain attain the Self, then only the permanent and the does a person become a immortal. A wise and fit candidate (adhikārin) heroic person with de- to realize the Self. The termination alone seeks Vivekachudamani points the inner immortal Self out that success in the (pratyak-ātman): ‘Kaścit endeavour especially de- dhīraḥ pratyak ātmānam pends on the adhikārin,6 aikṣat āvṛtta cakṣuḥ amṛtat the other facilities of time, tvam icchan’ (ibid.). place, and the like being When one turns one’s only auxiliary for the purpose. eyes inward and examines one- The Katha Upanishad declares self, one finds, as stated in the that if one does not have the de- Taittiriya Upanishad, that the inner sired qualities, has not turned away Self is hidden deep within the core of from all evil and become calm and the heart (nihitaṁ guhāyām),2 within the peaceful by the control of the senses and five layers (pañca-koṣas) of personality of different renunciation of worldly desires, one cannot attain grades, from the gross annamaya-koṣa to the sub- the Self by mere intellectual eminence and study tlest ānandamaya-koṣa. But the Katha Upanishad of the scriptures.7 assures us that it can be attained by those whose Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra too prescribes moral and minds are purified of extrovert tendencies and spiritual virtues (yama and niyama) as preliminary, made subtle, sharp, and concentrated: ‘Dṛśyate tu fundamental steps for yoga sadhana to realize the agryayā buddhyā sūkṣmayā sūkṣma darśibhiḥ.’3 They Self, one’s real nature (svarūpa). resort to adhyātma yoga, discriminative concentra- The Advaita system of Vedanta, which incul- tion on the Self (1.2.12), as taught by the scriptures cates the ideal of realization of the Atman-Brahman and the guru. In his commentary on the Bhaga- identity, specially lays down four important spiritu- 30 PB January 2007 40 Contemplation on Om, the Gayatri, and the Mahāvākyas al disciplines (sādhana catuṣṭaya), and Sri Shankara whose self is That, whose steadfastness is in That, declares that bereft of them one will not succeed in whose consummation is That’ (5.17). one’s efforts to realize the ideal—‘Sādhanāni atra For taking up any spiritual sadhana and succeed- catvāri …; Yeṣu satsu eva sanniṣṭhā yad-abhāve na ing therein, one must first become a fit candidate siddhyati’—and elaborates the four disciplines.8 equipped with the prescribed spiritual disciplines and moral and ethical virtues. One must also be Mantra and Sadhana aware of the meaning and significance of the man- When one has become a fit candidate for the cho- tras. They must all be properly oriented and applied sen ideal by cultivating the above disciplines and to the achievement of the ideal. Without intense virtues, there are several paths and methods open aspiration and diligent application of the mind in to one to realize the supreme goal, namely the iden- the proper way, one will not be able to succeed even tity of Atman and Brahman. We shall now con- with great spiritual effort—‘Tapasā vā api aliṅgāt sider briefly contemplation on the great mantras na ayam ātmā labhyaḥ.’10 A ladder will help one (spiritual formulae)—Om, the Gayatri and the climb up only if it is properly hitched, but if it is ly- mahāvākyas—for the purpose of this realization. ing flat, no amount of going up and down the rungs These are called mantras because by proper contem- will be of any use. plation on their import (mananāt), they remove the inner obstacles (trāyate) and facilitate realiza- yuÃIt à[ve cet> à[vae äü inÉRym!, tion (mananāt trāyate iti mantraḥ). These man- tras are for the realization of the supreme Advaitic à[ve inTyyu´Sy n Éy< iv*te Kvict!. ideal of identity of the Atman and Brahman, the One should concentrate one’s mind on Om, individual Self and the universal Self. For this pur- ( for) Om is Brahman, beyond fear. For a per- pose, one has to concentrate and make the mind son ever fixed in Brahman, there can be no fear thoroughly absorbed in the ideal they represent. anywhere. —Acharya Gaudapada It is said, yat dhyāyati tat bhavati, what one con- templates on with intensity that one becomes or attains. The Gita says, ‘Yo yat śraddhaḥ sa eva saḥ; Om, the Gayatri, and the Mahāvākyas Whatever is one’s firm faith and conviction, that 1. Om (Aum) is the sound symbol and name of one becomes (in due course).’9 Firm faith and con- Brahman: ‘Om iti brahma’, ‘Om iti eka akṣaraṁ viction (śraddhā and viśvāsa) in the ideal and in brahma; Om, the single syllable indicating Brah- the instructions of the guru and the scriptures is of man.’ It is also called praṇava, denoting Brahman: great importance. In spiritual literature this is em- ‘Tasya vācakaḥ praṇavaḥ.’11 The upāsanā (contem- phasized again and again in many ways. A doubt- plation) of Om is advocated in the Vedas, the Up- ing person is lost (saṁśayātmā vinaśyati), says the anishads, the Gita, and other spiritual works in vari- Gita (6.40). ous ways. It is śabda brahman, Brahman in the form The Gita is a great practical guide for the re- of ‘silent sound’ (anāhata dhvani), which manifests alization of spiritual ideals. While the Upanishads, as thought and ideas and becomes the source of the known as Vedanta, teach brahma-vidyā, the Gita manifestation of the variegated universe and its is also a yoga-śāstra, a practical guide, for its reali- beings.12 From the word one recalls its denotation. zation, as the colophon states at the end of every The name and the named are correlates; the name chapter in the book. The Gita declares that com- brings to mind the object named and, conversely, plete absorption in the ideal is necessary for reali- the object recalls the name. So in spiritual life, rep- zation: ‘Tad buddhayaḥ tad-ātmānaḥ tan-niṣṭhāḥ etition of the name (japa) of the iṣṭa devatā (Cho- tat-parāyaṇāḥ; Whose mind is absorbed in That, sen Deity) is advocated as an important means of 41 PB January 2007 31 Prabuddha Bharata realization. in realizing the Truth hidden by His ‘golden disc’, Om is the name of Brahman: ‘Om tat sat iti by withdrawing His blinding brilliant rays. Verse nirdeśo brahmanaḥ trividhaḥ smṛtaḥ; Om, Tat, Sat: sixteen declares the identity of the sadhaka with this has been declared to be the triple designation the divine Person in the sun. of Brahman.’13 The Katha Upanishad says, ‘Sarve 3. There are various theistic mantras for the re- vedā yat padam āmananti, tapāṁsi sarvāṇi ca yat alization of the Divine as personal deities such as vadanti ... tat te padaṁ saṅgraheṇa pravakṣye, om Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Durga, and Kali. But Om, iti etat; The goal which all the Vedas declare, which Gayatri, and the mahāvākyas (great statements or all austerities speak of ... I will tell you briefly: it is dicta) are for the realization of the supreme im- Om’; and advocates it as the supreme means of re- personal Reality, Brahman—immanent in all as alization of Brahman.14 After studying the nature the Atman—and their identity. While Om and of Brahman through the scriptures, and grasping the Gayatri are helpful in sadhana and indirectly clearly the significance of Om with the help of a indicate the ideal, the mahāvākyas directly incul- spiritually advanced guru, if one repeats Om in the cate it. The following four, occurring in the Up- prescribed manner, one will realize Brahman, just anishads, are recognized as the mahāvākyas: (i) as repeating the name of the deity—Rama, Krish- Prajñānaṁ brahma, (ii) Ayam ātmā brahma, (iii) na, Shiva, Durga, or others—one realizes them.15 Tat tvam asi, and (iv) Ahaṁ brahmāsmi.17 Taken ‘Om iti evaṁ dhyāyatha Vivekananda Ill am, Chennai together, they indicate ātmānam; Meditate respectively the nature on Atman as Om,’ says of Brahman, its imma- the Mundaka Upan- nence in all beings as ishad.16 By proper con- the Atman, the identi- templation on Om, ty of Atman and Brah- one realizes the Atman man, and its realization and its identity with by the aspirant within Brahman. him- or herself. They 2. The Gayatri man- have to be properly un- tra is also an impor- derstood by studying tant means of realiz- the context in which ing Brahman. It is very they have been de- helpful in making the clared, with the guid- mind a fit instrument ance of a competent for the realization of guru. One must not the supreme Truth. It Delivering the Mahavakyas try to practise sadhana is addressed to the sun of spiritual light (Savitā) independently, for this is a very subtle path and as a symbol of Brahman. It is called the Sāvitrī difficult to comprehend (na suvijñeyaḥ), as the mantra, but is well known as the Gayatri man- Atman is hidden deep within and covered over tra, because it is in the gayatri metre in the Vedas, with several psychosomatic layers. There are many and is the supreme mantra in that metre—just as pitfalls, and one may get trapped in ego culture the Bhagavadgita is well known as the Gita. It is a instead of spiritual culture. All spiritual sadhana prayer for spiritual illumination and stimulation is meant to mitigate the ego based on the psy- of the intellect to realize the highest Truth. In the chosomatic personality. The Gita points out how Isha Upanishad also some verses (15–16) are ad- one ought to approach the guru in a reverential dressed by the sadhaka to the sun as ‘Pūṣan’ to help and serviceful attitude: ‘Tat viddhi praṇipātena 32 PB January 2007 42 Contemplation on Om, the Gayatri, and the Mahāvākyas paripraśnena sevayā.’18 The Upanishads also em- with deep concentration and discrimination and phasize that one must go to a guru only (gurum- go beyond the five koṣas, which are non-Self, and eva), after acquiring fitness for sadhana, ‘Sa gu- realize the Atman, which is one with Brahman. rum-eva abhigacchet’; and ‘Ācāryāt hi eva vidyā When the sadhaka realizes the truth of his own be- viditā sādhiṣṭaṁ prāpatīti.’19Acharya Shankara ing clearly, he exclaims, ‘Ahaṁ brahmāsmi—Verily, also points to this emphasis in his commentaries I am Brahman!’ on the Upanishadic verses. The discriminative analysis of the śarīra-traya The mahāvākyas are so called because they de- (the gross, subtle, and causal bodies, made up of clare the supreme Truth of the divinity of the Self the pañca-koṣas), and the philosophical study of within all as the Atman, and its identity with the the three states of consciousness (avasthā-traya- infinite spiritual Reality, Brahman—the source prakriyā) are the direct means for the realization of the universe and all its beings, immanent in all. of Atman-Brahman. Other yogas as taught in the The Taittiriya Upanishad declares that, by realizing Gita and other works are helpful in the prelimi- Brahman which is hidden in the heart of all beings nary stages, to make the mind a fit instrument. The as the Atman, one attains the Supreme: ‘Brahma- Vivekachudamani of Acharya Shankara is of great vid āpnoti param.’20 help in having a clear understanding of the nature Contemplation on Om and the Gayatri help of the complex human personality and its inner be- the sadhaka in making the mind pure and concen- ing, as well as the supreme Goal and the means to trated and fit for realizing the ideal denoted by the its attainment. P mahāvākyas. The Taittiriya Upanishad points out that Brah- References man is ‘Satyaṁ-jñānam-anantaṁ; Truth, Knowl- 1. Katha Upanishad, 2.1.1. edge, Infinity’ (ibid.), and the Aitareya Upanishad 2. Taittiriya Upanishad, 2.1. 3. Katha Upanishad, 1.3.12. declares that Brahman is of the nature of supreme 4. Acharya Shankara’s commentary on Bhagavadgita, consciousness: ‘Prajñānaṁ brahma’. It is the ground 2.21. and source of all manifestation and is immanent in 5. Mundaka Upanishad, 3.1.5. all as the Atman: ‘Ayam ātmā brahma’. It is hid- 6. Vivekachudamani, 14. den in the core of one’s psychic heart: ‘Nihitaṁ 7. Katha Upanishad, 1.2.24. 8. See Vivekachudamani, 18–27. guhāyāṁ parame vyoman’ (ibid.). You are therefore 9. Bhagavadgita, 17.3. in your real being that Atman: ‘Tat tvam asi.’ But 10. See Mundaka Upanishad, 3.2.4. the Atman is deep within (abhyantaraḥ), enveloped 11. Taittiriya Upanishad, 1.8.1; Gita, 8.13; Yoga Sutra, by the psychophysical personality made up of five 1.27. 12. See Mandukya Upanishad for a discussion on Om. coverings of different grades (pañcakoṣas)—physi- 13. Gita, 17.23. cal, vital, mental, intellectual, and mystical. How- 14. Katha Upanishad, 1.2.15–17. ever, one has an intuitive notion of it as the source 15. Interested readers may refer to Swami Mukhyanan- and basis of the notion of ‘I’. Acharya Shankara da, Om, Gāyatrī, and Sandhyā (Chennai: Rama- points out in the Vivekachudamani: ‘Asti kaścit krishna Math). 16. Mundaka Upanishad, 2.2.6. svayaṁ nityam-ahaṁ-pratyaya-lambanaḥ; avasthā- 17. Aitareya Upanishad, 2.3.3; Mandukya Upanishad, traya sākṣī san pañca-koṣa vilakṣaṇaḥ; There is some 2; Chhandogya Upanishad, 4.8.7; Brihadaranyaka absolute entity (Atman), the eternal substratum Upanishad, 1.4.10. of the consciousness of egoism (ahaṁ-pratyaya, 18. Gita, 4.34 19. Mundaka Upanishad, 1.2.12; Chhandogya Upan- the notion of ‘I’), the witness of the three states ishad, 4.9.3. (avasthā-traya: jāgrat, svapna, suṣupti), and distinct 20. Taittiriya Upanishad, 2.1.1. from the five coverings.’21 One has to contemplate 21. Vivekachudamani, 125 et seq. 43 PB January 2007 33 Contemplation in the Upanishads Swami Atmajnananda Y oga and Vedanta have lately become popular thought, they are called Vedanta. While defining as techniques for managing the stress of the the word Upanishad, Shankaracharya says: ‘Seek- present-day world. It is therefore quite appro- ers of emancipation … deliberate on it [the knowl- priate that we examine the deep insights found in edge that is called upaniṣad] with steadiness and the source of these teachings, the Upanishads; for certainty.’2 In fact, the Upanishads are the product the Upanishads have a great deal to teach us about of contemplative life and are flashes of illumination contemplation. revealed to individuals who were not necessarily Contemplation, as defined by the Oxford Eng- recluses, but who often were kings and administra- lish Dictionary, means ‘The act of thinking deeply tors—active men and women. This clearly indicates about something in a calm and careful way’. Ac- that contemplation was and is a way of life that cordingly, the word contemplation does not nec- does not necessarily demand withdrawal from the essarily have religious connotations, although the world. Rather, the emphasis is on refining our in- very process of contemplation is conducive to in- struments of perception and attuning our minds to tuitive perception. In the Indian context, the San- perceive the Reality behind this facade of variety. skrit term dhyāna is usually translated as medita- The Upanishads are a deviation from the tion. However, a few scholars, especially Ananda thought patterns prevalent in the society of those Coomaraswamy, maintain that since the root dhyai days. They place life in a new perspective: even reli- essentially means ‘to think’, ‘to cogitate’, dhyana gious practices done with the intention of leading a can also be equated with contemplation. The word comfortable life here and hereafter are categorically contemplation has a specific connotation in the called mundane. The Upanishads advise humanity Western or Christian tradition. The Latin word to turn away from little, transient benefits and as- contemplare, meaning to gaze attentively, has a dif-pire after spiritual perfection. The essential nature ferent meaning in the mystical sense: ‘Knowledge of this world, the individual self and the supreme consisting in the partial or complete identificationSelf, and their interrelation form the subject mat- of the knower with the object of knowledge with ter of the Upanishads. As Acharya Shankara points the consequent loss of his own individuality’.1 In out, the Upanishads, with motherly concern, never the Western traditions, contemplation is consid- tire of reminding us of our true nature. In the Bri- ered higher than cogitation and meditation, and is hadaranyaka Upanishad, Yājñavalkya conveys to therefore akin to samadhi. It is also used to suggest Maitreyī the great truth that the pure spirit—At- a mode of life dedicated to prayer and spiritual pur- man—is the ultimate object of all forms of love and suits, commonly called tapas in Sanskrit. is therefore to be understood as eternal bliss; this Atman should be realized through the duly regulat- Upanishads—the Result of Contemplation ed scheme of śravaṇa, manana, and nididhyāsana— The Upanishads form the final portion of the Vedas, knowing the truth from the Upanishads, investigat- which is a vast compilation of revealed knowledge. ing and discussing it, and constantly contemplating Since they generally appear at the end of the Ve- upon it. The ‘Madhukanda’ of the same Upanishad das, and because they are the culmination of Vedic prescribes the process of negation for contempla- 34 PB January 2007 44 Contemplation in the Upanishads tion: ‘athāta ādeśo neti neti’.3 The Katha Upanishad nas became the upasanas of the Upanishads. In the clearly specifies the need for contemplation: ‘A rare Chhandogya Upanishad, we find many sacrifices be- discriminating person, desiring immortality, turns ing converted into mental concepts for contempla- his eyes away [from worldly objects] and then sees tion, with the assurance that such contemplation is the indwelling Self.’4 So contemplation was an im- equally efficacious. Shankaracharya explains that portant practice during Upanishadic times and was meditation is a more effective means of obtain- undertaken by all spiritual aspirants. ing the desired results because any defect in the performance of a ritual according to the scriptures, Upasanas as Tools for Contemplation however minor, could invalidate the whole proce- The principal Upanishads contain many similies dure. The huge expenditure incurred in the per- and illustrations to help the contemplative proc- formance of such rites is also a deterrent to their ess. In the early Upanishads, upāsanā is the term performance. In addition, the popularity of Bud- most frequently employed to designate the process dhism and its rationalistic enquiry could have had of contemplation. Dhyāna also occurs occasion- a numbing effect on the performance of sacrifices. ally, but does not have the distinctive connotation that it acquires in the later Upanishads, and more Types of Upasana specifically in the Yoga Sutra. Derived from the That the realms of thought and matter are inter- verbal root as, ‘to sit’, upasana is literally ‘sitting related is a basic tenet of Indian thought. ‘Yo yac- near’. Shankaracharya also defines it as meditation chraddhaḥ sa eva saḥ; as per the faith, so is the in his commentary on the Brihadaranyaka Upan- man’ and ‘taṁ yathā yathopāsate tad-eva bhavati; ishad (1.3.9): ‘Upasana means reaching by the mind as a person meditates so he becomes’, are indica- the form of a deity or something else as delineated tive of this.5 The idea is that as one attains identity in scriptural passages relating to meditation, and with a particular object, one inherits or assumes concentrating the mind on it, uninterrupted by those properties which characterize the object. The secular thoughts, until identity with that deity or Chhandogya Upanishad is a storehouse of many other thing is imagined in the same degree in which such meditations, and they lead the aspirant from identity is now imagined by us with our body.’ The the gross to the subtle through the process of such word nididhyāsana, appearing in the Brihadaranya- identification. Objects of daily experience, various ka Upanishad (2.4.5), also indicates contemplation. forces of nature, and the various organs of action Yājñavalkya, while instructing his wife Maitreyī, and perception in the individual are related to the says, ‘The Self, my dear Maitreyī, should be real- macrocosmic powers; this enables the contempla- ized—should be heard of, reflected on, and medi- tor to view the whole of creation as one great unit tated upon.’ However, the Upanishads consider ver- with infinite dimensions. The contemplator starts bal knowledge or intellectual understanding of the to see the world and him- or herself as specific parts precepts to be secondary to direct intuition. in a homogeneous whole. This grand vision pre- The real aim of upasana is to effect a correspond- pares one to intuitively perceive Brahman, which ence of subject (dhyātā) and object (dhyeya), ‘iden- is beyond all modes of conceptualization. tity with the deity’. The notion of attaining iden- Gradually, the use of symbolic words as objects tity and so going beyond the fetters of both the of meditation became popular. Om became the best sacred and the mundane can be seen in the Purusha ālambana or support for meditation. The udgītha Sukta. This concept of considering all actions and upāsanā of the Chhandogya Upanishad is an elabo- events of mundane existence as a cosmic yajna was rate delineation of the praṇava or Om. Such medi- further developed in the Bhagavadgita. The Vedic tations are called pratīka upāsanā: the meditator rituals were transformed in such a way that the yaj- attributes various qualities to the object of medi- 45 PB January 2007 35 Prabuddha Bharata tation, say, Brahman, and thereby tries to raise his the master of the chariot and know the body as the or her consciousness with their help. Qualities like chariot itself. Know the intellect to be the chariot- bliss, fearlessness, and immortality, when meditat- eer and the mind as the reins. The wise speak of the ed upon, bring about a higher awareness through senses as the horses and their objects as the paths an expansion of consciousness. The purpose of all on which they tread. The individual soul, associ- such meditations is to transcend the gross world ated with the body, senses, and mind, is the enjoyer. by stages and reach a state wherein one is able to … The person, however, who has as charioteer a dis- comprehend the Absolute, which is beyond the criminating intellect, and who has under control mind and the senses. the reins of the mind, attains the end of the road, and that is the highest place of Vishnu—the all en- compassing Truth.’ The process of restraining the mind is also specified: ‘The discriminating person should merge the organ of speech into the mind; the mind into the intelligent self; the intelligent self into the Great Soul; and the Great Soul into Vivekananda Ill am, Chennai the Peaceful Self. … The wise ones describe that path to be as impassable as a razor’s edge, which, when sharpened, is difficult to tread on.’6 The Mun- daka Upanishad (2.2.2–5) has another beautiful way of expressing the same process of meditation: ‘This immutable, immortal Truth called Brahman is to be penetrated. Taking hold of the bow of the Upanishads, one should fix on it an arrow sharp- Upasanas with an element of devotion are also ened by meditation. Drawing the string, hit that seen in the Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya, and Tait- very target that is the Imperishable, with the mind tiriya Upanishads. The Chhandogya Upanishad absorbed in its thought. Om is the bow; the soul is (1.6.6–8) says, ‘Then, this one, the golden Person the arrow; and Brahman is called its target. It is to who is seen in the sun, who has a golden beard and be struck unerringly. One should become one with golden hair, whose every part from the nail up- It just like an arrow. … Give up all other vain talk.’ ward is golden …’ The Mundaka Upanishad (2.1.4) speaks of the Cosmic Person as having fire as his Preparations for Contemplative Life head, the sun and moon as his eyes, the Vedas as The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (4.4.19, 21) says his voice, the earth as his legs, and so on. Ultimate- that, after study and constant reflection, ‘Brahman ly, the seers were divinizing the whole of existence should be realized through this mind alone. There by saying that this whole of creation is, as it were, is no separateness in It. He who sees difference goes covered by Truth: and it is to be perceived not at from death to death as it were. … The wise aspirant some other point of time or in some other world should know this alone, and having known this but ihaiva—here and now. [through śravaṇa and other means], should attain The Upanishads abound in beautiful imagery. intuitive knowledge. He should not think of too Apart from focusing the attention of the aspirant, many words, for that is particularly tiring to the this imagery is intended to make the concepts sim- organ of speech.’ Restraining the external organs pler and more endearing. The Katha Upanishad is of action and internal organs of perception forms a poetic allegory of the spiritual quest. It has this the preliminary step of spiritual life. Manana (re- to say about our human vehicle: ‘Know the self as flection) results from mauna (silence). Acharya 36 PB January 2007 46 Contemplation in the Upanishads Shankara further expands the idea of conservation a deep-seated restlessness, a constant urge to unite of thought and speech: ‘yogasya prathama-dvāraṁ with something, a desire to know, in every person. vāṅ-nirodhaḥ; control of speech is the first step Even the great sage Narada laments that he is knowl- to yoga’. With such a trained mind, the aspirant edgeable but devoid of the peace that comes from proceeds to contemplate on the Truth that forms realization, and undergoes discipleship to learn the the substratum of this creation and on the Creator process of contemplation. Our essential nature be- who controls it. ing Sat-cid-ānanda—Existence, Awareness, Bliss The Mundaka Upanishad has some poignant Absolute, we cannot rest satisfied until we attain to similes to present the process of creation. ‘As a spi- that original state. Therefore, the quest after Truth der spreads out and withdraws its thread, as the and liberation from sorrow is intrinsic to us. Buf- herbs grow on the earth, and as from a living man feted by the vicissitudes of life, eventually each soul issues forth hair, so out of the Imperishable does seeks liberation—and the Upanishads assure us that the universe emerge here.’7 Such similes help spir- the state of blissful Existence is attainable by every- itual aspirants to realize the Imperishable behind one. The Mundaka Upanishad (3.1.1–2) depicts the the visible universe and draw their externalized identity of the individual soul with the supreme mind from the gross to the subtle. Creation ac- Soul and the travails of human existence as follows: cording to the Upanishads is an effortless proc- ‘Two birds that are ever associated and have similar ess; we human beings are merely cogs in the wheel. names cling to the same tree. Of these, the one eats Nevertheless, we consider ourselves so important the fruit of divergent tastes, and the other looks on and see ourselves as the centre of the universe. All without eating. On the same tree, the individual miseries are due to this false perspective. The Up- soul remains drowned, as it were, and so it moans, anishads repeatedly point out that meditation ac- being worried by its impotence. When it sees thus companied with knowledge liberates human be- the other, the adored Lord, and His glory, then it ings. Yajnavalkya says in the Brihadaranyaka Upan- becomes liberated from sorrow.’ Bringing about this ishad that this whole Universe functions as per the identity of the microcosm and the macrocosm is the wishes of the Supreme Being. Even the great forces theme of the Upanishads; there are many sayings of nature obey his command. The cosmic rhythm that denote this. The mahāvākyas like tat-tvam-asi must be grasped, and humans must tune themselves and ahaṁ brahmāsmi are the basis for realizing this to it. When they think that they are the doer and identity and are aids in contemplation. Swami Gam- controller of events in life, they strike a discordant bhirananda, one of the previous presidents of the note and disturb the harmony. It is in order to erase Ramakrishna Order, once pointed out in an inter- this delusion that such passages describe the power view that these pithy sayings are not meant for rep- and glory of the Supreme Being. Meditation must etition like sacred mantras, but are meant to be re- lead to perception of Reality, says the Mundaka alized. Experience of the oneness of existence is the Upanishad (3.1.8), ‘Since one becomes purified in pivotal point. Swami Vivekananda, taking his cue mind through the favourableness of the intellect, from such passages, defines religion as realization. therefore can one see that indivisible Self through The term vijñāna used in the Upanishads also indi- meditation.’ cates knowledge based on intuitive experience. The Upanishads boldly declare that when one attains to Fruits of Contemplation that state of bliss, one transcends the Vedas. The other major focus of the Upanishads is the na- ture of the individual soul. Humanity’s spiritual Role Models of Contemplative Life pursuit must have a purpose. Each sadhaka wants In order to supplement these contemplation tech- to know the utility of a contemplative life. There is niques and prove their efficacy, the Upanishads de- 47 PB January 2007 37 Prabuddha Bharata scribe how various individuals have achieved Self-re- transcend it because he had this faith. Therefore, a alization. In the fourth chapter of the Chhandogya life of contemplation must have all these factors for Upanishad, there is the story of Jānaśruti Pautrāyaṇa, it to be fruitful. who was initiated into the knowledge of Brahman by Raikva. In the fifth chapter, the pañcāgni vidyā The Contemplative’s Expanse or science of considering one’s life as a sacrifice is According to the Upanishads, the ground of exist- introduced in the conversation between Pravāhaṇa ence is one indivisible entity that is beyond sense Jaivali and Śvetaketu. Such vidyās, found in the perception but is attainable through the purified prominent Upanishads, deal with various identifi- intellect; contemplation is the means to achieve cations or upasanas and so are steps to contempla- this purification. We live in a fragmented world tion. The seventh chapter of the same Upanishad torn apart by hatred and discrimination born out of narrates the conversation between Sanatkumāra wrong identification with the ephemeral: we need and Nārada. Through the bhūmā vidyā, it is or- to look within and find the perennial source of joy. dained that one should see the Atman in every- With our hearts full of such joy, we can find ways thing. An interesting episode appearing in the and means to assuage the wounds that ignorance eighth chapter of this Upanishad contrasts the be- inflicts. Empty words cannot save the soul; at best, haviour of worldly people and spiritual seekers. The they can only console. However, the healing proc- god-king Indra and the demon-king Virocana be- ess must originate from within; the contemplative come disciples of the sage Prajāpati and live a life practices prescribed in the Upanishads are the best of contemplation for thirty-two years to receive means to a holistic vision of life. Although we have his instructions. The instruction that the Self is lost much of the esoteric methodology of the up- to be known is received by them and understood asanas, we can certainly imbibe the feeling of be- differently according to their proclivities. While longingness that the people of those days had with Virocana takes his body to be the Self, Indra leads nature. By divinizing all relationships and by seeing a contemplative life of restraint for a hundred and ourselves as a part of a cosmic whole, our life will one years and realizes the Truth. This also proves expand to include new frontiers and cleanse us of the point that contemplation undertaken under all dross. This is the attitude and changed percep- the guidance of a suitable teacher and in keeping tion that the world needs today. The Upanishads with the tradition alone is effective. need to be assimilated and applied to inculcate the The Upanishads emphasise the need for sincer- grandest idea that the human mind could conceive: ity in the spiritual pursuit, and stipulate that con- ‘yatra viśvaṁ bhavaty-eka-nīḍam; wherein (in which templative life must be supported by tapas—aus- state) all come to have their one home.’8 P terity, svādhyāya—scriptural study, brahmacarya— celibacy, and vijijñāsā—intense reflection. They References categorically state that knowledge of the Supreme 1. The Dictionary of Philosophy, ed. Dagobert D Runes cannot be had by possessions, learning, or reason- (New York: Philosophical Library), 65. 2. Eight Upaniṣads, trans. Swami Gambhirananda ing. Through the episode of Uddālaka Āruṇi’s in- (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1989), 99–100. structions to Śvetaketu, the Chhandogya states that 3. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 2.3.6. humility is a prerequisite for knowledge. The Kena 4. Katha Upanishad, 2.1.1, in Eight Upaniṣads, 180. Upanishad also points out that the gods, when hum- 5. Bhagavadgita, 17.3; Mandala Brahmana, 20, quot- bled by the Yakṣa, became receptive to spiritual in- ed in Shankaracharya, Chhandogya Upanishad Bhashya, 1.1.7. struction. Śraddhā as an ingredient of spiritual life 6. Katha Upanishad, 1.3.3–4, 9; 1.3.13–14. is also repeatedly mentioned. Naciketā, says the 7. Mundaka Upanishad, 1.1.7. Katha Upanishad, could contemplate on death and 8. Yajur Veda, 32.8. 38 PB January 2007 48 Meditation and the Way of Yoga Swami Adiswarananda The Problem of Suffering L ife in this world is not what it appears to be. en age never comes. Coping with the problems of It is plagued by the proverbial pairs of op- life is easier said than done. Escaping the problems posites, such as pain and pleasure, birth and of life and withdrawing into silence and solitude death, and hope and disappointment. It is subject only frustrate a person. Pragmatists find that enjoy- to the sixfold change: birth, subsistence, growth, ment is inevitably followed by sorrow. Progressiv- maturity, decline, and death. Uncertainties face ists come to realize that as we progress toward good us at every step of life and create anxiety, fear, and we also progress toward evil. Materialists discover hopelessness. Things do not happen according to that the sufferings of life are not all physical; there our plans. Our optimism turns into pessimism as are other components of suffering, mental and spir- we grow older. Idealistic dreams of happiness and itual. People of faith hope that the rewards of the fulfilment rarely come to be true. A human indi- hereafter will take away the sufferings of life here vidual is born crying, lives complaining, and dies on earth. But there can be no heavenly solution to disappointed. Asked by a king about the meaning our earthly problems. of life, a sage once replied, ‘A man is born, he suffers, and he dies. That is all.’ The agonies of life outweigh its pleasures and promises. For the vast majority, life is a series of crises and confrontations, sorrows and sufferings. Responses to the problem of suffering have been various. Prophetists hope that some day a prophet or an incarnation of God will be born and will ush- er in a golden age of peace and happiness. Fatalists cope with the problems of life, assuming them to be the decrees of fate. Transcendentalists try to with- draw from life and seek solace and serenity on the Shining in the depths of darkness spiritual plane. Pragmatists maintain that this life is the only life we have and so we must enjoy it to The Message of the Yoga Way the full. Progressivists believe that the advancement The yoga way responds that the ills of life are not of science and technology will some day eliminate created by an extracosmic God, by the outside all evils and ills, and then there will be only good world, by fate, luck, or chance. According to Yoga, in this world. Materialists fight the ills of life solely there are five causes of suffering: ignorance (avi- by material means and by improving the quality of dya), ego (asmita), attachment (raga), aversion life. People of faith bear with suffering and practise (dvesha), and clinging to life (abhinivesha). Yoga religious virtues, hoping for compensation hereaf- philosophy maintains that reality has two com- ter. But none of these solutions really helps us face ponents: Self (Purusha) and the world of matter and overcome the problem of suffering. The gold- (Prakriti). Ignorance causes the Self to forget its 49 PB January 2007 39 Prabuddha Bharata delusion, and spiritual blackout. Meditation according to the Yoga Way The only way to overcome the maladies of life is to re-establish contact with the Self, and the only way to make contact with the Self is through unin- terrupted meditation. Meditation calls for the rise of the whole mind in concentration on the Self; concentration depends upon strict self-control; One-pointed focus and self-control depends upon spiritual awaken- real nature. This brings in its wake an exaggerated ing and withdrawal of the mind from all its attach- ego-consciousness and a deluded individuality that ments, desires, and samskaras (deep-seated habits create attachments, aversions, and clinging to life. and tendencies). The step leading to meditation is The root cause of suffering is the apparent embodi- one-pointed concentration. Such concentration ment of the ever-free Self and the Self getting lost does not develop by itself. It has to be practised in the world of matter. The world of matter, which consciously and regularly. The obstacles to concen- includes the body and mind, is material and has tration are the drags of old samskaras. no consciousness of its own. The consciousness of Generally speaking, there are four ways to over- our body and mind is the borrowed consciousness come the drag of the samskaras and establish con- of the Self. The problem of suffering is essentially tact with the Self: the ways of persuasion, purifica- spiritual and requires a spiritual solution, which is tion, eradication, and confrontation. direct perception of our divine Self. The way of persuasion tries to convince us by The yoga system tells us that the natural ten- reason, discrimination, and self-analysis that our dency of the human mind is toward Self-realiza- real identity is not the body and mind but the Self. tion. The master urge of a human individual is not By hearing about the Self, reading about the Self, sex-gratification or acquisition of power or wealth thinking about the Self, and meditating on the Self, but desire for unbounded joy, unrestricted aware- the mind gradually realizes that the Self is the only ness, and eternal life. All our struggles and toils are reality in this universe and that all else is unreal. a search for the fulfillment of this desire, which is The way of purification says that our self-love attained when we get established in the Self. blocks our mind from becoming absorbed in thoughts The journey to Self-realization is essentially an of God. We must purify this self-love by pouring holy inward journey—through the layers of our mind, thoughts into our mind and transferring all our love through the wilderness of temptations, desires, at- to God through prayer, worship, chanting of holy tachments, and delusions. According to the way of words, and keeping holy company. When such holy yoga, the Self is like the bottom of a lake, which is thoughts are poured into the mind, all unholy and the mind. The waters of the lake are constantly agi- impure thoughts are naturally washed out. tated, creating various waves. We do not perceive The way of eradication of desires seeks to purify the bottom because of the waves. The tendency of the mind through selfless action, which eradicates the lake is to return to tranquillity, but it remains the ego. It is the ego, born of ignorance, that binds agitated due to the impurities and distractions of us to this world through attachment and separates the mind in the forms of desire for sense pleasure, us from the Self. By performing actions in a selfless attachment to the results of action, and accumulat- manner, we can break down the barriers that sepa- ed bad habits and tendencies, created by ignorance, rate us from the Self. 40 PB January 2007 50 Meditation and the Way of Yoga Patanjali’s yoga system advocates the way of con- frontation. The yoga way contends that eradication of the ego is a long process, and that most seekers do not have the patience to endure the sacrifice it calls for. Purification requires abiding faith in the reality of God, which is not always possible for an average seeker. And the mind is generally too weak and per- verted to follow the path of persuasion. Impurities of the mind are too deeply imbedded and cannot be uprooted simply by reason. The way of confronta- tion asks the seeker to confront the mind and make relentless efforts to overcome its past habits and ten- A limitless flight dencies. The seeker must have unwavering determi- nation and will-power to reach the goal of Self-reali- impressions. Never say any man is hopeless, be- zation. The goal is never attained unless we make an cause he only represents a character, a bundle of all-out effort for it. The essential teaching of yoga is habits, which can be checked by new and better that the mind never becomes controlled unless we ones. Character is repeated habits, and repeated consciously control the effects of the mind’s restless- habits alone can reform character.’1 ness—and not only the cause of restlessness. The distinctive contribution of yoga is its mes- The psychology of the yoga way says that the sage that control of the mind must be effortful and greatest roadblock to Self-realization is restlessness forcible, and to that end the yoga system prescribes of the mind. The mind is material, and its condi- an eightfold practice. tionings of impurities are mechanical. It is most The first five limbs of the eightfold practice are difficult to know the nature, depth, and extent of external practices, the last three, internal ones. The these impurities. All we know is that the mind is first two limbs are yama and niyama for achieving restless and that restlessness is manifesting itself in moral purity. The practices of non-killing, truthful- our restless body movement, unevenness of breath, ness, non-stealing, continence, and non-receiving and changes in biochemistry. This restlessness is of gifts constitute yama. The practices of internal more than disturbing thought. Thoughts, when and external purification, contentment, mortifica- repeated, become ingrained and turn into deep- tion, study, and worship of God constitute niyama. seated tendencies (samskaras). Passage of time and The third limb is asana, which comprises directions change of environment are of no help in overcom- for posture in order to gain mastery over the body. ing our restless habits. Old age cannot lessen their Posture that is steady, with the limbs of the body fury and distance cannot obliterate them. Unfa- restful, is conducive for concentration and medi- vourable samskaras do not go away by themselves. tation. The fourth limb, pranayama, is the control The technique of overcoming unfavourable habits of breath, by which a person seeks to awaken the is the deliberate cultivation of favourable habits. mind. Pranayama is the retention of breath (kum- Bad samskaras are overcome only by good sam- bhaka)—following either inhalation (puraka) or skaras. As Swami Vivekananda says, commenting exhalation (rechaka). The life force (prana) in each on Patanjali’s yoga: ‘The only remedy for bad hab- of us is a manifestation of the cosmic life force, and its is counter-habits; all the bad habits that have our breath is the gross manifestation of that cos- left their impressions are to be controlled by good mic life force, which is ever awake and ever active habits. Go on doing good, thinking holy thoughts in us. Pranayama is the way to reconnect ourselves continuously; that is the only way to suppress base with the cosmic life force. The fifth limb is pratya- 51 PB January 2007 41 Prabuddha Bharata hara, or the practice of withdrawing the mind from the mind is raised upward. In this regard, the yoga sense objects. The sixth limb is dharana, concen- system speaks of the six centres of consciousness. tration, which is keeping the mind focused on an The awakened kundalini (spiritual energy dormant object for a certain length of time without inter- in every person) rises and passes through centres of ruption. The seventh limb is dhyana, or meditation consciousness located in the vicinity of the spinal on one single thought to the exclusion of all oth- column. For ordinary persons, the spiritual energy er thoughts. The eighth limb is samadhi, is unchannelled and squandered. Through when the mind becomes completely the practice of yoga disciplines, this absorbed in the object of medita- dormant energy is converted into tion. The eightfold practice is a spiritual energy (ojas). The six cen- practice for attaining samadhi tres of consciousness range from through proper concentration the lowest plane of gross impulses and meditation. According to to the highest plane of pure bliss. the tradition of yoga, focusing The first centre is called mulad- the mind on the same object for hara (root support). Dwelling on twelve seconds achieves one unit this level of consciousness, a human of concentration; twelve such units of individual is guided by gross, subcon- concentration (two minutes and twenty-four scious desires. The second centre is svadhish- seconds) make one unit of meditation; twelve thana (own abode). Remaining at this centre, such successive units of meditation (twenty- an individual is constantly swayed by gross im- eight minutes and forty-eight seconds) make pulses, imagination, and animal propensities. one unit of lower samadhi; twelve such succes- The third centre is manipura (city of jewels), sive units of lower samadhi (five hours, forty-five which controls the senses of perception, espe- minutes and thirty-six seconds) lead the medi- cially sight. As clouds obstruct the vision of the tator to highest samadhi, where the individual sun, so do the clouds of emotions and impulses consciousness becomes one with the Self. obstruct the clear vision of the Self. Rais- The yoga system seeks to modify our ing the mind to the fourth centre, ana- subconscious mind with the help of hata (unobstructed), a spiritual seeker regulation of breath, posture, and diet. for the first time gets a glimpse of the Modern psychology explains how our divine Self. The fifth centre is called conscious thoughts and actions are heav- vishuddha (pure), and existence at this ily influenced by the deep-seated desires centre is marked by complete purity. The and urges of our subconscious mind. But the yoga sixth centre is known as ajna (command). By system further shows us how we can modify our reaching this centre of consciousness, a seeker at- subconscious mind by the efforts of our conscious tains the vision of absolute Truth. mind, how repeated exercises of the will on the con- Through the practice of meditation, the inner scious level can influence the subconscious depths consciousness becomes awakened. The awakening and modify them permanently. By controlling the of the first centre activates the memories of our manifested effects of impurities, the yoga system past; the second, gross impulses; and the third, a seeks to eliminate the source of the impurities and sense of individuality. The awakening of the fourth regain contact with the true Self in meditation. centre brings spiritual experiences and visions; the fifth, partial spiritual absorption; and the sixth, Awakening of Inner Consciousness deep spiritual absorption. For most persons, the Following the eightfold practice, consciousness of mind is forced to travel between the three lower 42 PB January 2007 52 Meditation and the Way of Yoga centres. At these centres, a person’s mind constantly broods over the cravings of lust and greed; eating, sleeping, and procreation are a person’s dominant preoccupations. But when the mind reaches the fourth centre, seekers experience spiritual awak- ening. New vistas open up before them—they see the same world but in its fine and spiritual form; they see light all around and visualize the individ- ual soul as a flame. When their minds reach the fifth centre, they want to talk and hear only about God and do not enjoy anything else. Reaching the sixth centre, their minds are taken over by a deep The dawn of the full moon in the realm of Consciousness spiritual absorption, and they see the Self as liv- ing and real. They lose all outer consciousness and to attachment is a kind of perversion. The way of no longer want to come back to the level of body yoga is to cultivate and strengthen this will to free- consciousness. dom by the conscious practice of meditation. The state of kaivalya, or final liberation in yoga, Methodology of the Yoga Way results from perfect knowledge, and the keynote The psychology behind the practice of meditation of perfect knowledge is perfect non-attachment. in yoga is to feed a single thought to the mind and Perfect non-attachment is attained through unde- make the mind repeat that thought in a methodi- viating practice of the eight-limbed yoga. Patanjali cal and persistent way. Meditation is the practice of stresses three vital points on the practice of yoga: deliberately concentrating on one single thought, practice must be steady and unbroken; practice which in time develops into a huge wave of that must be without attachment to the result; and prac- thought and drowns all other thoughts of the mind. tice must be conducted with undaunted enthusi- Swami Vivekananda says: asm and devotion. What is the result of constant practice of this higher concentration? All old tendencies of rest Contentions of the Critics lessness and dullness will be destroyed, as well as Critics of the yoga way cast doubt on the very psy- the tendencies of goodness too. The case is similar chology of yoga. They tell us that we cannot gener- to that of the chemicals used to take the dirt and ate spirituality by artificial means. The impure mind alloy off gold. When the ore is smelted down, the cannot be made pure by posture, diet, and breath dross is burnt along with the chemicals. So this constant controlling power will stop the previous control. Thoughts and urges cannot be overcome bad tendencies, and eventually, the good ones by superficial, physical means. Some critics say that also. Those good and evil tendencies will suppress one must control the gross manifestations of the each other, leaving alone the Soul, in its own restless mind by first controlling the subtle, which splendour, untrammelled by either good or bad, is thought. One must first educate and discipline the omnipresent, omnipotent, and omniscient the intellect in order to overcome the mind and the (1.213). body, instead of disciplining the mind and the body The yoga system reminds us that there are two for the purpose of educating the intellect. With- tendencies in every individual that operate simulta- drawal of the mind is not possible unless the mind neously: one is the will to attachment, the other is cooperates in the process. Forcible control can the will to freedom. The will to freedom, according rouse the mind untimely, before spiritual longing to Patanjali, is natural in every individual; the will has matured and spiritual motivation has become 53 PB January 2007 43 Prabuddha Bharata phy of yoga is scientific, therapeutic, practical, and problem-solving. The guidelines to reach the goal of Self-realization are never vague, and Self-realiza- tion carries its own credentials. The manifestation of yoga powers generates confidence in the mind of the seeker as to the infallibility of yoga, and the concentrated, purified energy (ojas) gives the seeker strength to strive towards the goal. The way of yoga is a relentless quest for our true Self, which remains buried under the covers of our body and mind, our countless thoughts and memo- ries, emotions and volitions, habits and tendencies. Towards the light of Consciousness Direct perception of this Self alone can unravel the strong. A roused mind without longing for the goal mysteries of life and decisively put an end to all the is self-destructive. The mind of a seeker practising maladies of life. This direct perception is our true meditation and concentration for a length of time saviour, and our own effort is our only tool to attain becomes razor sharp and highly sensitive. Such a direct perception. The yoga way exhorts us to wake concentrated mind may easily take a sudden and ex- up to this fact, hasten our steps, and attain our goal, treme downward turn. Unable to curb sharp turns because life is terminal and the future is unknown. of the mind toward sense pleasures, some seekers Our fate and future depend on this quest for Self- meet with a violent fall in the path. realization. Extolling the efficacy of yoga, Swami Other critics contend that seekers of yoga are Vivekananda says: ‘The fire of Yoga burns the cage susceptible to taking a mechanical view of the spir- of sin that is around a man. Knowledge becomes itual disciplines they follow. Such seekers forget purified and Nirvana is directly obtained. From their primary goal and become obsessed with the Yoga comes knowledge; knowledge again helps the secondary details. They believe that eating a certain Yogi. He who combines in himself both Yoga and kind of food, sitting in a particular posture, and knowledge, with him the Lord is pleased. Those breathing in a specific way will lead them to Self- that practise Mahayoga, either once a day, or twice realization. They become fanatical about their dog- a day, or thrice, or always, know them to be gods’ ma, pose, and posture, and feel frustrated when the (1.189). ‘Practise hard; whether you live or die does desired results are not attained quickly. A mechani- not matter. You have to plunge in and work, with- cal view of meditation defeats the very purpose of out thinking of the result. If you are brave enough, yoga. It reduces spiritual realization to something in six months you will be a perfect Yogi’ (1.178). that can be attained by closing one’s eyes and sitting Those who are determined in their effort, stead- in a certain way. fast in their practice of self-control and renuncia- tion, well established in the virtues of yama and The Appeal of the Yoga Way niyama (especially continence), undeterred by the No matter what the critics say, the yoga system has obstacles and risks, and ready to follow the path, an irresistible appeal because of its well-defined attain the goal of Self-realization in no time. This goal, well-marked steps and stages, precise and defi- is the promise of the way of yoga. P nite milestones on the path, and realistic solutions Reference to the ills of life. It does not ask a person to look to 1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. the sky for solutions to the ills of life, but teaches a (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), person to look within to find answers. The philoso- 1.208. 44 PB January 2007 54 Preparations for the Contemplative Life Swami Gokulananda H uman life is precious. The soul is born the Pole Star. If we listen to our buddhi, our com- in the human body after it has passed pass, it will help us steer clear of all dangers, diffi- through millions of life-cycles of lesser culties, and temptations that may come in the way, and inferior forms. But as human beings, divinity and reach the ‘goal supreme’. By repeated practice, is inherent in us. We are never eternally doomed, we must build up a nobler personality. We have to because the eternal spirit is undying. Swami Vivek- employ a method to transform our inferior self and ananda has said: ‘The main cause of all bondage is raise it to superior level. ignorance. Man is not wicked by his own nature— Our journey may be a hard struggle, but let us not at all. His nature is pure, perfectly holy. Each remember what our ancient rishis point out: errors man is divine. Each man that you see is a God by or mistakes occur when our buddhi descends to a his very nature. This nature is covered by ignorance, lower level. The psyche, the antaḥkaraṇa, there- and it is ignorance that binds us down. Ignorance fore, needs absolute purification. In most of us, the is the cause of all misery. Ignorance is the cause of antaḥkaraṇa is not pure. It is surcharged with im- all wickedness; and knowledge will make the world purities of both rajas and tamas, so we have to take good.’1 We may temporarily remain forgetful of pains to purify it. As Sri Ramakrishna says, we must our true nature, our divinity, but it remains within. take the help of one thorn to remove another thorn This is illustrated perfectly in the Chhandogya Up- stuck in our foot, and then throw away both thorns. anishad: A miserly man had buried all his treasure So we must ourselves generate pure and sublime underground. When he died, his inheritor walked thoughts in our mind; with the help of such en- over that treasure every now and then, never realiz- nobling thoughts we have to rise above the realm ing the existence of the treasure.2 Similarly, we have of thought, and ultimately we shall be able to have got the whole treasure, and yet we are walking over direct experience. It is said that ‘today’s imagina- it, never knowing that it is there. What we need is tion is tomorrow’s realization’. As we think, so we to become aware of our true self, our Atman, and become. So thinking noble thoughts, thinking we awaken the consciousness of Satchidananda—the are perfect, will help us proceed towards the goal indwelling spirit which is behind everything. Once supreme. As Swami Vivekananda says, ‘The aim, we have heard the inner call, we should not let this the end, the goal, of all this training is liberation of precious human life go in vain. No doubt, there the soul. Absolute control of nature, and nothing will be ups and downs in our spiritual journey, but short of it, must be the goal. We must be the mas- that should not deter us from pursuing our goal. ters, and not the slaves of nature; neither body nor With a strong determination and a positive attitude, mind must be our master, nor must we forget that and by rigorously following the path prescribed the body is mine, and not I the body’s.’3 by the sages in our ancient scriptures, we can tran- Meditation plays an important role in this pro- scend the limitations of this material existence and cess of purification and realization. In the words of achieve immortality. There may be pitfalls in the Swami Vivekananda: ‘It is the nearest approach to journey, there may be roadblocks in our quest, but spiritual life—the mind meditating. It is the one the voice of conscience or buddhi will guide us like moment in our daily life that we are not at all mate- 55 PB January 2007 45 Prabuddha Bharata are five objects of the senses: form, taste, smell, Prayer touch, and sound. They are all left outside.’4 Mentally repeat, ‘Let all beings be happy; let all beings be peaceful; let all beings be blissful.’ So Four Limbs of Sadhana do to the east, south, north and west. The more Let us now examine how we can develop that in- you do that the better you will feel yourself. You ward vision with which we can penetrate false ap- will find at last that the easiest way to make our- pearances and reach Reality. We have to discharge selves healthy is to see that others are healthy, all worldly duties and yet develop mental detach- and the easiest way to make ourselves happy ment and real dispassion for things of the external is to see that others are happy. After doing that, world. For this, we have to practise the fourfold those who believe in God should pray—not for sadhana or sādhana catuṣṭaya: viveka, vairāgya, ṣaṭ- money, not for health, nor for heaven; pray for sampatti, and mumukṣutva: discrimination, dis- knowledge and light; every other prayer is selfish. passion, the six (spiritual) assets, and longing for —Swami Vivekananda liberation. Viveka will teach us to discriminate be- tween the real and the unreal. In spiritual or con- rial—the soul thinking of Itself, free from all mat- templative life we must develop the attitude that ter—this marvellous touch of the Soul!’ (5.253). In nothing in this world except God-realization can this we are helped by our iṣṭa devatā, our Chosen give us lasting happiness. Once we develop viveka Deity; we meditate not only on the physical form or right discrimination, we will develop dispassion but also on the radiant form of the iṣṭa. Since the or vairagya: vairagya comes from viveka. Next, we mind is by nature restless, at times it may be useful need the ṣat-sampatti—the aggregate of six virtues, to do līlā cintana, dwelling in our imagination on namely śama, dama, titikṣā, uparati, śraddhā, and the events and places associated with the divine samādhāna. The foremost of these is śama, tran- play of our Chosen Deity. A combination of japa, quillity of the mind. We must strive to keep our meditation, and līlā cintana at least for some part mind at peace even when external forces or factors of the day will elevate our mind and enable us to are trying to agitate it. Dama, sense-control, comes feel the living presence of the Lord within. In the next: we must restrain the senses, like a charioteer course of the various activities of day-to-day life, who restrains restive horses. Then there is titikṣā: we are apt to be drawn to the attractions of the we have to keep calm and remain unperturbed, empirical world unless we keep our mind on our come what may. The practice of uparati will help us iṣṭa devatā. So those who are serious about reach- to bring back the mind that has a tendency to run ing the goal supreme in this life itself should try away and drag us into the external world every now to withdraw their minds from all objects of form, and then. Of great importance is śraddhā, faith taste, touch, sound, and smell, at least for some and confidence in our guru, in our scriptures, and time every day. Let us recall what Sri Ramakrish- also in our own selves. Lastly, we need samādhāna na says on the subject: ‘A person can achieve such or single-minded devotion. Only when we have single-mindedness in meditation that he will see viveka, vairagya, and the aggregate of the six vir- nothing, hear nothing. He will not be conscious tues will we be qualified for leading a contempla- even of touch. A snake may crawl over his body, tive life; then can we hope to realize the ultimate but he will not know it. Neither of them will be goal. But we must remember that success in prac- aware of the other. tising these sadhanas depends on mumukṣutva, the ‘In deep meditation the sense organs stop func- desire to free ourselves from bondage and achieve tioning; the mind does not look outward. It is like realization. This desire should be like the flame of closing the gate of the outer court in a house. There an ever-burning lamp which guides us in all our 46 PB January 2007 56 Preparations for the Contemplative Life activities. If we really want liberation in this very life, then we must be careful, vigilant, and alert at The First Lesson every moment, and continuously attempt to hold The first lesson, then, is to sit for some time and on to Brahman-consciousness—we must cultivate let the mind run on. The mind is bubbling up all brahma-niṣṭhā. We must believe that we are Brah- the time. It is like that monkey jumping about. Let man, that we are Existence-Knowledge-Bliss Ab- the monkey jump as much as he can; you simply solute. We must be aware of our inherent divine wait and watch. Knowledge is power, says the nature and continuously strive to keep our mind proverb, and that is true. Until you know what on Brahman. In the Vivekachudamani, Shankara- the mind is doing you cannot control it. Give it charya warns that as the moss or sedge covering a the rein; many hideous thoughts may come into pond, even when moved aside, does not stay away it; you will be astonished that it was possible for for long, but covers the water up in a moment, so you to think such thoughts. But you will find that maya or nescience also covers the mind of a wise each day the mind’s vagaries are becoming less man. Hence, even a wise man cannot escape the and less violent, that each day it is becoming clutches of Mahamaya if he is not alert. In the next calmer. —Swami Vivekananda verse, Shankaracharya says: ‘Lakṣyacyutaṁ cedya- di cittamīṣad-bahirmukhaṁ sannipatet-tatastataḥ, tions for a contemplative life in all earnestness, in pramādataḥ pracyutakelikandukaḥ sopānapaṅktau all seriousness, but as days pass by and the strug- patito yathā tathā; If the mind ever so slightly strays gle begins, their initial urge and enthusiasm slowly away from the ideal and becomes outgoing, then it evaporates. Only those who have the real urge for goes down and down, just as a playing ball inadvert- liberation will carry on with their sadhana come ently dropped on a staircase bounces down from what may. Shankaracharya explains: ‘Vairāgyaṁ one step to another.’5 The remedy lies in practising ca mumukṣutvaṁ tīvraṁ yasya tu vidyate, tasminn- vairagya and cultivating brahma-niṣṭhā. The mind evārthavantaḥ syuḥ phalavantaḥ śamādayaḥ; Only should be withdrawn from everything that is non- in the case of one whose renunciation and yearning Atman. But since the mind cannot remain in limbo for freedom are intense, do calmness and the other or in a vacuum if it is withdrawn from the non- practices really become fruitful’ (29). Atman, we must also develop bodha or true un- derstanding along with vairagya. Shankaracharya What Is Renunciation? describes Vairagya and bodha as being like the Swami Vivekananda repeatedly emphasized the im- two wings of a bird. A bird cannot soar in the sky portance of renunciation. He greatly respected and with one wing only, so one must have two things: admired Buddha—Buddha’s renunciation of king- vairagya or detachment, and bodha or true under- dom, wealth, and family in his search for absolute standing of our real divine nature. truth and the way to free human beings from suf- Pursuit of spiritual life and attainment of the fering and misery had been an inspiration to Swa- goal supreme calls for rigorous practice or sadhana. miji. But we must also bear in mind the distinction We have to plod on and on until the goal is reached. between external and internal renunciation. In ex- The aforementioned fourfold sadhanas are like the ternal renunciation, one renounces the world and four legs of a table: as all the four legs have to be retires to the cave or the forest: but such renuncia- strong for the table to function well, so each of the tion is of no use if one does not renounce internally, fourfold sadhanas has to be practised to achieve if one still has cravings, desires, and attachment for the goal. But, only when one has mumukṣutva, the sense objects. Only when such external renuncia- real desire for liberation, will one’s sadhana become tion is followed by total internal renunciation will fruitful. It often happens that people begin prepara- one be successful in one’s spiritual quest. 57 PB January 2007 47 Prabuddha Bharata even if we fail, we can rise again. Be Like a Pearl Oyster We who take to the spiritual path will be up There is a pretty Indian fable to the effect that against different kinds of inner conflicts, but if we if it rains when the star Svati is in the ascendant, continue with the struggle, keeping in mind our di- and a drop of rain falls into an oyster, that drop vine nature, then ultimately we will reach our goal. becomes a pearl. The oysters know this, so they For this, we have to develop voluntary spiritual dis- come to the surface when that star shines, and cipline. There is no denying that we are subject to wait to catch the precious raindrop. When a drop all sorts of desires—but instead of forcibly suppress- falls into them, quickly the oysters close their ing them, we should try to sublimate them. Volun- shells and dive down to the bottom of the sea, tary spiritual discipline will help us to give these there to patiently develop the drop into the pearl. desires a godward direction. We can constantly re- We should be like that. First hear, then under- mind ourselves that, according to Vedanta, the ex- stand, and then, leaving all distractions, shut your ternal world means five things: nāma (name), rūpa minds to outside influences, and devote your- (form), asti, bhāti, and priya (existence, knowledge, selves to developing the truth within you. and bliss). If we eliminate name and form, then we —Swami Vivekananda can perceive the omnipresence of Brahman—asti, bhāti, priya—Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss Ab- Once in Dakshineswar, a householder devotee solute. What follows is the natural corollary that asked Sri Ramakrishna whether a householder can all of us are part of the same pure consciousness, realize God without complete renunciation. Sri that the difference between us is just in the name Ramakrishna, who was the embodiment of com- and form. This is the truth that our ancient rishis passion and mercy, replied with words of assurance: discovered in their transcendental realization, and ‘Of course you can! Why should you renounce eve- that we have to keep in mind constantly. In our rything? You are all right as you are, following the daily life, even when we are not practising japa or middle path … I tell you the truth: there is nothing meditation, we have to keep up our vicāra or dis- wrong in your being in the world. But you must di- crimination and remember that nāma and rūpa are rect your mind toward God; otherwise you will not nothing but external coverings. If we can maintain succeed. Do your duty with one hand and with the that attitude then we shall see the entire universe other hold to God. After the duty is over, you will to be pervaded by the omnipresent Brahman—the hold to God with both hands.’6 Our quest for spir- substratum—sat, cit, and ānanda. itual life can only succeed if it is built on the foun- Sometimes we try to forcibly achieve mastery dation of viveka and vairagya. Even then it is go- over the mind and establish control over the senses. ing to be a difficult struggle. Disappointment and But this should not be mistaken for inner transfor- frustration at not achieving the desired progress are mation. Inner transformation, according to the Gita, bound to creep in. But the secret is not to lose heart. will not be complete if we have only external con- In this connection I must narrate what Swami Pra- trol of the mind. What is needed is internal control. bhavananda, a very venerable monk of the Order Sri Krishna says: ‘Viṣayā vinivartante nirāhārasya and a disciple of Swami Brahmananda, told me: dehinaḥ, rasa-varjaṁ raso’py-asya paraṁ dṛṣṭvā ni- ‘When we were novitiates, we would tell Maharaj vartate; Sense-objects turn away from the embod- (Swami Brahmananda) about our difficulties. Then ied soul who abstains from feeding on them, but he would say that everyone has to pass through the taste for them remains. Even the taste falls away such struggles; do not lose heart, do not give up when the Supreme is seen.’7 The difference between the struggle.’ If we give up the struggle, there is no outer abstinence and inner control has been very further hope. But if we keep up the struggle, then clearly brought out in this verse. While we may be 48 PB January 2007 58 Preparations for the Contemplative Life able to shun or reject sense-objects, desires may still be lurking in our mind to possess those very objects. Concentration and Detachment To be successful in our journey, we must have both Almost all of our suffering is caused by our not external and inner control. having the power of detachment. So along with the development of concentration we must de- Fighting Obstacles in Meditation velop the power of detachment. We must learn Finally, a few words on the importance of japa and not only to attach the mind to one thing exclu- meditation. Many people report that when they sit sively, but also to detach it at a moment’s no- down for meditation, impure thoughts flood their tice and place it on something else. These two mind. We must remember that the mind has many should be developed together to make it safe. layers—conscious, subconscious, and unconscious. —Swami Vivekananda Very often undesirable thoughts arise from the sub- conscious layers of the mind. If such undesirable realize our real Self. That alone can give us everlast- thoughts assail us during the course of meditation, ing peace and happiness. As Swamiji said, ‘What, we should not lose heart. Instead, we have to fo- seeketh thou the pleasures of the world?—He is the cus our attention on japa sadhana, on repetition fountain of all bliss. Seek for the highest, aim at that of the mantra—the sacred name that one has re- highest, and you shall reach the highest.’8 If we really ceived from one’s guru or spiritual master. When aspire for the joyful state of existence, then we must a true spiritual master initiates a disciple, power retire into the inner world of contemplation, and is transmitted to the disciple through the mantra. develop detachment and dispassion while doing our We also need the help of our own Chosen Deity worldly duties. Practice of the fourfold sadhana and or iṣṭa devatā. We have to learn from a competent japa sadhana will make us realize that we are eternal- spiritual master how to meditate on our iṣṭa deva. ly free, that we are sat-cit-ānanda-svarūpa, that we If we have a Chosen Deity and a siddha bīja man- are pure Consciousness. When we reach this state, tra (perfected mantra), then we have a definite cen- we will realize that we are free—eternal, imperish- tre of spiritual consciousness to hold on to. Japa able, birthless, and deathless. P becomes efficacious when, along with the repeti- tion of the divine name, we dwell on its meaning References as instructed by the teacher. It is said in Patanjali’s 1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), Yoga Sutra, ‘Taj-japas-tad-artha bhāvanam’, which 9.214. means that we are to be constantly conscious of the 2. Chhandogya Upanishad, 8.3.2. spiritual significance of the mantra. In the begin- 3. Complete Works, 1.140. ning, repeating the mantra may seem mechanical, 4. M, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami Ni- but with passage of time and with practice it will khilananda (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, 2002), 745. create a sublime and exalted feeling. Evil and unde- 5. Vivekachudamani, 324–5. sirable thoughts are bound to creep into our con- 6. Gospel, 137–8. scious minds; the remedy lies in doing japa sadhana 7. Bhagavadgita, 2.59. with diligence and perseverance. 8. Complete Works, 6.262. Eternally Free You have to practise spiritual disciplines in such In conclusion, let us remind ourselves that human a way that no matter what your circumstances birth is a rare opportunity. It should not be wast- may be you will follow your regular routine. Once ed only in pursuit of things which are transient, the mind tastes sweetness in the thought of God which are not everlasting. Our goal should be to there is nothing to fear. —Swami Brahmananda 59 PB January 2007 49 Japa: Instrument of Love for God’s Name Swami Tathagatananda J apa is repetition of the mantra, holy word or tional components of japa are equally significant. words, according to prescribed rules, with con- Japa gradually advances to meditation, which un- centration, devotion, and the sole intention of folds deeper layers of consciousness. The empha- realizing the truth embodied in the mantra. Sri sis is on bhāvanam, ‘dwelling upon in the mind’. Ramakrishna says: When the mind dwells upon God with devotion, japa draws the individual soul to the Paramatman Japa means silently repeating God’s name in naturally. solitude. When you chant His name with single- minded devotion you can see God’s form and The power of the mantra manifests when the realize Him. Suppose there is a piece of timber guru is competent, when the mantra is correctly sunk in the water of the Ganges and fastened with articulated, and when the aspirant reflects deeply a chain to the bank. You proceed link by link, on its meaning. Swami Vivekananda says: ‘Mantra holding to the chain, and you dive into the water is a special word, or sacred text, or name of God and follow the chain. Finally, you are able to reach chosen by the Guru for repetition and reflection the timber. In the same way, by repeating God’s by the disciple. The disciple must concentrate on a name you become absorbed in Him and finally personality for prayer and praise, and that is his Ish- realize Him.1 ta. These words are not sounds of words but God The mantra is a mass of effulgent energy, the sound- Himself, and we have them within us. Think of body symbolizing the supreme Truth. Him, speak of Him. No desire for the world! Bud- Om is shabda-brahman, ‘Brahman in the dha’s Sermon on the Mount was, “As thou thinkest, form of sound’: The Veda says, ‘Creation is out of so art thou.”’5 the Supreme Sound.’ Om is the Supreme Sound, The spiritual vibrations generated by repeating the sound-symbol of God. Patanjali refers to Om the holy name wholeheartedly with faith evoke as the symbol of Ishvara or personal God: ‘Tasya spiritual emotion that purifies the mind and heart. vācakaḥ praṇavaḥ, His manifesting word is Om.’2 They reveal to us the vision of our iṣṭa devatā and Swami Vivekananda says: ‘Ishvara is the Atman our indivisible unity with God and his name. Vi- as seen or grasped by the mind. His highest name vekananda says, ‘Each Ishta has a Mantra. The Ishta is Om; so repeat it, meditate on it, and think of all is the ideal peculiar to the particular worshipper; its wonderful nature and attributes. Repeating the the Mantra is the external word to express it. Con- Om continually is the only true worship. It is not a stant repetition of the word helps to fix the ideal word, it is God Himself.’3 firmly in the mind’(7.63). Japa is a means to Self-realization: Repeti- Mantra-śakti, the liberating power of the man- tion of the mantra awakens the potency contained tra: When sincerely reflected upon, the mantra within the mantra. According to Patanjali, regular has the sacred power, the mantra-śakti, to liberate. repetition of Om leads to the awakening of the The literal meaning of ‘mantra’ is ‘mananāt trāyate Self: ‘Tajjapas-tad-artha-bhāvanam; The repeti- iti, that which frees the soul when reflected upon.’ tion of this (Om) and meditating on its mean- The mantra protects us from psychophysical, moral, ing (is the way).’4 Therefore, the mental and emo- and spiritual dangers. Salvation is certain for one 50 PB January 2007 60 Japa: Instrument of Love for God’s Name who meditates on the mantra with burning faith in mantra-śakti. One must be completely absorbed in whatever mantra one selects. One should not mind if other Japa in the Lives of the Holy Ones thoughts disturb one during the japa (recitation). Many saints and sages of India and other countries I am confident that one who still goes on with attained God by repeating his holy name. If they the japa in faith will conquer in the end. The did not claim God-realization, they testified to mantra becomes one’s staff of life and carries the efficacy of God’s name to illumine their under- one through every ordeal. One should not seek standing. Swami Vivekananda says: ‘We can now worldly profit from such sacred mantras. The understand what is meant by repetition. It is the characteristic power of these mantras lies in their greatest stimulus that can be given to the spiritual standing guard over personal purity, and every Samskaras [sum total of impressions in the mind]. diligent seeker will realize this at once. “One moment of company with the holy makes a Each repetition … has a new meaning, each rep- ship to cross this ocean of life”’ (1.220). etition carries you nearer and nearer to God. This A spiritual environment is very important, es- is a concrete fact, and I may tell you that you are pecially for beginners. Sri Ramakrishna taught his here talking to no theorist, but to one who has disciples: ‘There is God’s manifestation where peo- experienced what he says every minute of his life, ple have practised for a long time austerities, Japa, so much so that it is easier for the life to stop than meditation, steady abstraction of mind, prayer, and for this incessant process to stop. It is a definite worship in order to have His vision. Their thoughts need of the soul. —Mahatma Gandhi of God have become solidified there, so to speak, on account of their devotion; that is why holy thoughts and visions are so easily attained there.’6 Japa in Hinduism and Buddhism Holy Mother Sri Sarada Devi placed the great- Though all religions prescribe some variation of est emphasis on daily japa and meditation: ‘The japa of the holy name using various types of rosa- mind will be steadied of itself if aspirants repeat ries (seeds, wooden beads, crystals, and the like), God’s name fifteen or twenty thousand times a this practice is predominant in Hinduism and day. I myself have experienced it.’7 She conveyed Buddhism, where the mālā is often made of sacred the efficacy of japa through her own austere prac- rudraksha or tulasi beads. Tibetan Buddhists prac- tice of it, which she did for the good of her dis- tise revolving the wheel of japa and repeating the ciples. Remembering this gives us great encour- mantra Om mani padme hum. Japanese Buddhists agement and faith in the guru who transmits the of the Nichiren sect study and repeat the mantra holy name. of Nichiren’s sutra of the ‘Lotus of Truth’, Namu Mahatma Gandhi, a votary of Ramanama, re- myoho renge kyo, as the sole means to liberation. alized the spiritual benefit of japa in his life and Householders of that tradition repeat the mantra dying breath. Rama was enthroned in his heart as alone. ‘the Absolute Truth, the Eternal Principle, that is Japa is prescribed by nearly every Hindu sect as a God.’8 Gandhiji made the mantra the verification valuable spiritual practice. In the Bhagavadgita, Sri of his life. Krishna says to Arjuna, ‘Yajñānāṁ japayajño’smi; Without any intellectual knowledge about the Among all the yajnas or sacrifices, I am the yajna of mantra and its potentiality, millions of people over japa, the repetition of the Lord’s name.’9 the centuries in all countries have been repeating The holy name enshrined in the divinely-charged the divine name in their inner heart and experienc- mantra, when uttered with devotion, brings forth ing peace and enlightenment. spiritual sensitivity through its calming influence. 61 PB January 2007 51 Prabuddha Bharata With the lower nature subdued and the higher of Islam. Al Ghazali (1058–1111) says: ‘The devotee consciousness reached, all nature is seen as Divine begins by repeating the name. Then the tongue Consciousness. should cease moving and the name be repeated in the mind only. Finally, all forms should go and only The Holy Name in Judaism and Christianity the idea remain. At this point the devotee should Hebrew prophets recognize the omnipresence, om- lay himself open to God’s mercy. The highest ec- niscience, and omnipotence of God by declaring, stasy is produced by dhikr. The ultimate stage is to ‘The Lord is His Name.’10 ‘Shema Yisrael, Adonai be completely absorbed in God forgetting even the elohaynu, Adonai echad; Hear O Israel, the Lord act of thinking of God.’ our God, the Lord is One,’ is a traditional Hebrew Sufis repeat the holy name until they perceive prayer. Hebrews and Christians adore God with God and attain to ecstasy: ‘O Lord, I ever remem- many descriptive metaphors—holy, everlasting, al- ber Thy Name, I offer my life to Thee, teach me Thy mighty, excellent. The names Lord, Beloved, Shep- secret mystery’, says Bullah Shah (1680–1752). He herd, Shield, Horn of my Salvation, High Tower, continues, ‘Very sweet is the Name of the Lord, and Refuge, Saviour, Rock, Sanctuary, Counsellor, and likewise does it offer me shelter. To speak the truth, Father are found throughout the Old and New Tes- I [have] got no better abode of rest and safety than taments, particularly in the Psalms. The Psalmist It. So omnipotent is Thy Name!’ Muslims glorify says, ‘Let them also that love thy name be joyful in God by reciting his ninety-nine beautiful names. thee’; ‘For our heart shall rejoice in him because Zoroastrians praise him in one hundred and one we have trusted in his holy name’; ‘O magnify the holy names; they call the ultimate source of the Lord with me, and let us exalt his name togeth- light found in the human heart, Ashem Vohu. er’; ‘I will praise thy name, O Lord, for it is good’; Sikhs prescribe japa of God’s name in the first and ‘So will not we go back from thee: quicken us chapter of their scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib: and we will call upon thy name’.11 Jesus says: ‘For ‘Let us repeat His name. As He was in the begin- where two or three are gathered together in my ning the Truth, as He was through the ages the name, there am I in the midst of them.’12 Truth, so is He now the Truth, O Nanak, so will He Christians practise prayers of praise inspired by be for ever and ever.’13 The Sikhs pray by repeating verses from the Bible, and Roman Catholics recite the name of God and singing his praises. the Hail Mary and Our Father prayers on the ro- Om is the holiest name of the Divine in every sary. In the well-known book The Way of a Pilgrim, religion that developed in India. The Guru Granth the Russian monk began earnestly repeating the Sahib begins with the oṁkāra. Om is sacred to Jains, prayer ‘Lord Jesus, have mercy on me’ three thou- Buddhists, Sikhs, and Zoroastrians as well as Hin- sand, then six thousand, and then twelve thousand dus. India’s Christians are also gradually accepting times a day. He became immensely fulfilled inward- Om. Worldwide, Christians with a mystical ten- ly by reaching the ‘unceasing activity of the heart’, dency accept Om (‘the Word’) as their symbol for and thus achieved success in spiritual life. the highest supreme Reality, as Saint John’s Gospel shows. Eminent western Indologists and Sanskrit Japa in Islam, Sufism, Zoroastrianism, scholars have also noted the universality of Om as and Sikhism the supreme name and symbol of the Divine. Sufi mystics have always regarded the repetition of the name of Allah as the highest form of worship. The Practice of Japa Some say that intoning the dhikr, ‘la ilaha illal- Without divine help there is no spiritual progress. lah; There is no God but God, there is none save Therefore, before beginning japa, spiritual aspir- He’, is superior to observing the five daily prayers ants should invoke the aid of the iṣṭa devatā of the 52 PB January 2007 62 Japa: Instrument of Love for God’s Name mantra to elevate their spiritual mood and open A Christian contemplative wrote: themselves to receiving divine help. Thinking of the In the beginning it is usual to feel nothing but a beauty and grace of the iṣṭa devatā’s form while do- kind of darkness about your mind, or as it were, a ing japa increases concentration and spiritual dis- cloud of unknowing. You will seem to know nothing crimination. Holy Mother says: ‘While performing and to feel nothing except a naked intent toward japa take the name of God with the utmost love, God in the depths of your being. Try as you might, this darkness and this cloud will remain between sincerity and self-surrender. Before commencing you and your God. You will feel frustrated, for your daily meditation, first think of your utter help- your mind will be unable to grasp him, and your lessness in this world and then slowly begin the heart will not relish the delight of his love. But practice of sadhana (spiritual discipline) as directed learn to be at home in this darkness. Return to it by your Guru.’14 as often as you can, letting your spirit cry out to Japa can be practised him whom you love. For if, in this life, you hope in various ways with the to feel and see God as he is in himself, it must be rosary or mala, which within this darkness and this cloud.17 Monique Jansen facilitates counting and With faith and devotion, aspirants will feel a genu- concentrates the mind ine need for the practice of japa and will cultivate in the early stages of a dedicated taste for it. meditation. Counting Vigorous japa neutralizes lower thoughts, al- can also be done using the fingers. Holy Mother lowing aspirants to rise to higher spiritual planes says, ‘God has given us fingers that they may be of consciousness in meditation. Tension, restless blessed by repeating His name with them.’15 outgoing tendencies, and drowsiness—dangerous One can utter the holy name clearly with prop- when linked to japa and meditation—can be de- er pronunciation in an audible voice (vācika), or feated by walking about doing japa loudly. As a fix the mind on God and move the lips inaudibly drowning person clings to a floating object, aspir- (upāṁśu), or ponder the meaning and practise si- ants should cling to the purifying practice of japa. lently with no movement of the lips (mānasika), Of course, without absolute detachment and which is preferred. deep absorption in divine consciousness, we can- The scriptures say that mānasika japa can be not have true realization. We must proceed system- practised at all times and in all places. Swami Vivek- atically, firmly grasping the chain of the repeated ananda says, ‘The inaudible repetition of the Man- sound, whatever be the difficulty confronting us. tra, accompanied with the thinking of its meaning, We will come in touch with the Divine in course of is called the “mental repetition,” and is the highest.’16 time. Holy Mother reminds us: ‘By japa and auster- Sometimes silent japa does not clear away mental ity is cut asunder the bondage of Karma (past ac- disturbances. Therefore, aspirants must hold on to tion). But God can’t be realized except through love the centre of consciousness despite any restlessness and devotion. As for japa and such other things, do in the mind during japa. you know what they stand for? Through them the To avoid fatigue, it is important to be vigilant senses etc., become subdued.’18 and alert; for this the rosary is very helpful. It en- Holy Mother used to say that it was more ardu- courages continuity in japa, and one can resolve to ous to concentrate the mind on the Chosen Ideal complete a certain number of rounds of the rosary than to dig the earth with a spade. She recommend- without any break in the thought of God. In the ed diligence: ‘One has to be up and doing; can any- beginning, using a variety of vācika, upāṁśu, and thing be achieved without diligence? One should mānasika methods sustains japa whenever a lack find some time even in the midst of domestic du- of interest or monotony manifests. ties. What to speak of myself, my child! I used to 63 PB January 2007 53 Prabuddha Bharata ‘You progress a little [in both], then comes a pe- Try diligently to check the mad outgoing riod of dryness. It seems that the doors are entirely tendency of your mind. Never begin your closed. At that time it is necessary that you stick to meditation immediately after sitting on your your spiritual practices with infinite patience; by asana. By discrimination first draw the mind back so doing you will find one day that all of a sudden from its external pursuits and lock it up within, the doors are opened. What a great joy it is then! at the sacred feet of your Ishta. Then begin Japa In spiritual life many such thresholds have to be and meditation. If you do this for some time, the crossed.’ 21 mind will naturally cease to wander. When the period of japa is over, aspirants The easiest way in this Kaliyuga is the path of should continue to sit quietly contemplating the Japa. By constantly performing Japa, the mind iṣṭa devatā, reflecting on the infinite love of God can easily be made calm and steady and finally or praying silently for ten or fifteen minutes. De- it will lose itself in the Ishta. … So, I ask you to vout prostration or salutation to the Lord helps perform Japa frequently and along with it think aspirants retain the spiritual vibrations awakened of the Ishta. … This dual method brings quicker by japa and meditation. These observances make it success. —Swami Brahmananda easier to keep the mind on God during all worldly activities. begin my japa in those days at Dakshineswar after leaving the bed at three in the morning, and lose all Japa Leads to Deeper Meditation consciousness’ (110). From external prayer and worship, aspirants When a devotee wanted to know the secret of progress to the practice of japa and then to dhya- japa, Holy Mother pointed to a small clock and na, deeper meditation on the form and attributes said, ‘As that timepiece is ticking, so also go on re- of God. Increased physical and mental purity in peating God’s name; that will bring you everything. thought, word, and deed along with correct, faith- Nothing more need be done’ (407). ‘When a pure ful practice of japa and meditation ultimately soul performs Japa,’ she said on another occasion, guides aspirants to experience the personal and ‘he feels as if the holy Name bubbles up spontane- impersonal aspects of God through the continuous ously from within himself. He does not make an flow of one idea of God in the mind. effort to repeat the Name.’19 Japa is meditation with breaks, as it were. Medi- Even mechanical repetition of the mantra suc- tation is the natural, spontaneous expansion of japa cessfully keeps the mind engaged in japa. Faith in the heart—the result of japa correctly practised in japa purifies the mind and heart, and japa, in with devotion and dedication. In other words, japa turn, strengthens faith. However, the mind turns certainly strengthens devotion, but it is only when inward only when meditation accompanies japa. japa occurs together with true dhyana, or medita- Holy Mother says: ‘Repeating the name of God tion, that the mind spontaneously turns inward, once, when the mind is controlled, is equivalent to away from outer things. After practising japa along a million repetitions when the mind is away from with meditation for some time, japa ceases by itself God. You may repeat the name for the whole day, and the aspirant becomes established in medita- but if the mind is elsewhere it does not produce tion alone. Holy Mother says: ‘The mind natu- much of a result. The repetition must be accompa- rally dwells on one’s daily activities. If you don’t nied by concentration. Only then does one obtain succeed in meditation, practise Japa. … If a medi- God’s grace.’20 tative mood sets in, well and good. If not, don’t Faith and patience overcome dryness in japa. force your mind to meditate.’22 Real meditation Swami Brahmananda loved japa and meditation: is spontaneous. 54 PB January 2007 64 Japa: Instrument of Love for God’s Name of japa pacify gross vibra- tions in the mind. When a little experience of the mantra comes, an aspirant becomes calm and peaceful, elevated by a concentrated mind, and gradually con- vinced about the efficacy of the holy name of God. Japa of the Sacred Scriptures Japa mala used by Swami Ramakrishnananda Svādhyāya or study of the True meditation is never forced or artificial; it scriptures leads us to God. Scripture can be uttered is a natural consequence of intense attraction or aloud, chanted, repeated, or pondered upon in si- love for the object of meditation. This idea is easily lence. Certain scriptural verses on the holy name grasped when we consider that our intense long- are particularly meaningful or inspiring. Praying to ing for someone or something far away inevitably God to open our heart, we should open the scrip- brings it clearly to our mind and we are delight- ture calmly and reverently. After reading the verse ed to think about it. Even so, Holy Mother says: several times and committing it to memory, we ‘If you cannot meditate, repeat the Name. “Japāt should slowly and reverently lay aside the scrip- Siddhiḥ—Realization will come through Japa.”’ ture and begin reflecting on the verse with closed Spiritual practices open the physical centres of eyes. The idea is to discover what God is saying to power, which increases energy and restlessness. The us personally through the verse, which suggests attempt to control lower urges results in some nerv- the spirit in which we are to call upon his name or ous symptoms. There are reasons for this phenom- repeat the verse. enon. Japa and meditation awaken the kundalini, Mental reflection precedes japa. Correct rep- the spiritual energy that is ‘coiled up’ like a snake etition of the holy name or mantra actively engag- in a dormant state at the base of the spine. The es the spiritual heart, which has become one with awakened kundalini, passing through the centres the intellect or buddhi. Sri Krishna teaches Arju- of consciousness in the body, manifests in the form na: ‘I have given thee words of vision and wisdom of mystical experiences culminating in illumination. more secret than hidden mysteries. Ponder them Swami Brahmananda says: ‘According to some yo- in the silence of thy soul, and then in freedom do gis, there are special forms of meditation and prac- thy will.’24 Real japa engages our heart, wherein tices which awaken it [the kundalini], but I believe God is found. The devotee’s heart is God’s parlour. it can be best done through Japa and meditation. A single step towards God impels him to take one The practice of Japa is specially suited to Kaliyuga. hundred towards the devotee. No effort, however There is no other spiritual practice easier than this. small, is lost. But meditation must accompany the repetition of Devotional japa of scripture fires up our heart the mantra.’23 with love for God. Silent, loving contemplation Regular japa is a very important aspect of deep- upon the chosen verse without reasoning consti- er meditation. Correct practice with self-control tutes nididhyāsana, in which the name or word and self-discipline gradually brings all mental ac- of the scripture goes from the mind to the heart, tivity under control. The subtle, silent vibrations wherein its transforming power is realized. Men- 65 PB January 2007 55 Prabuddha Bharata tal devotion, the knowledge of God through snaps the bondage of worldliness. True devotees reasoning (jnana), becomes transformed into are convinced that japa dispels all difficulties; they affirmative knowledge of God in the heart (vi- remember and repeat the holy name with joy even jnana), which prepares us for his vision. This is at the moment of death. This should encourage all the correct practice of japa of the divine name or seekers to utter the holy name or mantra unceas- scriptures. The Gita is eminently suited for this ingly in every condition of life. P practice. It offers inspiration, justification, and support for all devotees, on whatever spiritual References path they tread. Devotional japa of the name and meditation 1. M, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami Ni- khilananda (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, 2002), on the sacred texts bestow the same experience: 878–9. ‘Reciting the name of the Lord has also the very 2. Yoga Sutra, 1.27. same effect [as the exclusive reading of the sacred 3. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. texts]. The name is the nearest expressive symbol (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), 7.62. of the experience of the Divine, and it is believed 4. Yoga Sutra, 1.28. that constant repetition of the name together with 5. Complete Works, 6.90. meditation (bhavanā) may result in yielding the 6. Swami Saradananda, Sri Ramakrishna the Great very same experience. … The name … is the sponta- Master, trans. Swami Jagadananda (Madras: Ra- neous expression in sounds of the deepest spiritual makrishna Math, 1995), 643–4. 7. Swami Nikhilananda, Holy Mother (New York: Ra- experience, and forms the vibrational symbol of makrishna-Vivekananda Center, 1997), 220. the same.’25 8. The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, comp. R K Prabhu The saints are a living scripture. Their exemplary and U R Rao (Madras: Oxford, 1946), 20. lives inspire us to meditate on them. They have left 9. Bhagavadgita, 10.25. 10. Jeremiah, 33.2; Isaiah, 48.2; Amos, 4.13. us sayings, teachings, poems, songs, and anecdotes 11. Psalms, 5.11; 33.21; 34.3; 54.6; 80.18. of their lives, which we cherish over the centuries. 12. Matthew, 18.20. Relying utterly on the name of God, they overcame 13. Guru Granth Sahib, 1.3–4. all obstacles, even death, and attained to God. Japa 14. Teachings of Sri Sarada Devi the Holy Mother (Chen- of their teachings about the name of God is an ex- nai: Ramakrishna Math, 2001), 46. 15. Her Devotee Children, The Gospel of the Holy Moth- cellent form of spiritual practice that enables us to er Sri Sarada Devi (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, inherit their legacy. 2000), 91. 16. Complete Works, 1.190. Repeating the Holy Name in the Kaliyuga 17. The Cloud of Unknowing, ed. William Johnston (New York: Image, 1973), 48–9. Humanity is in a profound state of spiritual igno- 18. Swami Gambhirananda, Holy Mother Sri Sarada rance and consequent suffering in the present age. Devi (Madras: Ramakrishna Math, 1986), 406–7. The humble practice of repeating the divine name 19. Gospel of Holy Mother, 176. is the way to reach the goal of God-realization. Sri 20. Teachings of Sri Sarada Devi, 50–1. 21. Swami Prabhavananda, The Eternal Companion: Ramakrishna gave a general instruction to all: ‘De- Brahmananda, His Life and Teachings (Hollywood: votion according to Narada is the only path in the Vedanta Press, 1970), 162. Kaliyuga; people will be saved if they but sing loudly 22. Gospel of Holy Mother, 213. the name of God. People of the Kaliyuga depend on 23. Eternal Companion (Chennai:Ramakrishna Math, food for their life; they are short-lived and of meagre 2001), 276. 24. Gita, 18.63. powers; that is why such an easy path for the realiza- 25. Nalini Kanta Brahma, Philosophy of Hindu Sadhana tion of God has been prescribed for them.’26 (London: Kegan Paul, 1932), 272. When properly reflected upon, the mantra 26. Great Master, 2.938. 56 PB January 2007 66 Prayer in Contemplative Life Swami Amarananda P rayer is an act of communication with the cannons of their respective countries.) Desire, fear, Sacred, the Holy, or the Transcendental. It suffering, worry, and compunction are ubiquitous may also be directed towards saintly beings in the human race: they propel us to pray selfishly. or spiritual masters. Less spiritually evolved persons These five moods are classified under what in Indi- may pray exclusively to ancestors or even to phan- an philosophy is called duhkha, a disagreeable feel- toms. This communication generally takes the form ing of any type or intensity. Prayer is natural for a of submissive supplication, often accompanied by person in the clutch of duhkha. ‘The sovereign cure adoration, confession, offering, and thanksgiving. for worry’, said William James, ‘is prayer.’ Duhkha Prayer is common to most forms of religion preva- will end without any recourse to prayer only if we lent among humanity. become omnipotent: ‘When human beings will Prayer is the essence of religious life: so aver roll up the sky like a piece of hide, only then will many savants, scholars, and religious leaders of there be an end to duhkha without realising God.’2 various religions. The general opinion of Hindu The desire to go to heaven after death also drives religious leaders (as well as of the great mystics us to prayer. In Pure Land Buddhism, prayer-like in Abrahamic religions) regarding prayer may be mantras are recited with the hope that thereby an summed up as follows: Prayer is conversing with incarnation in the Pure Land, where one can con- God, and meditation is listening to God; in other tinue one’s spiritual efforts, will be obtained. words, prayer evolves into meditation. For non-theistic Buddhists (who view the Bud- The word ‘contemplation’ derives from the Lat- dha through the prisms of Buddhaghosha and Na- in contemplat-, ‘surveyed, observed’, from the verb garjuna), prayer is the outpouring of one’s good contemplari, based on templum, ‘space in heavens wishes for all beings, as well as wishes for one’s suc- marked off for augural observation’. The effec- cess in spiritual practice. Buddhism and the mo- tive meaning evolved to convey the sense of deep nistic branch of Hinduism generally see prayer as thought, usually of a religious nature. Meditation ancillary to meditation on the impersonal. How- usually means concentration on an inspiring ob- ever, lay people in all Buddhist countries pray to ject or person. It may also mean concentration on Buddha; their prayer, as is the case with ordinary the Absolute; mystics in this category are fewer.1 prayer everywhere, is prompted by the wish for in- So contemplation and meditation are proximate tervention in difficult situations. ideas. Prayer has always been an important part of atonement. In some form or other, the sense of rita Why do we pray? (cosmic order) or dharma or the ‘watchful eyes of For most of us, prayer consists in muttering set for- the Supreme’ has been present in all cultures; this mulas once a day or once a week, without any pro- sense informs our conscience, and also brings in foundness. For others, God is someone to be per- its trail the idea of retribution. Through penitence, suaded, through prayer, to serve their utterly selfish humans have found a way of lightening the load goals. (For example, in World War I, the Roman of their sin or sinful tendency. Vibhishana says to Catholic clergy in France and Germany blessed the Ravana (Ramayana 6.10.22): ‘O heroic man, since 67 PB January 2007 57 Prabuddha Bharata bad omens are being seen (because of your stealing desire. Sri Ramakrishna used to say that the desire another man’s wife), it is proper (and to my liking) for spiritual liberation is not at par with ordinary that you hand over Sita to Rama as atonement.’ desires. ‘The leaves of hinche’, he said, ‘should not Prayer to saints for intercession is another com- be bracketed with other greens.’5 In advanced dev- mon form of prayer. People pray to saintly beings, otees, prayer sometimes takes the form of solicita- considering them to be enlightened and thereby tion with a protest; this can be likened to similar having the power to grant their desires, or deeming entreaties of children addressed to their parents. them as so suffused by divine power as to become Truly said St Francis on the theme of sublime efficient mediums for communication with God. prayer: ‘Prayer is regarded as a gift of grace from Even in Theravada Buddhism, common people go God, not as an independent activity of man, as we to a monk in times of disease, pestilence, pregnancy, do not know how to pray as we ought, but the spirit childbirth, financial calamity, or similar worries. St himself intercedes for us with signs too deep for Thomas Aquinas explains the philosophy behind words.’ intercessory prayer: ‘In the first way we pray to God Higher prayer begins with the idea that one can alone, because all our prayers ought to be directed gain admittance to a state of bliss, a state which ef- to obtaining grace and glory which God alone gives faces duhkha. ‘There is duhkha, there is death; still … But in the second way we pray to the holy angels peace, bliss, and (a glimpse of ) the eternity prevail,’ and to men not that God may learn our petition sang poet Tagore. With the deepening of prayer, in through them, but that by their prayers and merits a non-congregational milieu, the sentiments of sub- our prayers may be efficacious.’3 missiveness and sinfulness are overwhelmed by love for love’s sake. Mircea Eliade quotes Johann Arndt, Higher Prayer a German pastor, in his book The Sacred and the Sometimes a lower type of prayer is sublimated to Profane: ‘Our end is to seek, find and ultimately be a higher one—a state of prayer characterized by one with God, and prayer is the means to achieve non-terrestrial bliss. The Puranic story of Dhruva that end.’ The Bhagavadgita also attests that the illustrates this phenomenon. man of divine love comes to know God and finally Only the spiritually enlightened person, after enters into Him.6 having known divine bliss, goes beyond fear and So the most noble prayer is for realizing the love remorse.4 The spiritual disposition motivates such and grace of God, for total self-surrender to him, a sage to pray. Higher prayer is also propelled by for serving him masked as living beings, or (as in Jainism) for receiving inspiration from the great gurus of humanity.7 Such prayers were habitual Divine Complaint with Sri Ramakrishna. Sri Sarada Devi once re- I am a stranger in Your country marked that one should pray for desirelessness. In And lonely among Your worshippers: a Puranic story, King Rantideva, himself famished This is the substance of my complaint. and thirsty due to his boundless charity, saw a hun- —Rabia gry and thirsty man of low caste entering into his W palace. He offered his guest the only thing he had, There’ll be the uproarious act of litigation a little water to drink. Before this offering, he spoke against You, the Divine Mother; thus: ‘I do not ask the Lord to grant me the eight I’ll restrain myself only when You yogic powers, nor do I pray for liberation from re- pacify me by taking me in Your lap. birth; my only prayer is that I may feel the pain of —Ramprasad others as if I were living within their bodies, and that I may have the capacity to alleviate their pain 58 PB January 2007 68 Prayer in Contemplative Life and make them happy.’ 8 Buddha too manifested Rantideva-like universal love. Teresa of Avila described prayer as ‘an intimate friendship, a frequent conversation held alone Facets of Prayer with the beloved.’ Mechthild said: ‘We two are Prayer may be in silence, be a set hymn or incan- united, poured into a single form through eternal tation, or be in the form of a song. It may be ac- fusion.’ The Bengal Vaishnavas, who sculpted an companied with bell ringing, striking of a gong, in- intensely emotional love for God, seem to echo cense burning, food offering, or lighting of candles. this language. These words remind us of prema- The face of the person engaged in prayer may be vilasa-vivarta mentioned by Rai Ramananda oriented towards a particular direction. The pray- dialoguing with Sri Chaitanya in the sixteenth ing person may stand, sit, kneel, mildly genuflect, century. The lover and the beloved are not prostrate, keep head and torso slightly bent, or be really separate; a slim semblance of separation completely erect, with eyes open, closed, or half is maintained to create the polarity necessary in closed, or with the gaze fixed on the tip of the nose. the act of love. The palms may be placed together and forward by Hindus and by some Christians. This namaskara chained beads are also seen. Sometimes, pebbles or posture of Hindus may be accompanied by naman- seeds are used without making a rosary out of them. am, bending of the torso. The palms are up and Some people in India use tamarind seeds for this elbows in for some Christians, and for some Mus- purpose. In the fourth century, the Egyptian Abbot lims saying a non-obligatory prayer. In Islam, ob- Paul used to take in his lap three hundred pebbles ligatory prayer is performed with a strict sequence for counting his prayers. In the eighth century the of postures, including standing, bending, prostrat- rulebooks for Christian penitents ordained pen- ing, and kneeling, accompanying a set sequence of ances of twenty, fifty, or more repetitions of the pronouncements. Lord’s Prayer. The rosary with which such penances Words in a prayer may be memorized, read out, were accomplished gradually came to be known or said extemporaneously either audibly or inau- as the paternoster, literally, ‘Our father’. Tibetan dibly. They may be repeated continually for a long Buddhists use a wheel on a spindle on or in which period. This practice is termed japa in Sankrit. Mys- are written or encapsulated Buddhist prayers and tics agree that mental japa with concentration is the mantras. Many Buddhists believe that spinning best. According to Mahatma Gandhi, ‘It is better such a wheel has the same effect as doing japa. But in prayer to have a heart without words than words in the moment of sublime absorption, no counting without a heart.’ The Gayatri Mantra of Hindus, or wheel-turning is possible. the Angelic Salutation of Catholics, the Prayer of Once in a monastery, some elders remarked that the Heart of Eastern Orthodox Christians, and it was difficult to know the quality of young boys the prayer formulae in various Sufi traditions are who were beginning their novitiate. ‘It is easy,’ said examples of prayer in the japa way. one among them, ‘you just observe them at the Prayer, as in the case of japa, is often counted. prayer hall and estimate their degree of interiority.’ The counting is sometimes preceded by breathing In fact, in any prayer rising to a level of high inten- techniques. The habit of counting with the help of beads spread from India to the Middle East in One of the shining examples of japa practice is Emperor Ashoka’s time, and was later assimilated Yavana Haridas, a disciple of Sri Chaitanya; he into Christianity and Islam. Beads may be made of used to take food only after repeating three hun- natural wood, seeds, berries, stone, or metal. They dred thousand times the name of Krishna. are strung on a thread or cord; in modern days, 69 PB January 2007 59 Prabuddha Bharata sity, the observance of tradition-bound features seekest thou for God?’ wrote Swami Vivekananda. discussed above are absent and we can detect the In Christianity, the devotional attitude often com- following: the prayer goes beyond set rules, the mingles with what we call karma yoga, while in praying person seems to experience profound joy, Hinduism this attitude is traditionally associated the gaze is fixed, and there may be horripilation with japa, meditation, and other yogic and tantric (due to the secretion of adrenaline). disciplines. Karma yoga, which has a prayerful core behind the veneer of philanthropy, had been partic- Hidden Forms of Prayer ularly absent in the practices of Hindu monks till it Japa mantras are highly in vogue in religions of was inaugurated by the disciples of Sri Ramakrish- Indian origin. Songs and chants glorifying the Su- na. Of course, among Hindu householders, there preme, and liturgy of various types are found in has always been a tradition of dana, charity. many religions: these things do not necessarily look like prayer. But prayer often lies hidden in them. The Rhythm of Prayer Again, though acts of atonement and penitence are Different religions prescribe the number of times not necessarily prayers, their essence is supplication their followers are to pray every day: three for Jews to God; hence they are prayerful at their core. and orthodox Hindus, and five for Muslims. The Karma yoga, as developed in the Gita and as Hindu and Christian monastic habits in this re- illustrated in the lives of spiritual giants like St spect are highly varied, depending upon the de- Francis, Sri Sarada Devi, and many disciples of Sri nomination. There are minimalists in all religions. Ramakrishna, is nothing but an offering to God, ‘Oncers’ visit the church or temple only once a the offering being the service rendered with one’s week; other minimalists may do far less. Devout whole being sanctified by constant remembrance followers in each religion pray much more on spe- and prayer.9 For all of these saints, God is manifest- cial days and occasions, and even those who are not ed in all beings and in nature. ‘These are His man- earnestly religious are seen to attend prayers on cer- ifold forms before thee, / Rejecting them, where tain occasions, such as the birth of a child or pass- ing away of a friend or relative, and days of the year Once a Thai monk had a dialogue with me. that have special religious significance. The highly Thai monk: In spite of my years in a monastery, contemplative pray or remember God always, be- I feel a dryness of heart. cause prayer has entered into their reflexes. Reply: It is, I think, due to your sin. Thai monk: I don’t get at what you are trying The Spiritual Master to convey. In Sanskrit, the spiritual master is called guru. Is a Reply: You have killed Buddha. Killing Buddha guru necessary for learning how to pray? For ritu- is also a way; the Gita affirms that the contempla- alistic prayer, a guru is not essential. But for diving tion on the Impersonal Verity is a valid way. But deep into prayer, one needs divine help. That comes that way is reserved for those having supreme usually through a compassionate and enlightened dispassion coupled with the penchant for subtle person; such a person is the guru. ‘To quicken the philosophy. spirit, the impulse must come from another soul’, Thai monk: What should I do? says Swami Vivekananda. Reply: Please pray to Buddha for love and try The Shvetashvatara Upanishad closes with this to adore him. His presence is there in his images. mantra: ‘These truths, when taught, become ver- The fourth president of the Order of Ramakrishna ily manifest in that great soul who has supreme [Swami Vijnanananda] experienced this twice. devotion God, and as much devotion to the guru as to God.’ This statement may seem blasphemous 60 PB January 2007 70 Prayer in Contemplative Life to persons not initiated into oriental metaphysics, temple complex Izzet Keribar which recognizes the drive behind the compassion- at Dakshineswar ate act of a guru as fully divine. There are Jews, Ro- each evening dur- man Catholics, and Orthodox Christians as well ing the period of as Hindus, Mahayanists, and Sufis who get help his spiritual prac- through supplication to hasidim, saintly persons, tices. He encour- bodhisattvas, and murshids, all of whom are like aged household- gurus. For some sections of Mahayanists, as well as ers to do spiritual for many Hindus, prayer to the guru is a very po- practice alone and tent practice. However, both classical and modern away from their Vedanta as well as certain branches of Sufism (for homes for as long example, the Naqshbandiyah) hold that there are a period as was different levels of spiritual guides. possible for them. The Gita uses Prayer at Angkor Wat Prayer and Faith the terms vivikta-sevi (the lover of solitude) and In sincere prayer, the belief or conviction in the vivikta-desha-sevitvam (resorting to solitude) to possibility of contact with a supra-sensorial entity highlight the importance of a solitary environment or realm is implicit. Is this kind of faith tenable in in the life of a serious aspirant for contemplation. this age of science? Only a seasoned yogi may move about in a crowded We find some Western scientists in the recent metropolis without being distracted. That is why past who admit the validity of such faith or think Buddha advised the young monks to fix their gaze the topic worthy of investigation—these include at a short distance as they walked their way slowly the physicist Pauli, the psychologist Eysenck, and through towns and villages for the daily begging of the rocket scientist Jahn, who also worked on psy- food. ‘Live in the world’, said St John of the Cross, chokinetics. There are others who accept the Imper- ‘as if God and your soul only were in it; so shall your sonal God. William James was one modern scien- heart be never made captive by any earthly thing.’ tist who scientifically studied the existence of God. He affirmed, in The Varieties of Religious Experience, Superior Contemplation that there are specific and various reservoirs of con- Spiritually evolved persons have a strong sense of scious-like energies with which man can have rap- the presence of an attentive entity who hears their port in times of difficulty. But lives of mystics show prayers. Prayers without this sense are insipid, me- that the link to God is possible under all types of chanical, and spiritually ineffective. The Indian situations, not just during times of difficulty. How- hagiographic literature is replete with accounts of ever, it is true that the bulk of praying people in all intensely prayerful saints. Christianity and Sufism religions belong to the arta and artharthi categories, also have produced many exalted saints. They have as described in the Gita (7.16)—the afflicted and received divine grace through prayer. The British the seekers of wealth. mystic Walter Hilton said: ‘It [prayer] is a way or means by which grace freely given comes to the Solitude and Prayer soul.’ Sri Ramakrishna used to say that one should medi- Without an element of devotion, real prayer is tate in the mind, in a forest (to avoid distraction), inconceivable. Rupa Gosvami, in his book Bhakti- or in a nook (where an intimate practice can easily sandarbha, gives us a sequence of how the individ- develop)—mone, bone, kone in his native Bengali. ual reaches the state of supreme love after climbing He himself used to enter the thicket adjoining the eight rungs of sadhana or systematic spiritual prac- 71 PB January 2007 61 Prabuddha Bharata tice: ‘First there is shraddha (faith), then comes as divine love suffuses the heart more and more, the company of the holy, which is followed by de- the voluntary promotion of virtues ceases to be votional practice; thereby anartha (worldliness) is the concern of the yogi. Finally, a mystical matu- blocked; this is followed by one-pointed devotion rity is signalled when, to borrow the language of which entrains the coming into being of taste (for Vidyaranya, ‘Virtues like the absence of malice etc. the interiorized life); the next step is detachment, are generated automatically in the person of Self- which results in bhava (the divine mood), and fi- illumination.’11 The lives of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri nally in the sprouting of prema (supreme love).’ Sri Sarada Devi, and the direct disciples of Sri Ramak- Ramakrishna emphasized that an ordinary indi- rishna are tangible proof of this statement in the vidual can attain at the most to bhava; that only modern age. P great souls like ishvarakotis (godlike souls) can at- tain to prema. Notes and References 1. Sri Ramkrishna advised Pundit Shashadhar, ‘In Prayer, Austerity, and Virtues order to learn archery one should first aim at a ba- nana tree, then at a reed, then at a wick, and last at Religious austerity implies qualities like abstinence, a flying bird. At the beginning one should concen- asceticism, and frugality. The Sanskrit word for this trate on God with form.’ is tapas, meaning heat, which is disagreeable in a 2. Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.20. tropical country; by extension, it means undertak- 3. Summa Theologica, 2.2, q83, a4. 4. Taittiriya Upanishad 2.9.1. ing difficult vows for spiritual progress. Certain 5. In tropical countries like India, the consumption aspects of tapas like fasting, giving in charity, and of too many leafy greens often leads to digestive praying for long hours are found in most religions. trouble. Hinche, itself a leafy creeper growing in Sexual abstinence with a view to sublimating the moist areas, is an antidote for such trouble. 6. Bhagavadgita, 18.55. libido is called brahmacharya, and is acclaimed as 7. Jains pray to great souls out of the wish for inspira- a means to attain to the heights of contemplation. tion; in the popular namaskara mantra, they bow Religions which play it down on the plea that it is down successively to ever-free souls, to perfected redundant or against the law established by God beings, to spiritual teachers, to learned preceptors, finally make little of spirituality. and to all saints everywhere. 8. Bhagavata, 9.21. The highest austerity is to knock out subtle vani- 9. The Gita says that karma yoga leads one to a stage ties from the mind, so that prapatti or total self- where karma should be given up in favour of yogic surrender may manifest. For Ramanuja, prapatti interiorization, and that a tested yogi should go on was the highest sadhana. ‘Not I, not I; Thou, Thou’ doing karma, keeping a facade of attachment to the world. was frequently on the lips of Sri Ramakrishna. ‘I 10. 2 Corinthians, 12.9. will rather boast about my weaknesses,’ said St Paul, 11. He alludes here to the list of virtues in Gita, ‘that the power of Christ may dwell in me.’10 For 12.13–19. several nights at a stretch, Sri Ramakrishna, in his early youth, cleaned the latrine of a scavenger to ram nam mindIp xé jIh dehrI— Öar, efface any trace of pride of caste. Madhva empha- tulsI ÉItr bahre÷~ jaE< cahis %ijyar. sized humility by affirming that any sadhana is fu- O Tulsi! Place the brilliant lamp of Rama’s tile without the idea that the real doer is God. name in the vestibule at the entrance [for if Should one try to cultivate virtues like fraternal the mouth is the entrance to our bodies, the feeling towards all, equipoise in pleasure and pain, tongue is the vestibule on which Rama’s and forgiveness, in order to progress in contempla- name is to be placed]; then you will have tion? In the beginning, aspirants should be careful light both within and without (in spiritual not to be indulgent about their shortcomings. But as well as mundane matters). —Tulsidas 62 PB January 2007 72 Worship and Contemplation Swami Sarvadevananda T he contemplative life is adored by spirit- trained intellect, the absolute Truth, the nondual ual seekers of all religions and faiths. Hin- Brahman. The Gita says: ‘Klesho’dhikataras-teṣām- du scriptures glorify meditation, hold- avyaktāsakta-cetasām, avyaktā hi gatir-duḥkhaṁ de- ing absorption in God in the highest regard: havadbhir-avāpyate; Greater is their trouble whose ‘dhyānaṁ vāva cittād-bhūyo dhyāyatīva pṛthivī minds are set on the Unmanifested, for the goal of dhyāyatīvāntarikṣaṁ … tasmād-ya iha manuṣyāṇāṁ the Unmanifested is very difficult for the embod- mahattām prāpnuvanti dhyānāpādāṁśā ivaiva te ied to reach.’4 bhavanti …; Meditation is indeed greater than in- The rishis, saints, and seers of all religions offer telligence. The earth is meditating as it were. The instructions for the beginner by which the mind, atmosphere is meditating as it were. [The heavens still moving on the plane of the senses, can be di- … the waters … the mountains … the gods and hu- rected towards God. The senses and sense objects man beings are meditating as it were.] Therefore, which ordinarily stand as obstacles before us can, those among human beings who attain greatness through the rituals of worship, help us to go quick- here, they verily appear to have acquired a portion ly and quietly into the heart in our inward jour- of the result of meditation.’1 ney. Swami Vivekananda explains, ‘The counting It is understood by all seekers of truth that calm- of beads, meditation, worship, offering oblations ness, serenity, and inwardness alone can bring peace, in the sacred fire, all these and such other things harmony, and joy in life. But how to attain that? are the limbs of religion; they are but the means; Contemplation is defined as ‘tatra pratyayaika and to attain to supreme devotion (para-bhakti) tānatā dhyānam; an uninterrupted flow of the or to the highest realization of Brahman is the pre- mind towards the truth’. But thousands of thoughts eminent end.’5 move through our minds every minute: the mind Worship can help a novice develop a contem- runs like a drunken monkey that has been bitten by plative nature; worship performed by an advanced a scorpion, as Swami Vivekananda says. spiritual soul helps him or her to go into a deeper The Upanishad declares: ‘Ekam-evādvyayaṁ absorption or even samadhi. Sri Ramakrishna’s life brahma neha nānāsti kiñcana; there is no many proves that worship, if done with the proper faith, at all, there is only the one nondual Brahman.’2 love, and spirit, can lead one to the vision of the Di- Everything is pervaded by that one consciousness: vine and to the realization of that which is beyond ‘Sarvaṁ khalvidaṁ brahma.’3 To maintain a life of body and mind. absorption in or contemplation on the Absolute, a Most people have a great need to worship pure, steady mind is needed. Sri Ramakrishna states symbols, icons, and forms of gods and goddess- that even the grace of the guru, the grace of Lord es through rituals. In worship, we can adore the Krishna, and the grace of a Vaishnava, a holy man, beautiful forms of God. Because the mind is ab- cannot help the spiritual seeker without the grace sorbed in the various details of the ritual, it stops of his or her own mind. roaming about, and gradually feels more and more The human mind, at the beginning of spiritu- attraction for God. We develop a unique relation- al life, is incapable of grasping, through the un- ship with our Chosen Ideal, expressed through one 73 PB January 2007 63 Prabuddha Bharata or more of the five moods of śānta, dāsya, sakhya, the Lord, and being in holy company. The principle vātsalya, or madhura—worshipping God in every- of loving God through rituals and relationship is one; worshipping God as his servant, friend, par- found in all of the dualistic religions of the world. ent, or beloved. When bhakti matures, the mind develops a great attachment for the Chosen Ideal. Contemplative Rituals in Buddhism Just as a lover’s mind is carried away from all other The life of Buddha, the great meditator, is the shin- thoughts and stays ever fixed on the form of his or ing example for all Buddhists; thus meditation is a her beloved, the mind of such a devotee stays fixed central practice of Buddhism. But rituals too play an on the iṣṭa, and spontaneous meditation occurs. In important role in Buddhist practice. Some schools the contemplative life, an undercurrent of thought of Buddhism have developed devotional practices ever pulls the aspirant’s mind towards God; the involving chanting of holy texts to protect against practice of worship helps foster this undercurrent. illness or misfortune. Other schools worship the Buddha himself. In Zen Buddhism, the practice Worship of meditation itself is highly ritualized: every as- Worship is reverent love and honour accorded to pect of the meditation experience, from how one the Deity, often as manifested in or represented enters the meditation hall to how one leaves it, is by an image or sacred object. It is the ceremony or regulated by rules. In Tibetan Buddhism, prayer prayer by which the worshipper’s immense love for wheels inscribed with or containing a sacred text the iṣṭa is expressed—an immersion resulting in full are spun by practitioners: each turn of the wheel participation in the religious life. It is upāsanā—sit- effects an utterance of the prayer. Elaborate ritu- ting close to God, waiting upon God, contemplat- als have developed in Tibetan Buddhism, which ing on him, as an expression of our reverence and help sincere practitioners to calm their minds and homage. The sincere worshipper becomes lost in achieve elevated states. this contemplation, and surrenders body and mind to God. Worship does not mean merely chanting The Christian Mass mantras with the tongue and forming mudras with The Roman Catholic and Anglican or Episcopa- the hands. It includes a full spectrum of practices lian mass is structured to direct the mind of the which, as the mind becomes absorbed, directly con- sincere devotee towards the Divine, and bring to nect us with God. Such rituals include chanting it an inner peace. The devotional mood starts in hymns, singing bhajans (devotional songs), listen- the vesting room: the priests ready themselves by ing to readings about God, going on pilgrimages, donning their sacred robes and vestments, and feel visiting places associated with the divine sport of the enveloping presence of the Lord. Reverend John J Capellaro, an Episcopal minister, once de- scribed the transformation he feels upon entering the small vestibule before his sermon: the world is forgotten, and a loving presence envelops his whole being. He dons the sacred robe, and a great silence fills his mind with joy. In the church, the Christian devotees sit in silence while the prelude plays. The processional hymn begins: ‘I am mor- tal, invisible, God only wise, in light inaccessible hid from our eyes; most blessed, most glorious, the ancient of the days, almighty, victorious, thy Chanting as adoration great name we praise ...’ The solemn procession, 64 PB January 2007 74 Worship and Contemplation waving of incense, the reading of the Gospel, the sermon by the priest, prayers by the congregation, melodious hymns lifted up by the notes of the or- gan and intoned by the choral singers, all create a deep mood of devotion. The church vibrates with holiness when the hearts of its people are sincere. At the time of taking the Eucharist, the worship- pers feel a communion with God and become to- tally transformed, thinking that even their physi- cal bodies and blood are non-existent: rather, the body of Christ exists, and it is his holy purifying blood that is flowing through their veins. By this mystery, the person who was a sinner is cleansed of sins, becoming part of the very body of Christ. Worship in this way leads Christian devotees to a contemplative mood, bringing peace and joy in their lives and helping them to develop a more vi- Scriptural Study: Sikh Guru Angad and a pupil brant spiritual life. possession, away from the clamour of the world. Islamic Prayer and Dance In the serene atmosphere of the temple, the con- Rituals play an essential part in the lives of Sufi gregants wait in silence, their heads respectfully mystics. Five times per day, they stop all activity covered with the yarmulke, and their prayer shawls and turn to worship God, following the same ritual draped over their shoulders. As the cantor’s melodi- of salat or namaz which was taught by the Proph- ous voice fills the air with chanting, the congregants et Muhammad and which is followed by all Mus- are filled with a sense of reverence. Their minds are lims. The specific postures and prayers involve the quieted. The Torah is then gently retrieved from its whole body and mind, thus helping to immerse place of safety, and is supported and carried in the their minds in divine thought. Sufis also make use arms of the Rabbi as he weaves his way through the of their tasbihs or prayer beads when repeating congregation. One after another, each worshipper names of God. Widespread among certain sects is reaches out to touch the sacred text, and then, with the communal dhikr, in which the names of God love and reverence, touches to his or her lips that and various prayers are chanted and sung aloud. hand or cloth which has touched the Torah. The The dhikr may include ecstatic dancing as well. We cantor’s song, the chanting of the prayers in He- had the opportunity to join some followers of the brew by the Rabbi, and the congregation’s chant- Sufi tradition; their singing, dancing, and ritualistic ing in response, all serve to lift the worshippers’ prayers, though seemingly externally directed, turn minds from their daily concerns, filling them with their minds ever inward where they find a trans- a deep peace, which is the hallmark of the contem- forming peace. Their rituals then become an expres- plative life. sion of their deep love for God. Sikhs adore and revere their holy text, the Guru Granth Sahib. They wave incense around it and sing Jewish and Sikh Sacred Texts the praise of the Lord regularly for hours as their In Jewish temples, the Torah, the ancient Hebrew spiritual practice. These rituals help them withdraw scripture written on one long parchment scroll, is their minds from mundane thoughts. Many seekers hidden, as one would hide one’s most cherished became saints through this devotional practice. 75 PB January 2007 65 Prabuddha Bharata Hindu Science of Worship pared. The contemplative mood begins to arise in The Hindu tradition has developed ritualistic wor- our hearts. We contemplate offering to God those ship into a science which, if followed, can lead one things that we love most. We busy ourselves in mak- from external forms of worship ing sandalwood paste, cleaning to the depths of contemplation, the shrine, decorating the altar, and ultimately, to perfect union adorning the image, and pre- with Brahman. This progression paring the place of worship. All leads to the experience of sarvaṁ these external activities engage khalvidaṁ brahma, and ulti- our senses in the world of names mately to samadhi. Because this and forms—but all the while our progression is not generally well minds are revolving around the understood, many look down blessed iṣṭa devatā. Thus arises on ritualistic worship. But sin- the unconscious practice of vive- cere practice of ritualistic wor- ka and vairāgya—discrimination ship has brought many saints between the real and the unreal, to realization. Sri Ramakrish- and rejecting worldly thoughts. na’s life proves to the doubting As our minds go on contemplat- and sceptical modern mind the ing on God, we move, effort- value of such worship, and how Pujarini lessly, deeper into the mood of sincere love for God leads to the highest goal of vairāgya. And just as effortlessly, we fall more deep- God-realization. ly in love with God. Puja: Preparation Purification, Consecration, Divinization We shall now focus on worship, or puja, in the Hin- Our discussion will now focus on the puja ritual du tradition, and how preparation for and perform- as practised in the Ramakrishna Order. The three ance of puja help all the senses and their master, preliminary steps in puja are purification, conse- the mind, to become engaged with and absorbed cration, and divinization. These steps are applied in God. Spiritual aspirants develop attraction for to the worshipper, the articles of worship, and the a specific form of the Divine as their iṣṭa deva, or Deity as represented by the image; each step brings Chosen Ideal—Durga, Shiva, Kali, Krishna, Rama, the worshipper closer to the Divine. It is a move- Christ, Buddha, or Ramakrishna—whichever form ment from the gross to the subtle, and from the appeals most to their hearts. Being distracted by subtle to the causal. the business and stress of daily life, beginners can- How can the limited worship the Infinite? It is not ordinarily keep their minds on their Ideals for not possible: only God can worship God. There- long during meditation. But the activities of puja fore it is said, ‘Devo bhūtvā devaṁ yajet; Having involve the body and mind in such a way that the become divine, one should worship the Divine.’ So mind is naturally drawn to the Chosen Ideal, and the underpinning of the seemingly dualistic proc- is brought gradually to contemplation. ess of puja is actually advaitic: it is the divine who First, we must prepare and collect the mate- worships, and God who receives the worship. This rials for worship. While collecting flowers and is effected by the following process. leaves, fruits and sweets, while stringing garlands Before entering the place of worship, we purify and making sandalwood paste, and while cook- the body by bathing; we wear fresh clothes. Then ing special food items, our minds naturally think we enter the shrine, and make a full-length pranam, about our iṣṭa, for whom these things are being pre- surrendering ourselves completely to God. We try 66 PB January 2007 76 Worship and Contemplation to feel the living presence of the Deity in the shrine. to our forehead, and let the nectar from the moon We take our seats, think of God, repeat his name, flow down, creating a new, divine body. Finally, we and say, ‘Whether pure or impure, wherever one let the jivātman and the twenty-four cosmic prin- may be, if one remembers the lotus-eyed Lord, one ciples descend to their places in this new, divine becomes pure, both inside and out.’ With various body. We are now ready to worship the Divine, mantras, prayers, mudras, and sprinkling of holy having become divine; the old person is dead and water, we further purify the surroundings, the seat gone. If we have properly followed the process of on which we sit, the articles of worship, our hands, bhūtaśuddhi, we really feel perfectly pure and di- the flowers, the image of the Deity, and our own vine; our minds are steady, and we feel the pres- bodies. We drive away any evil spirits that may be ence of the Deity. nearby. We create a mystical wall of fire around Now that we, the worshipper, are pure and divine, us to shield us from any obstacles to worship. We we invoke the Chosen Deity in the heart. Touching perform simple pranayama, which balances the the chest, we pray, ‘May God’s prana (vital energy) nerve currents in the body. The purification pro- become seated in the place of my vital energy. Let cess moves from gross to the subtle; our minds also his individuality be established on my individu- become more calm and indrawn. ality. Let my sense organs be overpowered by his Bhūtaśuddhi, the ‘purification of the elements’, divine sense organs. Let my speech, my mind, my is the crucial next step. Through bhūtaśuddhi, we eyes, my skin, my ears, my nose, my breath, become strive to realize the identity of the jivātman (in- his. Let the iṣṭa devatā dividual soul) with the paramātman (supreme appear in my body and Soul). We sit in the meditation posture, and visu- mind and stay on for- alize the jivātman as an unflickering flame burn- ever in joy.’ Thus our ing in the heart. This flame then moves to the base body, mind, and senses of the spine, and awakens the kundalini at the are all lost into the di- mūlādhāra-cakra. The awakened kundalini, along vine body of the Lord. with the jivatman, moves up the suṣumnā, towards We are dead and gone the head. The lotuses of the chakras, which were as it were. Here sits the down-turned and closed, now turn upwards and worshipped God in the burst into bloom. When the kundalini reaches the body of the worship- sahasrāra-cakra, the thousand-petalled lotus in the per. This is Devo bhūtvā Manasa Puja: mental worship brain, the jivātman merges with the paramātman. devaṁ yajet. Only God! A thrill passes through our The twenty-four bhūtas or cosmic principles also body and mind. merge in the paramātman: the five gross and five subtle elements, the organs of perception and ac- Involution and Evolution tion, as also the mind, intellect, and ego—all merge Before the Deity is worshipped with external offer- in the supreme Self. Now Atman alone abides; we ings, worship is done internally. One can spend a are one with the Supreme. long time in this mental worship, forgetting time We then visualize the pāpa-puruṣa, the ‘person and outward conditions. We meditate on the di- of sin’, who represents the concretized form of all vine form of the Deity sitting in the heart, as guid- negative and evil thoughts and deeds accumulated ed by the meditation mantra. We offer the lotus of through millions of births, sitting in the left side the heart as a seat for the Chosen Ideal, and invite of our belly. We dry up this repulsive creature, and Him or Her to accept our worship there. All the also our subtle body, saying ‘yaṁ’; then we burn offerings are to be given mentally, and the items them to ashes, saying ‘raṁ’. We bring the moon up are made of subtle elements prepared by the mind 77 PB January 2007 67 Prabuddha Bharata Arghya, snana, nivedana: offering flowers, water, and oneself itself. Finally, we offer flowers representing virtues flowers, leaves, incense, light, fruits, sweets, drink- like compassion, freedom from envy, and divine ing water, and betel leaf. We feel thrilled that the knowledge. lord of the universe, who is beyond time, space, and Now we are ready to worship our Ideal external- causation, beyond the comprehension of the mind, ly. This is the process: we hold a flower by our heart, intellect, and ego, has, out of his infinite compas- and meditate again on the divine form of the Deity. sion, appeared before us to receive our humble gifts Then, gently breathing on this flower, we imagine of love. The expression of our deep gratitude for the that our beloved iṣṭa devatā is brought out from kindness of the Lord—his descent from his abode the heart to the flower. We place the flower on the of nirguṇa (without quality or form) to saguṇa- image and feel that the Lord is physically manifest sākāra (with quality and form), as it were—brings now in the image to receive our offerings. We thus to our mind a deep satisfaction, peace, and mood bring the Absolute, the nameless timeless Reality, of inwardness. For the purest of hearts, the dei- from within ourselves, to the world of name and ty becomes visible and tangibly receives the offer- form, where that Consciousness, in the form of the ings. When offering food to Mother Kali, Sri Ra- iṣṭa devatā, can be tangibly adored. makrishna witnessed rays of light emanating from the Divine Mother’s eyes and touching the offering, External Worship making it prasad. We offer flowers and gifts to a friend whom we love; when the very lord of the universe is before Seeing God Everywhere us, what shall we do? We offer the best, the choic- In following the path of worship, the distracted est things to the Lord as a token of our deepest love, mind can gradually come back to peace and joy. In- reverence, and respect. This loving offering takes us stead of fighting with the senses and the mind, we nearer to him. That is why it is called upacāra, ‘that employ them in the rituals of worship, prayer, and which takes one near’. We offer, according to our japa; they become friends in our journey towards means and ability, various special articles to this the Divine. In the beginning, worship may seem most honoured of guests: among other things, we dry, but by regular practice, with devotion and un- offer the nicest seat for the Deity, loving words of derstanding, worship will reveal its power to turn welcome, water for washing the feet and a towel to us toward the Divine within. dry them, scented body oil, water for bathing, new Swami Vivekananda says that at the beginning, clothes, ornaments, sandalwood paste, perfume, work and worship should go hand in hand. A con- 68 PB January 2007 78 Worship and Contemplation templative mood evoked during worship will help with Her hair blowing in the breeze. Sometimes one to see one’s work as service to God. Work done She would look towards Calcutta and sometimes in the spirit of service, again, will inspire one to towards the Ganges.’6 worship and meditate on God. After long practice, Mother is everywhere in the eyes of Sri Rama- work will be as if worship. The hand will work but krishna. His experience resonates with that of the the mind will think of God. When one’s practice Vaishnava’s: ‘Wherever my eyes fall I behold Krish- goes still deeper, there will be no distinction be- na,’ or that of Saint Patrick, who experienced Christ tween work and worship: all work will be worship on the right, Christ on the left, Christ in front, of God. Finally, external work will drop away as one Christ behind, Christ above, Christ below. This becomes totally absorbed in God. Then, medita- is also the Vedantin’s experience: ‘Sa evādhastāt- tion will mediate all our actions. sa upariṣṭāt-sa paścāt-sa purastāt-sa dakṣiṇataḥ sa Sri Ramakrishna told the young Swami Vivek- uttarataḥ sa evedaṁ sarvam-iti; He indeed is below, ananda, who wanted to stay in samadhi all the time, He is above, He is behind, He is in front, He is in that there is a state higher than samadhi—that is the South, He is in the North, He is indeed all this.’7 seeing God with eyes open. This was Ramakrish- This ultimate experience of Brahman comes spon- na’s own experience, after his first vision of the taneously in the life of one who sincerely practises Mother: worship, and who progresses to deeper and deeper stages of meditation: such a devotee is finally led to During worship and meditation the Master used to see the living presence of the Mother in the the experience of seeing God everywhere. P temple’s stone image of Her; now he could not see References that stone image at all. In its place was the living Mother, the embodiment of consciousness, Her 1. Chhandogya Upanishad, 7.6.1. hands bestowing boons and fearlessness. Later, he 2. Adhyatma Upanishad, 63. described what happened: ‘I put my hand near 3. Chhandogya Upanishad, 3.14.1. the Mother’s nostrils and felt that She was actually 4. Bhagavadgita, 12.5. 5. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. breathing. At night I watched carefully, but in the (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), lamplight I could never see Her shadow on the 5.386. temple wall. From my room I would hear Mother 6. Swami Saradananda, Sri Ramakrishna and His Di- running upstairs, as merry as a little girl, with Her vine Play, trans. Swami Chetanananda (St Louis: anklets jingling. I would rush outside to see if Vedanta Society, 2003), 216. this was true. And there She would be standing 7. Chhandogya Upanishad, 7.25.1. on the veranda on the second floor of the temple, Ganga arati: Varanasi 79 PB January 2007 69 Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Play: Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana Swami Atmajnanananda T o reflect on the divine play of God and to convey the meaning of a kind of joke (one not al- let that reflection deepen into meditation is ways funny to those not in the know). The term lila one of the greatest opportunities and bless- may be used in various contexts and with different ings in the life of a devotee. It is a practice that not layers of meaning, but in each and every case it re- only brings immense joy, but also helps deepen fers to a kind of manifestation (real or otherwise, one’s spiritual life and transform one’s nature. And depending on the context). It is an idea based on it is a practice that requires no great learning, study the belief that God, or Brahman, is not merely a of the scriptures, or powers of mental control. But transcendent, unmanifest reality, but is also imma- once we get a taste for this practice, we find that it nent, and manifests in a variety of different ways. grows more and more intense, and we discover that Sri Ramakrishna was very fond of this idea of a whole new dimension has been added to our spir- lila as the manifestation of the divine in the relative itual lives and practice. world, and he often juxtaposed it with the idea of In order to fully appreciate this practice’s won- nitya, the eternal, unmanifest, absolute aspect of derful power of attraction and equally wonderful God. While he recognized that God manifests in power of purification of the mind and heart, it will numberless ways, for him the highest and greatest be helpful to examine the three basic components manifestation of God was in the human form. We of lila chintana and lila dhyana. As with all aspects read in the Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, 24 Febru- of spiritual life, many of the concepts and ideas are ary, 1884: deceptively simple. And while we are all familiar Since my arm was injured, a deep change has come with the ideas of reflection, meditation, and lila, we over me. I now delight only in the Naralīlā, the find that the type of meditation and reflection we human manifestation of God. Nitya and Līlā. The engage in in this particular practice is very much Nitya is the Indivisible Satchidānanda, and the Līlā, or Sport, takes various forms, such as the Līlā coloured by the concept of lila, and thus will be as God, the Līlā as the deities, the Līlā as man, and quite different from the types of meditation and the Līlā as the universe. reflection we practise when following the paths of Vaisnavcharan used to say that one has attained yoga and knowledge. Perfect Knowledge if one believes in God sporting as man. I wouldn’t admit it then. But now I realize Lila that he was right (392). The term lila has three basic meanings, each distinct So we see that, from this point of view, Brah- in some sense, yet closely related. It may refer to (i) man’s manifestation as the different deities, as the a play or sport or pastime, a diversion or amuse- visible universe, as all living beings, even as the Per- ment. It also conveys the meaning of (ii) ease or sonal God, is all a kind of play, not real in any abso- facility, something that is ‘mere child’s play’. And lute sense and not explainable in any rational way. It finally, it gives the sense that (iii) something is not is said to be all just for fun, since Brahman cannot entirely real: it may be a mere appearance, a sem- feel any need to manifest or any lack if there is no blance, pretence, disguise, or sham, and may even so-called creation. If Brahman is to be considered 70 PB January 2007 80 Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Play: Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana perfect, there can be no room for any desire, and so what lesser extent, Rama, but is also quite similar we end up with the concept of lila. to the attitude many Christians have with regard to Christ. Two Aspects of Nara-lila There is a belief among certain Vaishnavas that But even from the point of view of nara-lila, God the divine sport between Krishna and the gopis manifest in human form, we find two distinct ideas. takes place eternally in an eternal Vrindavan, a di- From a philosophical and non-dualistic point of vine sphere not of this world. But they also believe view, it is Brahman alone which manifests in the that that play takes place on earth in every cycle. form of all human beings. Due to the force of maya, Here the idea of lila is especially pronounced, for Brahman has forgotten its true nature, as it were, Krishna is himself quite a practical prankster and caught up in the drama of life. That is why even fond of play and sport. And we find that each stage quarrels between one person and another, battles of Krishna’s life is considered another opportunity between one nation and another, have the quality to contemplate his divine nature and divine play: as of play to the God-realized soul. For it is God him- a small baby, as a young boy frolicking with the cow- self who is the actor, playing each and every role, in herd boys and milkmaid girls, and even as the young this divine and seemingly mad play of life. We find prince of Mathura and charioteer of Arjuna. Sri Ramakrishna often in this mood, especially to- We find all of the same elements of lila in the life ward the end of his life, looking upon the body as a of Sri Ramakrishna as well. When we examine all mere pillow case and seeing only God within, play- of the incidents of his life, we see that everything ing the role of all beings. seems staged and divinely directed. All the charac- But there is a second sense of nara-lila, which ters are in place and assuming their proper roles: his is more consistent with a devotional attitude and divine consort, Sri Sarada Devi, ever-perfect souls with dualistic spiritual practices (though it may also, such as Narendra and Rakhal, even M, the modern- as Sri Ramakrishna says, lead to the knowledge of day Vyasa, ready to take down his every word. And Brahman). This second sense revolves around the we can practise the same type of contemplation and concept of the avatara, or divine incarnation. It is meditation on Sri Ramakrishna’s divine play that typically this idea that we refer to when we speak the Vaishnavas do with regard to Sri Krishna. of meditation and reflection on the human lila of God. Meditation We have just seen that one aspect of God’s sport Let us now turn to the practice of meditation and as man is that He manifests as all living beings, or see how it applies to this idea of lila. The main ele- at the very least, dwells within the hearts of all liv- ments of meditation as taught in the yoga tradition ing beings as the higher Self. But the devotional are well known to most of us. We try to withdraw schools maintain that in addition to this, there is a the mind from contact with external objects by special kind of manifestation that takes place from closing off the senses. Then we attempt to focus time to time, perhaps necessitated by some extraor- the mind on a single point or object of meditation dinary historical or social conditions. At such times and try to keep the mind centred on that one point. an eternally perfect soul, which is somehow one When the mind begins to stray from that object, as with the Personal God, descends to earth and as- it naturally does, we try to bring it back through the sumes a human body. And that soul does not sim- process of abhyasa yoga, repeated practice, until it ply come alone, but brings along its own shakti, in becomes trained to remained fixed on the Chosen the form of a consort, and also a handful of divine Ideal, the object of meditation. companions. This is a belief typically associated As an example of this one-pointedness (ekagra- with the worshippers of Krishna, and to a some- ta), Sri Ramakrishna mentions Arjuna and his prac- 81 PB January 2007 71 Prabuddha Bharata whole meditation is spoiled until we once more Ramakrishna Ashrama, Rajkot regain our focus. This is precisely why meditation on the divine play of an incarnation of God or a great saint can be of such benefit to us. It allows us to keep our focus on a single point just as in the yogic type of medi- tation, but that single point has many facets to it, like a gem. And when the mind wanders away from one facet, rather than getting lost altogether, it can simply rest on another of the infinite divine facets. So the tendency of the mind to wander no longer represents a liability for us, but becomes rather a positive aid in this kind of meditation. We allow one divine association to lead us to another, so that we remain within the circle of the divine presence, just as the tether of a cow allows it to graze within a certain area defined by the length of the rope. Suppose, for example, we want to meditate on the image of Sri Ramakrishna. As we enter into the chamber of the heart we find ourselves standing in Sri Ramakrishna’s room in Dakshineswar. We pic- The Human Lila: Child Ramakrishna with the women of ture him seated on the small cot next to the larger Kamarpukur one on his left. We imagine his disciples, Narendra, Rakhal, Latu, Baburam, M, and the others seated tice of archery. At the time of aiming at a bird, Dro- before him on the floor. We let our eyes wander na asks Arjuna, ‘What do you see? Do you see these across the room and see the holy pictures on the kings?’ ‘No, sir.’ ‘Do you see me?’ ‘No.’ ‘The trees?’ wall. And the image of Sri Ramakrishna awaking ‘No.’ ‘The bird on the tree?’ ‘No.’ ‘What then do in the morning and saluting each of the pictures, you see?’ ‘Only the eye of the bird.’ clapping his hands and repeating the various names But attaining this same kind of one-pointed- of God, flashes before our eyes. Or we hear Nar- ness in meditation is far more difficult, especial- endra singing in his beautiful voice, throwing Sri ly in the beginning. The same Arjuna who was so Ramakrishna into an ecstatic mood. He rises from adept at blocking out everything else and focus- his seat and begins to dance. The devotees form a ing wholly on his object when it came to archery, circle around him and also dance. Then he becomes found the control of the mind to be as difficult as motionless in samadhi, Baburam quickly coming to trying to control the wind—‘tasyāhaṁ nigrahaṁ his side to see that he does not fall. manye vayor-iva suduṣkaram’ (Gita, 6.34). And in We let the mind wander to the northeast cor- this regard, most of us are in the same boat. The ner of his room, where the large container of Gan- mind rebels, doesn’t like to remain quiet, likes to ges water sits, and we remember that blessed night run around. And when it loses contact with its ob- of Phalaharini Kali Puja, when Sri Ramakrishna ject, it may end up anywhere. So if our concentra- worshipped Sri Sarada Devi as Shodashi, and we tion is only on the ‘eye of the bird’, there is every watch spellbound as both the worshipper and the possibility that when the mind strays, it will lose worshipped become lost in samadhi and pass the not only the eye but the bird as well. And then our night in that state. 72 PB January 2007 82 Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Play: Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana Or if the mind is not content to remain within his cot, and again going into a deep state of sama- the confines of Sri Ramakrishna’s room, we can ac- dhi, just as we see him in his photograph. Then we company him to the Kali temple, and watch him ourselves can resume our seat before him and sim- sit before the image of Mother Kali, sing songs to ply gaze at the blissful image of Sri Ramakrishna in her, wave the chamara before her, and enter into a ecstasy. And like Arjuna, we have entered the state state of divine inebriation. Or we can stroll to the of focusing only on the eye of the bird, not notic- north of Sri Ramakrishna’s room to the Nahabat, ing the surroundings or anyone else in the room or where Sri Sarada Devi is absorbed in the worship of even ourselves. Sri Ramakrishna, or standing behind the bamboo screen watching the divine scenes taking place in Fruits of Lila Dhyana his room. There is no end to the different ways in The first thing we notice after practising this kind which we can enjoy the divine sport and company of meditation is that there is a great deal of joy in it. of Sri Ramakrishna through the power of imagina- That is because we feel our Chosen Ideal to be alive tion and the practice of lila dhyana. and present before us, and ourselves seated there alongside of him. We have, in a sense, crossed time Advantages of Lila Dhyana and space, and experience the joy of the direct pres- There are several obvious advantages to this kind of ence of our Chosen Ideal, all with the aid of the im- meditation. For one thing, it allows us to transform agination. This type of experience, though far from the faculty of imagination from an obstacle in con- being any kind of spiritual experience, nevertheless centration to an aid. The very same tendency of the has a great power to transform our way of thinking mind to wander which gets us into so much trou- and feeling. Our connection and relationship with ble in other types of meditation becomes a posi- Ramakrishna Ashrama, Rajkot tive help to us here. And by giving the imagination certain limits within which to work, we find that the mind does not wander to other things, such as job, relationships, family, or friends. A second advantage is that we can practise this type of medi- tation even if we lack the perfect control over the mind necessary in the path of raja yoga. We also find that this type of meditation counteracts some of the obstacles we often encounter in meditation, especially the feeling of boredom that may some- times come or the tendency of the mind to fall prey to drowsiness. One of the ironies of lila dhyana is that, though we may take up the practice because we feel unable to concentrate the mind in any one-pointed sense on our Chosen Ideal, we find that, through this practice, our ability to focus the mind actually in- creases and we eventually reach a point where the mind does get fixed on the object of meditation. When we feel the mind gathering itself together, we can simply imagine the kirtan coming to an end, Sri Ramakrishna being slowly helped back to The Divine Lila: Ramakrishna with the divine child Ramlala 83 PB January 2007 73 Prabuddha Bharata Relics as inspiration: Sri Ramakrishna’s footwear; the ten rupee note donated by Sri Sarada Devi to the Ramakrishna Mission Home of Service our Chosen Ideal becomes something concrete and sense of the reality and limitless- tangible. We feel him or her to be our very own, ness of the inner world of our own consciousness, in whatever relationship we cherish—as a friend, and a sense of the hazy, transitory nature of the child, father, mother, or master—and our feeling external world. of love and devotion grows in proportion as this This type of meditation has a tremendous pow- feeling of closeness intensifies. er to transform us in another way as well. Since Furthermore, because we identify with the imag- we meditate not only on the image of our Chosen ined body of ourselves seated before the Chosen Ideal in lila dhyana, but also on the personality and Ideal in the chamber of our heart, we find, at the qualities, a kind of transference takes place wherein close of our meditation, that we had unknowingly we begin to take on the qualities of our Chosen dis-identified ourselves from the physical body of Ideal. As we think of Sri Ramakrishna and picture the waking state. So, one of the consequences of this him showering his love and affection on the devo- kind of meditation is that our identification and at- tees, we cannot help but imbibe some of those same tachment to the body is attenuated. We also realize qualities of love. And as we picture him going into that while we were dwelling in the presence of the states of divine ecstasy and inebriation at the very Chosen Ideal at the time of meditation, in a com- mention of God, we cannot help but acquire a bit pletely different realm of time and space, we had of longing for that same kind of God-realization. become oblivious to our own surroundings. We had, And finally, there is a great deal of carry-over ef- for a few precious moments, completely forgotten fect with this kind of meditation, so that a portion the world of our ordinary state of consciousness and of the mind continues to dwell in the presence of had entered into the world of the divine play. the Chosen Ideal at all times—at Dakshineswar From a philosophical point of view, we also come with Sri Ramakrishna or perhaps with Sri Sarada to realize that all of the elements of our meditation Devi, the Holy Mother, at Jayrambati—and we feel exist in the ethereal realm of pure consciousness an unexpected bliss bubble up from time to time and are composed of pure consciousness. Sri Ra- when these thoughts rise to the surface of the mind. makrishna often used to speak of chinmaya shyama In this way a kind of natural and spontaneous rec- and chinmaya dhama, both the Lord and his abode ollection of our Chosen Ideal and the divine play being embodiments of pure consciousness. And it goes on in our minds at all times. And this brings us equally applies to the image of the Chosen Ideal in to the final component of this topic, lila chintana, this kind of lila dhyana, as well as to the surround- reflection on the divine sport of the Lord. ings—Sri Ramakrishna’s room at Dakshineswar, Sri Ramakrishna himself, and all of the devotees, Lila Chintana including ourselves. We get a sense of the oneness Through regular meditation a kind of natural re- of our Chosen Ideal with the infinite Brahman, a membrance and recollection of our Chosen Ideal 74 PB January 2007 84 Meditation and Reflection on the Divine Play: Lila Chintana and Lila Dhyana takes place, which again is reinforced by further In addition to a regular habit of daily reading, meditation. This is one of the greatest aids in spir- there is another technique that is very helpful for itual life. It is of such importance that both Sri Ra- meditation. That is to read a particular passage, and makrishna and Holy Mother often said that it is use the incidents or teachings described there as the enough if we can practise these two things, constant subject of our meditation. For example, we read of remembrance of and reflection on God (smarana Sri Ramakrishna’s visit to Balaram Basu’s house dur- and manana). But it is equally true that our medi- ing the Ratha Yatra festival and picture ourselves on tation depends on an active and intentional effort the inner veranda with him as he pulls the chariot. to remember our Chosen Ideal throughout the day. Or we read of the Holy Mother sitting in the kitch- And one of the best ways to do this is to practice lila en in her home in Jayrambati, dressing vegetables chintana, reflection on the divine sport of the Lord. and talking to her beloved young disciples from While there are many ways we can pursue this goal, Koalpara, and imagine ourselves to be among them. there are two specific aids that are especially help- The result of both of these approaches to the litera- ful: spiritual reading and pilgrimage. ture surrounding Sri Ramakrishna and Sri Sarada Many spiritual traditions have a specific litera- Devi is twofold: on the one hand we find that our ture dealing with the divine play of God. For Chris- minds easily fly to the presence of Sri Ramakrishna tians it is the Bible, containing the tales and para- and Sri Sarada Devi in our meditation, and we feel bles of Christ. For Vaishnavas it is the Bhagavata ourselves seated before them; and on the other, we Purana and similar texts, filled with stories of the have the tangible experience of the reality of the divine play of Sri Krishna. Followers of Sri Ramak- divine lila at all times and feel that we can experi- rishna and Sri Sarada Devi have the special benefit ence the joy of sitting in their presence at any time of accurately recorded conversations between them through the practice of contemplation. and their disciples and devotees. The Gospel of Sri The second great aid to reflection on the divine Ramakrishna, in particular, is a unique contribu- lila is to actually go and visit the places associated tion to the spiritual literature of the world, for we with the earthly play of a divine incarnation. And it find not only Sri Ramakrishna’s words faithfully is important not only to visit these sacred places— taken down by his beloved disciple Mahendranath Dakshineswar, Kamarpukur, Kashipur, Jayrambati, Gupta, but also detailed descriptions of where he and Baghbazar, among others—but to breathe in was sitting at the time, the direction he was facing, the spiritual atmosphere, to contemplate the divine who was in his presence; each and every possible play that took place there, to picture the events that detail, including the phase of the moon. occurred and all the actors in that divine drama This type of literature calls for its own particu- who played their different parts. The more we can lar kind of reading. The Gospels of Sri Ramakrishna burn the images of these holy places in our hearts and the Holy Mother are meant for daily and re- and minds, the easier it will be to return to them in peated reading, and we find that as we go on read- our meditation and contemplation. ing them, more and more light comes. While we are This type of meditation and reflection on the reading them, the mind can wander to the time and divine play of the Lord may not be everyone’s cup place of their origin and can picture the exact set- of tea. Some may prefer a more impersonal and ting at the time. In this way our reading becomes an philosophical kind of practice. But if we feel drawn intense kind of contemplation bordering on medi- to this kind of spiritual discipline and can practise tation. We become filled with their spirit, infused it with great devotion and faith, a special kind of with the joy that emanates from their words, and joy will come to us and we will feel that a new and we feel the living presence of Sri Ramakrishna and precious dimension has been added to our spiritual the Holy Mother. life. P 85 PB January 2007 75 Obstacles in Contemplative life Swami Brahmeshananda M any people, both young and old, ask us bodies and minds are not accustomed to medita- nowadays: ‘Swamiji, do you hold med- tion; hence they react. The body starts aching, the itation classes?’ or ‘Can you teach us mind becomes dull, and desires and passions even meditation?’ I say, ‘Yes, I used to take regular week- appear to increase. Those who sit for meditation for ly classes on guided meditation, but now I have only ten or fifteen minutes a day may not find such stopped, and I am not going to start again.’ ‘Why?’ problems, but anyone desirous of diving deep into they ask. My reply is: ‘For three reasons. First, not meditation will face sharp and strong mental and even five per cent of those attending these classes physical reactions. The mind is churned, as it were, will practise regular meditation. Second, even if and such practitioners face tremendous mental ten- they do, they will not be successful, because most of sion. The whole life becomes unsettled, uncertain. them won’t follow the preliminary disciplines and In such a situation, many give up the contemplative rigorous moral life required for success. And finally, life; others continue mechanically; only a few hold if they succeed with their impure mind, they will on through thick and thin till the end. prove a curse to society and to themselves. Their 3. The third group of difficulties is due to our evil tendencies will increase. Some will go out of own mistakes, to leading our contemplative life their minds if they practise meditation forcefully. It carelessly. Disorganized living, overeating, sleeping is easy to talk about meditation and contemplative too much or too little, talking too much, being too life but is extremely difficult to practise it.’ social, mixing with people indiscriminately, wast- Life is full of hurdles and difficulties, and a con- ing time in useless gossip, reading unhealthy lit- templative life is a hundred times more so. Let me erature, and yet trying to lead a meditative life can emphasize the word ‘life’. Contemplative life does never be successful. Many practitioners try to lead not mean meditation alone. It implies complete a contemplative life with their minds still impure. transformation of life. Otherwise the accidents They want to continue to lead their impure hedon- mentioned above are bound to occur. In the present istic life, and at the same time aspire to taste the essay, we shall restrict ourselves to the obstacles and bliss caused by awakening of the kundalini. How difficulties encountered in contemplative life. can this be? Others go to the other extreme of crushing even Types of Obstacles their healthy and noble tendencies. Love, friendli- There are four types of obstacles in contemplative ness, right conduct, service, music, and intellectual life: pursuits are like steps to higher contemplative life 1. Some obstacles like hunger, thirst, sleep, and and help in overcoming baser tendencies. Some the like are physiological necessities which act as practitioners try to go too fast. They try to medi- distractions to meditation. They must be attend- tate for hours at a stretch or do excessive pranayama ed to and can be reduced considerably through without expert guidance, and come to grief. Per- practice. sons with extremely restless minds, and those who 2. The second class of difficulties arises as a reac- are temperamentally overactive, must start with a tion to the attempt to lead a contemplative life. Our few minutes of meditation at a time, and increase it 76 PB January 2007 86 Obstacles in Contemplative Life gradually. One must be able to assess one’s strengths and weaknesses. It is better at times to be pragmatic than idealistic. 4. Finally, many difficulties arise be- cause our ideas about the principles and practice of contemplative living are hazy. If the goal is hazy, the path uncertain, and the values of life indefinite, problems are bound to arise. Some Present-day Obstacles Traditionally, difficulties and problems are classified as adhidaivika, adhibhautika, and adhyatmika—those arising from natural calamities like floods, earthquakes, and Seeking light elsewhere droughts; those caused by other creatures, includ- and dive deep into meditation. ing human beings; and those caused by one’s own Eternal peace is always present as the substra- mind and body. A contemplative is primarily con- tum of noise and disturbance. One can keep a part cerned with the third class of problems, especially of one’s mind united with that supreme peace, on problems caused by his or her own mind. However, which one meditates during the hours of silence, the first two kinds of problems are also hindrances even during the noisiest hours. This is the only ef- and must be tackled effectively. The environment fective solution to the problem of noise pollution. and external influences do affect the struggling When we have no control over external circum- mind, and unless contemplation has become natu- stances, we must change ourselves and rise above ral, one must find ways and means of facing these the situation. hindrances. Sri Ramakrishna recommends that one medi- Noise pollution, absence of silence and solitude, tate in a forest, in a ‘corner’, or within the heart. and lack of a suitable place for meditation are some Yogis meditate in solitary caves, on mountain tops, of the commonest problems of modern times. The or in forests. Such places may not be easily available. population explosion, radios, tape recorders, and Places which are comparatively less crowded are the loud speakers, and the phenomenal increase in ve- next best. If a person is really earnest, he or she will hicular traffic have led to so much crowding and find secluded, pleasant sites conducive to medita- pollution everywhere that even solitary retreats are tion even in the busiest of mega cities. Such solitary not unaffected. How, in the face of such difficulties, places may be fewer, but they are never altogether do we lead a contemplative life? lacking. A small temple or shrine less visited by A serious contemplative solves this problem by worshippers, the bank of a distant river, a garden meditating at night. Even in a sprawling metropo- house away from town, and similar places can be lis, most people sleep at night: so at night, there found if one searches earnestly. One can certainly is peace all around. Hence, one must develop the create a suitable place in a corner of one’s house. habit of meditating at the dead of night or early Sacred places and important shrines like the jyo- in the morning, long before dawn. There are also tirlingas of Shiva and the shaktipithas of Devi are other times—especially the junctions of day and very conducive to contemplation because of their night, the sandhyas—when nature becomes still. strong spiritual vibrations. However, being pilgrim Alert contemplatives can easily detect these hours, spots, these places have become extremely crowd- 87 PB January 2007 77 Prabuddha Bharata the blessed quality of forbearance, titiksha. There is Vyaix-STyan-s<zy-àmadalSyaivrit-æaiNtdzRnalBx- no greater protective armour for a contemplative ÉUimkTvanviSwtTvain icÄiv]epaSte=Ntraya>, than patience and forbearance. Some saints have Disease, mental laziness, doubt, lack of enthusi- even recommended that we practise contemplation asm, lethargy, clinging to sense-enjoyments, false under adverse circumstances by choice so that in the perception, non-attaining concentration, and fall- long run we become immune to climatic effects. ing away from the state when obtained, are the obstructing distractions. —Yoga Sutra, 2.30 Obstacles Described by Patanjali The first of the nine obstacles enumerated by Patan- Ê>o-daEmRnSya¼mejyTv-ñasàñasa iv]epshbÉUv>, jali in the Yoga Sutra is disease. Some people enjoy Grief, mental distress, tremor of the body, irregu- a comparatively healthy body, but none can truly lar breathing, accompany non-retention of con- escape disease and old age. A contemplative must centration. —Yoga Sutra, 2.31 have a fair knowledge of his individual constitution and must observe the rules of health. Physical ill- ed. A contemplative may still find some suitable ness leads to lack of concentration, restlessness, un- place away from the actual shrine but in the vicinity, certainty, anxiety, tension, and fear. Mental anxiety where he or she can practise contemplation. Some and tension can, in turn, cause illness. While rules have successfully meditated even in the crowded, of health need to be followed and illness treated, noisy shrines using earplugs and eye covers. mental poise must be maintained under all circum- If even these are impracticable, one must de- stances. Swami Turiyananda, quoting Sri Rama- velop a habit of meditating within the sanctuary of krishna, used to say, ‘Let the body bear its suffering; one’s heart. Catherine of Siena was not allowed to O mind, you remain in bliss.’ All great contempla- live alone by her father and was forced to remain tives have had this approach. The body must be busy among people. But this great Christian saint neither neglected nor given undue importance. A would silently and secretly dive within her heart contemplative must lead a life of moderation. and meet her Beloved there. The second obstacle in Patanjali’s list is styana, Contemplation does not mean only meditation lack of energy or zeal for contemplative life. In spite with eyes closed. To see God with open eyes in peo- of knowing the importance of leading a contempla- ple around us, to develop the attitude of a witness to tive life, not to do so, or to give up doing so prema- our own physical and mental activities, to constant- turely, is called styana. People afflicted with styana, ly remember God, and to discriminate between Self though having an able body and mind, feel incom- and non-Self are some of the techniques by which petent to lead a noble life. we can maintain a contemplative mood even in Doubt is another obstacle. It can be about the crowded environs: ‘The ideal man is he who, in the goal or the path, or about one’s ability to pursue it. midst of the greatest silence and solitude, finds the All serious practitioners of contemplative life pass intensest activity, and in the midst of the intensest initially through a painful period of uncertainty activity finds the silence and solitude of the desert. caused by samskaras: one group pulling them to- … He goes through the streets of a big city with all wards enjoyment and another pushing them to- its traffic, and his mind is as calm as if he were in a wards higher life. Such a state of doubt and un- cave, where not a sound could reach him.’1 certainty can be overcome by getting a clear idea Difficulties caused by climatic conditions must of the spiritual goal and the path of contempla- also be considered. The contemplative should not tion through repeated reading of and deep think- allow extremes of heat and cold, rains, storms, and ing on spiritual texts (shravana and manana). If the like to disturb his mental poise. He must have one is fortunate enough to live with a preceptor, 78 PB January 2007 88 Obstacles in Contemplative Life doubts can be easily removed. Finally, if one were on the four Noble Truths destroys doubt. Samyak lucky enough to get some sort of mystic experi- samkalpa or right resolve, that ‘I shall realize the ence, however insignificant, doubts would vanish. Truth’, ‘I shall attain liberation in this very life’, is Hence one must hold on to contemplative prac- the next step. Without right resolve, right attitude tice. Gradually doubts disappear and stability is is of no value. A practitioner can overcome laziness, achieved. One must never remain in a state of un- carelessness, and inertia by such a resolve. Samyak certainty for long. karma, samyak ajivika, and samyak vyayama, right Carelessness: Some people are careless by nature action, right livelihood, and right effort, together and don’t do anything with full attention or energy. with samyak vak, right speech, regulate body, mind, Such people cannot succeed in contemplative life. and speech and make the practitioner fit for the They lead a mediocre life, which may eventually final steps of samyak smriti and samyak samadhi, prove harmful and even dangerous. All the rules right mindfulness and right concentration. and conditions of contemplative life must be ful- One of the most important obstacles mentioned filled with great care. by Patanjali is avirati, lack of the spirit of renun- Laziness is another obstacle mentioned by Pa- ciation and lingering attraction for worldly enjoy- tanjali. A person with this bad habit continuously ments. Although one can embark upon contempla- yields to love of comfort and ease, and avoids exer- tive life without dispassion, old impressions of han- tion. Such people fall asleep while meditating and kering for objects of sense enjoyment will sooner or are not fit for contemplative life. Laziness must be later arise and disturb one. Brooding over objects of overcome by self-effort, a balanced, moderate diet, enjoyment and sensuous imagination must be to- and wakefulness. It is better to spend a few years tally given up. Discrimination leads to detachment; in active useful life, than to embark upon a life of such discrimination is called bhavana in Jainism. contemplation with a lazy body and mind. Bhavanas are twelve in number. Some of these are These five obstacles mentioned by Patanjali are mentioned in the boxed note below, though in Jain essentially due to preponderance of tamas, the literature they are described in great detail, with an principle of inertia. Practice of the Noble Eight- illustrative story for each. fold Path preached by Bhagavan Buddha can effec- Delusion or erroneous perception: It is not easy to tively overcome them. Samyak drishti or right at- obtain a true spiritual experience. Yet, the beginner titude obtained by repeated study and meditation is often obsessed by the idea of having some expe- Bhavanas in the Jain tradition belongs to him or her—not relatives, friends, wealth T o think that the body, wealth and property, family and friends are impermanent and the Atman alone is eternal real and immortal, is called anitya bhavana. or property, not even the body. In ashuchi bhavana, discrimination is centred around the impure nature of the human body and the pure nature of the human soul. Disease, old age, and death will have to be borne by Evil impressions caused by aversion and attachment, oneself alone, none can share them; dharma or righ- lust and greed, and other such impulses flow into the teousness alone can provide support: this type of dis- embodied soul and lead to bondage and an unend- crimination is called asharana bhavana. This world is ing chain of transmigrations. This process is technically like a fire pit or a jail or a dark well: to think thus is called called inflow or ashrava. Samvara and nirjara are the samsara bhavana. One is born alone and will leave this Jain terms for prevention of further evil acts, and the world alone too; one has to suffer the fruits of one’s ac- consequent bondage, and destruction of the already tions alone; friends and relatives are with us only for a accumulated karma-bondage, through meditation and few days: such contemplation is called ekatva bhavana. austerity. Contemplation on these bhavanas leads to In anyatva bhavana, the practitioner thinks that none dispassion. 89 PB January 2007 79 Prabuddha Bharata rience. Having read about the experience of light, After describing these nine major obstacles, Pa- nada-brahman (Brahman as the uncreated sound), tanjali mentions four subsidiary obstacles, which or awakening of the kundalini, practitioners be- are in fact signs of mental illness. They are pain, de- come impatient for them and get deluded by some pression, tremor of the limbs, and irregular respira- petty sensations. It is on record that some practi- tion. Pain and suffering are signs of illness. We do tioners fall asleep while meditating and think that consult a doctor for physical pain—but often ne- they have experienced samadhi! Intellectual con- glect mental suffering, which is a sure sign that the ception of high truths is mistaken for actual realiza- mind is not healthy. The feeling of helplessness in tion. Spontaneously arising mental pictures may be solving problems leads to depression. Unattended mistaken for visions, while a physically and mental- anxiety and depression may lead to tremor of limbs, ly relaxed state is mistaken for the bliss of Brahman. palpitation, perspiration, and irregular respiration. Innumerable such false perceptions are possible. A restless mind does not allow the practitioner to Genuine spiritual experience is possible even in the sit steady. To move our limbs during meditation is early stages of spiritual life, but it is always advisable indicative of a restless mind. Hence Swami Vivek- to consult a more experienced person before con- ananda has advised that one must learn to make cluding that one has had a true experience. one’s seat steady and firm before taking up medi- Alabdha-bhumikatva, non-attainment of the de- tation. Practice of yogasana (yogic postures) and sired state: At times the practitioner is not able to some amount of pranayama under the guidance of attain what he or she wishes to achieve. For exam- an expert can remove these physical symptoms. ple, one may find it difficult to meditate in the heart. Even if one is able to focus one’s attention at the lo- Obstacles Described in tus of the heart, one may fail to visualize the whole the Mandukya Karika image of one’s chosen ideal. Or, one may not be able According to Acharya Gaudapada, the author of to visualize it as luminous or living. Such problems the celebrated Vedantic treatise Mandukya Karika, arise in the beginning of contemplative life. There there are four obstacles in the Vedantic path: laya, are many more difficulties in the advanced stages. vikshepa, kashaya, and rasasvada. These can be overcome by continuous uninterrupt- Laya means a state of mental dullness or even ed practice, and strict moral discipline. sleep. The mind must be aroused and made active. Anavasthitatva, failure to hold on to a specific Sleep is essential, but its duration can be reduced by state: Sometimes the contemplative is not able to leading a regulated life, taking light, easily digest- remain at a specific level of contemplation but slips ible, and nourishing food, and avoiding extreme down to a lower state. This happens because one has physical activity. not strictly observed moral rules or attained enough Vikshepa, restlessness of mind: If laya originates purity of mind, which are essential preliminaries. from tamas, vikshepa is a manifestation of rajas, the Besides, one must try to ascend to a higher state principle of activity. A mind used to worldly pur- only after being well-established in the lower one. suits is naturally restless and extrovert. For years We have, in short, reviewed the obstacles men- we have been engaged in worldly activities at cer- tioned by Patanjali. Practice and renunciation, or tain hours of the day. During these hours the mind dispassion, are the two general means of overcom- naturally remains active and restless. Similarly, the ing them. Apart from these, surrender to God, mind automatically becomes quiet in the hours practice of japa, and thinking on the meaning of when we sit for meditation regularly. But if we re- the mantra also remove obstacles. Patanjali also main very active throughout a particular day, we mentions practising one technique (ekatatva abh- shall find it difficult to meditate even at the fixed yasa) as one of the means. hours on that day. It is advised that by discrimina- 80 PB January 2007 90 Obstacles in Contemplative Life tion the mind must be weaned from its habit of been able to unite with God! Everything—from running after sense objects. Forcibly trying to con- daily routine to social conduct—becomes uncer- trol a restless mind may lead to increase in tension tain. This is an unavoidable obstacle. Some suc- and mental aberration. Restless persons must not cumb to it and give up contemplative life. But one try to meditate for long hours. must hold on to the practice of contemplation with Vikshepa could be of various kinds:(i) The mind greater tenacity. Scriptural studies, holy compa- is by nature restless, as is the case with most begin- ny, and strict adherence to moral discipline greatly ners; (ii) Worries and anxieties of day-to-day life, help in overcoming this difficulty. and the thoughts with which the person remains Rasasvada: There is joy in contemplation. How- normally engaged, cause disturbance; (iii) Sub- ever, such minor experiences of spiritual joy are a conscious impressions are churned up, and such hindrance, according to Mandukya Karika. The thoughts, ideas, and emotions as were never expe- contemplative must not get attached to these. rienced or thought of before come to the conscious Dwelling on this joy is a hindrance. Although for surface; (iv) Passions, especially lust, are aroused; mediocre practitioners such a taste of higher joy (v) Wonderful plans and ideas for work arise and may not be a hindrance, it must be remembered tempt the practitioner to relinquish contemplation that attachment to such joy is as great a bondage as and put those ideas into practice; the practitioner attachment to sense enjoyment. The aspirant must must forcibly drive these ideas away and never put try to rise above it by disregarding it. them into practice. Kashaya: Even when aroused from inertia and Vasana-traya: The Three Desires withdrawn from sense attractions, the mind may Generally, a serious practitioner embarks upon a enter into a sort of stupefaction. This is a serious ob- contemplative life after relinquishing desire for stacle and is caused by intense attachment or aver- spouse, progeny, wealth, and worldly prosperity. sion. This is difficult to overcome because it is due Such sincere aspirants too fall a prey to desire for to deep-rooted impressions of likes and dislikes. social recognition, for study of scriptures, and for Ups and downs are natural on the path of con- the care of the body. templation. On some days, we may have good People hankering after name and fame or social meditation. On other days we may not be able to recognition (lokavasana) conduct themselves in meditate at all. Some days we may get joy. At other such a way as to please others, to get honour and times we may feel absolutely dry within. We must praise, and to avoid dishonour. This is an impossi- remember that even when we are not able to medi- ble task. There has never been anyone in the world tate well, we are still united with God in the depth who was always honoured and never cursed. In of our being, and that nothing is truly lost. We fact, it is impossible to please everyone. Swami Ya- might be gaining more energy for a higher ascent. tiswarananda said that if someone is able to please We must, during such dry spells, hold on to our all, there must be something wrong with that per- spiritual practice. son. Insults and curses are more beneficial for a seri- A contemplative has to draw his or her mind ous contemplative than honour and praise. It is said away from the world and consciously cultivate no- that insults increase one’s merits, and honour caus- ble thoughts. One may pass through a stage when es loss of merit gained through austerities, just as a one can neither go back to the world, nor fix one’s cow becomes tired and listless after being milked. mind on a higher ideal. The mind then becomes Contemplatives have therefore often to behave in absolutely unsettled. One feels lonely and lost. One such a way that people remain away from them; but can neither meditate, nor enjoy sense objects. One they must not resort to unethical conduct. has broken all worldly connections and yet not Although scriptural studies are essential as a 91 PB January 2007 81 Prabuddha Bharata preparation for contemplative life, these may be- by Patanjali. This hindrance has become extremely come a hindrance if one gets addicted to too much common in modern times. study of too many books. All great contempla- Due to the impressions of innumerable past tives, including Sri Ramakrishna, have decried too lives, violence, untruth, and the like have become much study of books. Sri Ramakrishna would say natural for us, and are now even considered essen- that one needs just a penknife to kill oneself, but tial for fulfilling our selfish interests. Killing an en- a shield and a sword are required to kill another, emy, ferocious animals, or even mosquitoes is con- meaning thereby that the practice of a few precepts, sidered essential for our protection and well-being. rather than the reading of scores of books, is re- Such activities are endorsed as righteous, dharmic. quired for one’s own spiritual growth. Hence a con- Some people undertake such acts themselves, some templative person must select one or two books get them done through others, while still others most suited for his or her contemplative pattern of endorse such acts. Again, we may be prompted to life, read them repeatedly, and put the instructions undertake such ethically dubious acts out of greed, into practice. prompted by anger, or in the erroneous belief that Many practitioners, after withdrawing their they are meritorious acts. mind from worldly pursuits, become much more While in certain specific situations such acts body conscious and spend undue time and energy may be permissible, a person aspiring to rise to in keeping their bodies healthy and beautiful. But higher levels in contemplative life must give them most advanced contemplatives virtually disregard up altogether. The method of weaning oneself from the physical body. such contrary actions, beliefs, and promptings is In Jainism, wherein contemplative life is given called pratipaksha bhavanam in the Yoga Sutra, and great importance, ten categories of possible obsta- involves deeply thinking about the evil after-effects cles have been mentioned which a serious practi- of violence, falsehood, possessiveness, sexual indul- tioner must avoid. They include: (i) a fixed dwell- gence, stealing, and such other acts. ing place, if its upkeep is a cause for anxiety; (ii) family, if the welfare of the family members is a Conclusion cause for concern; (iii) acquiring gifts and reputa- As will be evident from going through this special tion that involves spending time with admirers; (iv) issue of Prabuddha Bharata, the contemplative life projects and plans—having something to do; (v) a is a highly specialized form of life, which is not so following of students, or being busy with teaching; easy as it might appear from the outside. It requires (vi) illness necessitating treatment; (vii) theoreti- a lot of preparation and clearing of the way. The ob- cal studies unaccompanied by practice; (viii) peo- stacles in this path are many, and as one progresses, ple dear to one, whose physical and psychological newer and subtler ones crop up. It is not possible in needs demand attention; (ix) travelling about; (x) this short essay to describe all of them. Practition- supernatural powers. ers, as they advance, will discover them themselves, and if they are sincere, will be able to get over them Vitarkabadha: Obstacles Caused by either on their own, or with the help of other con- Contrary Views templative co-practitioners or experts in the field. No one can succeed in leading a truly contempla- May their path be free from obstacles. P tive life without strictly observing moral and ethi- cal values like truthfulness, non-violence, conti- Reference nence, non-possessiveness, and non-stealing. One 1. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. of the important obstacles to observance of these (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), values is caused by contrary views, as mentioned 1.34. 82 PB January 2007 92 Fruits of Contemplation: Some Reflections Swami Bhaskarananda C ontemplation means concentrated sustains fire; without it fire ceases to be fire. There- thinking or meditation. It can be of two fore, the dharma of fire is its burning capacity. In kinds—spiritual and secular. Every action case of us human beings, it means something that must produce an effect or fruit. Contemplation is forms the very core of our existence—something action; therefore it also must produce some effect without which we cease to exist. According to our or fruit. scriptures, that mysterious ‘something’ is the ind- welling divinity or God. It sustains us. Therefore, Four Fruits this is our true dharma. The Hindu scriptures tell us about the four goals God has two aspects—one endowed with per- of human life. They are kama, artha, dharma, and sonality, the other devoid of any personality. The moksha. Sri Ramprasad, the saintly poet of Bengal, first one is called Ishvara or Personal God, and the in one of his songs describes the Divine Mother second, Brahman or Impersonal God. Kali as a wish-fulfilling tree and these four goals of God or divinity cannot be known by an ordi- human life as its fruits. These fruits can be achieved nary mind. Only a mind with a preponderance of through contemplation. sattva is able to experience God. Such a mind is Kama in simple language means desire. In this also called a pure mind. This state of mind can be particular case, however, it means desire for objects achieved by intense spiritual practice. of sense enjoyment. And sense enjoyment is possi- Dharma leads us to moksha. One who experi- ble only in the realm of matter. We can have sense ences Ishvara or Brahman attains moksha. Moksha enjoyment only in the worlds that we experience is liberation from the cycle of repeated births and in the waking and dream states, because both are deaths in this transmigratory world. According to realms of matter—one gross and the other subtle. the Hindu scriptures, moksha can be attained by It should be mentioned here that the ancient any of the four yogas—bhakti yoga, raja yoga, jnana Sankhya philosophers of India knew that tangible yoga, or karma yoga. gross matter, energy, and even the mind are only different evolved states of the subtlest primordial Thought and Action matter called Prakriti. Prakriti is composed of three Among the four goals of human life, dharma and extremely subtle substances called sattva, rajas, and moksha are spiritual goals, while kama and artha tamas. So far as the mind is concerned, only when are secular. To achieve any of these goals action is sattva is preponderant in it can it know objects in necessary. But there cannot be any action without the deepest possible manner. a thought behind it. Even our reflex efforts are the Artha means money. Money is no other than result of repeated actions of the past, which also are potential sense enjoyment, because in exchange for prompted by our thoughts. A little deep thinking money we get objects of sense enjoyment. Dhar- enables us to realize that our human personalities ma has been defined in our scriptures as ‘dharanad are no other than the effects of our past thoughts. dharma ityahuh; that which sustains’. For example, In other words, we are really more our minds than fire has the capacity to burn. It is this capacity that our bodies. A saint is mentally a saint, not physically. 93 PB January 2007 83 Prabuddha Bharata The sage Ashtavakra’s body was defective, but that better, saintly people. did not affect his saintliness. Similarly, a sinner is In the epic Ramayana, the well-known story of mentally a sinner, not physically. Ratnakara provides us with a beautiful example of What one contemplates, one becomes. If a per- how spiritual contemplation can transform even a son has holy thoughts most of the time, he or she robber into a saint. It is not that important to find becomes saintly. On the other hand, one who con- out whether a termite mound really grew around tinually indulges in evil thoughts becomes evil. Ratnakara’s body or not. It is more probable that he Mundane thinking will lead us to the fruits of kama sat in a place surrounded by several termite mounds. and artha, while spiritual thinking will enable us to The storyteller obviously used this idea to drama- achieve the fruits of dharma and moksha. Sri Ra- tize Ratnakara’s total absorption in the chanting of makrishna used to say, ‘If you meditate on an ideal the holy name. The most important message that you will acquire its nature. If you think of God day we get from the story is that the robber Ratnakara and night, you will acquire the nature of God.’ became spiritually transformed into the great sage Mahendranath Datta, a younger brother of Swa- Valmiki. In other words, the fruit of Ratnakara’s mi Vivekananda, was a scholar who authored many spiritual contemplation was his experience of God. books. In one of his books he gives an interesting This experience transformed him into Valmiki. example of how concentrated mundane thinking Our scriptures and religious tradition provide can transform a person. He narrates the follow- us with many such examples. But the age of inspi- ing incident about a circus performer who could rational mythology is long past, and we now live manage a show with several caged tigers: Once in a world of scientific scepticism about religion Mahendranath Datta asked the performer how he and spirituality. Science encourages us to test every accomplished that near-impossible feat. The man truth, spiritual or secular, through verifiable experi- said, ‘Before entering the tiger’s cage, I start think- ence and reasoning. ing with great concentration that I am a tiger, only much bigger and more powerful than the one in Can Ordinary People become Saints? the cage. Thinking intensely in this manner, when In this age of scientific scepticism, some of us may I enter the cage I am able to play with one, two, or wonder if such transformation can really happen three tigers. I do not feel I am a man then, but a to ordinary people living in this age. These people huge tiger.’ are not like exotic fruit trees; they are relatively val- Mahendranath Datta became curious and asked ueless and insignificant. Can they ever yield good the performer if he would not mind demonstrat- fruits? Can they have such wonderful transforma- ing his technique. The performer agreed. Within a tion as seen in the case of Ratnakara? Can they few minutes his face started changing. It acquired a transform their ordinariness into extraordinary strange, ferocious look. The transformation was so saintliness through spiritual contemplation? The abrupt and scary that Mahendranath, then a young answer to such questions is an emphatic ‘Yes’. man, became alarmed and asked the performer to We find many examples of such transformation stop whatever he was doing. Even after stopping, among the disciples of Sri Ramakrishna. Latu, Ag- the performer took quite a while to regain his usual hormani, and Girish Chandra Ghosh are three of mental composure. them. They are well known within the circle of ad- This case shows us how contemplation of even mirers and devotees of Sri Ramakrishna. Mainly the secular kind can literally transform a person, through bhakti yoga, the path of devotion, they albeit temporarily. There are many examples, how- came to experience high spiritual states and even- ever, of how spiritual contemplation can perma- tually attain God-realization. nently transform ordinary, imperfect people into Latu was a young illiterate servant in Dr Ram- 84 PB January 2007 94 Fruits of Contemplation: Some Reflections chandra Datta’s home in Calcutta. Through his Aghoramani had attained spiritual illumination; employer he came in contact with Sri Ramakrishna, she had become a God-realized soul—a saint. whom he accepted as his guru. Having no formal What brought about this wonderful spiritual education, he was never able to read any holy books. transformation in Aghoramani? It is not hard to Other than serving his guru and his guru’s saintly understand that her sainthood was the fruit of her wife, Sri Sarada Devi, for a few years, his only oc- many years of contemplation. cupation was doing his spiritual practices of intense Then there is the story of Girish Chandra Ghosh. japa and meditation for most of the day and night. In his younger days he was of bohemian nature, and And he eventually got the fruits of his spiritual for a while had no faith in God. At that time he contemplation. He experienced God. The illiter- took an axe and demolished a clay image of the ate house servant Latu became Latu Maharaj, also Divine Mother Durga that had been brought to known and revered in the Ramakrishna Order as his home. Later he turned out to be the best actor Swami Adbhutananda. of the Calcutta stage, and one of the greatest play- Aghoramani, an illiterate child- wrights of Bengal. Nevertheless, he widow of a Bengal village, experi- had acquired a few vices, including enced God in the form of the baby an addiction to drinking. Krishna or Gopala. She used to However, after coming in con- have the continual vision of Gopa- tact with Sri Ramakrishna, a great la, whom she looked upon as her change came over him. He became child. Like a mother, she would feed genuinely interested in spiritual life him, clothe him, talk to him, and and started looking upon Sri Ra- play with him. Thus she came to be makrishna not only as his guru but known as ‘Gopaler Ma’ or Gopala’s also as a divine incarnation. One mother. This spiritual experience day, he surrendered himself com- was the result of her many years of pletely to Sri Ramakrishna, and spiritual contemplation. asked him how he should live from It was her long-standing practice Aghoramani Devi: Gopaler Ma then on. to rise at two o’clock in the morn- Sri Ramakrishna instructed ing. After chanting her ishta mantra for five or six Girish to remember God and think of Him every hours, she would take a bath in the Ganga and morning and evening. But Girish was honest with then help with the worship in the household tem- himself; he realized that he would not be able to ple until noon. She then cooked a simple meal for follow his guru’s instructions. So he kept silent, and herself, and after eating, rested for a short while. looked downcast. Sri Ramakrishna then asked him Then she would sit again and chant her mantra till to ‘remember Him once before taking food and the evening arati started at the temple. Much of once before going to bed’. Girish was not sure if the night she spent doing japa. She followed this he could do even that, so very irregular was his life. routine almost without a break for many years. In Sri Ramakrishna understood the disciple’s condi- short, every day she spent at least sixteen hours in tion, and said, ‘Very well, then give me the power spiritual contemplation. of attorney.’ When Sri Ramakrishna saw Aghoramani having Girish readily agreed to that proposal. But he the vision of her divine child Gopala continuously, gradually realized that not only his spiritual prac- he smiled and said to a woman devotee present tice, but also whatever he had achieved or owned in there, ‘Just see, she is completely filled with Bliss; his life no longer belonged to him, since he had giv- her mind has now gone to the sphere of Gopala!’ en his power of attorney to Sri Ramakrishna. This 95 PB January 2007 85 Prabuddha Bharata realization generated in his heart a feeling of total in chittakasha. Similarly, all objects and living be- surrender toward his guru, whom he looked upon ings in the dream world exist in chittakasha. as God. Thus, surrendering everything to God, To explain chidakasha, I would like to refer Girish became transformed beyond recognition. to yoga philosophy again. According to the yo- All his vices, including his addiction to drinking, gis, there are three very narrow channels running dropped away. The bohemian and atheist Girish through the backbone. The left channel is ida, the became a saintly soul. right channel is pingala, and the channel in be- At the fag-end of his life Girish would proudly tween them is sushumna. When we are physically announce, ‘Look at me! See what I was, and what and mentally active, our energy passes through the Sri Ramakrishna has made of me!’ pingala channel. At this time our outgoing breath is After seeing all these wonderful examples of stronger through the right nostril. When our body spiritual transformation, we know the reason why and mind are resting, our energy passes through such transformation happened. We know that the the ida channel. At this time our outgoing breath only cause of such transformation was spiritual is stronger through the left nostril. The sushumna contemplation. But still we may like to know how channel is usually closed at its lower end. It can be spiritual contemplation transformed these devo- made to open up through intense spiritual prac- tees into saints. tices such as japa and meditation. When awakened, the kundalini enters the sushumna channel and Mechanism of Illumination starts coursing upward toward the brain. When Saintliness is a state of mind. The mind acquires that happens, the spiritual aspirant gains access to this state after experiencing God. According to the knowledge-space, the chidakasha. the yogic school of Hinduism, such experience What a spiritual aspirant experiences in ma- can come only when the spiritual energy inher- hakasha or chittakasha are not genuine spiritual ent in all human beings, called the kundalini, has experiences. Being the products of vivid imagina- been awakened through spiritual contemplation. tion, they are not any different from fantasy or Every person has this energy lying dormant in him hallucination. But whatever the spiritual aspirant or her. Like a coiled up snake in a state of hiberna- experiences in the chidakasha is genuine spiritual tion, it lies dormant at the base of the spine. The experience. Such experience alone transforms a Sanskrit word kundalini means ‘something that is mind permanently. As the kundalini courses high- coiled up’. er and higher through the sushumna channel, the When a person with a concentrated mind thinks spiritual aspirant has higher and higher genuine of God—who is ever pure and the holiest of the spiritual experiences. Eventually, when the spirit- holy—through either incessant japa or meditation, ual energy reaches the sahasrara, the highest point he or she becomes mentally holy and pure. A pure of the sushumna channel, the spiritual aspirant mind has a preponderance of sattva. This mind becomes one with divinity. This is spiritual en- enables one to experience God. Aside from this, lightenment—the ultimate fruit of spiritual con- something else also happens. templation. A person becomes truly fulfilled only The scriptures talk about three kinds of space: after this experience. physical-space or mahakasha, mental-space or Therefore, to have genuine spiritual experience, chittakasha, and knowledge-space or chidakasha. to experience God, the awakening of the kundalini The physical world, with all its stars and planets, ex- is essential. This is how intense and concentrated ists in mahakasha. We, the creatures on this planet spiritual contemplation permanently transforms earth, also exist in mahakasha. Whatever exists in an ordinary person into a saint, a God-realized the domain of our thoughts or imagination exists soul. P 86 PB January 2007 96 ACROSS TRADITIONS The Vaiṣṇava Contemplative Tradition Swami Purnananda T he term Vaiṣṇava refers to devotees of God Vaiṣṇava Āgama in general as well as to devotees of Vishnu in The Āgamas are the secondary scriptures of Hin- particular. As is evident, the word has been duism, derived from the Vedas. Though they have derived from Vishnu. In one sense, Vishnu denotes many divisions, the primary Āgamas are five in the omnipresent, all-pervading Being, while in an- number: Saura, Śākta, Gāṇapatya, Vaiṣṇava, and other, it represents one of the famous triad of dei- Śaiva or Pāśupatya. The Vaiṣṇava Āgama has two ties of the Hindu faith, the preserver of creation. main subdivisions: the Vaikhānasa Āgama and the He has four arms, holding a conch (Pāñcajanya), Pāñcarātra Āgama. As all these Āgamas are said to a discus (Sudarśana), a mace (Kaumudakī), and have been derived from the Vedas, they are called a lotus. This concept of Vishnu is Puranic. But it Śrauta Āgamas. has a very ancient origin. The name Vishnu ap- The Vaiṣṇava tradition is primarily a tradition of pears in the Rig Veda: ‘Idaṁ viṣṇur-vi cakrame bhakti, devotion to God. Nārada defines bhakti as tredhā nidadhe padam, samūhḻam-asya pāṁsure; being of the nature of intense love for God: Sā tvas- Vishnu traversed this world: thrice he planted min parama premarūpā.2 The sage Śāndilya defines his foot and the whole (world) was gathered in it as supreme attachment to God: sā parānuraktir- the dust of his footsteps.’1 Elsewhere he has been īśvare.3 Two types of bhakti have been described by conceived as a personification of light and of the the teachers of bhakti: vaidhī and rāgānugā. Vaidhī sun (1.155). He is called Śipiviṣṭa, clothed in rays bhakti involves worship and other rituals as instruct- of light. The wise ever contemplate the supreme ed by the scriptures, whereas in rāgānugā bhakti in- station (paramaṁ padam) of Vishnu as the eye tense love for God is fundamental, and rituals and ranging over the sky (1.22.20). The idea of the worship become secondary. The Vaikhānasa Āgama Vedic Vishnu is abstract, whereas that of Puranic deals primarily with vaidhī bhakti, while Pāñcarātra Vishnu is anthropomorphic. He is the unconquer- Āgama teaches both vaidhī and rāgānugā bhakti. able Preserver who lives in Vaikuṇṭha or Goloka, and during the period of dissolution he rests on Vaikhānasa Āgama the great serpent Ananta or Śeṣa in the midst of The Vaikhānasa school of Vaiṣṇavism claims its ori- the ocean of causal waters (kāraṇa salila). Many gin from the sage Vikhanas or Brahma, the Creator Puranas describe him as the Supreme God. Nev- himself. The Vaikhānasas are primarily a commu- ertheless, even the Puranic idea of Vishnu has its nity of temple priests, and the mode of their wor- source in the Vedas. ship is essentially oriented towards Vishnu. The Vāsudeva, Nārāyaṇa, and Kṛṣṇa are the main Vaikhānasa Gṛhya Sūtras prescribe for the house- epithets of Vishnu. Krishna is the primary object of holders a daily worship involving the fabrication devotion in the Bhāgavata and Gauḍīya traditions. of an image of Vishnu. All gods and goddesses are He is worshipped in several forms: as Vāsudeva supposed to be worshipped in Vishnu.4 To the Krishna (the Supreme Being), as Gopāla Krishna Vaikhānasas, Vishnu is the Supreme Being, the (baby Krishna), as Vanamālī Krishna (the young highest principle. He has two aspects: sakala (with cowherd), and as the king of Dwāraka. form) and niṣkala (without form). The niṣkala as- 97 PB January 2007 87 Prabuddha Bharata pect is his essence as all-pervasive Being, while his The Common Contemplative Tradition of conditioned presence (the sakala aspect) grace- Vaiṣṇavism fully responds to devotional intent and medita- Vaiṣṇavism is in the main a tradition of bhakti. This tion. Moksha is release into Vishnu’s abode, called bhakti has been defined and explained in differ- Vaikuṇṭha. It can be attained by the practice of japa ent ways by different teachers. Unmotivated de- (devoted repetition of a mantra or prayer), hūta votion (ahaitukī bhakti) to God is preached in (sacrifice), archanā (service to the image), and the Bhagavata: ‘Sa vai puṁsāṁ paro dharmo yato dhyana (meditation conforming to a yogic regi- bhaktir-adhokṣaje, ahaituky-apratihatā yayā’’tmā men). Four types of moksha have been described: samprasīdati;That is the highest religion of human- sālokya (to live in the abode of God), sāmīpya (to ity from which arises motiveless and uninterrupted live near God), sārūpya (to have a form akin to devotion to God that fills the soul with bliss.’6 The that of God), and sāyujya (being united with or Narada Pancharatra defines bhakti as the realiza- merged in God). The last one is considered the ul- tion that God alone is ‘mine’ (truly one’s own), ac- timate moksha. The Vaikhānasa treatises speak of companied by divine love (preman) and devoid of four abodes of Vishnu: Āmoda, Pramoda, Sammo- attachment to any worldly object. In later Vaiṣṇava da, and Vaikuṇṭha, where Viṣṇu, Mahā Viṣṇu, Sadā tradition a distinction is drawn between bhakti Viṣṇu, and Nārāyaṇa respectively preside. Among and preman. Bhakti is spontaneous attachment for the four sadhanas, archanā has been declared the God, being entirely possessed by and absorbed in highest by Marichi Samhita. By means of archanā him. Preman is the most concentrated form of this one can enter Vaikuṇṭha, the abode of Narayana, love, characterized by that intense attachment to and enjoy eternal bliss. God which purifies the heart completely. Preman is the culmination and fulfilment of bhakti, its ut- Pāñcarātra Āgama most perfection. This is also the basis of the two Pāñcarātra Āgama prescribes worship of Naraya- divisions: vaidhī or sādhana bhakti (ritual devo- na. The Pāñcarātra tradition follows both vaidhī tion) and rāgānugā or premā bhakti (the devotion and rāgānugā bhakti. The term Pāñcarātra can be consequent upon intense attachment). traced to the Pāñcarātra yajna (a sacrifice spread over five nights) described in the Shatapatha Brah- Spirit of Renunciation in Vaiṣṇavism mana.5 The Ahirbudhnya Samhita says that Nara Although there are exceptions, formal renunciation yana himself composed the Pāñcarātra Tantra and is not an important component of the Vaiṣṇava tra- there explained the secret of his five forms: Para dition. The renunciation practised by its adherents (the transcendent), Vyūha (the primary emanation), manifests more as an indifferent attitude towards Vibhabha (subsequent manifestation—as avataras), worldly objects that are obstacles to one-point- Antaryāmin (the indweller within individuals) and ed or single-minded love for God. This is called Arcā (the divine manifestation within consecrated yukta vairāgya (detachment proper): ‘Anāsaktasya images). viṣayān yathārham-upayuñjataḥ, nirbandhaḥ kṛṣṇa- The Pāñcarātra tradition of Vaiṣṇavism and sambandhe yuktaṁ vairāgyam-ucyate; That detach- the Nārāyaṇīya section in the Śāntiparvan of the ment which is characterized by acceptance of only Mahabharata have great similarity. The prima- those objects that are not detrimental to devotion ry aim of the Pāñcarātra tradition is prapatti or and which is accompanied by a desire to associate śaraṇāgati (self-surrender), and the path is there- with Krishna is termed yukta vairāgya.’7 This is in fore called ekāntika (with but one aim). According contrast to phalgu vairāgya (feeble detachment): to Pāñcarātrikas, śaraṇāgati or total resignation is ‘Prāpañcikatayā buddhyā hari-sambandhi-vastunaḥ, the main method of contemplation. mumukṣubhiḥ parityāgo vairāgyaṁ phalgu kathy- 88 PB January 2007 98 The Vaiṣṇava Contemplative Tradition ate; Renunciation of all objects—even those related vaidhī bhakti. Each school has its own approach, to Krishna himself, knowing them to be worldly— emphasizing one or more of these aspects. Accord- by seekers of salvation is termed phalgu vairāgya’ ing to Nārada, dedication of all actions to the Lord (1.2.254). This is the spirit of renunciation of those and extreme yearning on forgetting him are marks who tread on the path of knowledge. Vaiṣṇava dev- of devotion. The lineage of Parāśara holds that at- otees generally practise yukta vairāgya. Sri Caitanya tachment to worship and other rituals is the mark Mahāprabhu exemplified an uncompromising spir- of bhakti. Garga maintains that speaking of His it of renunciation, and so did his direct disciples glories is the sign of devotion. Śāndilya holds that like Rūpa, Sanātana, and Jīva Gosvāmi. love for the Self is bhakti. Another aspect of devo- tion especially stressed in the Vaiṣṇava tradition Sannyasins and Householders is association with and service to devotees of the and their Sacraments Lord. The Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavas hold that to have The Vaiṣṇava movement comprises both sannyasin utmost taste for taking the Lord’s name, compas- and householder traditions. Each has a tradition of sion towards all jivas (living beings), and service to teacher-pupil succession (paramparā), maintained devotees (initiated Vaiṣṇavas) are the means to as by the process of dīkṣā (initiation with a mantra). well as marks of devotion. But it is śaraṇāgati that On being initiated into the sect (sampradāya) the is most important for a Vaiṣṇava spiritual aspirant. disciple undertakes to abide by the values of the This śaraṇāgati has six aspects: (i) resolve to subor- tradition and the community. He or she receives dinate one’s will to the divine will, (ii) avoidance a mantra of Vishnu or Krishna (and in case of re- of all that is contrary to His will, (iii) firm faith nunciants a new name) in accordance with the that the Lord is the saviour of all, (iv) acceptance traditional iṣṭa (Chosen Deity) of the particular of the protective grace of the Lord, (v) total surren- sampradāya. All Vaiṣṇavas must mark their fore- der to Him, and (vi) awareness of one’s poverty (of head with sandalwood tilaka (a holy mark in the spirit): ‘Ānukūlyasya saṁkalpaḥ prātikūlyasya var- form of an extended ‘U’) and other sacred marks— janam, rakṣiṣyatīti viśvāsa goptṛtvavaraṇaṁ tathā; signs of Vishnu’s insignia—on different parts of the ātmanikṣepakārpaṇye ṣaḍvidhā śaraṇāgatiḥ.’ Vaidhī body: arms, nose, chest, and the like. A body with- bhakti is further categorized into three groups ac- out these marks is considered ‘as inauspicious as a cording to the three guṇas: sāttvika, rājasika, and carcass’. All initiated Vaiṣṇavas are also expected to tāmasika. wear a string of beads made from the stem of tulsi (the holy basil) around their necks, have a rosary for Rāgānugā or Premā Bhakti japa (repeating the divine name), and wear a śikhā The highest form of devotion is that which tran- (a knotted tuft of hair on the back of the head). scends all the three guṇas. It is love for love’s sake alone. It is a spontaneous and uninterrupted in- The Marks of Vaidhī Bhakti clination of the mind towards the Lord without Vaidhī bhakti has nine aspects (navalakṣanā or even the desire for liberation (mukti). It is supreme navadhā): listening to the name and glories of the bhakti, or preman—intense, uninterrupted, un- Lord, chanting his holy name, constant remem- alloyed, and motiveless love towards God, which brance, service, worship, salutation, servitude, leads to God-realization. friendship, and self-surrender—all directed to This preman surpasses all other types of bhakti. Vishnu: ‘Śravaṇaṁ kīrtanaṁ vishṇoḥ smaraṇaṁ Sri Ramakrishna says, ‘The mature stage of bhakti is pādasevanam, arcanaṁ vandanaṁ dāsyaṁ sakhyam- bhāva. When one attains it one remains speechless, ātmanivedanam.’8 These nine ways of worshipping thinking of Satchidānanda. The feeling of an ordi- Vishnu are followed by all the Vaiṣṇava schools as nary man can go only that far. When bhāva ripens 99 PB January 2007 89 Prabuddha Bharata it becomes mahābhāva. Prema is the last.’9 When and total union between the devotee and the Be- love towards God is intensified, a sweet relationship loved takes place is mahābhāva. The deep impact of is established between God and the devotee. This this experience affects the entire being—the mind, rāgātmikā or rāgānugā bhakti manifests in five differ- body, and soul of the devotee. It manifests exter- ent attitudes (bhāvas): śānta (calm), dāsya (service- nally as the sāttvika vikāras (unaffected emotions), ful), sakhya (friendly), vātsalya (parental), and mad- which are recognized to be eight in number: sveda hura (amorous). Several sentiments go to make each (perspiration), stambha (stupor), romāñca (horri- attitude, and each bhāva subsumes the sentiments pilation), svara-bhaṅga (broken voice), vaivarṇya inherent in the preceding attitude. For instance, in (pallor), aśru (tears), vepathu (tremor), and pra- śānta bhāva the devotees enjoy divine bliss through laya (loss of consciousness). These manifestations meditation on the transcendental beauty of the De- take place only when the mind becomes extremely ity and adore him with all their hearts’ devotion. pure and totally free from all worldliness. Sri Rama- When this love matures into a personal or relational krishna has pointed out that ‘the ordinary jīva does love, the devotees serve the Deity much like a serv- not experience mahābhāva or prema. He goes only ant serves the master. This stage of love includes sne- as far as bhāva’ (255). ha (affection), praṇaya (friendship), māna (pique), There are many sects among the Vaiṣṇavas. We and rāga (attachment). A servant enjoys both the shall now take a brief look at some of them and see wealth (aiśvarya) and sweet affection (mādhurya) how they have adapted and developed these general of the Lord. Next the devotee approaches even near- ideas on contemplation. er and loves the Deity as a friend (sakhā). This type of love includes anurāga (love as a constant fresh- Śrīvaiṣṇavism and Rāmānuja ness) in addition to the sentiments mentioned ear- Nāthamuni is traditionally considered the founder lier. When love rises to a still higher level it mani- of the Śrisampradāya (that is how this school is re- fests as parental affection (vātsalya) for the beloved. ferred to in North India), and Yāmunācharya the All the qualities inherent in friendly love are further first ācārya. But it was Rāmānuja who established intensified and awareness of aiśvarya is dispelled; this school on a firm footing. only mādhurya prevails. Up to this stage of paren- Bhakti: According to the Śrīvaiṣṇava tradition, tal love, the bhakti is relational (sambandhātmikā). bhakti is realizing one’s ultimate relationship with When the last vestige of remoteness of the Deity the Lord as his eternal servant. This relationship vanishes from the mind of the devotee, two more generates love for and attachment to him. Rāmānuja mental states become manifest: bhāva (intoxica- also equates bhakti with dhyana and upāsanā. Dhy- tion) and mahābhāva (supreme love-intoxication). ana is the concentration of the mind on the De- The personality of the lover merges with the Belov- ity, and upāsanā, continuous thought of Him or ed. The lover concentrates his or her whole being Her. Bhakti has two stages: sādhana-bhakti (bhak- on the Beloved and becomes united with the Deity ti as means, i.e. ritual devotion) and phala-bhakti in spirit. This is the highest consummation of love or sādhya-bhakti (bhakti as fruit). Sādhana-bhakti for God. This has been described as amorous love aims to inculcate strong faith in the Deity as the (kāmātmikā), which is considered the highest form highest value and a sense of the utter transitoriness of contemplation in the Vaiṣṇava tradition. The of worldly achievements. Sādhya-bhakti is being es- devotees of this grade do not want liberation or any- tablished in love for God, as a servant loves the mas- thing other than divine communion—enjoying the ter. This is the means to mukti. To achieve sādhya- absolute sweetness (mādhurya) of the Lord. This is bhakti, one must go through a seven-fold culture the culmination of preman, the purest love for the (sādhana saptaka): (i) viveka, discrimination regard- beloved. The state where separation is overcome ing what ought to be accepted and what to be given 90 PB January 2007 100 The Vaiṣṇava Contemplative Tradition up, especially in relation Other Vaiṣṇava Traditions to food; (ii) vimoka, The theological traditions of the other Vaiṣṇava control of passions like sects in South India have resemblance to the anger, jealously, and one developed by Rāmānuja, albeit with note- lust; (iii) abhyāsa, prac- worthy variations. Teachers like Madhva, Val- tice of disciplines like labha, Nimbārka, and others also incorporated worship, japa, chant- Rāmānuja’s ideas in their philosophies. Mad- ing the names of God, hva too did not accept the Advaitic concept of and pilgrimage, in or- jīvanmukti or nirvāṇa mukti. According to him, der to maintain a con- mukti is the attainment of Vaikuṇṭha, the abode stant memory of God of Vishnu (sālokya), and attainment of a form sim- Sri Ramanujacharya as the indwelling prin- ilar to the Deity (sārūpya). Mukti or salvation is ciple (śeṣin) within oneself as well as in the whole attained only by the grace of Vishnu, and even af- universe; (iv) kriya, the five-fold works or sacrific- ter mukti the jiva remains the servant of the Lord. es—to gods and goddesses through agnihotra (fire Ishvara and jiva are distinct entities. Bhakti, the sacrifice) and other rituals, to the rishis through only means of salvation, leads to the direct percep- scriptural study, to one’s ancestors, to human beings, tion of the Deity. By performing proper worship a and to other living beings (bhūtas) through appro- person becomes com- priate offerings; (v) kalyāṇa, virtuous conduct, con- petent for bhakti. This sisting in practising virtues like satya (truth), ārjava worship includes : (straightforwardness), dayā (compassion), dāna aṅkana (marking the (charity), and ahimsā (non-injury); (vi) anavasāda, body with holy sym- freedom from despair, dejection, pessimism, and bols), nāmakaraṇa the like, and maintenance of a cheerful and positive (naming children and attitude of mind; and (vii) anuddharṣa, absence of other objects of love exultation or excitement, maintaining an even tem- with holy names), perament in all situations. and bhajana (ser v- Prapatti: By long and continued practice of ice). Bhajana again is these disciplines, one is established on the plane Sri Madhvacharya of three types: kāyika of vaidhī bhakti consisting of dhyana and upāsanā. (physical), vācika (verbal), and mānasika (mental). Thereafter the aspirant ascends to the plane of Kāyika bhajana includes dāna (charity), paritrāṇa paramā bhakti (supreme devotion), maintaining (acts of deliverance), and parirakṣana (acts of pro- in oneself the knowledge that one is merely a śeṣa tection). Vācika bhajana includes satyakathana (a minute part of the whole, which is the Deity) (speaking the truth), hitavākya kathana (benefi- and that the Deity is the śeṣin (the whole). Paramā cial counsel), priyavākya kathana (sweet and gen- bhakti is identical with prapatti (resignation). This tle speech), and svādhyāya (study of scriptures). state of being an eternal servant of the Lord is itself Mānasika bhajana comprises dayā (compassion), the highest goal. The idea of identification with the spṛhā (desire for service to God), and śraddhā Supreme Being is not acceptable to the Śrīvaiṣṇava. (faith in the guru and scriptures). Through these According to this tradition the Supreme Being or devotional practices mediate knowledge is gained; Puruṣottama is by nature devoid of all blemish this helps the growth of bhakti, which in turn re- and is full of limitless, unsurpassable, and count- sults in enlightenment. This leads to a very ripe de- less auspicious qualities: ‘nirasta-nikhiladoṣo-’nava votion which, in turn, leads to liberation—eternal dhikātiśayāsaṅkhyeya-kalyāṇaguṇagaṇaḥ’.10 servitude to God. 101 PB January 2007 91 Prabuddha Bharata The Vāllabha Tradition of Viṭṭhala or Viṭhobā Although the school founded by Vallabhācharya ac- of Pandharpur, includ- cepts the Vedas, the Bhagavadgita, and the Narada ing Nāmadeva, Eknāth, Pancharatra as scripture, its primary authority is the Tukārām, and Janābai Bhagavata Purana, because this text is directly relat- among others); and ed to Krishna. For Vallabha, Sri Krishna is the Sat- smaller sects associated cid-ananda Parabrahman, also called Puruṣottama, with Haridās and Dādu. even when present in his pastoral aspect as the Jñāneśvara blended cowherd boy of Vraja. Vallabha, however, does not bhakti with Advaita accept the reality of Rādhā as in the Vrindavan Vedanta in Jnaneshvari, Vaiṣṇava tradition and the Gauḍīya tradition. Ac- his commentary on the cording to Vallabha the highest type of jiva is puṣṭi Bhagavadgita. The oth- Mirabai jīva, the spiritually nourished jiva. This concept er sants have stressed bhakti as the path to God-re- of puṣṭi is derived from the Bhagavata: ‘poṣaṇaṁ alization and advocated singing the name of the tadanugrahaḥ; poṣaṇa is his grace.’11 This is why Lord and chanting his praise. These sants accepted Vallabha’s system of philosophy is called Puṣṭi and preached the path of pure devotion (premā Mārga. One may practise bhakti rigorously, but bhakti), considering God a loving parent or master divine grace is nonethe- rather than as the divine lover of the Bhāgavata or less the last word and Gauḍīya tradition. An exception was Mīrābāi; she the summum bonum practised and preached rāgānugā bhakti (passion- of life. A puṣṭi jīva pre- ate love) towards the Lord, viewing him as lover. fers to serve the Lord, even eschewing muk- Gauḍīya and Bhāgavata Tradition ti. Bhajanānanda (the The Gauḍīya tradition of bhakti is based on the joy of devotional ado- theology of the Bhagavata and the Narada Pan- ration) is infinitely su- charatra. The Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavas are worshippers perior to brahmānanda of Rādhā and Krishna. The person of Rādhā does (the bliss of Brahman), not find mention in the Bhagavata. This concept and this can be had Sri Vallabhacharya is derived from the Narada Pancharatra, where through service to Krishna, the Pūrṇa Puruṣottama Pārvati, the divine consort of Shiva, says: ‘Tadrāse (the Supreme Being totally manifest). To attain dhāraṇādrādhā vidvadbhiḥ parikīrtitā; I held you this privilege, the disciplines of nine-fold bhak- in rāsa (divine play), that is why I am known as ti mentioned earlier have been prescribed. When Rādhā by those in the know.’12 Gopīs, the milk- this bhakti matures, the devotee enters into a tran- maids of Vraja, are the embodiments of amorous scendental state in this very life and gets a spiritual love. The aggregate of this love of the gopīs is Rādhā, body in the life beyond, in order to be perpetually the embodiment of mahābhāva, the manifestation engaged in the divine service of the Lord. of hlādinī (the power of divine beatitude), which is one of the components of God’s svarūpa śakti Early Medieval Vaiṣṇava Schools (intrinsic powers). Many other Vaiṣṇava devotees called sants preached This concept of Rādhā is a dominant theme the doctrine of love throughout India. Several sects in Vrindavan. The highest aspect of mahābhāva, have preserved the traditions they founded. These known as mādana or maddening delight, is pos- include the sects of Nimbārka, Rāmānanda, and sessed only by Rādhā and none else, not even by Samartha Rāmdās, the Vārkarīpantha (worshippers Krishna.13 The delight Rādhā derives thereby is so 92 PB January 2007 102 The Vaiṣṇava Contemplative Tradition immensely superior to what Krishna enjoys as the minates in mahābhāva. object of her love and is so irresistibly tempting, In this state separation that Krishna cannot suppress his eagerness to taste is removed and total his own charms and sweetness as Rādhā does. Ac- union prevails; the as- cordingly, there is an aspect of Krishna in which all pirant enters into the the attributes of the Krishna of Vrindavan as well as supreme state of divine those of Rādhā coexist.14 In this aspect, Krishna, as ecstasy and becomes the subject of mādana, relishes his own charms and one with the beloved, sweetness. Caitanya Mahāprabhu (or Śri Gaurānga), enjoying the absolute is considered to be this dual form—Krishna and mādhurya of Krishna. Rādhā embodied in one frame—by the Gauḍīya In this state Krishna Vaiṣṇavas. So it is their custom to worship Gaurānga Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu is looked upon as the and his companions before worshipping Krishna. nearest and dearest, nay—the person of the devo- The highest privilege for a jiva is to serve the tee is totally merged into that of Krishna, who is Lord with madhura rati (amorous attachment) and Narayana of Goloka, the advaya jñāna-tattva vastu, be united with him, while maintaining one’s indi- the unique or non-dual essence of knowledge. viduality, or while maintaining an idea of separa- tion of Puruṣa and Prakṛti (in Vaiṣṇava theologi- Sahajiyā and Śaṅkaradeva Traditions The Sahajiyā sect developed in the train of the Cait- I will build a funeral pyre of sandalwood anya movement, though it is virtually extinct at and aloe; present. Its practice involved madhura bhāva as light it by Your own hand. parakiyā sādhana, having a person of the opposite When I am burned away to cinders, sex, other than one’s spouse, as companion for one’s smear this ash upon Your limbs. sadhana. An aspirant practises looking upon his … let flame be lost in flame. —Mirabai or her paramour as an embodiment of Rādhā or Krishna to foster divine love. cal terms). To attain this state one needs to prac- Important exponents of the Gauḍīya tradition tise thinking of oneself as a young gopī, beautifully include Rūpa, Sanātana, and Jīva Gosvāmi. Among dressed, attending on Rādhā in her love-pastimes more recent traditions, the Svāmīnārāyaṇa group with Krishna, being the principal subordinate to bears resemblance to the South Indian tradition Rūpamañjarī, the chief among Rādhā’s attendants of Vaiṣṇavism, while ISKCON, the Hare Krishna (known as mañjarīs). Similar is the mode of medi- school, follows the Gauḍīya tradition. The ISKCON tation for devotees with other ratis (2.22.91). followers emphasize keeping count on the rosary But this is not possible for novices. So they are ( japa mālā) while repeating the holy name, and to prepare themselves by following the disciplines consider the Bhagavata, the Gita, and the Chaitan- of vaidhī bhakti and navadhā bhakti mentioned ya Charitamrita their main scriptures. In Northeast earlier. Thereafter, the aspirant is expected to de- India, Śaṅkaradeva has a large Vaiṣṇava following. velop the sentiments inherent in the śānta, dāsya, This group considers the Bhagavata as the embodi- sakhya, and vātsalya attitudes (sneha, praṇaya, and ment of Krishna, and worships it as such. They usu- the like). When the aspirant feels a deep attraction ally do not worship images, but otherwise follow for and cannot bear separation from Krishna, he or Gauḍīya theology. They follow the teachings of the she is established in bhāva. When this too ripens, Bhagavata, which prescribes the Kaliyuga meth- the aspirant is established in the attitude of a gopī od of worshipping the Supreme Being through ( gopī bhāva siddha), which, in select aspirants, cul- kīrtana, identifying him with Krishna and Rama, 103 PB January 2007 93 Prabuddha Bharata and addressing him as Mahāpuruṣa.15 Thus the for God. He declares that God realization is the Puruṣottama of the Gita sole aim of human life, and that a still higher aim is is the Mahāpuruṣa of the to love God with all one’s heart and soul but with- Bhagavata, and the the- out any ulterior motive. Mukti is a secondary mat- ology of Śaṅkaradeva is ter for Ramakrishna, and is inferior to bhakti. The known as Mahāpuruṣiyā culmination of all knowledge is the realization that Dharma. Kīrtana, the the same (and one) God has become the jivas, the main method of wor- universe, and all its components; it is to experience ship, is also called nāma- God in every thing and in every being. This is also dharma. Just as the the highest state of bhakti according to Vaiṣṇava Gita enjoins giving up Sri Shankaradeva theology. Hari Om. P all duties and the practice of implicit resignation The image of Madhvacharya is courtesy of Rama- to the Lord,16 Śaṅkaradeva also lays great stress krishna Mission, Chengalpattu; other images in this ar- on eka śaraṇa (surrender to the one Lord), which ticle are courtesy of Ramakrishna Math, Hyderabad. gives the school its other epithet eka śaraṇiyā. The concept of mukti is not given much importance by References this sect, and it does not accept madhura bhāva or 1. Rig Veda, 1.22.17. the Rādhā and gopī concepts of Caitanya and the 2. Narada Bhakti Sutra, 2. Bhāgavata school. 3. Shandilya Bhakti Sutra, 2. 4. Vaikhanasa Grihya Sutra, 4.10.12. Sri Ramakrishna on Vaiṣṇava Bhakti 5. Shatapatha Brahmana, 13.6.1. 6. Bhagavata, 1.2.6. According to Sri Ramakrishna, in this Kaliyuga de- 7. Rupa Gosvami, Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu, 1.2.253. votion as prescribed by Nārada is the way to God- 8. Bhagavata, 7.5.22. realization. This involves intense love for God and 9. M, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami Ni- total indifference towards everything contrary to khilananda (Chennai, Ramakrishna Math, 2002), 502–3. God; and this is developed by singing the names 10. Ramanujacharya, Brahma Sutra Sri Bhashya, 1.1.1. and glories of God. Ramakrishna says that two 11. Bhagavata, 2.10.4. things are essential to realize God: simplicity and 12. Narada Pancharatra, 1.2.62. yearning. It is necessary to establish a close relation- 13. Rupa Gosvami, Ujjvala-nilamani, ‘Sthayibhava ship with God and impress deeply on the mind the Prakarana’, 172 et seq. 14. Krishnadas Kaviraj, Chaitanya Charitamrita, idea that God is one’s very own. Knowing this, one 1.4.109, 115–16; 2.8.239. must take refuge in God and develop an intense 15. Bhagavata, 11.5.32–34. attachment for him/her. He says, ‘God reveals 16. Bhagavadgita, 18.66. Himself to a devotee who feels drawn to Him by 17. Gospel, 83. the combined force of these three attractions: the attractions of worldly possessions for the worldly O mind, meditate on Mura’s adversary; man, the child’s attraction for its mother, and the O hands, be clasped in the worship of Sridhara; husband’s attraction for the chaste wife.’17 He pre- O ears, hear the great deeds of Achyuta; scribes four aids to contemplation: (i) association O eyes, be fixed on Krishna; with holy persons, (ii) solitude, (iii) discrimina- O feet, go to the temple of Hari; tion (between the real and the unreal, to develop O nose, smell the tulsi at the feet of Mukunda; the conviction that God alone is real and all else O head, bow down to Adhokshaja. unreal), and (iv) prayer for genuine faith and love —Kulashekhara Alvar, Mukundamala 94 PB January 2007 104 ACROSS TRADITIONS The Śākta Contemplative Tradition Swami Vimalatmananda T he worship of Shakti has a unique place Śāktism, the religion of the Śāktas. According to in the religious and spiritual life of the In- this tradition, the highest reality is the Divine dian people. Shakti is Power, Energy—the Mother, the personification of primordial energy, active principle of the universe which is personi- the controller of all forces, the power behind di- fied as Goddess. Every form of activity—however vine and cosmic evolution, and the source of all it be named—proceeds from the primordial Shak- that exists. Śāktism is based on Vedic mantras and ti. Shakti pervades the entire universe. It is wor- Upanishadic philosophy. It has been propagated shipped as Devi, or the Divine Mother. This wor- by Advaita Vedantins including Acharya Shanka- ship is popularly known as Shakti Puja; people have ra. According to this tradition, Shakti is identical been performing Shakti Puja from time immemo- with Brahman. Shakti and śaktimān (the locus of rial. Dr Pushpe ndu Kumar has rightly observed: shakti) are one. It can be seen through the different phenomena The Puranas mention the prevalence of Śāktism of life itself. Durgā Sapta Śati says, ‘yā devī during various historical periods, beginning with sarvabhūteṣu śakti rūpeṇa saṁsthitā’, i.e. every Vedic times. But it gained prominence in the epic one of us has inherent power called Śakti, which period. In the preface to his monumental book His- is a part and manifestation of Parā Śakti, the Supreme Goddess. The powers of gods came to be known and worshipped by the different names and epithets—the Vaiṣṇavī Śaktis like Lakṣmī, Śrī, Pṛthivī etc. and Śaiva Śaktis like Durgā, Pārvatī, Kālī, and so on. The trinity of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva work through their Śaktis for the creation, maintenance and annihilation of the world.1 The Divine Mother is very important to Hindu religion and spirituality. She commands as much respect and worship in India as the other gods and incarnations. There are numerous shrines across the country dedicated to the various forms of the Divine Mother. Feasts and festivities in her honour are an important component of the national calen- dar. Nowhere in the religious and spiritual history of the world do we find this worship of the Divine Mother so prominent as in India. Śāktism and the Śākta The worshippers of Shakti are called Śāktas. The Śāktas have their own beliefs, doctrines, tradition, symbols, cult, myths, and rituals. These constitute Devi Durga, Almora 105 PB January 2007 95 Prabuddha Bharata tory of Śākta Religion, us a vivid description Narendra Nath Bhat- of the Śākta religion. It tacharya has rightly is commonly held that observed: Śāktism means Tant- The role of Śāktism rism. Tantric ideas pro- changed from time foundly influenced dif- to time in accordance ferent religious sects with the changing and radically changed social demands, their views as well as from the guiding principle of primitive their practices. But hunting rituals and some scholars hold the agricultural magic to opinion that Śāktism that of movement of and Tantra are two national awakening, separate entities. The from the esoteric term Śākta has a wider cults and practices import than the appel- Devi Kalika, Kalighat arising out of the lation Tantric, and Śākta literature may be traced former to a liberal universal religion which has left a deep impress upon the latter. In between the two back to the Vedas, whereas Tantric literature has a there are many turning points in each of which later origin.3 Dr Winternitz says, ‘When we speak Śāktism was a driving force standing for something of Tantra, we think primarily of the sacred books new, owing to its flexible nature which made it of the Śāktas.’4 Sri Ramakrishna explains the issue subject to various interpretations in different ages thus: ‘The Śāktas follow the Tantra, and the Vaish- and by persons and sects belonging to a variety of navas the Purāna. There is no harm for the Vaishna- ideas and beliefs. It will be significant to observe vas in speaking publicly of their spiritual practices. that throughout the ages the Female Principle But the Śāktas maintain secrecy about theirs. For stood for the oppressed people, symbolizing all the liberating potentialities in the class-divided, this reason it is difficult to understand a Śākta.’5 patriarchal and authoritarian social set-up of India, The Śākta Philosophy and thus alone explains why attempts were made from different corners to blacken Śākta-Tāntric Śākta teachings were originally passed on from ideals. teacher to student, guru to śiṣya, in an esoter- The origin of Śāktism was spontaneous, which ic manner; so these teachings remained uncodi- evolved out of the pre-historic Mother Goddess fied for long. Over the last several centuries, many cult symbolizing the facts of primitive life. But Śākta sadhakas and scholars have contributed to its development was manifold—not through any particular channel—like a lot of streams, some the progress of Śākta philosophy. The ‘knowledge big some small, issuing from a single source. … the portion’ of Tripura-rahasya throws much light on tribal cults of the female deities were clearly woven Śākta philosophy. The Sri-vidya-ratna-sutra attrib- in the texture of the intellectual and rational uted to Acharya Gaudapada is a useful Śākta text. scheme of the doctrine upheld by the higher Abhinavagupta’s works established Śākta philoso- religions.2 phy on a firm foundation. Punyananda’s Kamakala A rich Śākta literature has come into being, writ- vilasa is an authoritative work on Śākta philosophy. ten by various great saints, sadhakas, and schol- The best exposition of Śākta philosophy is prob- ars in different languages in Bengal, Assam, Kash- ably Bhaskararaya’s Setubandha, dated to the eight- mir, the sub-Himalayan region, and South India. eenth century. Sir John Woodroffe and his associ- Much of this literature is in Sanskrit, and it gives ates elaborately expounded the Śākta philosophy 96 PB January 2007 106 The Śākta Contemplative Tradition during the first three decades of twentieth centu- these are conscious principles—the former is illu- ry. In 1937 Panchanan Tarkaratna expounded the minating consciousness, the latter, veiled conscious- Brahma Sutra and Isha Upanishad from the Śākta ness. Māyā-śakti is composed of the three guṇas, viewpoint. This attempt was furthered by Maha sattva, rajas, and tamas. It is therefore known as mahopadhyaya Gopinath Kaviraj. Though origi- triguṇā-śakti or kāmakalā, and is symbolized by a nally based on Sāṅkhya philosophy, Śākta philoso- triangle. So the māyā-śakti is the cause of the ma- phy has been deeply influenced by the non-dualistic terial world. Maya is not an unconscious principle; school of Vedanta. It however shares its terminol- it is consciousness veiling itself as the shakti of the ogy with the other schools of Indian philosophy. Supreme Being. Sri Ramakrishna has explained In Śākta philosophy, the ultimate reality is pure this with simple analogies: ‘He whom you address Consciousness, known as Saṁvit. It is an indepen- as Brahma[n] is none other than She whom I call dent entity, and its power is responsible for all activ- Śakti, the Primal Energy’ (434). ‘Thus Brahman ity. It has static and dynamic aspects: prakāśa and and Śakti are identical. If you accept the one, you vimarśa. It is both immanent and transcendent. must accept the other. It is like fire and its power Saṁvit remains as pure cit-śakti (consciousness- to burn. If you see the power)—also termed Parā-Prakṛti—at the time of fire, you must recog- dissolution of the universe. Shakti manifests itself nize its power to burn as avidyā or material prakṛti when material enti- also. You cannot think ties evolve. of fire without its pow- The evolution of the material world from pure er to burn, nor can you Consciousness has been conceived as taking place think of the power to in three stages—the seed stage, the mixed stage, burn without fire. You and the final stage. In the seed stage, matter has cannot conceive of the not yet appeared as different from consciousness. sun’s rays without the The mixed stage manifests subtle differences be- sun, nor can you con- tween consciousness and matter. The final stage is ceive of the sun with- the gross world as we see it. This evolution involves Shivachandra Vidyarnava out its rays’ (134). four categories—Parameshvara, Shakti, Para-nāda, Shivachandra Vidyarnava, Gopinath Kaviraj, and Parā-bindu. Parameshvara is the Supreme Be- and John Woodroffe have extensively interpreted ing with whom Shakti is in inseparable relation. the Śākta Philosophy. Narendra Nath Bhattacharya The appearance of Shakti causes an unmanifested has summed them up succinctly: sound called Para-nāda which concentrates itself to The Supreme Being of Shaktism is not a personal a point called Parā-bindu. This Parā-bindu evolves God. In its own nature, it is more than that. The into three parts—Aparā-bindu, Bīja, and Apara- Shakta point of view considers the reality of God nāda. The Shiva element dominates in the Aparā- as the cause of the universe. But it holds that bindu and the Shakti element in the Bīja. In Apara- while the effect as effect is the cause modified, the nāda, Shiva-Shakti are in equilibrium. The sound cause as cause remains what it was, what it is, and caused by the division of Parā-bindu is called Śabda what it will be. It holds that the Supreme Being is Brahman. The inseparable Shakti of the Supreme manifested in one of its aspects in an infinity of relations, and though involving all relations within Being in the modes of icchā (will) and kriyā (func- itself, is neither their sum total nor exhausted tioning) is responsible for these transformations. by them. Shakti, which is its functional aspect, Shakti first manifests as icchā, the desire to cre- works by negation, contraction, and finitisation. ate. Subsequently, it works through its two aspects: As a Mother Power she upholds herself into vidyā-śakti and avidyā-śakti or māyā-śakti. Both of the world and again withdraws the world into 107 PB January 2007 97 Prabuddha Bharata herself. The purpose of her worship is to attain Ācāra and bhāva are the basis of Shakti sadha- unity with her forms and this is the experience of na. In the Mahanirvana Tantra, Shiva says : ‘Devi, liberation—a state of great bliss (anandaghana). I have told of many ācāras and bhāvas in accor- In the natural order of development, Shakti is dance with the capacity of the adhikarī (aspirant). developed in worldly things but it is controlled Among these, some are secret; I have narrated these by religious sadhana, which both prevents an excess of worldliness and moulds the mind and too (in some other Tantras). Persons competent disposition (bhava) into a form which develops in (esoteric as well as exoteric) sadhana will get re- the knowledge of dispassion and non-attachment. sults and cross the ocean of samsara if they follow Sadhana is a means whereby bondage becomes this path.’7 liberation.6 Śākta teachers class human disposition under three heads—paśu bhāva, vīra bhāva, and divya Śākta Sadhana bhāva. The person with paśu bhāva or animal dis- We have discussed the philosophical basis position is slave to six enemies: lust, an- of Śākta religion. This philosophy is ger, greed, pride, delusion, and envy. to be practised and realized. This An aspirant with vīra bhāva or practice is called sadhana. This fearless disposition is pure in is Śākta contemplation, the motive, gentle in speech, and practical aspect of the Śākta mindful of the pañca tatt- tradition. Contemplation is vas (discussed below). Such achieved through spiritual a person is physically strong, discipline. Only then is spirit- courageous, intelligent, and ual liberation possible, and will enterprising. The character of the sadhaka enjoy eternal peace. the person with divya bhāva bor- This is called śākta sādhanā. This ders on the divine as a result of sad- sadhana has some distinctive features, hana practised in previous births. although, truly speaking, all sadhanas are es- Sri Ramakrishna tells a charming story sentially Śākta sadhana. This sadhana is open to all about śava sādhanā, the prototypal vīra bhāva wor- men and women according to their competence ship, and about sadhana done in previous births: and constitution. It has many stages and categories. The sadhaka is to choose his or her own path with One must admit the existence of tendencies the aid of a guru. inherited from previous births. There is a story about a man who practised the śava sādhanā. He The Śāktas give much importance to the physi- worshipped the Divine Mother in a deep forest. cal constitution. According to them, realization First he saw many terrible visions. Finally a tiger is difficult if the sadhaka does not have a suitable attacked and killed him. Another man, happening physique. The body is full of various energies; the to pass and seeing the approach of the tiger, had aim of sadhana is to master and manifest these climbed a tree. Afterwards he got down and found energies. all the arrangements for worship at hand. He Śākta sadhana is actually the practice of Advaita, performed some purifying ceremonies and seated for it is also the path of jnana. It first involves in- himself on the corpse. No sooner had he done a little japa than the Divine Mother appeared direct or scriptural knowledge, śāstra jñāna. Di- before him and said: ‘My child, I am very much rect perception follows. Though this sadhana in- pleased with you. Accept a boon from Me.’ He volves knowledge, bhakti and karma are given equal bowed low at the Lotus Feet of the Goddess and importance. Generally speaking, in this sadhana, said: ‘May I ask You one question, Mother? I am jnana, bhakti, and karma have been harmonized. speechless with amazement at Your action. The 98 PB January 2007 108 The Śākta Contemplative Tradition other man worked so hard to get the ingredients aspirant comes to the definitive conclusion after for Your worship and tried to propitiate You for deliberate consideration as to the relative merits such a long time, but You didn’t condescend to of the path of enjoyment and that of renunciation. show him Your favour. And I, who don’t know By pursuing the latter path, he reaches the final anything of worship, who have done nothing, stage of kaula. This is the stage in which Kula or who have neither devotion nor knowledge nor Brahman becomes a reality to him. The first three love, and who haven’t practised any austerities, of these seven stages, viz., veda, vaiṣṇava, and śaiva am receiving so much of Your grace.’ The Divine belong to paśubhāva; dakṣiṇa and vāma belong to Mother said with a laugh: ‘My child, you don’t vīrabhāva; and the last two belong to divyabhāva. remember your previous births. For many births According to some, the last alone is divyabhāva. you tried to propitiate Me through austerities. As And the Paraśurāma Kalpa-Sūtra says that during a result of those austerities all these things have the first five stages the aspirant must be guided by come to hand and you have been blessed with My the teacher, and it is only after he has passed the vision. Now ask Me your boon.’8 fifth stage that he is allowed to have freedom of action in every way.9 There are seven ācāras or rules of conduct, which are related to the spiritual states of the sadha- The Śāktas have a set of well-defined rules ka—vedācāra, vaiṣṇavācāra, śaivācāra, dakṣiṇācāra, for worship of the Divine Mother in her various vāmācāra, siddhāntācāra, and kaulācāra. These forms—Kali, Durga, Jagaddhatri, and the like. The ācāras are closely connected with bhāvas. Atal Be- object of this worship is realization of the supreme hari Ghosh has presented a succinct overview of Consciousness. This is done through the use of these ācāras in his scholarly article ‘The Spirit and mantras and yantras, and the practices of nyāsa, Culture of the Tantras’: bhūta-śuddhi, pranayama, dhyana, prāṇa-pratiṣṭhā, mānasa- and bāhya pūja [discussed in this issue in The aspirant rises step by step through these ‘Worship and Contemplation’]. At present, this different ācāras till he reaches the seventh and method forms the basis of worship of all deities. highest stage, when Brahman becomes an experi ential reality to him. In the first stage, cleanliness The worshipper seeks to rouse the power of the of the body and mind is cultivated. The second kundalini (ādhāraśakti, the basal power), which stage is that of devotion (bhakti). The third is is located in the mulādhāra, the lowest of the six that of jñāna (knowledge). Dakṣiṇa, which is the chakras in the body. Then the worshipper, the wor- fourth stage, is that in which the gains acquired shipped, and the means and acts of worship will be in the preceding three stages are consolidated. transformed into caitanya—Consciousness. The This is followed by vāma, which is the stage of renunciation. This does not mean, as has been said Awake, Mother! Awake! How long Thou by the detractors of the Tantra, the practice of rites with a woman (vāmā). Vāma is the reverse hast been asleep of dakṣiṇa; it means the path of renunciation. If In the lotus of the Muladhara! a woman is at all associated in this practice, she Fulfil Thy secret function, Mother: is there to help in the path of renunciation, and Rise to the thousand-petalled lotus within not for animal gratification. A woman as such the head, is an object of great veneration to all schools of Where mighty Shiva has his dwelling; Tāntrika sādhakas (seekers). She is considered to Swiftly pierce the six lotuses be the embodiment on earth of the supreme Śakti And take away my grief, O Essence of who pervades the universe. She should therefore be revered as such and, even if guilty of a hundred Consciousness! —Dasharathi Ray wrongs, she is not to be hurt even with a flower. It is a sin to speak disparagingly of any woman. passage of the awakened kundalini through suc- The sixth stage, viz. siddhānta, is that in which the cessively higher chakras—svādhiṣṭhāna, maṇipura, 109 PB January 2007 99 Prabuddha Bharata anāhata, viśuddha, witnessed, Ṣoḍaśī or Rājarājeśvarī appeared to him Ramakrishna Math, Hyderabad and ājnā, are ac- to be the loveliest. Moreover, he perceived the companied by a upward march of the kuṇḍalinī-śakti, described in progressive trans- the Yoga and Tāntrika scriptures as the coiled-up divine energy lying normally in every man at the formation of con- lower end of the spinal canal. When it is made to sciousness (and rise farther up by spiritual practice, its progress deepening spiri- through the different stages is marked by distinct tual insight). Its phases of spiritual experience on the part of the penetration of the devotee, culminating in mergence in the Absolute. sahasrāra leads to Ramakrishna verified the scriptural statements by the ultimate tran- experiencing all the various spiritual moods and scendental experi- visions corresponding to the different stages of Ramprasad ascent of the coiled-up divine energy. ence of Conscious- His unique success in Tāntrika practices, ness and results in eternal bliss. without any connection with wine or sex, has Sri Ramakrishna’s experiences during the wor- undoubtedly restored the purity of these ancient ship of Mother Kali and during his tantric sadhana practices and stamped them afresh as a sure and are graphically recorded by Swami Saradananda in distinct approach to the realization of God.11 his monumental work Sri Ramakrishna the Great They Lived with the Divine Mother Master. Sri Ramakrishna’s experiences closely match the descriptions found in the shastras. For instance, The practice of Śāktism is open to all, to renun- he says, ‘I had, in the beginning, the vision of par- ciants and householders alike. If one practises the ticles of light like groups of fire-flies; I saw some- disciplines laid down in the Śākta shastras, one is times all quarters covered with masses of mist-like entitled to the highest spiritual attainments. There light; and at other times I perceived that all things are innumerable examples of sadhakas who, by were pervaded by bright waves of light like molten practising Śākta sadhana as per the Śākta shastras, silver.’10 This is comparable to the description avail- have realized the supreme Consciousness and its able in Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 2.11. manifestation as Shakti. Besides Sri Ramakrishna, The pañca tattvas, five principles, are an integral some of the other Śakta sadhakas of repute who part of tantric rites. These are commonly called achieved supreme knowledge by practising Śākta the five ‘m’s, pañca-makāra—madya, wine; māṁsa, sadhana are Krishnananda Agamavagisha, Raja meat; matsya, fish; mudrā, cereals, and maithūna, Ramakrishna, Swami Sarvananda, Kamalakanta, sexual union. Sri Ramakrishna practised Tantra Ramprasad, Bamakshyapa, Brahmananda Giri, sadhana according to the rules of sixty-four differ- Puranananda Paramahamsa Parivrajaka, and Shiva ent categories of Tantra under the guidance of the chandra Vidyarnava of Bengal; Nilkantha of Maha Bhairavi Brahmani. He passed through the entire rashtra; Adyananda of Nepal; Srinivas Bhatta Gos- course without deviating from his ideal of ‘moth- vami of South India; Shivananda Nath of Varana- erhood in all women’ and without taking even a si; Abhinavagupta and Sahib Kaula of Kashmir; sip of wine. Swami Nirvedananda has recorded and Gangesha Upadhyaya of Mithila. Their lives the unique significance of Sri Ramakrishna’s Tan- and methods of sadhana are very inspiring. They tric sadhana in ‘Sri Ramakrishna and Spiritual practised sadhana according to Śākta rules and Renaissance’: were blessed with the vision of the Divine Mother. During this period, he had quite a multitude Some of them jotted down their experiences; their of wonderful visions that followed one another writings have in course of time become authentic in quick succession. Of all the divine forms he reference works for this tradition. Some of them 100 PB January 2007 110 The Śākta Contemplative Tradition are poet saints whose compositions are still inspir- of the worshippers ing people and elevating the minds of sadhakas to of the goddess that, higher states of devotion. Kamalakanta, Rampras- even if certain ide- ad, and Chandidas of Bengal belong to this group as and forms of of sadhakas. Sarvananda of Tripura was totally illit- the Tantric vogue erate; his spiritual success came through repetition may be found un- of the mantra alone. He practised the very difficult suitable to certain śava sādhanā. He earned the epithet of sarvavidyā, modern milieux, it as all known forms of the Divine Mother were re- is essentially the vi- vealed to him. Ratnagarbha or Gosain Bhattach- sion of what both arya of sixteenth-century Bengal followed the vīra man and woman form of worship using pañca makāra and attained can become to one siddhi, perfection. Ardhakali of Mymensingh was another in mutual Bamakshyapa born a daughter of Dvijadeva Thakur about three respect of one another’s identity, influence, and ac- hundred years ago. It is believed that she was an in- tivity in the world that matters finally.’ P carnation of the Divine Mother. She was married to Raghavarama, a soul highly advanced in yoga, References and at the time of marriage, she revealed her di- 1. Pushpendu Kumar, The Principle of Śakti (Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers, 1986), 1. vinity. Bamakshyapa (mad Vama) was born about 2. Narendra Nath Bhattacharya, History of Śākta three hundred years ago in a village of Birbhum. Religion (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996), He was a devotee of Goddess Tara, but seldom of- xi–xii. fered any formal worship. He practised only medi- 3. Govinda Gopal Mukherjee, ‘Śākta Literature’, in tation on Tara and had the vision of the Divine Languages and Literatures, ed. Suniti Kumar Chat- terjee, vol. 5 of The Cultural Heritage of India (Cal- Mother. cutta: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Chintacharan Chakravarty has rightly ob- 1978), 130. served that ‘the ennobling spirit of devotion and 4. Atal Behari Ghosh, ‘The Spirit and Culture of the the high tone of spirituality imparted by Śāktism Tantras’, in The Religions, ed. Haridas Bhattach- aryya, vol. 4 of The Cultural Heritage of India, (Cal- have attracted and are still attracting a very large cutta: Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, number of people not only in Bengal, but all over 1956), 241. India’.12 5. M, The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, trans. Swami Ni- khilananda (Chennai: Ramakrishna Math, 2002), In Conclusion 538. 6. History of Śākta Religion, 215–16. Traditional Śākta sadhana is not much practised to- 7. Mahanirvana Tantra, 4.36–7. day, but the worship of the Divine Mother still plays 8. Gospel, 163–4. a vital role in various parts of the country. This wor- 9. Atal Behari Ghosh, in The Religions, 243. ship ‘allows for the integration of aspects of human 10. Swami Saradananda, Sri Ramakrishna the Great Master, trans. Swami Jagadananda (Madras: Ra- life into a whole, which includes the achievement makrishna Math, 1991), 165. of a type of balance in view of the oft-stated gener- 11. Swami Nirvedananda, ‘Sri Ramakrishna and Spir- alization that religious pantheonic structures tend itual Renaissance’, in The Religions, 668. to mirror the socio-political structures of civiliza- 12. Chintaharan Chakravarti, ‘Śakti-worship and the Śākta Saints’, in The Religions, 418. tions’.13 Even from the purely human point of view, 13. Wendell Charles Beane, Myth, Cult and Symbols in this tradition of worship has proved to be remark- Śākta Hinduism: A Study of the Indian Mother God- ably elevating. As W C Beane puts it (ibid.): ‘Indi- dess (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001), viduals might therefore learn from the testimony 269. 111 PB January 2007 101 ACROSS TRADITIONS Contemplative Practices in Śaivism Swami Tadananda T he excavations at Mohenjo-daro and Hara- ality of God and soul; temple worship, ritualistic ppa have revealed that the Śaiva religion is priestcraft, animal sacrifice, and the traditions of perhaps the most ancient faith in the world. ritual purity-pollution. Over the centuries, Śaivism developed many off- To a Vīraśaiva, Shiva is the Supreme God, and shoots and appeared in different forms in different he is to be worshipped through the liṅga. The linga parts of the world. In India, there are four main is not an image of Shiva, but Shiva himself. It is forms of this religio-philosophical movement: described as a great mass of light shining before Vīraśaivism in South India (mainly Karnataka), the eye. Shiva is the linga and the jiva is the aṅga Pāśupatism in North India and Nepal, Advaita (part); and the main purpose of Vīraśaiva worship Śaivism in Kashmir, and the Śaiva-Siddhānta in is the search for and realization of the devotee’s Tamil Nadu. Furthermore, there are millions of divine oneness with Shiva through the linga. This devotees of Shiva all over the country who do not is technically called liṅgānusandhāna, the inter- particularly subscribe to any of the above schools nal penetration into Shiva through the worship of Śaivism. Simple worship and devotion to Shiva and contemplation of the linga. It culminates in characterizes their faith. In this article we shall take liṅgaikyatva when the aṅga or jiva becomes one a look at the four principal schools of Śaivism. with the Linga or the Supreme Shiva. To facili- tate this union with and final absorption into the Vīraśaivism Deity, the Vīraśaiva takes re- Vīraśaivism is a vibrant mon- course to Vīraśaiva initiation, otheistic faith, particularly aṣṭāvaraṇas or ‘eight aids to prominent in its homeland— faith’, and the practice of the Karnataka. It was made popu- Ṣaṭ-sthala Siddhānta philoso- lar by the remarkable religious phy described below. leader Sri Basaveshvara (1105– Diksha (initiation), which 67). The Vīraśaiva movement opens the door and admits championed the cause of the a person into the fold of downtrodden and evolved Vīraśaivism, is considered es- as a revolt against a system sential and compulsory for at- which fostered social inequal- taining the final goal. It is si- ity. Going against the way of multaneous with lingadhāraṇa the times, it rejected Vedic or wearing of the linga. Hence authority, caste hierarchy, the the Vīraśaivas are also called system of four stages of life, Lingayats (bearers of the lin- and veneration of a multi- ga.) Shiva resides in the disci- plicity of gods; the concepts ple in the form of Conscious- of karmic bondage, existence ness or caitanya. It is believed of inner worlds, and the du- that during the initiation cer- 102 PB January 2007 112 Contemplative Practices in Śaivism emony the guru, through his spiritual power, ex- the seeker is also akin to the Deity. Great empha- tracts the caitanya existing in the body of the pupil sis is placed on devotional and ethical practices, and places it in the consecrated linga. The linga is which purify the soul of the impurities of egoism, worn encased in a pendant around the neck and passions, and destructive emotions. The devotee worshipped throughout life. The linga must on no then rises to the maheśa-sthala, where he is in a account be separated from the body, since such sep- joyful mood and is intent on serving others. This aration is equivalent to spiritual death. Vīraśaivism stage lays stress on firmness, courage, and staunch strongly condemns worship of Shiva in any form adherence to the Vīraśaiva dogmas. Observance other than the iṣṭaliṅga (the personal linga). The of vows (vrata), regulations (niyama), and moral guru also supplies the pupil with the eight emblems precepts (śīla); pure devotion, and freedom from of faith which stand the devotee in good stead in desires enhance the purity of the soul. The devotee his spiritual life. These eight aids to spiritual life are thus ascends to the prasādi-sthala, where the favour obedience to the guru, worship of the linga, rever- or grace (prasāda) of Shiva is bestowed upon him. ence for the jaṅgama or Vīraśaiva teachers, wear- He is now a prasādin and looks upon all objects as ing of the sacred rudrākṣa (rosary), use of the holy Shiva’s prasāda. Kriyā in the form of worship and ash sacred to Shiva, partaking of the guru’s prasad, jñāna are blended together from the beginning to purification through holy water called tīrtha, and the end. However, in the first three stages, worship repetition of the six-lettered mantra Oṁ Namaḥ gets an upper hand, and the distinction between Śivāya, meaning ‘Obeisance to Shiva’. This mantra the Deity and the devotee is maintained. In the is to the Śaivas what Gayatri is to the Brahmanas. next three stages, jnana predominates, and the dis- The Vīraśaivas do not accept any other mantra. tinction between Deity and devotee gradually de- The philosophy of the Vīraśaivas is called the creases. In its place, the idea of the identity of the Ṣaṭ-sthala Siddhānta. Its essence is the acceptance soul with the Deity emerges and becomes brighter. of the ṣaṭ-sthalas, a progressive six-stage path of de- Through meditation, the devotee ascends to the votion and surrender, as the best means of achiev- prāṇaliṅgi-sthala, where he realizes the Atman, the ing union with Shiva. Beginning with the acute internal illuminating light of Consciousness (prāṇa realization of separation from God, the devotee means Atman here, and not vital force). The soul passes through the stages of bhakta-sthala (devo- feels sure of its identity with the Deity, but due to tion), maheśa-sthala (selfless service), prasādi-stha- the residual impressions of duality the identity is la (earnestly seeking Shiva’s grace), prāṇaliṅgi-stha- not complete. In the next stage, śaraṇa-sthala, there la (experience of all as Shiva), and śaraṇa-sthala is complete self-surrender to Shiva. The soul is in (egoless refuge in Shiva), and culminates in aikya- communion with the Ramakrishna Math, Hyderabad sthala (oneness with Shiva). Each phase brings the Deity, but duality still seeker and Shiva closer, until they fuse together in exists, though mark- a final state of perpetual Shiva-consciousness, as edly attenuated. In the rivers merging in the ocean. It is insisted that in all final stage, aikya-sthala, these stages the iṣṭaliṅga must be worshipped, and there is complete unity, that the iṣṭaliṅga must always serve as the basis of and the soul ceases to contemplation. A brief description of the ṣaṭ-stha- exist as distinct from las follows: the Deity. In the bhakta-sthala stage the individual is of- Vīraśaiva saints say fered the iṣṭaliṅga by his guru, who instructs him that this final attain- about the goal and the method of attaining it. The ment is beyond what goal is unity with the Deity, which implies that can be humanly ex- Sri Basaveshvara 113 PB January 2007 103 Prabuddha Bharata pressed. It is only to be felt and experienced. The abuse and insult. Accordingly, the ascetics disperse saint Renukacharya said, ‘Like water poured in wa- into mainstream society and live incognito. There ter, fire placed in fire, the soul that becomes min- they purposely invite public censure by perpetrat- gled in the Supreme Shiva is not seen as distinct.’ ing outrageous acts such as making snorting sounds, babbling, walking as if crippled, gesturing wildly, Pāśupata Śaivism and talking nonsense. Such behaviour is meant not The Pāśupatas (from Paśupati, meaning Shiva, ‘the only to bestow fortitude but also to enliven the as- Lord of souls’) are the oldest known sect of Śaivite cetic’s disinclination towards all worldly fame and ascetic monks. Their most famous places of wor- honour. Thus they attempt to fully establish in their ship are the Somnāth Temple in Gujarat and the subconscious the knowledge that like and dislike, Paśupatināth Temple in Nepal. Pāśupatism is pri- good and bad, and all such human ways of think- marily an ascetic path that rejects dialectical logic ing and feeling are not different from one another if and prizes sadhana as a means to actuate Lord Shi- one’s love for Lord Shiva is sufficiently strong. va’s compassionate grace (karuṇā), which is essen- In the final stage, the seeker practises the tial for liberation or dissociation from all sorrow. Pāśupata-yoga, which enjoins the yogi to stay in Pāśupata monks follow a brave, ego-stripping a cemetery in order to intensify his renunciation path meant to infuse the seeker with Lord Shiva’s without being subject to the attractions of the compassion. They wander about, pounding the dust world; to have an ash-bath three times a day, to with iron tridents and stout staffs, their oily hair imitate the form of Shiva, and to dance, being in- snarled in unkempt coils or tied in a knot, and their toxicated with devotion to him. He practises medi- loins wrapped in deerskin or coarse cloth. Their tation by withdrawing his mind from all objects— faces wrinkle with intense devotion and their pierc- past, present and future—and devotedly concen- ing eyes see more Shiva than the world—which trating it on Shiva. While meditating on Shiva, the is permeated by Shiva. The holy ashes which bes- aspirant should also meditate upon the Shakti of mear the body are indicators of the monk being a Shiva, as the whole world is pervaded by both of Pāśupata ascetic. Their chief mantra is Oṁ Namaḥ them. The ‘Vayaviya Samhita’ in the Shiva-maha- Śivāya. Their awe-inspiring austerity and worship purana (7.2.38) describes the Pāśupata-yoga as fol- of Shiva is steeped in a profound awareness of the lows: The yogi is advised to sit still like a piece of cosmos as Shiva’s constant becoming, and is accom- stone and fix his attention on the tip of the nose. He panied by an almost frolicsome spirit of devotion should think of and meditate on Shiva and Shak- towards him. ti within himself, as if they were installed in the In the beginning of their sadhana, the Pāśupatas seat of the heart. Meditation should at first com- practise special disciplines such as japa, Shiva-intox-mence with an object; later on it becomes object- icated laughter, singing, and dancing. These are ac- less. Pāśupatas believe that since Shiva is formless companied with strict codes of ethics, called yama (niṣkala), and unassociated with anything that can and niyama, stressing continence (brahmacharya), be expressed by speech (vāg-viśuddha), his formless non-injury (ahimsa), non-irritability (akrodha), nature should alone be meditated upon. Continu- and asceticism (tapas). The next stage of sadhana ous meditation culminates in sāyujya, which means is the performance of the pāśupata-vrata, which is being in perpetual contact with Shiva. Liberation a means of self-purification, of rooting out egoism, in Pāśupatism means duḥkhānta, to be eternally which is the fetter (pāśa) that estranges the soul disassociated from all sorrows. (paśu) from its Lord (Paśupati). Pāśupatas believe that when a person is established in the path of as- Trika or Advaita School of Kashmir Śaivism ceticism, he is able to accept with equanimity all According to Trika, Parama-Shiva, the Ultimate 104 PB January 2007 114 Contemplative Practices in Śaivism Kailas, the mountain home of Bhagavan Shiva Reality, is not only universal Consciousness but about limitation in respect of cause and space. Thus also supreme spiritual Energy or Power. Its nature Shiva forgets his universal divine nature and be- is described as prakāśa-vimarśamaya. Prakāśa is the comes jiva. In the course of this descent, the univer- eternal light of Consciousness. It is Shiva. Vimarśa sal Consciousness-Power (citi-śakti) reduces herself is Shiva’s kartṛtva śakti (power of action). She is, into individual consciousness or citta. so to speak, the mirror in which Shiva realizes his The Trika philosophy recognizes that while own grandeur, power, and beauty. Shiva and his Shakti is the cause of bondage, she is also the cause Shakti are non-different, just like fire and its burn- of and means to liberation. Sri Ramakrishna de- ing power. The first two sutras of the Pratyabhijna scribes these two aspects of maya as avidyā-māyā hridayam state that citi-śakti or Shiva’s ever-free and vidyā-māyā. He says further: ‘One must propi- creative power, of her own free-will, is the cause tiate the Divine Mother, the Primal Energy, in order of the projection of the universe (Citiḥ svatantra to obtain God’s grace. God Himself is Mahāmāyā, viśvasiddhi-hetuḥ). By the power of her own will, who deludes the world with Her illusion and con- she unfolds the universe upon her screen, that is, in jures up the magic of creation, preservation, and herself, the basis of the universe (Svecchayā svabhit- destruction. She has spread this veil of ignorance tau viśvam-unmīlayati). before our eyes. We can go into the inner cham- Shiva veils or limits his true nature and powers ber only when She lets us pass through the door. by the maya of his Shakti and thus becomes bound Living outside, we see only outer objects, but not as an empirical being or jiva. Maya has five cov- that Eternal Being, Existence-Knowledge-Bliss erings (kañcukas), which bring about this limita- Absolute.’ The Vijnanabhairava also describes this tion of the universal Consciousness as follows: (i) Shakti as the doorway for entry into Shiva (Śaivī kalā reduces universal authorship (sarvakartṛtva) mukham iha ucyate). to limited efficacy; (ii) vidyā reduces omniscience Liberation in Trika means recognition (pratya (sarvajñatva) to limited knowledge; (iii) rāga re- bhijñā) of one’s true divine nature as Shiva (mokṣo duces ‘all-satisfaction’ (pūrṇatva) and brings about hi nāma naivānyaḥ svarūpa-prathanaṁ hi tat.) Sri desires for this and that; (iv) kāla reduces eternity Ramakrishna says much the same when he states (nityatva) to divisions in time—past, present, and that ‘man freed from bondage is Śiva; entangled future; and (v) niyati reduces freedom and perva- in bondage, he is jiva’. Liberation from bondage siveness (svatantratā and vyāpakatva) and brings comes by śaktipāta—the descent of divine Shak- 115 PB January 2007 105 Prabuddha Bharata roneous beliefs and ideas based on duality, which obstruct one’s true divine nature. Śāktopāya is the practice of śuddha vikalpa to nullify the sense of duality. Śuddha vikalpa is the idea and belief that ‘I am that unlimited Consciousness transcending all limited expressions of Reality. I alone am that highest Reality which is both transcendent to and immanent in the universe.’ It means pondering over that full, divine I-consciousness, which is the creative Shakti of the Supreme, as our true nature. Shiva is the ideal of ascetics The first sutra of ṣāktopāya in Shiva-Sutras states: ti—or anugraha, divine grace. By means of spiritual cittaṁ mantraḥ. Citta in this context is that which practices (sadhana) the individual consciousness earnestly seeks to apprehend the highest Reality (citta) is purified and transformed into its origi- (cetyate vimṛśyate anena parama-tattvam iti cittam). nal state of pure Consciousness, cit. To receive this The mantra enshrines within itself the highest Re- grace the aspirant has to undergo spiritual disci- ality, and awakens that mental awareness by which plines, which have been divided under four broad one feels one’s identity with this Reality. One thus heads as means of approach (upāyas): āṇavopāya, saves oneself from the sense of separateness and dif- śāktopāya, śāmbhavopāya, and anupāya. These ference characteristic of the world with the help of means of approach are to be adopted according the mantra (mananāt trāyate iti mantra). Mantras to one’s progress up the spiritual ladder and are consist of letters which are symbols of the creative explained in detail in the Shiva-Sutras. They are shaktis of the Divine. The Parā-Śakti or Parā-Vāk briefly described here: or I-consciousness of the Supreme is the soul of all 1. In āṇavopāya the limited conditioned in- mantras. By constantly dwelling upon the signifi- dividual (aṇu) takes up some limited aspect such cance of the real ‘I’ enshrined in the mantra, the cit- as buddhi (intellect), prāṇa (vital force), body, or ta ultimately becomes sanctified and transformed some external object as support for the start of yog- by the power of the mantra, and the aspirant attains ic practice. It is also called kriyopāya, since activities prātibha jñāna or intuitive realization of the real such as meditation (dhyana), repetition of the man- divine Self. In Trika this Self-realization is termed tra (japa), worship of a chosen deity (puja), tech- ātma-vyāpti (Self-awareness). The highest attain- niques of fixing attention on the various aspects ment, however, is called Śiva-vyāpti or Shiva-con- of prāṇa—prāṇa, apāna, samāna, and the like— sciousness, in which the entire universe appears as (prāṇa-dhāraṇā) are predominant. The Pātañjala- I or Shiva. The jñāna-yoga of Vedanta corresponds yoga corresponds to some aspects of āṇavopāya. somewhat to śāktopāya. 2. In śāktopāya, the aspirant resorts to the citi- 3. Śāmbhavopāya is a special feature of the Śaiva śakti or vimarśa-śakti (the divine I-consciousness) tradition. It is meant for advanced aspirants who, for realization. It is also known as mantropāya or by meditation on śivatattva (the Shiva principle), jñānopāya, and is prescribed for aspirants whose attain to his consciousness. It is the path of ‘con- mind (citta) is already spiritually oriented. It is a stant awareness’. One starts with the practice of process of self-inquiry in which the citta is used the consciousness that the universe is only a reflec- for seeking the source of its being, the significance tion of cit, but later on even this has to be given up. of the mantra, and the supreme I-consciousness Malinivijaya describes Śāmbhava-yoga in the fol- which is itself the source of all mantras. The ordi- lowing way: ‘When there is identification with Shi- nary mind is full of aśuddha vikalpas, impure or er- va without any mentation or thought-process, but 106 PB January 2007 116 Contemplative Practices in Śaivism merely by an intensive orientation of will-power this fivefold act and acquiring full knowledge of (icchā-śakti) towards the inner Reality, then there it, the citta (individual consciousness) by inward is Śāmbhava-yoga.’ When we neither accept, nor movement becomes citi (universal consciousness) reject, when there is simple awareness freed from by rising to the status of cetana (consciousness of all ideation, then there is a sudden, spontaneous the Self )—Tat parijñāne cittameva antarmukhī- flash of experience of our essential Self. This is di- bhāvena cetanapadādhyārohāt citiḥ. rect, immediate realization. Some contemplation The Vijnanabhairava contains over a hundred techniques described in the Ashtavakra Samhita, dhāraṇās or contemplative practices, mainly for the ‘wu-wei’ (non-interference) of Taoism, and the advanced aspirants. Interestingly, the spiritual expe- ‘let-go’ of Zen correspond to śāmbhavopāya. riences and frequent samadhis of Sri Ramakrishna, 4. Anupāya can hardly be called an upāya. There whose mind dwelt in bhāvamukha—the border- are very advanced souls who receive intense grace line between the Absolute and the relative—throw (tīvra śaktipāta). This anugraha or grace may come wonderful light on many of these dhāraṇās. How- through just a word of the guru, or may be show- ever, detailed discussions on these advanced esoter- ered on them directly, and they experience Self-re- ic practices are beyond the scope of this article. alization instantly. They are liberated without much spiritual practice. Śaiva Siddhānta The Pratyabhijnahridayam propounds that Shi- Śaiva Siddhānta is a dualistic religion which is va is ever engaged in the fivefold act (pañca-kṛtyas) based on redemption through devotion and the of (i) emanation (sṛṣṭi), (ii) maintenance (sthiti), grace (aruḷ) of God. Through the experience of (iii) re-absorption (saṁhāra), (iv) concealment suffering and bondage in the world, a soul feels the (vilaya), and (v) grace (anugraha). This fivefold necessity to come in contact with a higher pow- act of Shiva continues even when he plays the role er which can give it peace and solace. This is the of an empirical self in bondage (Tathāpi tadvat stage when the soul is ripe for release from bondage pañcakṛtyāni karoti). To be a bound soul (saṁsārin) (mala-paripāka), which qualifies it for the decent is to be ignorant of one’s authorship of the five- of divine grace (śaktinipāta). The soul awakens to fold act due to delusion by one’s own shaktis. Thus the sense of divine Reality, Power, Glory, Beau- the Pratyabhijnahridayam lays the greatest stress ty, and Grace, and begins to consciously struggle on the contemplation of the pañca-kṛtyas that are towards God, Shiva, by gradually renouncing its going on constantly in the jiva. In order to rise to entanglement with the world and engaging itself higher consciousness, the aspirant must constantly in spiritual discipline. According to the intensity dwell on the esoteric meaning of the fivefold act of the śaktinipāta, the religious life of the devotee as follows: The mental perception of the individ- is divided into four stages: caryā, kriyā, yoga, and ual with reference to a particular place and time is jñāna, each with specific physical and mental activi- sṛṣṭi within. The retention and enjoyment of what ties prescribed for cultivation of devotion. one perceives is sthiti or preservation. At the time Caryā and kriyā are the beginner’s stages of puri- of the delight of I-consciousness, the object is ab- fication of the mind. Caryā, which is fully external, sorbed in consciousness. This is saṁhāra. When, includes worship of God with the aid of temples even after the object is withdrawn, its impression is and images, and service to God’s devotees as well as about to rise in one’s consciousness again, that cor- to all beings. It includes easy duties such as lighting responds to vilaya (concealment of the real nature lamps, plucking flowers, sweeping and washing the of the Self ). When objective experience is com- temple, praising God, cooking food offerings, and pletely absorbed into cit or the true Self, it is anu- assisting in his worship. Kriyā is both external and graha. By the constant practice of the awareness of internal in form and method. It comprises perform- 117 PB January 2007 107 Prabuddha Bharata ing puja, reading and learning the scriptures, recit- the Śaiva Siddhānta philosophy of liberation, the ing prayers, japa, meditation, austerities, truthful- individuality of the soul is not annihilated, but the ness, purity, love, and offering food. Yoga is a purely soul completely identifies itself with Shiva and ap- psychological process of purifying the mind and pears as One. The Śaiva saint Arunagirinathar sings: body through the control of the organs of action ‘That which neither goes nor comes, which knows and knowledge, through pranayama, and through neither night nor day, which is neither without nor contemplation and meditation on God and his within, which is speechless and formless and with- infinite attributes. When the devotee is well estab- out end, assails me ceaselessly and makes me Itself, lished in the above three stages, God appears in the conferring tranquillity of mind. The blissful state is form of a guru to direct and guide him or her into beyond expression, O Lord of six aspects!’ the mysteries of jñāna sādhanā (or sanmārga, the way of truth), through which the devotee endeav- In Conclusion ours to attain final union with Shiva. The various forms and practices of Śaivism have The practice of jñāna sādhanā is divided into endowed it with the necessary vitality to survive three stages, which are again subdivided into ten and develop through the many centuries. It contin- states called daśakārya. The first stage consists ues to be the vibrant and living faith of millions of of tattva-rūpa, tattva-darśana, and tattva-śuddhi. people. Devotees of Lord Shiva range from those Through these the devotee attains a true knowledge who hold on to Shiva with their simple faith and of the tattvas (categories of nature) and realizes daily devotions, to earnest seekers of the highest that they are products of maya, which is material, Reality, who pursue the highly systematic doctrines insentient, and impure. This knowledge confers and yogic practices of various branches of Śaivism. the strength to cut asunder the binding influence This article has attempted to cover, in a broad of maya. The second stage consists of ātma-rūpa, way, some aspects of the vast expanse of Śaivism ātma-darśana, and ātma-śuddhi, through which being practised by people living in society, as in the soul disengages itself from the control of the Vīraśaivism and Śaiva Siddhānta; by ascetic monks, tattvas, realizes itself as pure and free intelligence, as in Pāśupata Śaivism; and by aspirants who incor- and identifies itself with the divine grace of God porate the highest philosophical ideas into their (aruḷ-śakti). The third stage consists of the states practice of well-defined yogic methods, as in the of śiva-rūpa, śiva-darśana, śiva-yoga, and śiva-bhoga. Advaita school of Kashmir Śaivism. P In śiva-rupa, the devotee attains the knowledge that the omnipresent Supreme Shiva, with the help of Parā-Śakti, is engaged in the five acts of creation, The cry is loud, the cry is long, preservation, concealment, destruction, and be- The cry of creeds, ‘Yea, this is He!’ stowal of grace. In śiva-darśana, the purified soul, The cry comes back, the cry as strong, freed from I-ness and my-ness, sees Shiva in every- The cry of creeds, ‘Nay, this is He!’ body and everywhere and enjoys supreme bliss. The Thus cry all creeds, all creeds are wrong, state of union in which the soul completely identi- Which cry, ‘Yea this, nay that, is He!’ fies itself with Shiva and sees that all activities and The truth indeed all creeds proclaim actions, both individual and of the world, flow from That God in very sooth is He Shiva, is śiva-yoga. Śiva-bhoga is the state of libera- Who evermore remains the same, tion called jivanmukti. The soul is finally cleansed Not this, not that, but One is He, of all its impurities and dwells in Shiva, and Shiva Held in the heart’s own holy shrine, dwells in it. It enjoys the supreme Bliss (śivānanda) Homed in the soul, the Guest Divine. which is beyond any subject-object relationship. In —Pattinathar 108 PB January 2007 118 Living the Tr adition The Jain Contemplative Tradition Acharya Mahaprajna P arin.amana, transformation or change, is ‘adepts in the knowledge of the Atman’.5 His eldest of two types: (i) sādi, which has a begin- son Bharata was a great yogi.6 ning (and an end), and (ii) anādi, which In the Jambudvipa Prajnapti, the Kalpasutra, and has no beginning (or end). Both historic and pre- the Bhagavata we find Ṛṣabha referred to as the first historic time has to do with sādi pariṇamana. The person proficient in ātmavidyā, the knowledge of wheel of time is in constant motion, bringing about Atman. It is small wonder then that it is Ṛṣabha who this change. has been referred to in the Upanishads as Brahmā. Bhārata-kṣetra (the land of Bharata) was origi- Hiraṇyagarbha is another epithet of Brahmā. Ac- nally a place for enjoyment or bhoga; Arhat Ṛṣabha cording to the Mahabharata, the primal master of transformed it into a land of karma through the yoga is none other than Hiraṇyagarbha.7And the sword, the pen, and the plough (asi, masi, and kṛṣi). Bhagavata terms Ṛṣabha yogeśvara, the master of This is mentioned in the Jain literature. The Jain yoga.8 He practised many yogic disciplines.9 In tradition traces its origin to the concepts of At- the Hathayoga Pradipika, Ṛṣabha is saluted as the man (ātmavāda) and moksha (mokṣavāda) as pro- instructor of hatha yoga.10 The Jain acharyas too pounded by Ṛṣabha. According to Jainism, Ṛṣabha hold him as the progenitor of yoga.11 It is from this was the first proponent of ātmavidyā, knowledge of viewpoint that Bhagavan Ṛṣabha is called Ādinātha, the Self. He was the first king, first Jina (or Arhat), Hiraṇyagarbha, or Brahmā. first kevalī (liberated soul), first Tirthankara, and The Śramaṇa tradition owes its origin to Arhat first dharma-cakravartī (establisher of dharma).1 Ṛṣabha. It is based on three principles: (i) sama— The event of Ṛṣabha’s becoming a Jina was so equanimity; (ii) śama—restraint or peace; and momentous that ‘the first (iii) śrama—self effort. The Ramakrishna Math, Hyderabad Jina’ became one of his epi- Arhat Dharma is the original thets.2 This is reiterated in the form of the Jain Dharma. The Bhagavata: ‘Vāsudeva’s eighth epithet ‘Arhat’ is applied to incarnation was in (the home the twenty-three Tirthanka- of ) Marudevi and Nābhi, as ras from Ṛṣabha to Pārśva.12 Ṛṣabha, who showed the path But Mahavira is referred to as respected by people in every Śramaṇa Bhagavān Mahāvīra. stage of life.’3 This is the rea- The term Jain Dharma was son why Ṛṣabha is referred to not in vogue during Mahavi- as ‘part of Vāsudeva’ in dis- ra’s time. In Buddhist litera- courses on moksha.4 ture, Mahavira is referred to Ṛṣabha had a hundred sons. as niggantha nāyaputta. In All of them were proficient in the Jain Āgamas the term brahmavidyā (the knowledge nirgrantha is used in place of of the Vedas) (ibid.). Nine of Arhat Dharma.13 It was two them have been referred to as Bhagavan Mahavira centuries after the nirvana 119 PB January 2007 109 Prabuddha Bharata of Bhagavan Mahavira that ātmavidyā that started with the term Jain came in vogue Arhat Ṛṣabha remained (1.6.7). uninterrupted. Ahimsa or To put it in more defini- karuṇā (compassion) was tive terms, the prehistoric but one component of this phase of Jainism is the ‘pe- tradition. riod of Arhats’. Arhat Pārśva Arhat Pārśva was the is considered a historic fig- twenty-third Tirthankara. ure, though he belongs to He provided able leader- the Arhat period. Bhagavan ship to the Śramaṇa tradi- Mahavira introduced some tion and was responsible changes in the Arhat Dhar- for its spread. The Upan- ma. Consequently, Arhat ishads were compiled after Dharma became popular as his time. Arhat Pārśva lived Nirgrantha Dharma or Jain in the tenth century BCE, Dharma. while scholars date the Up- Some scholars consider anishads between 900 and Mahavira the founder of 300 BCE.14 Jainism. This is only partial- There is no denying the ly true. When viewed from fact that the concepts of the standpoint of the entire Atman, karma, transmigra- tradition, Mahavira is not tion, sannyasa, and moksha the founder, but from the Bahubali, Rishabha’s son, renounced the sovereignty were subjects of philosophi- temporal or relative stand- of a mighty kingdom and performed severe austerities cal discussion during Arhat point he may be termed as before he was taught by his sister the ultimate lesson: Pārśva’s time. These discus- founder. There were twenty- ‘To dismount the Elephant of Pride’. sions have been delineated three Tirthankaras after Arhat Ṛṣabha. Mahavira in the Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, and other Up- was the last in this line. anishads. The tradition initiated by Arhat Ṛṣabha Ariṣṭanemi was the twenty-second Tirthankara. was being carried forward by Kshatriyas. Ātmavidyā He was a cousin of Sri Krishna. He laid special em- too was being cultivated by Kshatriyas. This is evi- phasis on ahimsa. Ariṣṭanemi’s marriage was fixed dent on studying the Upanishads.15 It can be easily with Rājimati, the daughter of Ugrasena, a Bhoja seen that the Arhats, bhikṣus, and parivrājakas of king. When the wedding party reached the mar- the Śramaṇa tradition had an important role in the riage site, Ariṣṭanemi heard some distraught voices. development of Upanishadic thought. ‘What are these voices?’ he asked his elephant-driv- The Isibhasiyam is a well known text of the Jain er. ‘Lord, these are animal sounds’, the latter replied. tradition. It is a compilation of the teachings and ‘These animals will provide the food for the guests experiences of forty-five Arhats. Not all of them at your wedding. They are screaming for fear of belong to the tradition of Pārśva and Mahavira. It death.’ ‘What sort of enjoyment is this, involving includes the thoughts of Vedic rishis like Nārada, the death of thousands of poor speechless crea- Asita, and Devala. Bhagavan Mahavira’s family fol- tures!’ said Ariṣṭanemi. ‘What is the use of a mar- lowed the tradition of Arhat Pārśva. So did Bhaga- riage that is the cause for transmigration in sam- van Buddha’s family. sara?’ He had his elephant turn back homeward. Bhagavan Mahavira propounded the concept of This incident reminds us that the tradition of jāti (caste) based on karma or actions, rather than 110 PB January 2007 120 The Jain Contemplative Tradition on birth. He protested against the killings involved Jainism]. For efficient management of environmen- in sacrifice and ignored the ideas of creation of the tal and social resources, the concepts of regulation world by God. These are being presented as be- and limitation are very important. ing revolutionary thoughts on the part of Bhaga- The gṛhastha cannot undertake ahimsa as a van Mahavira, and it is being freely mentioned by mahāvrata, supreme vow. A practical way has been scholars that Bhagavan Mahavira started the Jain suggested for him. Hiṁsā or violence is of two Dharma to protest the institution of caste and sac- types: (i) artha hiṁsā [caused by activities of daily rificial killings. But there is very little truth in such living]; and (i) anartha hiṁsā [caused by passions statements. and evil motives]. Farming, business, and such oth- Mahavira did add a few tenets and mantras to er means of livelihood cannot be forsaken by the the Śramaṇa or Arhat tradition, and carried for- householder. But aggression, stealing, cruelty, and ward this tradition; but he did not initiate a new violence caused by unethical acts must be abjured. tradition. The ideas of ‘destiny’ of the Ajivakas and Bhagavan Mahavira fostered the tradition of ‘fate’ of the Vedic tradition were making the popu- self-restraint (saṁyama) and vows (vrata). The tra- lar mind averse to self-effort; Mahavira injected dition has had its ups and downs. But it can be as- life into the tradition of self-effort. The lopsided serted that vows and restraint are valued even today emphasis on the doctrine of karma was generating in the Jain tradition. It won’t be an exaggeration to mental constraints; Mahavira’s liberal view trans- say that the life of poverty and ahimsa exemplified formed this inhibition into enthusiasm [for work]. by Jain sadhus is revered even today by the masses. It was revolutionary on his part to say that even Jain śrāvakas (initiates) have generally been more past actions can be changed by proper self-effort. conscientious in business matters. The acharyas Mahavira was asked, ‘Bhante! Who is respon- of both the Shvetambara and Digambara tradi- sible for sorrow? Is it oneself, or someone else, or tions have produced a huge mass of literature on are both oneself and others responsible for it?’ Ma- the duties of śrāvakas. This has influenced the Jain havira replied, ‘Sorrow is created by oneself, not by śrāvakas till today. Acharya Tulasi has introduced someone else or by a combination of oneself and a vrata dīkṣā (initiation into vows) that is of value others.’ to the masses. The nine categories of fundamental Mahavira downplayed the idea of heaven and truths [ jīva, ajīva, āśrava, saṁvara, and the like] of emphasized nirvana instead. It is for this reason Jain living are of great importance in solving the that he is called ‘the best among the proponents psycho-spiritual problems of the present age. of nirvana’.16 His exposition of the duties of the The Vedic tradition paid great attention to the householder, based on the concept of nirvana, is of practices and injunctions guiding social life. Con- relevance even today. Ahimsa and aparigraha, non- sequently, social life kept developing. The Jain ach- possessiveness, are two ideas particularly worthy of aryas paid more attention to spiritual growth. So serious consideration. the spiritual process of life kept developing. Achar The gṛhastha or householder is a social being. yas like Siddhasena, Samantabhadra, Haribhadra Non-possession cannot be enjoined for him or her. Sūri, Akalaṅka, and Hemachandra widely propa- So Bhagavan Mahavira advised limitation of de- gated the doctrine of anekānta, non-exclusiveness. sires or limitation of possessions. This in turn is Anekānta, syādvāda [conditional nature of judge- governed by two principles: (i) purification of the ment] and nayavāda [multiplicity of viewpoints] means of earning, not earning wealth through un- were widely discussed philosophical issues. These ethical means; and (ii) limitation of enjoyment. are of great help in exploring the subtleties of the Possessiveness is the biggest cause of violence. scientific world too. This issue has been dealt with in great detail [in Acharya Bhikṣu has provided a minute analysis 121 PB January 2007 111 Prabuddha Bharata of the unity of the means and the ends and has laid I conclude this discussion of the development of great emphasis on purification of the means. He Jain thought with the following reflection: Today, has re-established the non-sectarian Dharma that religious thinkers need to be economic thinkers, was the original philosophy of Mahavira. and economists, religious thinkers. Only then can Acharya Tulsi launched the Anuvrat Movement we conceive of healthy individuals, a healthy soci- and made it vibrant. He announced that Dharma ety, and a healthy economic system. P has primacy over sectarianism. It is due to this non- sectarian viewpoint that the concepts and practices This article has been translated from the original of prekṣā dhyān [contemplative reflection] for spir- Hindi version provided by Acharya Mahaprajnaji. itual growth, of jīvan vijñān [life-sciences] for bal- Notes and References anced education, and aṇuvrat [lay vows] for ethical 1. Usahe nāma arahā kosaliye paḍhamarāyā living and character development are proving to be paḍhamajiṇe paḍhamakevalī paḍhamatitthakare of use to all. paḍhama-dhamma-vara-cakkavaṭṭī samuppajjitthe ( Jambudvipa Prajnapti, 2.30). The fruit of Preksha Meditation is the recogni 2. Usabheṇaṁ kosaliye kāsavagutte ṇaṁ, tassa ṇaṁ paṁca nāmadhijjā evamāhijjaṁti, taṁ jahā-usabhe tion of the voice of the spirit. The voice of the i vā paḍhamarāyā i vā paḍhamabhikkhācare i vā mind is not the voice of the spirit. To confuse paḍhamajiṇe i vā paḍhamatitthakare i vā (Kalpa the one with the other is an illusion. The voice sutra, 194). of equanimity and dispassion alone is the voice 3. Aṣṭame merudevyāṁ tu nābherjāta urukramaḥ, darśayan vartmadhīrāṇāṁ sarvāśramanamaskṛtam of the spirit. —Acharya Mahaprajna (Bhagavata, 1.3.13). 4. Tamāhur-vāsudevāṁśaṁ mokṣadharmavivakṣayā, Ahimsa involves the development of a specific avatīrṇaṁ sutaśataṁ tasyāsīd brahmapāragam mental orientation. This is not achieved by mere (11.2.16). 5. Navābhavan mahābhāgā munayo hyarthaśaṁsinaḥ, reading or listening to discourses. What is needed śramaṇā vātaraśanā ātmavidyāviśāradāḥ is a transformation of consciousness. This requires (11.2.20). prolonged practice. 6. Yeṣāṁ khalu mahāyogī bharato jyeṣṭhaḥ śreṣṭhaguṇa We started spiritual and scientific work under āsīt (5.4.9). Acharya Tulsi. This work has helped successfully 7. Hiraṇyagarbho yogasya vettā nānyaḥ purātanaḥ (Mahabharata, ‘Shanti Parva’, 344.60). address contemporary problems to a great extent. 8. Bhagavān-ṛṣabhadevo yogeśvaraḥ (Bhagavata, Special emphasis is being given to three tenets of 5.4.3). Jain thought: (i) ahiṁsā; (ii) aparigraha; and (iii) 9. Nānāyogacaryācaraṇo bhagavān kaivalyapatir- anekānta. The non-exclusive or non-dogmatic ap- ṛṣabhaḥ (5.5.35). 10. Śrī ādināthāya namo’stu tasmai yenopadiṣṭā proach called anekānta can provide solutions to haṭhayoga-vidyā (Hathayoga Pradipika, 1.1). many problems of the present yuga. This idea is 11. Yogikalpataruṁ naumi devadevaṁ vṛṣadhvajam regaining ground. But in this regard we empha- (Jnanarnava, 1.2). size Acharya Tulsi’s unambiguous opinion that the 12. Jambuddivapannatti, ‘Vakkharo’, 2.65; Pajjosavana problem of parigraha, possessivness or having pos- Kappo, 160–181. 13. Suyagado, 2.7.18–19. sessions in excess of one’s needs, must be addressed 14. A B Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda first. For this, ‘aparigrahaḥ paramo dharmaḥ; non- and Upanishads (Cambridge: Harvard University possessiveness is the supreme dharma’ must be giv- Press, 1925), 20; F Max Müller, The Upanishads en primacy over the age old dictum ‘ahiṁsā para- (Oxford: Clarendon, 1879) lxvi; H C Raychaud- huri, Political History of Ancient India (Calcutta: mo dharmaḥ; ahimsa is the supreme dharma’. The University of Calcutta, 1927), 1–33. economic thought of Mahavira is the first step in 15. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 1.4.11, 6.2.8. this direction. 16. Ṇivvāṇavādīṇiha ṇāyaputte (Suyagado, 1.6.21). 112 PB January 2007 122 Living the Tr adition Contemplating the Theravada Tradition Ajahn Amaro A couple of days ago a few people asked: of the small group were known as the Sthaviras (in ‘What is Theravada Buddhism?’ It’s a good Sanskrit) or Theras (in Pali), meaning ‘Elders’. Af- question. Oftentimes people have come ter about another 130 years, they gave rise to the across vipassana, insight meditation, and its re- Theravadan school. Theravada literally means ‘The lated teachings, disconnected from their origins. Way of the Elders’, and that has been their abiding Sometimes they are not even aware that vipassana theme ever since. The ethos of the tradition can be has anything to do with Buddhism, or who the characterized as something like: ‘Right or wrong, Buddha was. that’s the way the Buddha established it, so that’s the way we’ll do it.’ It has thus always had a par- How It Began ticularly conservative quality to it. This is a very As far as the histories go, it seems that, in its initial abbreviated version of the story, but it essentially form, the Theravada school began about 100 years describes the pattern of our origins. after the Buddha’s time. A few months after the As with all religious traditions and human in- Parinibbana, a great council of elders was held to stitutions, over time a number of branches grew formalize and establish the Teachings. A hundred up. It is said that by about 250 years after the Bud- years later they had a second council, again to go dha’s time, during the reign of the Emperor Ashoka, over all the Teachings (the discourses and the mo- there were eighteen different major schools of the nastic rules), in the attempt to keep everyone on Buddha-sasana, the Buddha’s dispensation. It is the same page. However, as important to note, howev- it transpired, it was at this er, that these were not com- time that the first major split pletely separate sects. Regu- in the Sangha occurred. The larly there were monasteries way I understand it—and where people of many dif- there are different versions ferent schools lived with of this—the larger portion each other—apparently of the Community wanted this was more common to change some of the rules, than not. It was normal including allowing the mo- to have schools and teach- nastics to use money. ers from different strands The majority of the Sang- working together and living ha wanted to bring in these side by side. There were dif- reforms, but there was a ferent emphases, but there small group that said, ‘Well, was considerable harmony whether it makes sense or within the Sangha also. The not, we want to do things Theravada branch (Sthavira the way the Buddha and his vada in Sanskrit) was just original disciples did.’ Those one of those schools. 123 PB January 2007 113 Prabuddha Bharata The Patronage of Emperor Ashoka (Sutta), the monastic discipline (Vinaya), and the One of the reasons why the Theravada tradition philosophical/psychological compendium of the has been sustained pretty much in its original form Abhidhamma. ever since then is because of the Emperor Ashoka. The scriptures of the Northern School (usually That was the school that Ashoka espoused, and known as the Mahayana tradition) were largely since he was by then in charge of India, he decided written down in Sanskrit. Although they contain India would become a Buddhist nation. Primarily a portion of the Buddha’s Teachings as they are he patronized the Theravada tradition, although found in the Pali texts (these are known as the Aga- he also gave support to other Buddhist lineages as mas), the majority of their discourses have no exact well as to various non-Buddhist sects. Later his son counterparts in the Pali. Having said this, however, and daughter, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, went to even features that at first glance might seem unique Sri Lanka—Sanghamitta was a bhikkhuni, a Bud- to the Northern lineages, such as the Pure Land, dhist nun, and Mahinda was a monk. They took clearly have their roots in the texts and myths of the the Theravada tradition to Sri Lanka and estab- Southern. Whether these discourses were actually lished it there in about 240 BCE. spoken by the Buddha and not included in the Pali collection for some reason, or whether they were The Language of the Theravada Teachings composed at a later date, has been hotly debated by Pali is the language of the Theravada scriptures. It scholars and the faithful of both schools over many seems to have been something of a lingua franca centuries. The majority of scholars agree, however, in the region of the Ganges valley around the time that the Pali is the most ancient and trustworthy of the Buddha, closely related therefore to the lan- redaction of the Buddha’s Teaching. guage that the Buddha actually spoke. The Buddha was adamant that the Teachings should be learned Degeneration and Renewal in this common speech and passed on by rote learn- Throughout the time of the geographical dispersion ing, rather than being cast into the ‘religious lan- of the Theravada tradition, the theme of a continu- guage’ of Sanskrit, let alone written down, thereby al looking back to the original standards, the origi- becoming the sole property of the Brahmins, who nal Teachings, has been sustained. When being es- were the only ones who could speak it. tablished in new countries, there has always been a Pali is something of a poor cousin to Sanskrit, strong sense of respectfulness and reverence for the having a much simpler grammar, and does not have original Teachings, and also a respect for the style its own alphabet. It was not written down at all un- of life as embodied by the Buddha and the original til 73 BCE, in Sri Lanka, when there was a famine Sangha, the forest-dwelling monastics of the earli- and concern that, if the monks and nuns who had est times. This is the model that was employed then memorized the Teachings died, the words of the and was thus carried on. Buddha would be lost forever. From that time on Obviously, in these many centuries, there have it has been written down, simply using the alphabet been lots of ups and downs, but this pattern is what of each country it has come to, or in some cases, us- has carried on. Sometimes the religion would die ing an alphabet specially created for it. down in Sri Lanka, and then some monks would Even though the Pali scriptures have long come from Burma to crank it up again. Then it been committed to writing, they still keep much would fade out in Thailand, and some Sri Lankans of their repetitive form—a form useful for rote would boost them up—propping each other up learning and recital, but sometimes wearying for over the centuries. Thus it has managed to keep it- the silent reader. The Canon itself is divided into self afloat and is still largely in the original form. three major sections: the discourses of the Buddha When it would be well developed, it would get 114 PB January 2007 124 Contemplating the Theravada Tradition rich, and then it would get overweight and corrupt, But there is. collapsing under its own weight. Then a splinter Sometimes people read this First Truth and mis- group would go off into the forest and say, ‘Let’s interpret it as an absolute statement: ‘Reality in get back to basics!’ and would again return to those every dimension is dukkha’—that the universe and original standards of keeping the monastic rules, life and everything are unsatisfactory. The state- practising meditation, and studying the original ment gets taken as an absolute value judgment of all Teachings. and everything, but that’s not what is meant here. These are noble truths, not absolute truths. They are The Middle Way and the Four Noble Truths ‘noble’ in the sense that they are relative truths that Although there are numerous volumes of the Bud- when understood lead us to a realization of the dha’s discourses in many traditions, it is also said Absolute or the Ultimate. It’s just saying, ‘There is that the entirety of his Teaching was contained in the experience of dukkha; there is the experience his very first exposition—called ‘The Setting in of dissatisfaction.’ Motion of the Wheel of Truth’—which he gave The Second Truth is that the cause of this to five monastic companions in the deer park near dukkha is self-centred craving, tanha in Pali (trish- Benares, shortly after his enlightenment. In this na in Sanskrit), which literally means ‘thirst’. This brief discourse (it takes only twenty minutes to re- craving, this grasping, is the cause of dukkha. This cite), he expounded the nature of what he named can be craving for sense-pleasure, craving to be- the Middle Way and the Four Noble Truths. come something, craving to be, to be identified This teaching, the Four Noble Truths, is com- as something. Or it can be craving to not be, the mon to all Buddhist traditions. Just as an acorn desire to disappear, to be annihilated, to get rid of. contains within it the template for what eventually There are many, many subtle dimensions of this. takes shape as a vast and ancient oak, so too all the The Third Truth is that of dukkha-nirodha. myriad Buddhist Teachings can be said to derive Nirodha means ‘cessation’. This means that this ex- from this essential matrix of insight. What is more, perience of dukkha, of incompleteness, can fade enlightened Elders of both Southern and Northern away, can be transcended. It can end. In other traditions have agreed that this is the case. words, dukkha is not an absolute reality. It’s just a The Four Noble Truths are formulated like a temporary experience that the heart can be liber- medical diagnosis in the Ayurvedic tradition: (i) ated from. the symptoms of the disease, (ii) the cause, (iii) the The Fourth Truth is that of the Path, how we prognosis, and (iv) the cure. This, I am told, is the get from the Second Truth to the Third, from the standard format. The Buddha was always drawing experience of dukkha to ending it. The cure is the on structures and forms that were familiar to peo- Eightfold Path, which is, in essence, virtue, concen- ple in his time, and this is how he laid out the Four tration, and wisdom. Noble Truths. The First Truth (the ‘symptom’) is that there is Dependent Origination—the Source Code dukkha—the experience of incompleteness, dis- With meditation, what we are looking at very close- satisfaction, or frustration—that we are less than ly is the bridge between the Second and Third No- blissfully happy all the time. Does anybody argue ble Truths: how suffering arises, what is the cause of with that? Occasionally we are blissfully happy, and suffering, and how we can bring about its cessation. everything is fine, but there are moments when we The Buddha focused a huge amount of attention wobble. Why this is significant is that, if we have on explaining this point. He talked about the Four an intuition of an Ultimate Reality, an ultimate Noble Truths in many discourses and also went perfection, then how come there is this dukkha? into a lot of fine analysis about the relationship be- 125 PB January 2007 115 Prabuddha Bharata tween the Second and Third Truths. treat the wound. In this light he simply said that He used the term idapaccayata for ‘causality’. It the cause of the core wound is ignorance, not seeing literally means something like, ‘the conditionality clearly. Through not seeing clearly, the whole cycle of the relationship between this and that’. This is begins: because there is less than total mindfulness, talking about how things are brought into being— total awareness, total attunement to reality, we lose the chain of causation that brings dukkha into ex- our balance. istence, and the chain of causation that brings it to This principle is known as Dependent Origina- cessation. There is a little passage that is repeated tion. In a way it is the nucleus of the entire Teach- over and over in the suttas which I find very help- ing, the source code for Samsara and Nibbana ful to recollect: (Nirvana in Sanskrit). It is how the Buddha ana- lysed the nature of experience in the most radical When there is this, that comes to be. manner. Furthermore, the realization of Depend- With the arising of this, that arises. ent Origination is what he pointed to as having When there is not this, that does not come to be. been the way to his own enlightenment, and he With the cessation of this, that ceases.1 prescribed its realization for others who were keen This fundamental pattern underlies all the teachings to cure their own disease of dukkha. on causality. In analysing the arising of dukkha— When there is ignorance, then the whole sense where does it come from?—the Buddha points to of ‘subject’ and ‘object’ crystallizes; the sense of ignorance. this and that solidifies. There is an identification The Buddha, particularly in the Theravada with the body and the senses as being ‘self ’ and the Teachings, avoided any kind of metaphysical spec- external sense-objects as being ‘the world outside’. ulation. It’s not as if: ‘Well, there was this event at Because there is a body, there are senses, we hear, the beginning of the universe, and God blinked. think, smell, and so forth. Because of that sense Therefore we suffer.’ The Buddha didn’t go into any contact, feeling arises. There is pleasure, pain, or of that. He consciously avoided trying to describe neutral feeling, feelings of interest, aversion, excite- any ultimate beginning of things; not because he ment, whatever it might be. Initially it is just a feel- didn’t know how it all worked or because it was ing, then from feeling there arises desire. Pleasant inherently wasteful to contemplate the nature of feeling will give rise to the desire to get a hold of, life, but largely because metaphysical speculation to get closer to: ‘Whoo, what’s that? Smells good!’ alone is pointless and unliberating. He used the This is feeling turning into craving. There is sense telling simile of the poisoned arrow to illustrate contact, feeling, then craving arises from that. If this principle: A soldier has been wounded in bat- it’s painful or unpleasant we withdraw from it, we tle. A field-surgeon comes along to help him, but desire to get away from it. Craving leads to clinging, the soldier says, ‘I’ll not let the surgeon pull out this upadana, attachment. arrow until I know whether the man who wounded Upadana leads to what is called ‘becoming’ me was a noble, a brahmin, a merchant, or a worker (bhava in Pali). I like to picture this as a rising wave. … the man’s name and clan … was he tall or short, The mind grabs hold of an experience: ‘I wonder if fair or dark … where he lived, what kind of bow he they need any help down in the kitchen? Yes, I’m used, what wood the arrow was made from … the sure they do. I could peel a chestnut or two. I could bird the feathers came from, etc., etc.’ really be useful down there.’ This is upadana. Then ‘All this would still remain unknown to that man bhava is actually getting up off our cushion and and meanwhile he would die’, said the Buddha.2 heading down the stairs. Becoming is aiming to- The point of the tale is that the only wise and sig- ward the object of desire and acting on that. Bhava nificant thing to do is to pull out the arrow and is what the consumer society runs on. This is what 116 PB January 2007 126 Contemplating the Theravada Tradition the entire advertising industry and the consumer Eugene Sal andra culture are aimed at fostering: the thrill of me just about to get what I want. Then jati (birth) comes after that. Birth is the moment we get what we want. It’s the moment of no turning back. At bhava we can still withdraw. We can be all the way down the stairs and then think, ‘Get back in there. Come on, he’s halfway through a Dhamma talk. This is really too much!’ There is still time to get out of it. But jati is where there’s no turning back. The die is cast, and we’re in there spinning our story to the cook and getting go back to the time when we last felt really good, what we want. which was at the bhava-jati junction when the thrill ‘Oh yes, I could use some help. Could you stir hit. That was the last time we felt good. So we just this for me and then taste it?’ go back to where we last felt good and try it again. We think, ‘Ahhh, I’ve got it!’ That’s the moment And again and again and again … of getting what we want. Then, following upon ‘Dukkha ripening as search’ means we realize, the moment of getting what we want, there is the ‘I’ve been through this 153,485 times, enough; this is rest of it. After we’re born, as we all know, there enough. How can I get out of this? What can I do? is a lot of life that happens. After the moment of What’s going on here? What is this pattern?’ We are birth comes the entire lifespan. After the moment pretty thick creatures—and I speak from personal of thrill has passed and we’ve managed to do as experience. We take a lot of pounding before we much tasting as we can deal with, the excitement of learn some of these lessons. it starts to fade away. The feelings of embarrassment We can be very convincing. We really build our- arise: ‘Good grief where am I? Dragged around by selves up and excuse ourselves. But eventually we my nose, when am I going to get over this?!’ Feel- recognize that trying to find happiness through ings of self-criticism, self-disparagement, and disap- that kind of gratification does not work. Even pointment assail us: ‘It didn’t taste that good after though we get fooled and lose it, something in our all. After all of that … I sat there for twenty minutes hearts knows: this does not work. This is what we cranking myself up for it, and then they put too mean by ‘search’, looking for the roots of how the much salt in it.’ whole thing operates. This is what is called soka-parideva-dukkha- domanassupayasa: ‘sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, Escape from the Cycle of Birth and Death and despair’. So then what happens? There we are, In meditation, as you’ve probably noticed, we begin we feel kind of mucky, disappointed, down. This with that kind of lesson. Life smacks us in the face is dukkha. Essentially that long word just means and says, ‘Wake up.’ Or we begin to notice a pattern. dukkha; it feels bad. We see ourselves following this through and think, So what do we do when we feel bad? This is ‘What an idiot. Why do I keep doing this?!’ Slowly, interesting—the Buddha said, ‘Dukkha ripens in the more that we practice with it, we can catch the two ways: either as continuing the round of rebirth process earlier and earlier on, so that as we see our- or in search.’ So the first of these means we feel selves getting entangled, grasping, clinging, feeling mopey and wretched, and then we think, ‘Maybe the discomfort of that, then we know to let go. The they need some help with the cake!’ more our awareness gets refined and we bring clear- What happens if we don’t awaken is that we er and clearer attention to the flow of experience, 127 PB January 2007 117 Prabuddha Bharata the more we find we can begin to catch the process is what Theravada Buddhist practice is all about: where craving turns into clinging or where feeling the ending of rebirth, not being born again. turns into craving. We can experience a pleasant We get born into all kinds of things. It’s not just feeling but not let it turn into craving, or a painful what happens in the maternity ward. Birth is hap- feeling and not let it turn into hatred. pening many, many times a day. We can look at it By meditating on physical discomfort, we can on an external, physical level, but more directly we see that there is a way that there can be pain in the can see the whole process happening over and over body but that we are not suffering because of it. on a psychological level. The pain is one thing, and the suffering we create Every one of us, I’m sure, has had at least a mo- around it is another. We can be quite at peace with ment or two in the last few days when the mind it. There’s the feeling, but it’s not giving rise to de- was at its clearest—those ‘best moments’ are when sire, craving. Just as, if we’re experimenting with eat- we’re not being born into anything. Rebirth has ing one mouthful at a time, food can be delicious ended. The mind is awake, and there is peacefulness, but we’re not adding anything to it, we are not get- clarity. There’s no sense of self. There’s no time or ting crazy for the next mouthful. It’s simply, ‘This place—just ‘Is-ness’, ‘Such-ness’. Everything is fine. tastes good.’ End of story. We are more able to be We’re actually at our most alive, and life is at its with that experience because we are not racing on most perfect. Just on the tangible, experiential level, to the next thing, or not opinionating about it. We ‘not being born’ is far from being a wipeout experi- loosen the process in this way. ence of nothingness or not feeling anything, a total The more full the awareness is, the more we sus- anaesthesia. It has more to do with being both com- tain mindfulness—a whole-hearted awareness— pletely alive and also completely undefined. It is a the less the process of craving and dukkha kicks sense of awareness that has no form or place, and into action. When there is no loss of mindfulness, has nothing to do with time or individuality. then that polarity, the sense of self and other, is not This can be hard to conceptualize, but when so strong. The sense of ‘me’ in here and ‘the world’ we talk about ‘not being born again’, we are talk- out there, even that is loosened; it’s not solidified. ing about the personal, the individual, the idea of Then when there is a sound or a feeling, a sensa- a separate self that is not being crystallized. When tion or memory, an emotion, any kind of sensory we try to create an idea of what we are, we wonder, or mental impression, it is seen for what it is. It is ‘Well, what is a person anyway? Surely if I’m not re- not given a life of its own. It ceases. born, I’ve got to go somewhere, or something has By breaking the chain of causation at clinging got to happen. What happens?’ or craving, or where feeling turns into craving, or even at the very beginning—by not allowing igno- The Goal rance to arise but sustaining awareness—then the There was an occasion when a wanderer named causes of dukkha are removed. If there are no causes, Vacchagotta came to ask the Buddha the question, then suffering will not arise. ‘When there is not this, ‘Where do enlightened beings go when they die?’ then that does not come to be. When this ceases, The Buddha said, ‘If we had a little fire burning that also ceases.’ This is what we mean by the end- in front of us and let it go out, then I asked you, ing of birth and death, the ending of rebirth. “Where did the fire go, north, south, east, or west? The process of Dependent Origination as a What would you say?”’ whole is also known as the bhavacakka, the cycle Vacchagotta furrowed his brow and said, ‘It or wheel of rebirth. The terminology ‘getting off didn’t go anywhere. It just went out. The question the wheel’ or ‘ending birth and death’, describes the doesn’t apply.’ very process that I’ve just outlined. Principally this The Buddha said, ‘Exactly so, Vacchagotta. The 118 PB January 2007 128 Contemplating the Theravada Tradition way you phrased the question presumes a reality the five khandhas?’ that does not exist’ (72.16–20). We cannot say an ‘No, Venerable Sir.’ enlightened being goes any-where. The state of an ‘Exactly so, Anuradha. Therefore, if the Tatha enlightened one at the breaking up of the body is gata is unapprehendable here and now, while the indescribable. body is still alive, how much more so after the So this points to the Goal. In the Theravada breaking up of the body after death? What I teach, world, we talk about the goal of the spiritual life Anuradha, now as formerly, is dukkha and the end- as the realization of Nibbana. It has an inscrutable ing of dukkha.’3 quality to it. It frustrates the thinking mind, but I The Buddha, in the Theravada tradition, is al- feel it is very important to have at least a sense for ways pulling away from creating a metaphysical de- what this is referring to—awakening our intuitive scription of Nibbana, the Beyond, Ultimate Reality. sense of the Ultimate. It’s also important to know Instead he always comes right back to the focus of: that the Buddha didn’t speak of this Goal as some- ‘If there is suffering, it’s because there is clinging thing that can only be realized after the death of to something. An identity is being created.’ That’s the body. all we need to know. The rest is whipped cream. There is a principle that the Buddha talked about Over and over again such abstruse philosophical which is known as ‘the unapprehendability of the questions were put to the Buddha, and over and enlightened’. Anuradha, a young monk, has been over again he would bring it back to: ‘I teach only challenged by some brahmins, who ask him, ‘What dukkha and the ending of dukkha.’ happens to enlightened beings when they die?’ It’s not a matter of creating the perfect philo- He replies, ‘The Buddha does not answer that sophical model (and then getting lost in it) but question.’ looking at how we feel now, what’s happening ‘You must be either someone who is really stupid, within our heart right now. As we recognize that, or else newly gone forth into your tradition, other- as we see dukkha being created, we trace it back. wise you’d give us a straight answer.’ We realize there’s been some clinging; the clinging Anuradha later repeats this discussion to the came from craving; the craving came from feeling; Buddha and asks, ‘Did I answer well, or did I an- and the feeling came from that contact. We realize, swer badly?’ ‘Aha! It was that thought that triggered this.’ We The Buddha says, ‘You answered well, Anuradha.’ see that and let it go. This is dukkha-nirodha, the He went on to instruct him further, ‘Anuradha, do ending of suffering. you see the Tathagata as being the five khandhas The ending of suffering is not some kind of Ar- [body, feeling, perceptions, mental formations, and mageddon, a cosmic healing at the ending of time. discriminative consciousness]?’ The ending of suffering occurs at exactly the place ‘No, Venerable Sir.’ where the suffering is generated. When we trace ‘Do you see the Tathagata as having the five back some particular event of dukkha, when we see khandhas?’ where it has arisen from and let go of it right there, ‘No, Venerable Sir.’ then there is no suffering. ‘Do you see the Tathagata as not having the five I offer this Dhamma feast for your reflection. khandhas?’ P ‘No, Venerable Sir.’ ‘Do you see the Tathagata as being in the five References khandhas?’ 1. Anguttara Nikaya, 10.92. ‘No, Venerable Sir.’ 2. Majjhima Nikaya, 63.5. ‘Do you see the Tathagata as being apart from 3. Samyutta Nikaya, 44.2. 129 PB January 2007 119 Living the Tr adition The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West Rev. Heng Sure I grew up in the 1950s and 60s in Toledo, Ohio, I had returned to my spiritual home. of Scots-Irish ancestry, and was president of Three years after entering Gold Mountain, I my high school student council as well as my knelt on a platform in a monastery in rural North- church’s Methodist Youth Fellowship. My child- ern California called the City of Ten Thousand hood was as mainstream mid-American as corn Buddhas and professed the many vows taken by on the cob. My first encounter with Asian religion Buddhist monastics since the time of the Buddha, happened when I took a Chinese language class 2,500 years ago. Strange to say, promising to live in high school and then picked up a bilingual an- with so many precepts felt not at all repressive. In- cient Buddhist scripture in the local public library. stead, as I stepped into the lineage of monks and I knew I had to find out why the book’s Chinese nuns of ages past, my heart felt liberated and joyful. characters felt strangely familiar and compelling. My spiritual aspirations seemed to be supported by In college my roommate introduced me to Bud- high-flying wings. By taking the Bhikshu precepts, dhist meditation; he later became a disciple and I set aside the cultural perspectives of an American ordained monk under a Chinese Buddhist Chan college student of the 1970s and become a celibate master. When I got to the University of Califor- monk, a vegetarian, a mendicant. I vowed to re- nia, Berkeley to study Buddhism in 1972, I drove place my anything-goes lifestyle for the values of across the bridge to Gold Mountain Monastery to the Buddha’s Bhikshu Sangha, the longest-running visit my roommate. monastic fraternity on the planet. Inside the door of Gold Mountain, my first im- pressions were physical: I noticed the chill in the air, Learning to Bow smelled the sandalwood incense, and marvelled at Taking the vows is a ritual process; living into the the three large Buddhas seated in full lotus posture vows required bone-deep changes. When I think on a raised dais with gold-coloured dragons curl- back to what I went through in making these ing around the roof. Then I heard the tapping of a changes, certain peak experiences emerge from the ‘wooden fish’ drum and the rhythmic chanting of mist of memory. mantras, and saw the Caucasian monks and nuns One of those moments was learning to bow. wearing robes and bowing in the Buddha hall. I saw Even though I’ve done lots of bowing, my initial my former college roommate who had ordained as experience with bowing was full of hesitation and a monk. He was sitting beside Master Hsuan Hua questions. On Saturday mornings at Gold Moun- and translating his Mandarin Chinese dharma talk tain Monastery, the Western monks and nuns lead into English. His head was shaven, and he wore a the newcomers in bowing to an English translation long robe and a dark brown sash clasped over his of the repentance liturgy of Medicine Master Bud- left shoulder. If it weren’t for the audio headphones dha. Men and women bowed on two sides of the over his ears he might have stepped out of a Tang hall while chanting passages of text and the names Dynasty court painting. I had an epiphany: I knew of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. When I bowed the 120 PB January 2007 130 The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West first few times, pictures from Sunday school arose when the bowing was over, I felt relieved of a bur- to mind: I recalled stories of God punishing the den, lighter and more connected with the world Israelites for worshipping graven idols. How was around me and the people in it. The feeling of con- bowing to Buddha images any different? For a nection remained for hours. Bowing became a prac- long time the gesture seemed forced and unnatu- tice I willingly and literally threw myself into. ral, but I stuck with it, in large part because there When I eventually moved over to the monas- was a vegetarian lunch immediately afterward and tery from Berkeley, I asked my monk-roommate I was a graduate student cooking for myself in a for an appropriate practice to begin my cultivation. studio apartment in Berkeley. After half an hour of He suggested I bow to a sutra text, one character bowing and chanting, I real- at a time. This immedi- ized my body felt unusually ately struck me as a ri- comfortable. My thoughts diculous notion. I was slowed down, my breathing studying for my mas- was deep and regular, and ter’s degree at a prestig- tension left my shoulders. ious public university; Bowing felt like yoga, only I was always reading more spiritually focused. half a dozen books and Bowing also allowed my newspapers at once. mind to contemplate the Bowing down to one text of the liturgy. The bow- book, one character at City of Ten Thousand Buddhas ing provided a space for the a time, simply seemed words of the Dharma-teaching to go deep into my too slow. He anticipated my reluctance and said, consciousness: ‘Don’t think about it, don’t talk about it, just do it, and tell me later how it felt.’ Therefore the sicknesses of living beings are one single illusory sickness, and the medicines given by I lit a stick of incense, opened the Flower Adorn- the Tathagata (the Thus Come One) are, likewise, ment Sutra (Avatamsaka Sutra), and grumbling to one illusory medicine … So we can know that all myself that this was a waste of time, made the first the Dharma spoken by the Tathagata has a single bow to the first character: da for ‘great’ or ‘large’. quality and a single flavour. It is the quality of One hour later, I had bowed onto the second page, liberation, the quality of leaving (affliction), the and my mind had downshifted into a slower gear, quality of cessation, and ultimately, the quality of in tune with my bowing metabolism. I contem- Nirvana. In the end, it returns to emptiness. plated the characters one by one and had anoth- Bowing to this deep insight felt transformative and er epiphany: reading great books slowly enhances healing. Master Hua instructed us that bowing was the comprehension and appreciation. All printed not for the purpose of getting anything; instead, we works are not created equal. Bowing with the body bowed to get rid of pride and arrogance and to cre- moves the mind towards respect; speed-reading ate room for goodness in our minds once pride was deprives the reader of much of the value of written gone. This made sense: most religions teach that communication. pride is a sin. Bowing with my head at shoe-top lev- Since then I dedicated years of my monastic for- el, I found it more difficult to feel arrogant; instead, mation to bowing, to making ritual prostrations. I I felt humble and soft. I contemplated how many of made a pilgrimage at one point in my early monas- my mistakes in life had come from loneliness, from tic formation, bowing to the ground once every a feeling of brokenness, and from alienation from three steps. It took thirty-three months of steady others. On Saturday mornings at Gold Mountain, bowing to travel from South Pasadena, California, 131 PB January 2007 121 Prabuddha Bharata up the Pacific Coast Highway to the City of Ten wisdom. Thousand Buddhas in Ukiah. The pace of bow- From the point of view of the Chinese Mahay- ing and the insights gained from putting my body ana, the act of ‘Taking Refuge with the Triple Jew- prone to the ground thoroughly amended my ap- el’ is the equivalent of baptism or christening in proach to reading and enhanced my respect for sa- the Christian faith. One takes refuge in a ninety- cred books and their effect on the mind and spirit. minute ritual procedure, wherein one asks for a teacher to transmit the refuges, invites the ‘Perma- Taking Refuge nently Abiding Triple Jewel’ to draw near and bless Like many westerners, I first discovered Buddhist the event, repents of past offences, and then vows thought and concepts through books. I read Ker- to take the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha ouac’s Dharma Bums, and found an English trans- as one’s new spiritual affiliation. lation of the Sixth Patriarch’s Sutra in my public li- The presiding Master confers a dharma-name brary. To step up from being a reader on Buddhism on the new disciples, and from then on that name to becoming a Buddhist disciple, the Mahayana represents one’s connection to an ancient lineage of tradition offers the ceremony for ‘Taking Refuge Buddhist disciples stretching back to the historical with the Three Jewels’ (trisharana) and receiving Buddha himself. I felt a weight lift from my heart the Five Precepts (panchashila). soon after taking refuge; a fundamental struggle I recall the day I took the Three Refuges and the between alienation and belonging had been set- Five Precepts at Gold Mountain Monastery; the tled. Clearly, the act of taking refuge was more than Venerable Abbot Master Hsuan Hua said, ‘Today a ritual; also it became clear that the answer to my is your new birthday. You may consider everything search for identity was a spiritual matter, and lay be- you’ve done heretofore as over and gone. You can yond the physical body my parents gave birth to. consider that everything you will do and who you will become is born anew today as a disciple of the The Five Precepts Buddha.’ A next step into the Dharma comes by requesting Given the bad habits I had as a graduate student and receiving the Five Precepts. This ceremony al- living in an extended family in the Berkeley Hills, I lows one to make a life-long promise to refrain from realized I could benefit from some wholesome life- taking life, from stealing, from engaging in sexual style changes. Because the integrity of the teacher misconduct (generally interpreted as refraining was believable, and because I had had enough of from adultery and promiscuity, or more strictly, as my confusion and was committed to change, the staying chaste until marriage), from telling lies, and choices offered by the refuges and precepts seemed from using intoxicants of any kind. to be a practical first step along the path towards Requesting these precepts required me to make Bowing . . . a major change in my thinking about personal free- dom and rules. I grew up as a typical American boy, defining freedom as doing whatever I wanted, whenever I wanted to. I watched movies and televi- sion serials that celebrated outlaws and mavericks, secret agents and cowboys. In popular culture, self- made people and rugged individuals took as much freedom as they could get away with. Rules were for ordinary citizens who couldn’t find a way around them, in the thinking of the time. I asked my monk friend how many precepts a Bhikshu observed, and 122 PB January 2007 132 The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West I was shocked at the answer: over three hundred! write and translate, they live lightly on the earth I could not comprehend how anybody could live ecologically speaking, needing only a few vegeta- with so many rules. Yet the people who held pre- bles a day to sustain their lives. Their monasteries cepts did not look oppressed or miserable in any preserve green space, offer stewardship of nature, way; in fact, quite the opposite. When I observed and provide refuge for animals. By taking men out that monks lived without money, possessions, fam- of the army, the Sangha serves as a counter-point ily, stimulants, newspapers, to a nation’s militarization or television, I questioned and rulers’ aspirations for how such a lifestyle could armed conflict and politi- survive in the affluent mar- cal domination through ketplace of North America. force. Monks thus directly On Buddha’s birthday contribute to a more peace- in 1972, I drank tea with my ful society. Throughout his- monk friend later in the af- tory the Buddha’s monastic ternoon, after the crowds of Sangha, with certain excep- disciples had dispersed. He tions, has rarely marched told me that the Buddha’s to war under the Buddha’s monastic Sangha is one of flag, and does not pray for the oldest direct democra- the military victory of one Fields of blessings cies in the world: decisions army over another. Remov- are made by asking consensus of all the monks. Au- ing young men from the possibility of bearing arms thority in the Sangha comes from virtue and senior- significantly affects the policies of a nation towards ity in precepts. The Sangha is free of class distinc- peace and war, in ways both visible and invisible. tions: within the Sangha, from the Buddha’s time, In the West, where the marketplace dominates farmers, scholars, and princes cultivated side by so much of our social identity, monks take the revo- side and shared their material goods equally. Fur- lutionary stance of refraining from mercantile ac- ther, the Sangha gave women the right to access the tivity. For example, I held the precept of not touch- highest goals of cultivation without gender bias. In ing money for the first twenty-five years of my life sixth century BCE India, this was revolutionary; to- as a monk. Monks who observe that practice hold day in the religious world, it still remains rare. no personal assets; they have no savings account, Monks walk with their alms-bowls through credit cards, or checking accounts. This was only towns, but they do not beg. They do not even possible because some monks were willing to pay speak, nor do they accept money. The monks in- the bills and keep the monastery’s accounts. Monks stead serve as ‘fields of blessings’, that is to say, they eat vegetables, and wear the same robes year after make themselves available for lay-people who care year; our needs are simple and easily met. Since the to practise generosity by offering food. Supporting Sangha lives low on the food chain, having access to the lifestyle of a cultivator of the path to wisdom cash was not important. Not touching money did has always been regarded as meritorious to the giver, not restrict my freedom; the effect on my mind of hence the name ‘field of blessings Sangha’. leaving the marketplace behind was profoundly lib- erating. I did not need ATMs or banks, catalogues, Monks and Society advertisements, sales, or credit reports. My body Monks are not social parasites. They give to soci- rarely went into stores or malls. Most significant ety by preserving literacy and knowledge of the of all was that my mind didn’t go into stores ei- path to spiritual wisdom. Monks teach school, they ther; I spent no mental effort thinking about things 133 PB January 2007 123 Prabuddha Bharata to buy or trade. The amount of time this practice From this viewpoint, the precepts of the Sangha freed up is considerable. The freedom that comes appear not as repressive; rather they create a broth- from knowing self-sufficiency, from not needing erhood and sisterhood of vow-holders who devote anything, is the true reward of not holding money. their lives to protecting and sustaining the Bud- One thought of sufficiency exposes the seduction dha’s code of ethics, the path to liberation that is of advertising’s manufactured desire. By stepping egalitarian, wisdom-based, and socially engaged. away from the urge to consume, one can see the il- By giving his disciples a moral code that was lusion of happiness based on getting stuff and the based on wisdom, the Buddha lifted his Sangha out myth of the marketplace as it really is. of the mundane cultural standards of caste, wealth, Manufacturers issue new products on a cycle; gender, and privilege. He offered membership in advertising creates the illusion of need and pushes the Sangha to women, to outcasts, to the poor and consumers away from contentment with their old the rich alike. The patchwork robe and shaven head possessions into craving the new items. Getting the of the Sangha made it possible for people to set desired item rarely delivers the happiness that was aside superficial distinctions and culture-bound promised, and affliction is the result. limitations and to walk the path to spiritual growth Socially, the impact of a group of people who and human evolution. For these reasons I feel that don’t participate in the illusion of the marketplace Buddhism, seen in this light, will redefine freedom is powerful and wholesome. Members of the Bud- in the West and teach us a deeper dimension of de- dha’s Sangha are not mercantile beings; they leave mocracy and equality. the marketplace behind; they hold their wealth and goods in common. They pay attention instead to Mahayana Buddhist Practice at the desire-thoughts in the mind that create greed Gold Mountain Monastery and discontent and that move the mind away from Master Hua taught a traditional form of monasti- satisfaction and well-being. cism. He encouraged his students to meditate in full lotus, to be on time for hours of ceremonies, A Wisdom-based Moral Code to eat only one vegetarian meal a day. Master Hua Seen from the perspective of the Buddha’s wish taught an authentic and living tradition that came to end sentient beings’ suffering, the Sangha’s pre- directly from the Chan masters of antiquity. I had cepts appear as a different set of rules from those done sporadic Zen-style meditation in Japan, but I rebelled against as an adolescent. The rules the zazen was only one of the daily practices at Gold Buddha taught came not from social conventions Mountain Monastery. legislated by bodies of lawmakers, argued by law- Practice is central in the Buddha’s teachings, and yers and courts, enforced by police, and punished is emphasized much more than belief in doctrine by jails. Precepts, particularly the Bodhisattva Pre- per se. Practices are many, and come grouped in var- cepts, came from the Buddha’s insight. After his ious sets, schools, and traditions. These include the great awakening, he saw the potential perfection study of the Vinaya, which teaches moral guide- of human nature and how certain behaviours harm lines for the monastic and lay community as well that nature and delay progress on the path towards as organizational principles for the Sangha com- liberation. He gave the precepts as guidelines on munity. Chan practice ( Japanese: Zen) focuses on a map past the pitfalls of behaviour that obstruct seated meditation and the various ways to use the Bodhi, or awakening. Holding the Buddha’s pre- mind while meditating. Pure Land practice teach- cepts does not restrict freedom, it speeds you on es devotion to the Buddha Amitabha and seeking your way to the end of suffering and the birth of rebirth in his Pure Land. Mantra practice teaches wisdom. memorizing and reciting mantras and practising 124 PB January 2007 134 The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West mudras. Sutra practices investi- cushion, pauses briefly for con- gate the scriptures, and include templation, and then rises, lift- various intellectual approaches ing head, knees, and hands. After to the Buddha’s discourses and three slow bows he or she makes later commentaries including a half bow from the waist. All memorizing and explaining, as participants perform these bows, well as commenting on them. cued by a small hand-bell. On any given day throughout The master of ceremonies the year, Mahayana practitioners, chants the opening phrases of monastic and lay alike, will ob- the Shurangama Mantra, the serve precepts, meditate, recite ‘Great Compassion Mantra’, the The muyu, or wooden-fish drum the Buddha’s name, chant man- ‘Ten Small Mantras’, and ‘Heart tras, and listen to or study sutras. After many centu- of Prajna Paramita Sutra’, while a wooden drum ries in China, entire monasteries developed around keeps time to a slow rhythmic metre. Mantras are specific practices: some teachers taught students chanted in Chinese syllables meant to approximate exclusively to recite the Buddha’s name, others to Sanskrit sounds. After the mantras are finished, practice Chan meditation. Monastic Buddhism in which takes thirty minutes, the assembly chants the West has not yet reached its first complete cen- the praises of Medicine Master Buddha, and cir- tury, so the variety of practices appears throughout cumambulates the hall while reciting the Buddha’s the day in each monastery. name. The service includes the Ten Kings of Vows of Samantabhadra Bodhisattva, and a vow to take The Daily Round refuge in the Triple Jewel: the Buddha, Dharma, From my first day of retreat thirty-one years ago, the and Sangha. Finally, the assembly sings praises to sights, sounds, and smells that accent a day of prac- Vajrapani and Sarasvati, two celestial Bodhisattvas, tice in a Mahayana monastery have been my regular and makes prostrations to the lineage of ancestral environment. The daily schedule is similar for most patriarchs. This morning chanting service contin- Chinese monastic communities, and the same is ues throughout the year without change. true to a large extent for Vietnamese and Korean Following morning chanting, the novice monks monasteries. The sound of a wooden mallet strik- and nuns, as part of their monastic formation, ing a stiff board wakes the monks at 3.30 a.m. Thirty make ritual prostrations for an hour, chanting ‘Na- minutes later, monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen mo ben-shi shi-jia-mou-ni fo; namo fundamental enter the main hall and stand at bowing benches teacher Shakyamuni Buddha’ as they rise and bow before the Buddha images on the main altar. Men on alternate sides of the hall. stand to one side of the hall, women to the other. An hour of meditation anchors each day in still- Those individuals who observe more precepts stand ness. The Chan tradition teaches sitting in full lotus to the front. A nun lights a stick of sandalwood in- posture and encourages meditators to investigate a cense and places it in the large censor in the middle meditation topic (hua-tou). Many people investi- of the altar. The monk who serves as master of cer- gate the question, ‘Who is mindful of the Buddha?’ emonies will strike a large brass bowl-shaped bell, Meditation periods are an hour long, interspersed and then lead everybody to make three prostrations, with twenty minutes of walking. Then at 7 o’clock, bowing slowly down to a cushion on the floor. The everybody returns to the Buddha Hall to recite the Mahayana style of bow is called a ‘five-point bow’, Flower Adornment Sutra for an hour. The chant- meaning that the person bowing first puts his or her ing is done primarily in Chinese, each word ac- two knees, two hands, and then forehead onto the companied by the sound of the muyu, the wooden- 135 PB January 2007 125 Prabuddha Bharata fish drum. The melody rises scriptures and explain the and falls in a pattern, and words of the Buddha line since the Sutra is long, the by line. ‘Turning the Dhar- group moves through the ma-wheel’ in this way has text sequentially through- become a hallmark of Chi- out the year. At 8 a.m., the nese Buddhism in the West, laity eat breakfast, while and the intent is to translate the monks and nuns begin the Buddha’s voice in the their workday. Some teach Mahayana Sutras into the in the schools, some admin- world’s languages. To end ister the monastery’s financ- Guan Shi Yin the day the assembly chants es and paperwork, some cut the Heart of the Shuran- grass and maintain the buildings, some translate gama Mantra 108 times and then returns to their scriptures, some take care of the grounds, tend gar- rooms to rest. dens, or prepare food. The entire assembly pauses at 10.30 for the meal Devotion blessing, a twenty-minute ceremony of chanting Individuals who think that Buddhism is only medi- to express gratitude for the offering of food, and tation are often surprised to discover that the Pure then walks in file to the dining hall for the commu- Land devotion is the dominant form of practice for nal meal. The community eats together in silence, Mahayana Buddhists of East Asia. The Pure Land and the meal is completely vegetarian. Some of tradition arises from the vows of the Buddha Am- the vegetables and fruit are grown in the monastic itabha, who vowed to create a paradise in the West gardens; the starch and condiments are offered by called Sukhavati, ‘Utmost Happiness’, where suffer- lay donors. ing would not exist. He vowed that anybody who After lunch and a thirty-minute rest, peo- recited the words ‘Namo Amitabha’ (I return and ple gather in the Buddha Hall to bow the ‘Great rely on the Buddha of Infinite Radiance) would at Compassion Repentance’. This ceremony is ninety the time of death be reborn into a lotus flower in minutes long, and after offerings and repentance, the Land of Utmost Happiness. When that per- includes the chanting, twenty-one times, of the son’s karma is purified, the lotus will open and the ‘Great Compassion Mantra’. This mantra is intend- person will see the Buddha and emerge into Am- ed to instil in each practitioner the compassionate itabha’s Pure Land. heart of Guan Shi Yin (Avalokiteshvara) Bodhisat- There are reasons why recitation of the Buddha’s tva. The wooden fish keeps time while the assembly name became the most popular form of practice: circles the hall, reciting the eighty-seven phrases of you can recite even if you can’t read the texts; you the Great Compassion Mantra in unison to a ris- can recite if your body can’t endure the physical ing and falling melodic line. From the end of the demands of Chan meditation. You can recite while Repentance everybody returns to his or her own walking, cooking, waiting in line at the bank, or allotted work. riding the bus. The only requirements for success Work period continues until 5 p.m., when eve- are faith, vows, and regular practice. Another rea- rybody gathers to meditate before evening chant- son that Amitabha’s Dharma-door became popular ing at 6.30 p.m. Every night at 7.30 the community was that during hard times, during famine, cata- meets to listen to a lecture on a Mahayana sutra strophic droughts, floods, and civil conflict, the text. Master Hsuan Hua began this custom in 1968, description of Amitabha’s Pure Land offered an at- making it a priority in the community to open the tractive and conflict-free alternative to a mundane 126 PB January 2007 136 The Heart of Mahayana Buddhist Practice in the West reality filled with misery. the rising and falling of thoughts, he saw patterns, In the monastery people recite the Buddha’s he saw ideas and impulses arrive and leave; and name from morning to night. While the goal is then over time he noticed deeper strata of mind to be reborn in the Pure Land after death, alter- that did not shift. He analyzed the personality nately, people can recite steadily until body and and identified its components: body, feelings/sen- mind reach a state of single-minded concentration sations, thoughts, deeper mental structures, and known as ‘The Buddha-recitation Samadhi’. This consciousness. state, according to accomplished Pure Land mas- I had a friend in graduate school who studied ters, is indistinguishable from the samadhi one can for his doctorate in clinical psychology. His origi- attain while doing Chan meditation. nal motive was to understand mind and to under- stand the human condition. He turned to psychol- Buddha’s Onward March ogy only to discover that advanced academic study Mahayana Buddhist practice has great potential to of the mind required him to experiment with white find a permanent home in the West. The Buddha rats and do statistical and demographic studies of practised scientifically. The Buddha can, without groups of citizens in Marin County, California. He pushing the point, qualify as a disciplined and ra- pushed through to completion of his degree but tional researcher. The Buddha’s six years of ascetic his early interest in Freud’s discoveries was left far practice were conducted methodically, scientifi- behind. cally, in that he carried on empirical experiments He and so many other psych students found that beneath the trees and in the clearings of Nepal’s Buddhist meditation delivered real-time, hands-on forests. He learned spiritual disciplines, proposed study of the mind in vivo, with its neuroses and its and tested hypotheses, applied variables, corrected wonders intact. For a culture that largely sees itself errors, and retraced his steps. He applied the suc- through the lens of psychology, to have the Buddha cessful methods, left a paper trail (the sutras), and sutras explain the landscape of a healthy, perfected later made his discoveries accessible and testable for human mind is a most welcome revelation. later experimenters. The Buddha’s sutras can be explained as blue- Buddhism has already caught on in the West prints of his consciousness; his discourses to the because Buddhist meditation is oriented towards monks and nuns contain descriptions of the work- psychology. For the last dozen years, on Thursday ings of the mind, when healthy, as well as methods nights, the Berkeley Buddhist Monastery has host- for countering afflictions and neuroses. ed the local Vipassana group, usually about eighty These observations sketch a framework for the individuals who come to meditate and listen to arrival of Mahayana Buddhist practice in America. a Dharma-talk. The meditators are adults, some Since history repeats itself, and as it took two cen- in their sixties and seventies, and most are afflu- turies for Mahayana practice to put its roots down ent mainstream Californians. Many are culturally in China after its coming from India, it may require Jewish or self-identified as ‘wounded Catholics in another hundred and fifty years for a truly Western recovery’. The most interesting demographic fea- Buddhism to arise from the soil of North America. ture of this group is their profession—among the Whatever form it takes, the monastic Sangha will regulars, nearly one in three is a psychotherapist or surely play a prominent role in its development, someone who studied psychology in school and the democratic, science-friendly, and psycho- Why the popularity of Buddhist meditation logically sound aspects of the Dharma will certainly among psychologists? The Buddha successfully per- have a hand in developing the Buddhism that leaves formed radical psychotherapy on himself, using his the West and returns at last to the land of its birth, own body and mind as a laboratory. He observed to India. P 137 PB January 2007 127 Living the Tr adition Knowledge, Love, and Union: A Glimpse into the Christian Contemplative Tradition Father Paul of Jesus T o some Indians, it may seem presumptuous that when Christians finally re-encounter the gem that a westerner should write to them about that lies hidden within them, it will be as the pearl meditation and contemplation, even if it is of wisdom for which they are taught to sell all in only about the Christian contemplative tradition. order to possess; it will be the crest-jewel in their After all, India is the mother of meditation. And his- spiritual diadem. torically, Christians have not been especially known It is commonly said that the indigenous Indian for their capacity to meditate. The world may ad- religions are more contemplative and that Christi- mire their teachings on brotherly love, their care for anity is more active. Hindus scrutinize the inner- the poor, their schools and their hospitals—every- most spaces of the soul, while Christians search the thing pertaining to active works of charity—but outermost reaches of space: two infinities—but two generally it would not look to Christians as masters infinities that meet when interiority and exteriority of meditation or contemplation in the same way it embrace as two parts of the same whole. As beyond, would look to Hindus or Buddhists. so within! … if we may paraphrase the Platonist analogy ‘as above, so below’. Hindu and Christian, During the first three centuries of Christianity, Same Spiritual Treasures persecution stalked Christians to the extent that Yet there have been people—like Dom Henri Le of the first thirty popes, twenty-eight were put to Saux (known in India as Swami Abhishiktananda), death by Roman imperial authorities. Martyrdom who practised both Hindu and Christian contem- even came to be admired as the highest form of ho- plation, who experienced Advaita as deeply as Sri liness. Obviously, until Christians acquired stability Ramakrishna had experienced Christianity—who by becoming tolerated and eventually recognized arrived at the staunch belief that Christianity pos- officially, it was difficult for them to chronicle a sesses the same spiritual treasures that Hinduism purely contemplative tradition. Only the lives of does. But Christians are generally unaware of the the martyrs and the teachings of the popes were spiritual riches they possess. It might almost be said preserved, and then, just by oral tradition at first. of Christians that they are sometimes like beggars sitting on a heap of gold while asking passers-by for Dionysius the Areopagite and alms. They don’t always realize that they are already the Journey Back to God sitting on that heap of gold. But by the fifth century, Dionysius the Areopagite It was Swami Abhishiktananda’s intimate con- wrote theological treatises that were to influence viction that India can help Christians find and Christian contemplatives for over a thousand years. fructify their own treasure, that India can reveal Islamic oppression had driven many Greek and ori- meditation and contemplation to the Church, and ental monks to Italy during the sixth and seventh 128 PB January 2007 138 Knowledge, Love, and Union: A Glimpse into the Christian Contemplative Tradition centuries. They brought with them the heart, the seeming opposition the mystical writings of Dionysius, between two modes of knowledge, and these treatises were given to the will challenge Christian contempla- pope, to the emperor Charlemagne tives for centuries to come as they and his son, Louis the Pious, who strive toward the purification that had John Scotus Erigena translate God inevitably requires of them. them into Latin. These translations With Saint John the Baptist, con- spread throughout Western Chris- templatives say that their egos must tendom during the Middle Ages. decrease in order that Christ may Immersed in Neoplatonism, Di- increase in them. First, they begin onysius drew much of his knowl- by learning to control the tongue edge on philosophy and contem- and the belly. One of the Egyptian Dionysius the Areopagite plation from Plotinus and Proclus, desert fathers, Abbot Agatho, kept a with notable differences, however. Neoplatonism stone in his mouth for three years so that he could teaches that the universe emanates from God learn to be silent. (How different from the Greek through different degrees of diminishing perfec- orator, Demosthenes, a stutterer who put pebbles tion, and slowly returns through different degrees in his mouth and shouted above the roar of the sea back into the Deity. All beings are stripped of their so that he could learn to speak in public!) individual identity as they return to their source. They learned to keep their tongue so that they Most Christians, however, do not believe that hu- could learn to keep their thoughts and not judge mans emanate from God. Instead of emanation, others. Even the chaste were not to judge a fornica- they believe in theosis—that is, that human beings tor, for judging others is as bad as fornicating, and are created by Him, and that the soul returns to the God who commands the first spiritual law also Him as an individual with an infinite divinized sta- commands the second. Experience taught the con- tus, through Christ, the incarnation of the Logos, templative that not judging others brings peace of the Word, the second Person of the Holy Trinity. heart and undisturbed meditation. Dionysius indicates that the spiritual journey Another ascetical practice in the purification back to God follows a process of purification, il- process is the overcoming of laziness, because the lumination, and union (or perfection), and this contemplative life strikes a balance between work is the process that Christian contemplatives have (Martha) and meditation (Mary). One day, a broth- traditionally followed. er came to see Abbot Silvanus on Mount Sinai and saw the hermits at work. He exclaimed, ‘Why do Purification by Control of the Tongue you work for perishable food? Mary has chosen First, purification. When God manifested himself the better part, namely to sit at the feet of the Lord to Moses on Mount Sinai, he told Moses not to ap- without working.’ So the Abbot gave the brother a proach the burning bush without having removed book and let him read until dinnertime. When the his sandals. Sandals are made from animal hide and brother asked why the Abbot hadn’t called him for represent the fleshly part of man. Moses was being dinner, the elder replied: ‘You’re a spiritual man, asked to go beyond sense-perception and concept, you don’t need perishable food.’ It goes without to free himself from impassioned thought, because, saying that the brother understood the lesson very as that sweetest of modern Christian saints, Saint quickly. Theresa of the Child Jesus, says, ‘It is impossible for the human tongue to express things which the hu- Purification by Non-Attachment man heart can hardly understand.’ The head and Contemplatives practise abnegation, poverty, and 139 PB January 2007 129 Prabuddha Bharata non-attachment. One monk, Serapion, sold his brace of God than to follow the arduous path of copy of the Gospels in order to procure food for virtue. It is not a question of attaining union with some hungry people. Surprised at this, a few broth- God—we already have it!—but of being aware of er monks asked Serapion why he had sold his copy it, of enjoying it, because for the Christian, the di- of the Gospels, to which he replied, ‘I sold the book vinity of Jesus is not separate from the divinity of that told me to sell all I have and give to the poor.’ each being in creation. As Swami Abhishiktananda No contentions can arise between men of such says, we may not be God, but God plus man does non-attachment. Two elders were living peace- not make two. fully together in a cell in the Egyptian desert and had never had so much as a single quarrel. One of Knowledge them said, ‘Come on, let’s have at least one quarrel, Second, knowledge. There are no false gods, only like other men.’ The other one said, ‘I don’t know false ideas about God, yet even a false idea expresses how to start a quarrel.’ The first one said, ‘I’ll place a little something about Him. We have to strip Him this brick between us and say it’s mine. After that, of masks and concepts. How can we know and love you’ll say, “No, it’s mine”, and we’ll quarrel.’ So they God if we do not even know and love ourselves? placed the brick between them. One said, ‘It’s mine’, ‘Oh Love unknown, unloved’, exclaimed the ecstatic and the other one replied, ‘I believe it’s mine.’ The St Mary Magdalen de’ Pazzi. We cannot know God first one said again, ‘It’s not yours, it’s mine.’ To with our sorely limited human intelligence, because which the other one answered, ‘Well then, if it’s God is incommunicable and ineffable. Therefore, yours, take it.’ So they never managed to get into a contemplation ultimately becomes an adoration of quarrel, because of their non-attachment. that very incommuni- Of course, non-attachment goes way beyond a cability and ineffability question of bricks. In the highest degree of contem- in the total beauty and plation, one has to become detached from oneself transparency of Being. and from the world out of love for God, and one He is the light of our even has to abandon God for love of neighbour, says hearts. We cannot feel Richard of St Victor. The very love that drew Christ God, we cannot con- away from heaven to earth draws them away from ceptualize God. Simply, God, so to speak, for the human good. Once Ab- we are. And this experi- bot Lot told Abbot Joseph that he observed his ence is one of sole and rule; that he fasted, prayed, meditated, and kept simple existence. But contemplative silence; and that he strove to cleanse how can we perceive it his heart of thoughts. ‘What more can I do?’ he if we delight more in asked. Abbot Joseph stood up and stretched out St Mary Magdalen de’ Pazzi creatures than in the his hands to heaven, and his fingers became like ten Creator? lamps of fire. He said: ‘Why not be totally changed God does reveal himself to us, but first we need into fire?’ an intense yearning. We want to know God, but But how do we become totally transformed into what is he not? Yet, to grasp this ‘what-is-he-not?’ fire? By knowing God? By loving Him? By both we have to set aside all bodily concepts of God— together? How do we become one single spirit such as shape, form, quality, quantity, weight, po- with the Lord, as Saint Paul says (1 Cor., 6.17), or sition, visibility, sensibility—and all operations of branches of the divine vine? ( John, 15.5). We ask the intellect. Saint Thomas Aquinas, one of the these ‘how’ questions, because we sometimes for- most soaring intellects the West has ever known, get that it is more difficult to escape the secret em- fell into a long ecstasy towards the end of his life. 130 PB January 2007 140 Knowledge, Love, and Union: A Glimpse into the Christian Contemplative Tradition He set his pen down, never to write again, because Saint Bernard contin- great secrets had been revealed to him, not through ues, the measure of lov- reasoning, but through divine communication. Af- ing God is to love him ter his ecstasy he said: ‘All that I have written up without measure. How until now appears to be of little value.’ Even human can we love the infinite genius cannot grasp God. with measure? ‘Love is When the contemplative comes to understand the spiritual life,’ says that God alone suffices, he is ready to set aside all Thomas Merton. It is thought, be it good or evil. He rejects knowing, in life. But it is also death, favour of unknowing. If a person, no matter how death to our false self, clairvoyant he may be, cannot even comprehend so that we can be re- the eminent beauty and capacity of a human soul, born in Christ. It is a as Saint Teresa of Avila says—for ‘It is in His image kind of crucifixion, but and resemblance that God has created us’—then not a crucifixion of the how can he know God? His mind confounds God body, not a martyrdom with man, and man with God, to the point that of the flesh—it is a con- he cannot see the one without seeing the other, as flagration of the mind, Saint Mary Magdalen de’ Pazzi tells us. God seeks as Saint Bonaventure man and man seeks God, because by nature, like says in his wonderful Brother Giles seeks like. In an extremely evocative expression, Life of Saint Francis of Assisi. Saint Angela of Foligno said: ‘The world is preg- Does that mean that we have to set learning nant with God.’ And as she lay dying, she felt that aside? Not at all, because love is a mode of know- she was standing in the midst of the Trinity, though ing; or, as Saint Gregory the Great formulated it, she remembered no form, not even that of the God- ‘Love is itself understanding.’ He who knows little, man, but she did hear the words, ‘You are I and I loves little; and he who loves little, knows little. am you.’ One can only understand this when one There is an amusing story about Brother Giles, Saint has extinguished all intellectual understanding in Francis’s third disciple. One day Brother Giles, be- the pursuit of the unknowing that surpasses all be- ing himself very simple, asked Saint Bonaventure, ing. Or, as the author of The Cloud of Unknowing one of the foremost says: all that is left is ‘naked intent’. Intuitive naked theologians of his time: intent. ‘Can a simple person Language falters, for though knowledge encoun- love God as much as a ters God, it is love that unites us to Him. Can the learned person can?’ To babe at his mother’s breast distinguish between which Saint Bonaven- himself and his mother? ture replied: ‘An old woman can do so even Love and Union more than a master in Third, love and union. Love is not known because theology.’ Then Broth- it is not loved. God gives himself to us so that we er Giles arose in fer- can love him. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux explains Saint Bonaventure vour of spirit and went that it is impossible to love God without first be- to the part of the garden that overlooked the city ing loved by him, without experiencing that love. of Perugia and cried out: ‘Poor little old woman, We can never love God enough even though we simple and unlearned, love the Lord God and you might be burning with the fire of love, because, will be greater than Brother Bonaventure!’ Brother 141 PB January 2007 131 Prabuddha Bharata ness at all, it was only to honour her love. She became pure capacity, and He became pure torrent of love. She did not even pause to ask whether she was sinful or innocent, but like the real contemplative that she was, filled with the grace of interiority, she was only aware of the goodness of God. A Coming Contemplative Age? From darkness to light … In the darkness of our time, can we still hope to have real contemplatives among us? Or should we not say that where darkness abounds, the The risen Christ appears to Mary Magdalene grace of divine light superabounds? Many Giles himself fell so easily into loving ecstasy that mystics—like Peter John Olivi and Joachim of the boys of Perugia used to have fun with him. They Fiore, and even greater ones like Saint Bonaven- would send him into ecstasy just by yelling ‘Para- ture—have believed that after this dark age will diso! Paradiso!’ whenever they saw him. Yes, hu- come a contemplative age. Inspired by Teilhard de mans have the capacity to think and to love. God Chardin, many think that man does not attain his is knowledge, just as he is love. destiny alone; rather, he attains it with the entire Certainly one of the most extraordinary Chris- universe. Those who have been lifted up to divine tian contemplatives is Saint Mary Magdalene. She contemplation know that they must return to their had been possessed by devils, but she possessed no brothers and sisters of the earth and teach them knowledge. Devils possess knowledge, the knowl- that they, too, in the words of the Franciscan Jaco- edge that swells, but Mary Magdalene possessed di- pone da Todi, can be transformed into God. Mer- rect experience. She did more than just remove her ton says, ‘Ours is certainly a time for solitaries and sandals, like Moses; with her tears she washed the for hermits.’ We do not think ourselves wrong in unshod feet of God incarnate. Jesus did not teach adding, ‘Ours, more than ever, is certainly a time her, he gave her no doctrine; he only gave her the for contemplatives whose minds and hearts will love whereby she was to love him. They communi- burn with the knowledge and love of God.’ May cated in silence. Even on the cross, Jesus spoke to God be loved by all hearts! Amen. P his heavenly Father, to his mother, the Vir- gin Mary, and to John his beloved disciple, Saint Francis in ecstasy but he did not speak to Mary Magdalene. They communicated in silence, beyond words, beyond thought. Mary Magdalene became a bridge, a passage from the dark- est to the most luminous, from death to life, from Eve to the Virgin Mother, from extreme sin to extreme grace. She was the first to recognize the divinity of Christ. She was sanctified immediately, without need- ing ordinary practices of purification, and if Christ mentioned her former wayward- 132 PB January 2007 142 Living the Tr adition Contemplative Spirituality in Islam Maulana Wahiduddin Khan T here are many methods of meditation or experiences. For quite some time now, I have been spiritual discipline which have been preva- running a centre for the purpose of imparting con- lent in one form or the other since ancient cepts and principles which will enable others to times. It is generally assumed that while intellec- fully share in my experiences. It is called The Cen- tual development is grounded in formal education, tre for Peace and Spirituality (www.cps.org.in). Let meditation belongs to the sphere of informal edu- me emphasize that my brand of spirituality, which cation. But meditation is actually an independent in no way savours of passivity, is entirely based on discipline, its goal being spiritual as well as intel- intellectual awakening. I prefer to call this ‘Cre- lectual development. ative Sufism’. In my experience, there are two major schools of spiritual discipline: one based on meditation, and The Spiritual Journey the other on contemplation. The former relates to I believe that ‘heart-based spirituality’ takes man the heart, and the latter relates to the mind. Person- to a level which is, in fact, one of ecstasy. Particu- ally, I subscribe to the school of contemplation. lar practices and chants produce an ecstatic feeling The spiritual school based on meditation is within the practitioner. This feeling is described known in Muslim history as tasawwuf. The refer- as spiritual discovery by the traditional Sufis. But ence point of tasawwuf is the Quran, but a number my version of Sufism has all to do with intellectual of its practices have been derived from the Vedanta. activity. Such spirituality is produced when man That is why there are great affinities between tasaw- gives serious thought to such questions as, ‘Who wuf and Hindu philosophy. For instance, the term am I? What is this world around me? What is the lataif-e-sitta (six points) in tasawwuf has been di- creation plan of the Creator for man as well as for rectly taken from the Hindu system. Probably this the rest of the world?’ was first introduced into the Hindu system, and Indeed, the journey of spirituality begins with was then adopted by Muslim Sufis, as they thought the urge to search for the truth. When a seeker dis- it conducive to the attainment of spirituality. covers the truth and learns the creation plan of the Lataif-e-sitta indicates certain points in the hu- Creator, his life enters a new phase—that of build- man body which are the centres of spiritual feel- ing the human personality according to spiritual ings. If these points are fully concentrated upon principles. for a certain period of time, they become activated, This journey is entirely intellectual in nature. Its and as a result, the entire human personality be- quest is twofold: one is to solve the riddle of why— gins to receive spiritual sustenance. These practices, as well as other such practices, suppress the mate- He grants wisdom to whom He pleases, and rial proclivities of one’s personality and awaken its whosoever is granted wisdom is rich indeed. But spiritual aspects. none will grasp the message except men of un- I feel that I am a born Sufi. My entire life has derstanding. —Quran, 2.269 been one of spiritual contemplation and spiritual 143 PB January 2007 133 Prabuddha Bharata for all men and women undergo negative experi- said to him and kicked him in the chest. This was ences in this world—and the other is to offer posi- an incident of a gravely negative nature. But the tive solutions. It addresses the paradox of human old man converted this negative experience into beings having been given the freedom to make their a positive one by responding with these words: ‘I own moral choices, and their frequent misuse of hope your gentle foot was not hurt by my hard, this liberty—a course of action which causes them stony chest.’ to repeatedly face situations in which they do each According to a Hadith, the Prophet of Islam other harm, where people incur losses because of once observed: ‘When someone experiences suffer- others’ injustice and suffer severe provocations in ing and yet remains patient, then God converts his the form of untoward experiences. flesh and blood into new flesh and blood.’ According to one group, there is only one way The conversion takes place in the spiritual rath- to preserve one’s spirituality, and that is to retire to er than the physical sense. It means that respond- a desolate place, far from human settlement, where ing with patience and thankfulness to suffering there is nothing to provoke one. It is this viewpoint becomes a means of spiritual training. Negativity which is presented in the well-known book titled is converted into positivity. The afflicted person The Monk Who Sold His Ferrari. then becomes one who loves rather than hates. The The spiritual school of thought I believe in plane on which he lives is elevated. He becomes differs considerably from this. According to this unilateral rather than bilateral in his ethics. Such school of thought, man shall have to convert his a spiritual person is produced through a superior negative experiences into positive ones. He shall intellectual process, which involves his de-condi- have to convert material experiences into spiritual tioning. For this to happen, he has to re-engineer ones. He shall have to convert non-spiritual mat- his mind. He has to shake and jolt and remould his ters into spiritual matters. personality to fulfill this purpose. He has to turn This is the principle on which the entire mate- himself into the kind of person who is shaped not rial world is based. This principle may be called the by society, but by the spiritual ‘industry’. principle of conversion. For instance, let us take the According to the German philosopher Friedrich case of water. Two gases separately are not water, Nietzsche, the secret of bringing a developed man but, when they combine and convert into another into existence lies in self-thinking. But in my opin- form, they take the form of water. The same is true ion, that is a half-truth. The whole truth is that the of the tree. A tree is, in fact, the result of the con- secret of producing a developed man lies in anti-self version of non-botanical matter. thinking. The reason for this is that everyone lives The cow provides another such example. The in some society or other. This society continually cow ingests not milk, but grass. Then by means exercises formative influences on his mind, until of a biological process, this grass is converted into finally his thinking becomes totally conditioned milk. That is to say, the cow is an industry which by those influences. The American psychologist J B converts non-milk into milk. An Urdu poet has ex- Watson wrongly took the man conditioned in this pressed the same reality: ‘The grass which the cow way to be a real man. Actually, he is an artificial grazed on yesterday in the jungle was converted by rather than a real man. her into milk today.’ De-conditioning the Conditioned Conversion The process of spiritual development in fact begins It is said that once a young man met an elderly per- with the de-conditioning of this conditioned mind. son who was devoutly religious. The young man The more one de-conditions the mind, the more took umbrage at something the elderly person had one will gain in spiritual development. Spiritual 134 PB January 2007 144 Contemplative Spirituality in Islam and towns to jungles and mountains, leav- ing behind their homes and their material lives. Whenever man raises himself above worldly matters and devotes his life to be- coming one with the non-material world through meditation, he experiences a very different kind of feeling. This is nothing other than what is generally known as ec- stasy. When man enters this state of ecstasy, he experiences an unknown pleasure. On the basis of this experience, people associ- ate ecstasy with spirituality. However ecsta- progress is just not possible without taking such sy is nothing but a reduced form of spirituality. a step. The truth is that everyone is born spiritual. Man is an intellectual being. He is endowed Everyone is Mr Nature or Mr Spiritual by birth. with a mind, which is his greatest faculty. It is only But, after birth, he lives in a society which contin- the possession of this mind and his independent ues to condition him. Spirituality makes it possible thinking which distinguish him from the animals. to erase this conditioning and allows the individual Real spirituality is that which has the power to ad- to revert to the natural state in which he was born. dress our minds. Any kind of spirituality attained Spiritual science is, in effect, another name for the at a level lower than that of our minds is not true de-conditioning of the mind. There can be no spir- spirituality. All forms of ecstasy are just reduced ituality without this. forms of spirituality In this respect, the human mind can be likened When a scientist discovers the scientific world, to an onion. In the centre of the onion, initially, he doesn’t leave the material world, but rather stays there is a small kernel. Then layers start forming, here, studies, and makes discoveries in this very one upon the other. This process continues until world. Spirituality is also a science. Consequently, the inner kernel is totally covered with external in spiritual science the same method is valid—that layers. Now, apparently, layers alone are visible. The is, undergoing spiritual experiences while remain- kernel is completely covered and remains invisible. ing in the material world. To find the kernel of the onion, all the external lay- Spirituality, in fact, is a process of converting our ers have to be removed. Similarly, all the condi- everyday material events into spiritual experiences. tioning has to be removed in order to restore the While living his social life, man is affected by events natural man to his pristine nature. This process of which trigger negative thoughts such as malice, lust, de-conditioning is similar to the removal of the anger, arrogance, and greed. But when man raises onion’s layers. The whole concept of spiritual sci- himself above his immediate surroundings—from ence is highlighted by this example. the material level to a higher level of thinking—he experiences real spirituality. At this elevated lev- Beyond Ecstasy el, man is able to eradicate his negative thoughts Spirituality is generally taken as something that is and replace them with positive ones. Thus we can opposed to worldliness. People usually assume that say that there are two levels of thinking, the lower the farther they move from material and worldly level and the higher level. A higher level of think- things, the more spiritual they become. This is the ing makes man a spiritual person and a lower level sole reason why human beings run away from cities of thinking results in the ‘animalization’ of man, in 145 PB January 2007 135 Prabuddha Bharata which state there is no appreciable difference be- Manchester, England, staying in the house of an tween the life of a man and that of an animal. Arab brother, Alaref Ahmad. While I was sitting Spirituality, as an intellectual activity, is a sci- in my room on the upper floor, I heard a gentle ence of inner development, and material things knock on the door. When I opened it, I found a indirectly contribute towards that development. In child of about five years. It was Qanita, the first- fact, material life is made more meaningful by the born daughter of Brother Alaref. She asked in all proactive role played by spirituality in intellectual innocence and gentleness, ‘Do you need anything; refinement and the consequent progress of human- Turidu haja?’ Perhaps it was her mother who had ity. Spirituality does not, as some may imagine, ar- sent her, and although this was a simple question, rest the thinking process, but rather enhances intel- I was quite overwhelmed by this innocent voice, lectual activity in the complete sense of the word. to the extent that I could not utter a single word in In short, spirituality makes a man a superman. It is reply. This was a normal incident, but in my mind, a complete way of life. it became transformed into a supra-normal event. Spirituality, in its awakening of the mind, pro- Children are like the flowers of God and little an- vides the best formula for character building. It is a gels. I felt as if God Himself had sent me an angel great strength at all times. Spirituality, in effect, is a to discover and meet my needs. promoter of all good and a killer of all evils. At this moment, a famous Hadith came to mind: ‘Your Lord descends to this worldly haven The Universe: A Source of Divine Inspiration every day, looks at His servants, and says, “Is there The universe has been fashioned by God in a way anyone who has a need and asks Me, that I may that it may become a source of spiritual inspiration give it to him?”’ for man. According to the Quran (15.75), it is the ‘Do you need anything?’ was a short question quality of tawassum that enables one to find inspi- that came from an innocent soul, but it was enough ration in the universe. Tawassum is the ability to to cause a great revolution in my inner being; some- understand the signs of nature—that is, to observe thing that is referred to by modern scholars as a the phenomena of the universe in order to draw les- ‘brainstorm’. sons from them and receive spiritual nourishment For a while, I felt that I could see the whole uni- from physical events. verse on the screen of my mind. This was a great The distinguishing feature of wise people de- spiritual experience, which could not be expressed scribed in the Quran is that they continuously de- in human words. In the beginning, it seemed as rive such sustenance from their environment, thus though God, through a little angel, was saying, ‘O maintaining their intellectual and spiritual well- my servant, do you need anything?’ Then the mat- being. This is elaborated upon in the Quran as fol- ter extended to include the whole universe with its lows: ‘In the creation of the heavens and the earth, heavens and its earth. and in the succession of night and day, there are In fact, it was only a little girl at the door of my signs for men of understanding; those that remem- room, asking, ‘Do you need anything?’ but in its ber God when standing, sitting, and lying down, extended sense it was as if the whole universe was and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the asking the same question. earth (saying): “Lord, You have not created these The vast heaven was saying, ‘Do you need a shel- in vain. Glory be to You! Save us from the torment ter? Here I am to provide you with one, because of the fire, Lord”’ (3.191). God has ordered me to do so.’ The gleaming sun was saying, ‘Do you need light? I am here to sup- A Personal Experience ply it and transform your darkness into light.’ The It was Thursday morning, 17 June 1999. I was in majestic mountains were announcing, ‘Would you 136 PB January 2007 146 Contemplative Spirituality in Islam like to be on the highest level in all humanity? I am be grateful to God, if it is Him you worship’ (2.172). here at your service to help you attain that high This means that God almighty has created every- position.’ The flowing water in the riverbeds was thing, imaginable and unimaginable, great and murmuring, ‘Do you want to have a spiritual bath small, in the most perfect form. Then, He gave all to purify your soul? I am here to offer you that.’ this free to man. The only price to be paid for these And the gusting wind was asking, ‘Do you want to endless blessings is thankfulness; it is man’s recog- tour the universe to see the wondrous signs of God? nition, from the depths of his heart, that God is the Here is my back for you to ride on to embark on giver and man the receiver. such a divine journey.’ The trees were whispering, The Quran mentions as examples of God’s ben- ‘Would you like to have a personality as radiant as eficiaries the people of Saba. God almighty gave ours? We are here to make your wish a reality.’ The them a sign in the ‘two Gardens to the right hand fruits on their branches and the crops in their husks and to the left; (and it was said to them) “Eat of were declaring, ‘If you crave nourishment for your the provision of your Lord, and be grateful to Him: intellectual and spiritual life, we are here to provide fair is your land and oft-forgiving is your Lord”’ you with it.’ (34.15). This means that if man pays the price—that While this reel was playing in my mind, I heard is, gratitude—then not only will he be allowed to birds chirping, ‘O servant of God! Here is good avail of these blessings, but more importantly, he news for you: If you have a need, then God has will also be rewarded with eternal Paradise, which made the whole universe to serve your needs. God is a perfect version of this present imperfect world is so generous that He has created the whole of the of God. universe to be at your service, day and night. In ad- God almighty bestowed upon man all these ma- dition to this, if you show thankfulness to God, He terial things which he needs if he is to live a good will give you what is greater than all of this—eter- life on this earth. All these things are silently con- nal Paradise, in which there will be “… neither fear veying the following message: ‘O Man! Are you nor grievance”’ (6.48). seeking something greater than all this? Do you Then, the following Quranic verse came to mind: want spiritual peace in addition to material peace? ‘And He gave you all that you asked for’ (14.34). Do you want a world of perfection after this imper- This means that whatever is needed for man to live fect world? Would you like to taste the blessings of a good life on this earth has been prepared in ad- God in the world of eternity after you have tasted vance by God, directly and indirectly. Horses, for them in this ephemeral world? Do you wish to have instance, were directly created, whereas aeroplanes all these comforts as a blessing in the world to come, were provided indirectly. The travelling of the voice after you have had them as a trial in this transient through the air is an example of direct provision, world? Would you like to realize your full potential while its transmission by means of electronic equip- after experiencing the limitation of your capacities ment is a form of indirect provision. Perhaps this is in this present world?’ what is meant by the following Quranic verse: ‘And God created a perfect and complete world as an (He has created) horses, mules and donkeys for you eternal abode for man. Then, He wanted to know to ride, and as an adornment. And He has created who was worthy of inhabiting that eternal world. (other) things which are beyond your knowledge’ For this purpose, He created the time-bound and (16.8). imperfect abode in which we are now living. This life, therefore, is only a test. Man is constantly un- The Purpose of Contemplative Spirituality der the observation of his Lord. With every utter- God almighty says, ‘O you who believe! Eat of the ance and movement, man is writing his own eter- good things that We have provided for you. And nal destiny. One who, during his pre-death period, 147 PB January 2007 137 Prabuddha Bharata So, a mu’min (true believer) has precisely that kind of prepared mind. When he sees the universe with its various parts functioning in an absolutely coherent manner, he will spontaneously say: ‘There is no god but the one God!’ and when he exam- ines it, he will find that there are so many complex happenings in its vastness. Nevertheless, he finds that every part of the universe is highly predict- able. With this discovery, he realizes that it is as if God was suggesting that he himself should have a predictable character. When he observes that the various parts of the universe function with absolute harmony, he realizes that, in like manner, he should live in complete harmony with society, without ha- tred for or malice towards anyone. When he sees the events of the universe always proceeding to- wards a meaningful result, he realizes that man’s life, too, must have a meaningful end. Thus he exclaims: proves himself through his conduct deserving of ‘O our Lord! You have not created (all) this without that world will, in his post-death-period, be re- purpose. Glory be to You! Give us salvation from warded with admission into it. Others, however, the torment of hellfire!’ (3.191). will be flung into the universal junkyard, that is hell, In brief, the universe is a manifestation of the condemned for all eternity. So, they will lose both attributes of almighty God. Hence, it is a source worlds, the present incomplete world as well as the of spiritual nourishment for those who want to next—the perfect and everlasting world. lead a divine life on earth. For them, the whole God has revealed Himself in two books—the universe becomes a great means of their reaching Quran and the universe. The Quran is a literal spiritual perfection. This spiritual development version of God’s word, while the universe, or na- continues incessantly throughout their earthly life. ture, is a practical demonstration of it. These two As the ultimate result of this life-long developmen- are the basic sources of spiritual inspiration for a tal process, they attain that degree of spirituality man who seeks to live a life according to the di- which the Quran calls the rabbani (godly) soul. It vine scheme. is such as these who, in the life hereafter, will be This dual source of divine inspiration is men- told by their most compassionate Lord: ‘Dwell tioned in the Quran in the following verse: ‘God in Paradise; you shall have no fear, nor shall you is He who raised the heavens without visible sup- grieve’ (7.49). ports, then He ascended the throne. He has com- There is nothing mysterious about spirituality pelled the sun and the moon to be of service, each in Islam. It is rather the direct result of the kind of pursuing an appointed course; He controls the contemplation that results in intellectual develop- affairs (of the universe); He makes plain His rev- ment. This takes place when a believer ponders over elations, so that you may be certain of the meet- the Creator and His creation: he gains something ing with your Lord’ (13.2). So, the Quran is like a in the process that may be termed spirituality. The guidebook. It prepares the mind so that one may source, therefore, of Islamic spirituality is perusal properly understand the universe and live in it as and reflection rather than any sort of mysterious desired by God. exercise. P 138 PB January 2007 148 Living the Tr adition Some Thoughts on the Contemplative Life Vimala Thakar A human being is a multidimensional crea- understanding what it meant I started sitting in ture. The human race is eloquent proof of silence and enjoyed it. the ever-evolving energy of consciousness My father was also an eminent lawyer. He was operating in the universe. Contemplation is psycho- brought up and educated at Ajmer and Jaipur in logical action. It is looking inward in order to grasp Rajasthan. He was deeply impressed by Swami the nature of activities going on in the mind-brain Rama Tirtha’s philosophy of Advaita. Thus I had complex. A contemplative person can function in drunk the nectar of contemplation and medita- society more effectively and competently when he tion early in childhood. At a young age, I came in or she has to discharge social responsibilities. contact with Sant Vinoba Bhave and worked in Contemplation induces the urge to explore the his Bhoodan Movement. Vinobaji was quite a phe- dimension of silence as well as meditation. It con- nomenon—a great scholar! He was a staunch and fers a quietness and steadiness in physical move- ardent devotee and a karma yogi. He was the epit- ments. It leads to a spontaneous restraint on the ome of holistic lifestyle. Contemplation and action activity of verbalization to which we are usually were like inhalation and exhalation for him. attached. Indians had an inborn tendency for con- By the end of 1956, life brought me in touch templation due to India’s agrarian culture. Agricul- with the great world teacher Sri J Krishnamurti. ture gives enough time to the farmer community I used to meet him whenever and wherever I got for relaxing into friendship with nature as well as an opportunity to do so. He opened global vistas cooperation with all the non-human species. for me. A synthesis of science and spirituality was We are living in the era of globalized industrial- manifest in Krishnaji’s life and work. ization. We are surrounded by electronic gadgets. Life brought me to Mt Abu in 1963 and gave Life is getting mechanized and computerized by me a comfortable residential unit in which to live the day. We are obliged to live at a speed for which and work. That is how a long series of national and the human organism has not been intended. It is international youth camps and meditation retreats necessary to introduce in our educational system started. methods of relaxation such as raja yoga, along with Now it is the evening of life for me. All activities breathing exercises, right from primary school. It are discontinued. A quiet joyous preparation is be- will enable children to grow into a lifestyle that will ing made to merge into the bliss of Eternity! P blend contemplation and physical action into one holistic movement of life. How can there be so much corruption in the country I inherited contemplative consciousness from if there are millions and millions of religious people? my mother’s father and my own father. My ma- We are divided within, we think religion and God is ternal grandfather was an eminent lawyer living at something to get after death and here on this earth Raipur in Madhya Pradesh. He had known Swami we worship money, power, hatred, anger, violence. Vivekananda personally. He would spend a cou- We have to stop and understand that to be religious ple of hours in the early morning in meditation. is to meet every relationship with the awareness of I would sit by his side and watch him. Without the presence of the Divine. —Vimala Thakar 149 PB January 2007 139 The Scientific Viewpoint The Contemplative Mind Prof. Somnath Bhattacharyya To see a world in a grain of sand, and inherently contemplative. The opposite of this And a heaven in a wild flower; may be called the fickle type. Hold infinity in the palm of your hand, The matter is beautifully explained in Patanja- And eternity in an hour. —William Blake li’s Yoga Sutra. Vyasa, in his commentary on the first aphorism, says that human minds are of five I t will take, I dare say, lots of contemplative different types: (i) kṣipta, (ii) mūḍha, (iii) vikṣipta, hours and a deep contemplative mood to un- (iv) ekāgra, and (v) niruddha (kṣiptaṁ-mūḍhaṁ- derstand these wonderful lines of Blake, and vikṣiptam-ekāgraṁ-niruddham-ete cittabhūmayaḥ). another half-a-lifetime of contemplation to realize The term bhūmi used by Vyasa commonly refers to their inner sense, to taste the nectar hidden within land or territory. But citta cannot be space-related. them. Hence it means an existential state: ‘The differ- ent samādhis, bhūmis, or guṇasthāna(ka)s mark The Contemplative Personality the line of advance in spirituality.’1 The use of this The verb contemplate has both transitive and intran- term in compound words like bhoga-bhūmi and sitive uses. As a transitive verb it means ‘to look at karma-bhūmi further clarifies this shade of mean- thoughtfully, to consider’; as an intransitive verb ing: the bhūmis are not space-like states but ‘modes it means ‘to think about spiritual matters, to think of existence’.2 calmly and at length, especially as a religious exer- In Yoga psychology, the term citta is not coter- cise’. Contemplative is the adjectival form, mean- minous with manas, mind.3 In this essay, however, ing ‘calm and thoughtful’. As a noun it means ‘a I take citta and mind to be the same. Swami Vivek- practitioner of spiritual contemplation such as a ananda takes citta to mean ‘mind-stuff ’;4 other au- monk or a nun’. thors like James Woods and Haridas Bhattacharyya Thus contemplation needs to be understood have also translated citta as mind or mind-stuff.5 from two different angles. First, a person can (and The term kṣipta means wild, restless, or natural- does) contemplate, or consider thoughtfully, vari- ly distracted; mūḍha, ignorant, stupid, or infatu- ous problems. The problem may be a difficult equa- ated; vikṣipta, unsteady or distracted; and ekāgra, tion of physics, or the bizarre hallucination of a psy- one-pointed, attentive, or singular in intent; while chotic, or a complex musical score, or such practical niruddha refers to restriction or cessation of mental things as the best way to prepare the family budget. activity, or an intuitive temper.6 I shall call them ‘stimulus-determined acts of con- The contemplative mind is a type of mind—the templation’. Contemplating a religious problem ekāgra mind—that some people possess naturally. should also belong here. But the contemplative When this ekagratā or one-pointedness is well de- mind is not stimulus-dependent; it may be more veloped, the mind is termed ekāgrabhūmika. The appropriately termed ‘stimulus-related’. It is an exis- vikṣipta mind, ‘although prevalently unstable … is tential state, not a mere orientation of the mind. occasionally stable’. This group will be able to con- The contemplative mind is a ‘personality type’. A centrate, to contemplate for a while, but will get person with such a mind is naturally, ‘substantially’, distracted again. Such people can be trained to im- 140 PB January 2007 150 The Contemplative Mind prove their power and duration of concentration or thinking about and pondering over them. The dic- contemplation, but the real contemplative power tionary meaning can be easily deciphered in every (mind) is seen only in the ekāgra type. published edition, but the spiritual import does According to Yoga, the contemplative mind is not unfold if you just browse through the pages. an entity that is a given—a quality that is naturally Vedanta teachers give us a threefold method of present in some individuals, and a qualitative modi- sadhana: śravaṇa (learning), manana (thinking or fication that can be achieved by some people if they deliberation), and nididhyāsana or dhyāna (enter- try hard enough. ing the subject deeply or contemplation). Learning The mind of the spiritual aspirant needs to be is not realization. In fact, mere learning does not steadfastly concentrated. This is an uphill task, even give any knowledge; it just gives the learner which has to be learned and mastered through great the ability to parrot. Realization comes after the effort, and love and respect for the vocation. ‘By student ruminates; but realization is still not lib- great struggle we get a certain power of concen- eration from pre-existing incorrect knowledge (sa- tration’, observes Swami Vivekananda; and again, makaras). For example, we all know that nothing is ‘The greater part of the practical lessons which the everlasting (that everything is kṣaṇika or transient), Yogi give us is in the mind, the power of concen- but an average person behaves as if he or she be- tration and meditation.’7 The Bhagavadgita (6.35) lieves everything is going to last forever, especially also emphasizes the same point when it says, ‘It things that are dear to the heart.8 (the mind) can be brought under control through The non-Upanishadic philosophies also require practice and detachment.’ This in fact is the first the aspirant to sit still and meditate. Siddhartha step of any sadhana, of any spiritual journey. And became the Buddha only after a long and arduous ‘Raja-Yoga is the science which teaches us how to meditation. ‘As he [Buddha] thought deeply into gain the power of concentration’ (1.157). Accord- the root of the matter, it occurred to him that de- ing to Swami Vivekananda, ‘If the mind can first cay and death can only occur when there is birth.’ concentrate upon an object, and then is able to con- The student of Buddhist discipline is required to tinue in that concentration for a length of time … concentrate on material things at the beginning [then] everything comes under the control of such of this sadhana and then proceed to finer aspects a mind’(1.186). Also, ‘The flow of this continuous of dhyana.9 control of the mind becomes steady when practised The Jaina philosophy also recognizes the im- day after day, and the mind obtains the faculty of portance of meditation: ‘When by meditation, all continuous concentration’ (1.273). the karmas are burnt (dhyānāgnidhagdhakarma) the self becomes purified,’ and ‘Without the con- Contemplation in Philosophy and Ritual trol of the mind no one can proceed in the path of Of the six classical philosophies of India, Yoga says yoga’ (1.201). that intense concentration is the very essence of The Nyaya-Vaisheshika system recognizes sadhana, but none of the other five have under- prātibha-jñāna—an intuitive perception of future valued concentration and contemplation. After all, or otherwise imperceptible events obtained directly whenever you are interested in anything, you are by the mind through the practice of concentration being contemplative. Attention to objects, that is, (1.342–3). As the sadhaka develops his power of perception, also develops into contemplation. At- concentration, his false knowledge (mithyājñāna) tention to concepts is contemplation, and this is about his own self gets corrected. This leads the the basis of all sadhanas. Even the shastras (the Up- sadhaka to the state of mukti (1.365–6). anishads, for instance) do not reveal their mean- These citations tell us that ‘attention-concentra- ings before the student has spent considerable time tion-contemplation’ is an essential means in the sad- 151 PB January 2007 141 Prabuddha Bharata haka’s quest. There are others—the Alvars, great dev- three types: primary, secondary, and derived pri- otees of Vishnu, for instance—for whom contem- mary or secondarily primary. He outlined nine de- plation is an end. The word Alvar means ‘one who terminants of primary attention: (i) very strong has a deep intuitive knowledge of God and one who stimulus (a thunderclap, the smell of musk, and is immersed in the contemplation of Him’ (3.68). the like); (ii) moving stimulus (a bug sitting on the The rituals of Hindu worship are replete with bedcover may not be visible, but a moving bug is); dhyana and contemplation. Starting from the very (iii) a stimulus that persists (for a significant dura- first puja ritual, the ācamana—where the worship- tion); (iv) a vivid stimulus; and so on. This type of per moistens his or her throat by sipping three half- attention has obvious survival value. And nature spoonfuls of water—the successive stages of worship has so made us that these stimuli take our atten- involve more contemplation than action. The ritual tion mainly ‘by force’. Here, there is no place for of prāṇa-pratiṣṭhā (endowing the image with life- contemplation. But the study of, say, geometry, is force) involves the highest contemplation. Another not attractive to the beginner, and does not draw important component of puja is the mānasa-pūja, in one’s attention spontaneously. The student has to which the worshipper makes all the necessary offer- discipline his mind to set it on the geometry lesson. ings in thought alone without the help of external Here the student toils, studies for a period, becomes upacāras (offerings). In image worship the most im- distracted, forces himself to study again, and this portant component is meditation, dhyana. The wor- process keeps repeating. This is secondary attention. shipper meditates on the qualities of the deity in the There is no place for contemplation here either. The image while chanting the description of the deity as very essence of contemplation is a pleasant, sooth- given in the shastras. Then, in deep contemplation, ing feeling; the very essence of secondary atten- the worshipper identifies him- or herself with the tion is an unpleasant feeling of dry hard labour. But Deity. In the concluding ritual of homa, the ritual when this beginner matures and grows into a math- fire (homāgni) is identified with the Deity and both ematician, or a scientist, his geometry becomes his of them with the worshipper’s own self. All these are love. This is derived primary attention. The math- done in a deeply contemplative spirit. ematician now lives geometry, loves geometry, talks geometry, and dreams geometry. He enjoys deeply The Psychology of Contemplation his contemplation on problems of geometry. Let us take a look at some psychological factors, Contemplation is not merely a matter of atten- especially attention. Contemplation is deep atten- tion; it is a matter of discriminative attention.11 Dis- tion. In the early days of experimental psycholo- crimination entails a specific component of person- gy, attention was an important subject matter for ality: interest or aptitude.12 An individual cannot study.10 In the twenty-first century, attention is still think calmly and at length on a subject that does as important a subject of study as ever. Without not attract him or her. But one can contemplate the ability to attend to the external world, human- with equal earnestness percepts (things that are ity will not survive. Without the ability to attend physically present) or concepts, if they are found to the internal world, humanity will not be able to interesting. Successful contemplation is also de- create philosophy or mathematics. In reality, the pendent on available situational factors. After all, human capacity for apperception is the same as the not every teaching institution provides opportuni- human capacity for contemplation. ties for the study of all possible subjects. The first-generation experimental psycholo- As mentioned earlier, the contemplative mind gists—Wundt, Edward Titchener, and others— is not just a mental set, but a personality type. The studied attention through introspection and close cittabhūmis of Yoga are also types of personality.13 contemplation. Titchener classified attention into Carl G Jung, the famous typologist, says that there 142 PB January 2007 152 The Contemplative Mind are eight types of people in this world. This clas- is capable of developing a contemplative mind in sification distinguishes between two attitudes and his or her area of personality. The introverted intui- four mental functions. The two attitudes are intro- tive type, however, will readily go for spiritual sub- version and extroversion. jects. And to echo a dictum of raja yoga, substantive The extraverted attitude orients the person toward contemplation is available only to some people, to the external objective world; the introverted some types of persons alone. attitude orients the person toward the inner, subjective world. … Learning to Contemplate … there are four fundamental psychological A common and pertinent question is whether con- functions: thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting. templation can be taught. The answer is both ‘yes’ … By thinking, humans try to comprehend the nature of the world and themselves. Feeling … is and ‘no’. No because nothing can be ‘taught’, as Sri the value of things, whether positive or negative. … Aurobindo tells us, unless the pupil wants to learn. The feeling function gives humans their subjective But how could people want to learn something if experiences of pleasure and pain, of anger, fear, they are ignorant about the object? Thousands of sorrow, joy, and love. Sensing is the perceptual people roam the face of the earth who have never or reality function. … The intuitive person goes wanted to learn about Vedanta or quantum me- beyond facts, feelings, and ideas in his or her chanics. They have not even heard about these sub- search for the essence of reality.’14 jects. But contemplation is different. Contempla- It is to be understood that each and every ‘type’ tion is not a subject ‘out there’. It is a mode of being, A fascinating study of percep- What do you see? they showed remarkably little de- tion examined the Rorschach test In a Rorschach test, a standard fensiveness and reactivity to these responses of Buddhist meditators set of symmetrical ink blots of conflicts. In other words, they ac- ranging from the beginners to different shapes and colours cepted and were unperturbed by enlightened masters. Beginners is presented one by one to their neuroses. showed normal response patterns, the subject, who is asked to Those few meditators at the whereas subjects with greater con- describe what they suggest or third stage of enlightenment centration saw not the usual imag- resemble. gave reports that were unique in es, such as animals and people, but four ways. First, these meditation simply the pattern of light and dark on the Rorschach masters saw not only images but the ink blot itself as a cards. That is, their minds showed little tendency to projection of mind. Second, they showed no evidence elaborate these patterns into organized images, a find- of drive conflicts and appeared free of psychological ing consistent with the claim that concentration focuses conflicts usually considered an inescapable part of hu- the mind and reduces the number of associations. man existence. This finding is consistent with classic Further striking findings characterized subjects who claims that psychological suffering can be dramatically had … reached the first of the four classic stages of Bud- reduced in advanced stages of meditation. dhist enlightenment … these subjects viewed the im- The third and fourth unique features were that these ages they saw as creations of their own minds and were masters systematically linked their responses to all ten aware of the moment-by-moment process by which cards into an integrated response on a single theme. The their stream of consciousness became organized into result was a systematic teaching about the nature of images. human suffering and its alleviation. In other words, the Interestingly, the initially enlightened subjects dis- meditation masters transformed the Rorschach testing played evidence of normal conflicts around issues such into a teaching for the testers. as dependency, sexuality, and aggression. However, —Paths Beyond Ego (1993), 61–2. 153 PB January 2007 143 Prabuddha Bharata a mode of existence. The contemplative mind is a of attention (especially the secondary type) neces- rarity, but passing flickers of concentration (which sary, beneficial, and productive for the individu- are precursors to real contemplation) are known al? The answer is simple: nothing could have been to every human being. Each of us knows—even achieved without concentration-contemplation. Al- though the experience is momentary—the bliss the though ‘man stands alone’, Homo sapiens has sur- mind can generate in a non-fleeing state. vived in this raw world because of its contempla- The yogi is the fittest teacher of mind control. tive abilities. The human skin is extremely delicate Maharshi Patanjali has listed eight aṅgas (limbs) and fragile, largely worthless for survival in a tsuna- of the psycho-physical training that leads to sama- mi-ridden, rapidly warming, essentially unpredict- dhi, the highest state of concentration or contem- able, and erratic environment. But it is the human plation. These include re-education of the senso- skin that has survived and proliferated; the rhino ry-motor system, including mastery over desires— is now an endangered species. And all this because the natural mental propensities—and retraining of humans—at least some—can contemplate. P breathing style (through pranayama).15 The psychotherapist’s task and training also in- Notes and References clude calming and pacifying the body and the com- 1. Haridas Bhattacharyya, ‘Yoga Psychology’, in The plex-torn dishevelled mind, and finally generating Philosophies, vol 3. of The Cultural Heritage of In- insight. The details of yogic discipline or of psycho- dia, ed. Haridas Bhattacharyya (Calcutta: Rama- therapeutic practice are beyond the scope of this krishna Mission Institute of Culture, 1953), 58. 2. Haridas Bhattacharyya, ‘Indian Ethics’, in The Phi- article, but I would like to mention an interesting losophies, 637. relationship between the state of mind and respi- 3. In Indian philosophic writings we come across ration that has been observed by experimental psy- the term antaḥkaraṇa. Karaṇa means instrument. chologists. Respiration has six measures: (i) inspi- There are ten bāhyakaraṇas (external organs/in- struments: the five sense-capacities and the five ration (inhalation) time (I); (ii) expiration (exhala- action-capacities), and three antaḥkaraṇas (in- tion) time (E); (iii) rate (the number of complete ternal organs: intellect, egoity, mind). In Yoga, respiratory cycles in a minute; one complete cycle ‘intellect, egoity and mind are brought together is given by: I + E = C); (iv) depth; (v) I/E ratio; into a single all-pervasive cognitive faculty called and (vi) I/C. In normal respiration, E is somewhat awareness (citta).’ ‘The reduction of the functions of buddhi, ahaṁkāra, and manas to ekatva, or one- bigger than I. If a person inhales through, say, 1.5 ness, appears to correlate with Yoga’s emphasis seconds and exhales through 2.5 seconds, then C on the notion of citta.’ See Gerald J Larson and will be 4 seconds and the respiratory rate 15 cycles Ram Shankar Bhattacharya, Encyclopedia of Indi- per minute. (This however, is not literally true, be- an Philosophies (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987), 27, 146. In Vedanta, however, citta is considered cause every respiratory cycle involves short pauses the fourth mode of antaḥkaraṇa, responsible for after inhalation and exhalation.) Of these six meas- memory. Some commentators consider it a part ures, the I/C ratio (known as the I fraction) is ‘a of buddhi. See Swami Nikhilananda, Vedantasara simpler and more intelligible measure’. However, of Sadananda (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1968), the I/E ratio ‘is low in attentive mental work … and 48–50. 4. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, 9 vols. the greater the reported feeling of “tense” attention, (Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1–8, 1989; 9, 1997), the lower the ratio’.16 In contrast, deeper and longer 1.94, 175. inspiration results in higher I/E ratio. This is char- 5. See James Houghton Woods, The Yoga System of acteristic of relaxed attention, a necessary prelude Patanjali (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998), 3; and Ref. 1. to contemplation. In fact, deep inspiration is used 6. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Phi- as a technique for inducing relaxation.17 losophy (New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988), Lastly, how far and to what extent is the practice 1.268. 144 PB January 2007 154 The Contemplative Mind 7. Complete Works, 1.510, 517. 8. I have used the term liberation not in the sense of A patient M. came to me for his cockroach phobia. moksha, but in the sense of getting rid of a pre- He carefully looked around my office to make sure existing (wrong) idea. In psychotherapy, I have there were no cockroaches and only then took a seen that when a client is given advice, say about a seat. I noticed that it was difficult for him even to cognitive modification, he has understood not the meaning but only the words spoken, even though speak about his phobia. Gradually, after some days he has apparently listened attentively to the plan of discussion, he was at last able to speak freely and says that he has understood it. The client could about cockroaches, and then to look at a cockroach. have memorized the total conversation, but that is But when I told him to bring some cockroaches in a all that he has achieved. It does not affect the ‘com- closed glass jar, he became very agitated. By this time plex’ for which he has come to therapy. After a few more sessions, and much ‘homework’, the client he was able to imagine cockroaches moving about becomes convinced that some of his ideas are not as well as their morphic features. After a good bit of logical, or are not feasible. Even then he is unable time he was actually able to bring some cockroaches to shake off these ideas. This is realization, but is in a small glass jar to my office. Holding the jar still not liberation. A deeper realization is neces- sary for liberation. The boxed illustration on the triumphantly, he announced, ‘Look, I have conquered right will make the point clear. my cockroach fear. I have now realized that these 9. A History of Indian Philosophy, 1.84, 104–105. are normal helpless insects …’ After a few days of jar- 10. Wilhem Max Wundt (1832-1920) ‘is considered by holding I told him to open his shirt-buttons and place many to be the father of experimental psychology. the jar on his chest. But M. was unable to do that! He … [He] held a chair in philosophy at the University of Leipzig, where he established the first labora- had realized that cockroaches are not dangerous, but tory for psychological studies. He believed that he was yet to be liberated from his phobia. the missing component in deterministic accounts of behaviour was the human capacity for apper- in their natures. These traits include: (i) The stu- ception–a term traceable to Gottfried Leibniz and dent’s confirmed ability to distinguish and dis- Immanuel Kant—which described the synthetic, criminate between what is ‘real’ and what is ‘illuso- creative response of the human mind to the envi- ry’ (nityānitya-vastu-viveka), and (ii) disinterest in ronment. The mind, Wundt argued, could produce the enjoyment of pleasures of body and mind that responses that were not a direct or predictable re- are available here in this world or later in heaven sult of external stimuli.’ Dictionary of the Social Sci- (ihāmutra-phalabhoga-virāga). ences, ed. Craig Calhoun (Oxford, 2002), 517. 13. Personality in psychology is a complicated sub- 11. ‘Discriminative Learning and Attention’ is an im- ject. There are many theories of personality. Some portant component of experimental psychology. describe it as a cluster of ‘traits’, some as multiple Almost every book on experimental psychology ‘types’. A readable book is Calvin S Hall, Gardner discusses this topic. M R D’Amato’s Methodology, Lindzey, and John B Campbell, Theories of Person- Psychophysics and Learning (New Delhi: Tata Mc- ality (John Wiley, 1998). Graw Hill, 1999) is a good study for students. R S 14. Theories of Personality, 91–2. Woodworth and H Schlosberg’s Experimental Psy- 15. Any one can read with profit about aṣṭāṅga sādhanā, chology (New York: Holt, 1954) is a classic in the the eight limbs of practice, in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. field. Please begin at sutra 28 of the second chapter and 12. In sadhana also, the guru judges the disciple’s per- proceed. Maharshi’s breath-training lessons start sonality (bhūmi, yogyatā, and samskara) before at sutra 2.49. initiation. A particular disciple may not be capa- 16. R S Woodworth, Experimental Psychology (Colum- ble of a specific sadhana chosen randomly, arbi- bia, 1938), 262–3. trarily, or whimsically. There is an interesting dis- 17. Pranayama involves controlled breathing to in- cussion on the qualifications required for study duce a contemplative frame of mind. The sandhyā- of the Brahma Sutra in Acharya Shankara’s com- vandanā kriyā (the daily ritual meditation pre- mentary on the text. This treatise can be profit- scribed by the Vedas) includes a pranayama where- ably studied only by students who already have in I and E are made equal. This is known as vaidika certain personality traits well developed and fixed prāṇāyāma. 155 PB January 2007 145 The Scientific Viewpoint The Neurophysiological and Psychoneural Aspects of Meditative Practices Dr S Sulekha, Dr P N Ravindra, Dr T R Raju, and Dr Bindu Kutty S ince the dawn of the human intellect, ques- sic approach in understanding brain responses to tions have been raised about the possible meditative practice rests on the fact that ‘different means to attain the highest states of human conscious states and experiences are accompanied consciousness. Yoga is an ancient Indian science by activity of specific regions of the brain’. Medi- and a way of life that has been practised over thou- tation practice induces distinct states and traits sands of years to achieve functional harmony be- of consciousness. State refers to the conscious ex- tween body and mind. It is a way to self-perfection periences during meditation, whereas the term and unveiling of the human potential. trait implies the persistent mental disposition of Various meditation techniques are now popu- the meditator irrespective of whether or not he or lar as ideal methods of controlling the mind and she is actively involved in meditation at a given thereby attaining psychophysical harmony. Medi- time.2 Growing evidence suggests that the regular tation is a state of mental absorption, which can practice of meditation results in long-lasting trait be attained either by concentration or by mindful- changes: deepened sense of relaxation, increased ness. Most meditative techniques fall under these sense of comfort, heightened awareness of one- two broad categories. Mindfulness practices like self and the surroundings, and a sense of universal Zen and Vipassana meditation allow the mind to being. be passively aware—without judgment or analy- sis—of thoughts crossing it, like a witness or an ob- Meditation and Brain Electrical Activity server. Concentrative meditation techniques (like One of the early methods used to understand brain yogic meditation and Transcendental Meditation changes during and after meditation is by record- or TM) involve focusing on a specific image, on ing the electrical activity of the brain by means of the breath, or on a repeated sound. In kundalini electroencephalograms (EEG). Electrical waves in meditation, practitioners experience the awakened the brain have different frequencies (termed alpha, kundalini energy by concentrating the mind on beta, theta, and the like) which are specific to dif- the bodily chakras along with the repetition of a ferent mental states. EEG parameters like synchro- sacred mystical mantra. Meditation could be of ny, frequency spectrum, amplitude, and coherence great value through its capacity to awaken altered reflect important aspects of cortical information states of consciousness that may profoundly reori- processing. ent individual identity, emotional attitude, sense of During meditation, alpha-wave amplitude is well-being, and purpose in life.1 known to increase, and this can persist as a trait. Tremendous changes are observed in the hu- Greater alpha activity has been found to corre- man brain following the use of meditative tech- late with lower levels of anxiety, a feeling of calm, niques or yoga practices. With the advancement in and a positive affect. This increase in alpha power both conceptual and methodological approaches, has also been recorded in patients suffering from we are in a better position to understand the neu- epilepsy who practised meditation as one of their rophysiological correlates of meditation. The ba- therapeutic interventions. Some of the concentra- 146 PB January 2007 156 The Neurophysiological and Psychoneural Aspects of Meditative Practices tive meditative practices have been shown Gamma: 30–50 Hz to increase theta activity in the forebrain Active Thought (the front portion of the brain). Individ- Beta: 13–30 Hz uals having high theta activity have been Alert, Working shown to be less anxious. Some studies showed a correlation between increased Alpha: 8–12 Hz theta activity and proficiency in medi- Relaxed, Reflective, tative techniques. Yogic practitioners Meditative showed increased alpha-theta coherence Theta: 4–7 Hz between both intra- and inter-hemispheri- Drowsy, Meditative cal recording sites. This coherence of alpha- theta power was observed both as a state Delta: < 4 Hz and as a trait. Sleepy, Dreaming It is evident that meditative states can influence EEG measures, but how exactly Various types of EEG brain-waves and their behavioural correlates. they affect cognitive performance and alter the central nervous system to induce spe- cific traits is not yet clear. A growing body of research, however, supports the notion that yogic practices reduce stress-induced deleterious effects on both physiologi- cal and psychological functioning. Regu- lar meditative practices can bring about functional plasticity in the central nervous system resulting in positive clinical relief from anxiety, pain, depression, and stress- related disorders. A pioneering study car- ried out in our laboratory at the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurolog- ical Sciences (NIMHANS) involving vari- ous meditation practices—Transcendental Meditation (TM), Brahmakumari’s Raja The conventional 10-20 system of recording EEG, Jasper, 1958 Yoga, Kundalini Yoga, Pranava Mantra Meditation, Siddha Samadhi Yoga, and Benedictine Christian Other Electrical and Imaging Studies Contemplation—showed that meditation induc- In addition to EEG studies, other parameters such es electrical synchrony between the two lobes of as evoked potentials and event-related potentials the brain and improves the bodily response to (ERP, as p300) have been utilized to elucidate the stressful situations as measured through such au- efficiency of the brain in processing information tonomic parameters as heart rate, blood pressure, during meditation. Meditation practices are known respiratory rate, and galvanic skin-resistance. The to reduce the latency and amplitude of the visual changes were not uniform across various groups of evoked potentials, indicating enhanced perceptual meditators, but differed according to the nature acuity. of the individual and the environment in which Recent advancement in brain mapping tech- they practised.3 niques (PET, MRI, fMRI, and SPECT) provides in- 157 PB January 2007 147 Prabuddha Bharata in the physical structure of the brain and the cor- relates of cognitive functioning at the neuronal network level. These neuroimaging studies have demonstrated the activation of the frontal and pre- frontal areas of the brain during meditative practice. Eyes open Enhanced cerebral blood flow in the inferior and orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and thalamus has been identified as a measure of focused concentration, and decreased blood flow in areas like the left superior parietal lobe and left Eyes closed dorsolateral prefrontal cortex as a measure of the altered sense of space experienced during medita- tion.4 Overall, it appears that meditation practices activate the neural structures involved in attention and concentration. Meditation Meditation and States of Consciousness EEG of a senior meditator showing high amplitude alpha pre- dominance (relaxed state) in all three stages (eyes open, eyes Various states of consciousness—waking ( jagrat), closed, and during meditation). In non-meditators alpha pre- sleep (svapna), deep sleep (sushupti), and transcend- dominance is seen only during the eyes-closed relaxed state. ence of empirical consciousness (turiya) have been This demonstrates that meditators maintain the relaxed state described in ancient Indian texts. Most empirical irrespective of their behavioural situation. studies have been confined to studying the effects sight in understanding changes in brain function- of meditation practices on the waking state. There ing associated with meditation. Such techniques are very few studies on the other stages. The De- have revealed the complex sensory representation partment of Neurophysiology, NIMHANS, is one Meditators, compared to nonmeditators, have been to repeated noises. Zen monks, however, whose prac- found to be significantly less anxious, report fewer tice involves open receptivity to all stimuli, showed psychosomatic disorders, more positive moods, and continued EEG responsiveness to a repeated sound, are less neurotic on Eysenck’s scale. Meditators also rather than habituating to it as nonmeditators would. show an increased independence of situational cues, —Paths Beyond Ego (1993), 64. that is, [they have an] internal locus of control; are more spontaneous, have greater capacity for intimate Meditation is difficult to evaluate physiologically, contact, are more accepting of self, and have higher much more so than you might suppose. … Several self-regard; are better at empathizing with another artefacts are implicit in studying meditation in a labo- person; and show less fear of death. ratory setting. Indeed, anyone who consents to be a —Theories of Personality (1978), 375. subject for an experiment changes even before the electrodes, tubes, or other connections are attached. Yogis and Zen practitioners may respond differ- … Not surprisingly, when Pekala recently reviewed the ently to sensory stimulation, in ways consistent with phenomenology of meditation he found that none of their respective methods and goals of practice. Yogis, the twenty-eight studies was adequate methodologi- whose practice involves focus and withdrawal of at- cally. None fulfilled the key criteria of reliability, validity, tention from the senses, showed little EEG response and comprehensiveness.—Zen and the Brain (1999), 80. 148 PB January 2007 158 The Neurophysiological and Psychoneural Aspects of Meditative Practices of those few groups trying to understand the brain tokines and interleukins, which play an important mechanism of meditation and its effect on sleep role in the body’s defence mechanism, are known patterns. Polysomnographic (sleep recording) stud- to improve following meditation. Thus proficient ies carried out in our laboratory have shown distinct practice of meditation increases immunity and can changes in sleep structure in senior practitioners be an important aid in lifestyle management in ter- of yoga and meditation. Intense practice of yoga minally ill cancer patients.8 helps retain slow-wave sleep (deep sleep) while en- In conclusion, yoga practices, in general, bring hancing REM (dream) sleep. Slow-wave sleep un- about overall physiological and biochemical chang- dergoes an age related decline, and yoga practices es leading to enhanced physical health and men- help retain a younger biological age as far as sleep tal performance, delayed aging process, and an en- is concerned.5 REM sleep has been correlated with hanced feeling of well-being. Nevertheless, such learning, memory, and other cognitive functions. states of well-being and subjective ecstatic experi- Our study thus reflects the possibility of enhancing ences need not be associated with any of these ob- REM sleep states and thereby enhancing cognitive jective measurements and can be viewed as purely abilities even in middle age and thereafter. An ear- psychological processes. P lier study compared the sleep in TM practitioners with controls and reported higher levels of alpha ac- References tivity in meditators during deep-sleep stages. Long 1. Greg Bogart, ‘The Use of Meditation in Psycho- term TM practitioners who reported maintaining therapy: A Review of the Literature’, The American Journal of Psychotherapy, 45/3 (1991), 383–412. witnessing awareness throughout their sleep cycles 2. B Rael and John Polich, ‘Meditation States and exhibited high theta and low alpha activity during Traits: EEG, ERP, and Neuroimaging’, Psychological deep sleep states when compared to controls. These Bulletin, 132/2 (2006), 180–211. findings suggest the possible existence of transcen- 3. Kanchan B Ramachandra, ‘Neurophysiological Investigations on Meditations’, unpublished thesis, dental consciousness during waking, dreaming, and Bangalore University, 1985. deep sleep.6 4. A Newberg, et al., ‘The Measurement of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow during the Complex Cog- Meditation and Biochemical Changes nitive Task of Meditation: A Preliminary SPECT Meditation practices are accompanied by vari- Study’, Psychiatry Research, 106/2 (2001), 113–122. 5. S Sulekha, et al., ‘Evaluation of Sleep Architecture ous biochemical changes too. These biochemical in Practitioners of Sudarshan Kriya-yoga and Vi- changes are specific to the mental or behavioural passana Meditation’, Sleep and Biological Rhythms, states and traits of the person concerned. Long- 4/3 (2006), 207–14. term meditation has been shown to be associated 6. L Mason, et al., 1997, ‘Electrophysiological Cor- relates of Higher States of Consciousness during with reduced blood lactate levels (which facilitates Sleep in Long-term Practitioners of the Transcen- better oxygen delivery to the tissues), decrease in dental Meditation Program’, Sleep, 20/2 (1997), cortisol levels (which suggests lessened activity of 102–110. the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, and there- 7. M M Delmonte, ‘Biochemical Indices associated with Meditation Practice: A Literature Review’, fore a reduction in stress), decreased cholesterol Neuroscience and Behavioural Reviews, 9/44 (1985), levels, and increase in High-density Lipoproteins 557–561. (HDL, which protects against heart disease).7 Medi- 8. G A Tooley, et al., ‘Acute Increases in Night-time tation is also known to improve general physio- Plasma Melatonin Levels following a Period of logical function, sleep, and biological rhythms by Meditation’, Biological Psychology, 53/1 (2000), 69– 78; and E E Solberg, et al., ‘Meditation: A Modu- increasing dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), me- lator of the Immune Response to Physical Stress? latonin, prolactin, and growth hormone levels in A Brief Report’, British Journal of Sports Medicine, blood. Immunological parameters like levels of cy- 29/4 (1995), 255–257. 159 PB January 2007 149 The Scientific Viewpoint The Contemplative Life and Psychopathology Dr Alan Roland Historical Background T he most important early work on this theme regarded Sanskrit scholar who became a psycho- was by an American psychologist: William analyst. Masson, endowed with a greater intellec- James’s The Varieties of Religious Experience tual armamentarium than most analysts, found a (1902).1 James had first met Swami Vivekananda multiplicity of psychopathology in Ramakrishna probably in 1894 in Cambridge, Massachussets, and other spiritual figures.5 This Freudian view was and in 1896 spent considerable time with him in so pervasive that Marion Milner, an English psy- Cambridge and Boston. In the psychoanalytic field, choanalyst, delayed publishing her paper on medi- as distinguished from psychology, the subject of tation for fourteen years.6 Nina Coltart, another spiritual experiences and psychopathology started English psychoanalyst who was deeply involved in in an important dialogue between Sigmund Freud Vipassana Buddhist meditation for a number of and Romain Rolland, the French mystic and hu- years, published two papers on meditation and psy- manist, who wrote a biography of Ramakrishna choanalysis, but refused to talk about the subject (published 1928).2 Both were great admirers of each before a psychoanalytic audience.7 Wilfred Bion, a other, and both decried the inhumanity of World third English analyst, grew up in India, and formu- War I where millions were killed and wounded. lated the spiritual as ‘O’, but its deeper connection After Freud published The Future of an Illusion to Vedanta philosophy is not readily evident.8 Even (1927),3 Rolland wrote to him that he agreed in by 1994, when a break-through meeting on ‘The the main with Freud’s analysis that religion and Suffering Self: A Dialogue Between Psychoanalysts God for most people usually serve the purpose and Buddhists’ was held before a large audience in of protection against the vicissitudes of life, and New York City, some major Freudian psychoana- particularly against the vulnerability of childhood lysts personally involved in meditation were highly anxieties. Rolland, however, then asserted that the reluctant to participate for fear of their professional real essence of religion was spiritual experience, or reputation. the ‘oceanic feeling’, and asked Freud to comment However, the psychoanalytic field has never on this. Freud, in Civilization and its Discontents been monolithic. Jung and his followers have al- (1930),4 responded that he, himself, had never had ways been interested in spiritual exploration to one such experiences but speculated that they might degree or another. Then, in the late 1940s, through be related to the egoless state of infancy when the training Japanese psychiatrist Akihisa Kondo, who child is merged with the mother. was involved in Zen Buddhist practices, Karen Since that date until very recent years, Freud- Horney and Erich Fromm, two of the most im- ian psychoanalysts with but few exceptions viewed portant neo-Freudian psychoanalysts, became in- spiritual experiences as either regression to the ego- volved in Zen Buddhism with D T Suzuki, a Zen less state of infancy or some kind of psychopathol- teacher at Columbia University.9 To what extent ogy. This pervasive, reductionistic viewpoint was they were involved in the teachings of Zen, and to carried to the extreme by Jeffrey Masson, a well- what extent they became involved in Zen medita- 150 PB January 2007 160 The Contemplative Life and Psychopathology tive practice is unclear. Karen Horney In- stitute psychoanalysts from the 1940s on were also involved with Martin Buber and Hasidism, or Jewish mysticism, while Ha- rold Kelman and David Shainberg of that group explored Eastern thought and prac- tices, the latter with Krishnamurti. While the Freudian field until very Sacred Grove recent years remained on the whole en- sconced in its reductionistic views of spiritual ex- Freud’s assumption that spiritual experiences are periences, Sudhir Kakar, a student of Erik Erikson, related to the undifferentiated mental state of in- challenged this viewpoint in his initial book in a fancy, but gave it a positive spin based on the work chapter on Swami Vivekananda.10 Erikson himself of D W Winnicott. I have discussed this at length was an exception to the Freudian psychoanalytic elsewhere, giving several examples.12 viewpoint in what was on the whole a sympathetic Kakar’s work has been influential on other per- portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. Kakar later went on sons working in this vein, such as Jeffrey Kripal and to write about Gandhi and then Ramakrishna.11 William Parsons.13 Kripal, who has drawn the most Kakar, on one hand, asserted that mystics such as attention with his highly controversial book on Ra- Vivekananda, Gandhi, and Ramakrishna are legiti- makrishna, asserts that Ramakrishna is a legitimate mate spiritual figures whose experiences could not spiritual figure but that his spiritual experiences be reduced to psychopathology or regression to were mainly motivated and coloured by strong la- infantile states of mind, thus critiquing Freudian tent homosexuality. The latent Freudian reduction- psychoanalytic reductionism. In his background istic discourse rears its head once again. description of these spiritual figures, Kakar has The problem with Kakar’s and Kripal’s work, written comprehensively, especially for the Western as well as Masson’s from the past, is that it is ap- reader. On the other hand, whenever Kakar actual- plied psychoanalysis, where texts, rather than actual ly applied psychoanalysis to them, their experiences clinical encounters with people, are mainly used and motivation were seen as psychopathological for analysis. While some excellent insights have and thus fit right into th e reductionistic Freud- emerged from applied psychoanalysis, particularly ian discourse. Moreover, Kakar eventually held to in literature, it is a highly speculative venture at Reflections best, where consistency of analysis does not necessarily add up to validity. Speculative hypotheses easily become certitude, espe- cially in the hands of Kakar, Kripal, and Masson. Unfortunately, these authors have all followed a heritage of reductionistic Freudian thinking in applied psychoanaly- sis that had previously taken place mainly in literary analysis. In the last two decades or so, a newer discourse on the spiritual seeker and the contemplative life has emerged among Freudian-oriented psychoanalysts. In the United States and England, a small but in- 161 PB January 2007 151 Prabuddha Bharata creasing number of psychoanalysts have become in- which comes from the speculation of applied psy- volved in one or another spiritual discipline, mainly choanalysis. Much of it seems highly reductionistic with Buddhist schools such as Zen, Vipassana, or if not downright inaccurate. The only exception I Tibetan, but also with Hindu gurus and even occa- would cite is the rare spiritual seeker who may be sionally a Sufi pir. Moreover, an increasing number genuinely inclined in this direction but is also psy- of patients in psychoanalytic therapy are involved chotic. Here, a psychotic hallucination or delusion in various spiritual practices. Several Freudian psy- may be confused with a spiritual experience. choanalysts have emerged over the last two decades From my observations in psychoanalytic therapy, who have written on this subject from their own I find that the main ways that emotional problems experiences and experiences with patients.14 This manifest themselves in those seriously involved in more experiential and clinical approach is consid- spiritual practices are through their relationships erably different from the older one of applied psy- with others or in feelings about themselves. This choanalysis. In this regard, the atmosphere in the can be in love relationships, at work, and in social Freudian psychoanalytic world has changed con- relationships in general. For those who live in a re- siderably in the United States, especially over the ligious community, it is through their relationships last two decades. with others in the community, including the guru or spiritual leader, that emotional problems mani- The Spiritual Seeker and Psychopathology fest. Emotional problems can also seriously inter- It is assumed that no matter how spiritually ad- fere with a person’s spiritual practices. It is further vanced a person might be, there will be various evident that involvement in the contemplative life physical illnesses that will occur, and eventually, of is on a different continuum than mental health and course, the body dies. In an analogous way, all of us psychopathology, but that the two continua can have come from a particular family, although fam- interact in complex ways. Thus, one may be spiritu- ily relationships and expectations may vary con- ally advanced and mentally healthy, or spiritually siderably across cultures and even within a culture. advanced but have significant emotional conflicts. Not infrequently, there are idiosyncratic, problem- One can also be mentally healthy but not be the atic family relationships that are experienced from least bit interested in a spiritual quest; or one might childhood on and leave an emotional mark, which have significant emotional problems and also not can generate inner emotional conflicts or deficits. be interested in any spiritual search. I should like Some of these conflicts can exist on quite an un- to give some very brief examples of the complex conscious level. Thus, it should not be considered interaction of the two continua. unusual that people, including spiritual aspirants Shakuntala, by her twenties, was deeply in- or advanced practitioners, might have emotion- volved in meditation and other spiritual practices, al conflicts within themselves. People usually live including having some profound spiritual experi- with them, sometimes reasonably well, sometimes ences. As I detailed in her case study, because of her inflicting their emotional problems on others as emotional problems, she was unable to meditate in well as themselves. a regular, disciplined way. In addition, her love af- In my work with patients and others, I have ob- fair was coloured in various ways by unconscious served that the way in which emotional problems problems generated by problematic familial rela- interact with the life of a spiritual seeker is a com- tionships when she was a child, particularly with plex matter. As I mentioned above, writers such as a depressed mother. In her case, psychoanalytic Kakar, Kripal, and Masson have attributed psycho- therapy helped her not only with her relationships, pathology either to actual spiritual experiences or but also to become much more disciplined in her to the motivations of major spiritual figures, all of spiritual practices.15 152 PB January 2007 162 The Contemplative Life and Psychopathology In another case, an American man, George, was were gradually worked out in twice-a-week psycho- a serious Zen meditation practitioner. Although analytic therapy over five years, her relationships married, he lived a very emotionally isolated life. with the other nuns improved dramatically. She On the one hand, his was appointed to a position of considerable author- Zen practice seemed ity and responsibility, and by her report, her con- authentic. On the oth- templative life became strengthened. Her pilgrim- er hand, it was also age trips became increasingly well attended. clear that he was un- A more unfortunate example is that of a woman, consciously using it to Jennifer, who gave up a good academic career to maintain his isolation. become a full-time member of an Indian ashrama A long-term psychoa- in the United States. Apparently, the meditation nalysis enabled him to practice given to her by her guru stirred up a latent work through difficult psychotic core. She began having dreams and ex- Soloing issues with a psychotic periencing voices of her guru that directed her to mother and rigid father so that he became far more do things that were diametrically opposite to all socially and emotionally related. His meditative the rules of the ashrama. She was eventually asked practice continued and deepened as it was not be- to leave the ashrama and seek psychiatric help, but ing unconsciously used for defensive purposes any by that time, the hallucinations and delusions of more. the psychosis were so florid that she avoided all Still another example is an American Catholic assistance. nun, Margaret, whose order is very advanced in its In another complex interaction of the contem- thinking in referring some of its members for psy- plative life and psychopathology, Margaret, an Eng- choanalytic therapy. Margaret is a highly intelligent lish woman from a conventional Protestant fam- and competent person who seemed genuinely in- ily, was drawn to an Indian guru well known for volved in the contemplative life, but her antago- both his spirituality and sexual licentiousness in nistic relationships with the other nuns had so de- his ashrama. Her experience with the guru and in teriorated that she was completely marginalized. It the ashrama helped her considerably in her medita- gradually became evident that while the other nuns tive practices. Simultaneously, she was also subject had significant emotional problems of their own, to sexual abuse by other members of the ashrama, Margaret unconsciously contributed a great deal to which unconsciously repeated earlier childhood the battles and impasse between them. In the therapy, one of the first things that had to be addressed was a biochemical depres- sion, which had previously resulted in a se- rious suicide attempt and had to be treated with suitable medication by a psychiatrist. Her emotional problems related to her be- ing an unwanted, change-of-life baby of a mother who came from an upper class, so- cially prominent family. Her problems were also importantly related to an older sister who treated her quite sadistically, this rela- tionship being unconsciously repeated with some of the nuns. As these emotional issues 163 PB January 2007 153 Prabuddha Bharata sexual abuse. scious processes. It is evident that in the various In the United States, there have been well-docu- cases I have cited above, deep-seated emotional mented instances at Buddhist monasteries and In- problems were resolved only in therapy. And in the dian ashramas of leaders evidencing clear emotional case where psychosis was present, the person had disturbance, ranging from their own alcoholism to be asked to leave the ashrama, as she was becom- and drug abuse to sexually seducing disciples to ing disruptive. Coltart remarks from her observa- absconding with monies of the community. This is tions in England that some of the persons who not to detract from the many other communities are drawn to Vipassana meditation are looking where this has not happened. It may well be that for a solution to their emotional conflicts, which where social mores are looser than in Asian coun- would be better addressed by therapy. She further tries, such as in the United States, this is more like- concludes that a strong self is optimally needed ly to happen. Sexual abuse of parishioners by the for full engagement in meditation. Case material, Catholic clergy has also been much in the news. cited above, confirms that as emotional conflicts In my own clinical experience, I had one such become resolved, the person’s spiritual practices leader, a well-respected American Sufi meditation become stronger. teacher, Robert. Unlike the subjects of the previous Originally, Wilber wrote that those persons cases, he did not inflict any of his own problems who are drawn to spiritual practices but have sig- on others. But he did have to deal with a highly nificant emotional problems should go into psy- problematic marital relationship and then with a chotherapy first, and then when they have a strong- second relationship after his divorce. Unconscious er sense of self, begin their spiritual disciplines.17 issues from his childhood and adolescence played Cooper (1999), Rubin (1996), and Roland (1999) a major role in his problematic love relationships. see the two going more hand in hand.18 Psycho- Yet, the spiritual side of him continued to develop, therapy enables persons to be more involved in especially after a Haj to Mecca. their practices as emotional conflicts become re- solved, while simultaneously, those involved in Spiritual Practices and Emotional Problems spiritual practices are able to withstand better the To what extent do meditation, prayer, or other spir- anxieties that are evoked in psychotherapeutic ex- itual practices help aspirants deal with their emo- plorations. Wilber apparently later agreed with tional problems, whether in a religious community this latter viewpoint. or in everyday life? Some believe An analogy to physical illness is that if aspirants are sufficiently de- again apt. If a spiritual practitioner voted to their spiritual discipline, has an infection or a broken bone, they can somehow overcome or re- he or she will usually want to con- solve any emotional problem. From sult a physician. By the same token, the observations of Coltart, Rubin, if there are considerable emotional and myself, this does not seem to be problems that seem to have a life the case.16 While it is well-founded of their own and that interfere sig- that meditation, prayer, and oth- nificantly with relationships, sense er practices generally produce a of self, and meditative practices, greater calmness and centredness, then one would want to seriously and can foster a greater awareness consider seeing a psychotherapist. of oneself, they cannot resolve in- For many decades, the psychologi- tense emotional conflicts or deficits, cal world and those committed to which are usually rooted in uncon- Jazz Drummer a contemplative life looked askance 154 PB January 2007 164 The Contemplative Life and Psychopathology Zen Temple Garden at one another. But this is beginning to change in To illustrate further the complexity between many parts of the world. At one well-respected the contemplative life and psychoanalytic therapy: Indian ashrama in the United States, the swami two Indian women psychoanalytic therapists were sent an Indian woman renunciate to a psychother- each involved in an extremely painful break-up of apist. By report, her relationships in the ashrama a long-term love relationship. Both found that be- improved, and her spiritual practices also benefited. ing in psychoanalytic therapy did not relieve their As Shakuntala once stated in session, ‘Dr. Roland, anguish. Each, independently, turned to Vipassana meditation is better than psychoanalysis, but best Buddhist meditation and found the practice to be of all is meditation and psychoanalysis.’ most helpful. One of the women continued regu- The relationship between the psychoanalytic larly her practice after she had recovered from the therapist and a patient who is committed to the break-up, the other only intermittently. contemplative life is not always a one-way street. I know of two instances where psychoanalysts, who Summary were seriously involved in their own meditative This paper first gives the historical background practices, worked with patients who were spiritu- where Freudian psychoanalysis has changed from ally more advanced. In one case, the patient was a applied psychoanalysis, which is frequently reduc- Zen master. The analyst, who is involved in one of tionistic, to clinical observations, where both the the other schools of Buddhist meditation, said he psychoanalyst and patient are involved in one or learned a great deal from this patient. another spiritual practice. It then asserts that even 165 PB January 2007 155 Prabuddha Bharata persons quite advanced in the contemplative life 11. Sudhir Kakar, Intimate Relations: Exploring Indian can have significant emotional problems, and gives Sexuality (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1989) six brief case examples. The next topic discussed is and The Analyst and the Mystic: Psychoanalytic Re- flections on Religion and Mysticism (New Delhi: Vi- to what extent meditation or other spiritual prac- king, 1991). tices can cope with deep-seated emotional conflicts, 12. Alan Roland, ‘The Spiritual Self and Psychopathol- to what extent psychoanalytic therapy can be of ogy: Theoretical Reflections and Clinical Obser- assistance, and how the two can fruitfully interact. vations’, Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy (1999), The last section cites examples where psychoana- 16.211–34. lysts learned from a more spiritually advanced pa- 13. Jeffery Kripal, Kali’s Child: The Mystical and the Erotic in the Life and Teachings of Ramakrishna tient, and where Vipassana meditation helped two (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1995); William women psychoanalytic therapists cope with the B Parsons, Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling. break-up of a love affair more than their therapy 14. See: Nina Coltart, op. cit.; Anthony Molino, ed., did. P The Couch and the Tree (New York: North Point Press, 1998); P Cooper, ‘The Disavowal of the References Spirit: Integration and Wholeness in Buddhism 1. William James, The Varieties of Religious Experi- and Psychoanalysis’ in The Couch and the Tree and ence: A Study in Human Nature (New York: Long- ‘Buddhist Meditation and Countertransference: mans Green, 1902). A Case Study’, American Journal of Psychoanalysis 2. William B Parsons, The Enigma of the Oceanic Feel- (1999), 59.71–86; M Eigen, The Psychoanalytic Mys- ing: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysti- tic (Binghamton, NY: ESF, 1998); M Finn, ‘Tran- cism (New York: Oxford, 1999). sitional Space and Tibetan Buddhism: The Object 3. Sigmund Freud, ‘The Future of an Illusion’, The Relations of Meditation’ in Object Relations Theory Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological and Religious Experience, ed. M Finn and J Gartner Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. and ed. James Stra- (New York: Praeger, 1992); Alan Roland, In Search chey et al. (London: Hogarth, 1961), 21.1–56. of Self in India and Japan: Toward a Cross-cultural 4. Sigmund Freud, ‘Civilization and its Discontents’, Psychology (Princeton: Princeton University, 1988), Standard Edition, 21.57–145. Cultural Pluralism and Psychoanalysis: The Asian 5. Jeffery M Masson, ‘The Psychology of the Ascetic’, and North American Experience (New York and Journal of Asian Studies (1976), 35.611–25 and The London: Routledge, 1996), and op. cit. (Ref. 12); J Oceanic Feeling: The Origins of Religious Sentiment Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: Toward an In- in Ancient India (Dordrecht: D Reidel, 1980). 6. Marion Milner, ‘Some Notes on Psychoanalytic tegration (New York: Plenum Press, 1996) and The Ideas about Mysticism’ in The Suppressed Madness Good Life: Psychoanalytic Reflections on Love, Ethics, of Sane Men (London: Tavistock, 1987); written in Creativity, and Spirituality (Albany: State Univer- 1973. sity of New York, 2004); J Safran, ed., Psychoanaly- 7. Nina Coltart, ‘The Practice of Psychoanalysis and sis and Buddhism (Boston: Wisdom, 2003); J Suler, Buddhism’, in Slouching toward Bethlehem (New Contemporary Psychoanalysis and Eastern Thought York and London: Guilford Press, 1992), 164–75 (Albany: State University of New York, 1993). and ‘Buddhism and Psychoanalysis Revisited’ in 15. Alan Roland, In Search of Self in India and Japan, The Baby and the Bathwater (London: H Karnac, 154–74. and New York: International Universities, 1996), 16. Nina Coltart, ‘Buddhism and Psychoanalysis Re- 125–40. visited’; J Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism; 8. Wilfred Bion, Seven Servants (New York: Jason Ar- Alan Roland, In Search of Self in India and Japan onson, 1970). and Cultural Pluralism and Psychoanalysis. 9. E Fromm, D T Suzuki, and R DeMartino, Zen Bud- 17. Ken Wilber, Jack Engler, and Daniel Brown, Trans- dhism and Psychoanalysis (New York: Harper & formations of Consciousness: Conventional and Con- Row, 1960). templative Perspectives on Development (Boston and 10. Sudhir Kakar, The Inner World: A Psychoanalytic London: Shambhala, 1986). Study of Childhood and Society in India (Delhi: Ox- 18. See References 14 (Cooper 1999, Rubin 1996) and ford, 1978). 12 (Roland 1999). 156 PB January 2007 166 REVIEWS For review in P rabuddha Bharata, publishers need to send two copies of their latest publications. The Four Yogas pragmatic discussion of the obstacles that beset the Swami Adiswarananda practitioner in these paths. Although Swami Adiswar ananda has followed Swami Vivekananda (and Pa- SkyLight Paths, Sunset Farm Offices, tanjali), the analyses of these obstacles and the ap- Route 4, PO Box 237, Woodstock, Vermont 05091, USA. Website: www propriate remedies reveal the author’s open-mind- .skylightpaths.com. 2006. viii + 297 pp. edness, originality of thought, and personal experi- $ 29.99. ence. For instance, the author considers dogmatism the strongest obstacle in the path of bhakti yoga. It I t has been an ecstatic experience for me to go through the lucid articulation of yogic spiritu- ality and the judicious analysis of the essentials of ‘leads to narrow-mindedness, sectarianism, and big- otry. Impelled by dogmatism, a seeker often becomes too concerned with literally adhering to every word practicality that the book under review presents. of the scriptures, instead of taking the essence of the The Upanishadic truths, which Swami Vivekananda sacred texts and proceeding on the path’(138). Simi- vigorously declared to a global audience, are appear- larly, only an adept in meditation can practise karma- ing in more contemporary and responsive modes in yoga, because ‘selfless action is attaching the entire the words of Swami Adiswarananda. The systematic mind to one’s duties, while meditation is detaching exposition of the central issues—the nature and effi- the same mind from the results of duty’ (72). cacy of different paths in leading to the goal of Self- The last section is unique in its exploration of the realization, and a series of dispassionate analyses of nature and need of harmony of the yogas. Although allied concepts—give the work the feel of a scientific each yoga, as the author admits, is an independent treatise written in an exceptionally methodical and path to approach the Divine, there are occasions objective manner. when all the four paths overlap and interconnect: ‘The purpose of this guidebook’, says the learned ‘When any one of the four yogas leads the way, the author, ‘is to introduce the reader to each one of other three remain in the background … to support these paths [of yoga] and to its corresponding mes- the leader’ (264). Moreover, ‘practice of a harmoni- sage, philosophy, psychology and practices, and also ous combination of the four yogas is important be- to the obstacles that may stand in the way’ (1). But cause of the pitfalls and dangers on the way’ (264). this is more than just a guidebook. In addition to Swami Vivekananda once compared the harmony of the technical details involved therein, it contains an the yogas to the combined utility of the two wings exhaustive discussion of the psycho-philosophical and tail in the flight of a bird. The Sankhya theory reasons why a particular path or even a combination of the varied, yet integral, presence of the three gu- of different paths is worth following. nas—sattva, rajas and tamas—in every human being The purported objective of the different yogic also supports the case for harmony. paths is one. But the multiplicity of paths presup- Every creation reflects some of the characteris- poses a variety of human dispositions. ‘Each seeker tics and vision of its creator. Likewise, the spiritu- is called upon to decide which yoga best corresponds ally inspiring qualities of the book under review, as to his or her natural disposition’ (5). Interspersing his a whole, indicate that blend of philosophically-en- narrative with citations from the wonderful works lightened mind and religiously-committed soul that of Swami Vivekananda and Swami Nikhilananda, the author possesses. Many of the thoughts and ana- the author elucidates the concepts and practices of lytical judgements in the book could only have been the four yogic paths—karma yoga, bhakti yoga, raja expressed by a sadhaka and scholar of high level. De- yoga, and jnana yoga—in four erudite sections. spite the profundity of thought and the many mys- The last chapter of each of these sections has a tico-philosophical issues involved therein, the text 167 PB January 2007 157 Prabuddha Bharata is marked by a rare clarity, simplicity, and lucidity in book and enlivens every page. The astounding impli- its language and style. The book is, without doubt, cations of Sri Ramakrishna’s direct experience of the superbly designed to fulfill its objective. truth that underlies all faiths has, as the swami says, Dr Priyavrat Shukla ‘opened a new chapter in the book of religion’. The Reader, Department of Philosophy culmination of our search for spiritual values lies in Rani Durgawati University, Jabalpur opening our hearts to the pages of this book. In Search of Spiritual Values is, thus, an illumi- In Search Of Spiritual Values nating map of the spiritual life that embraces the Swami Prabhananda totality of spiritual consciousness transcending all specificities in its sweep and range. That makes for Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture, Gol Park, Kolkata 700 029. the immediacy and relevance of this elegantly pro- E-mail:
[email protected]. 2004. 136 pp. duced book. Rs 50. Dr M Sivaramkrishna Former Head, Department of English S wami Prabhananda needs no in- troduction. His painstakingly meticulous and thoroughly researched books on Sri Osmania University, Hyderabad Insights into the Bhagavad Ramakrishna and Sri Sarada Devi have added several Gita new dimensions to the fascinating study of their ep- Vimala Thakar och-making lives. These books highlight areas which Motilal Banarsidass, 41 U A Bungalow enrich, in remarkable ways, our scholarly as well as Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007. devotional sensibilities. E-mail:
[email protected]. 2005. 374 pp. Here is another aspect of the swami’s versatility. Rs 495. In the short span of a hundred and thirty-six pages, he explores the various facets of the perennial quest for spiritual values. The lucid preface sets the tone of the book: ‘Even when millions of people live in pov- W e, as Hindus, venerate the Bhagavadgita. It contains the essence of the Vedas and the Up- anishads and is the epitome of the Hindu teachings. erty and squalor, others have attained an unprece- Translated into numerous languages, it continues to dented level of material well-being—yet they are not sustain the spiritual quest of innumerable minds, ir- happy. If people are essentially Spirit, why is there respective of religious affiliation. this disparity? Why are people not equally happy? Insights into the Bhagavad Gita is a collection of Why are people perennially haunted by questions Vimala Thakar’s talks given in the West before an like, what is the meaning of my life?’ inquisitive audience. Anita Sterner, the editor, has The short chapters—both diagnostic and reme- taken great care to preserve the original flavour of dial—are arranged in four sections: ‘In Search of these lectures. The material is organized in twelve Values’, ‘Religion in Practice’, ‘In Quest of God’, and elaborate chapters highlighting the various yogas ‘God in Our Life’. In each of these we find a provoca- that are the essence of the divine dialogue. tive counterposition of perennial truths and present- Vimalaji’s long association with Acharya Vinoba day paradoxes. The pervasive quest for sensate hap- Bhave and J Krishnamurti helped in shaping her un- piness has spawned, in the swami’s words, ‘the new derstanding of the essence of the Gita. More impor- industry of happiography’. This caters to the rajasic tantly, her personal contemplation on the Gita has and tamasic layers of the psyche. turned this volume into a precious gift for spiritu- How do we, then, regain our spiritual heritage ally-inclined readers. and actualize our divine potential? This cannot be In describing Arjuna’s despondency, the author done, says the swami, by ‘causal interest or intellectu- draws our attention to the optimistic philosophy al assent’. It demands strong determination to ‘live in of the Vedas and the views of Acharya Shankara, the Spirit, breathe the Spirit and commune with the Mahatma Gandhi, and Vinoba Bhave. Gandhiji Spirit’. Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Sarada Devi, and Swami had characterized the Gita way as the ‘yoga of non- Vivekananda show the way: ‘They saw the divine attachment’. To Vinoba, Gita is ‘Brahma-Vidya Yoga’: spark in all’ and did not ‘emphasize the dark side’. ‘Realize your own nature, Brahma Vidya, know and The spirit of this gospel of love runs through the realize you are Brahman and then, with the aware- 158 PB January 2007 168 Reviews ness of your own nature, plunge into the battle of add to this basic core. Vimalaji has dwelt on these relationships’ (13). first twelve chapters in this volume, providing In ‘Yoga of Knowledge of Reality’, the author elu- enough scope for a study and learning that can leave cidates Sri Krishna’s teachings on how to be aware of one spiritually transformed. the real while living with the unreal. She draws our If the readers achieve this transformation, Vi- attention to the age-old Socratic teaching, ‘know malaji is sure to consider her purpose fulfilled. There thyself ’, which Browning echoed when he said, ‘The can be no happiness beyond this fulfilment. light of truth is within you.’ Krishna tells Arjuna, Every serious reader will value this book. ‘You are perplexed and embarrassed because you Dr N B Patil have forgotten the nature of reality within you and Honorary Director, Dr P V Kane Institute for around you.’ Here the author cautions us not to con- Postgraduate Studies and Research fuse ‘Sankhya Yoga’ with the Sankhya philosophy. Asiatic Society, Mumbai Sankhya Yoga means the path of knowledge, the path of reason. Again, the yoga that Sri Krishna teaches Dvādaśa Stotram of Śri is not the one associated with the name of Patanjali. Madhvācārya That needs the observance of specific psychophysi- Trans. Kowlagi Seshachar cal disciplines. The Gita is propounding something Ramakrishna Math, Mylapore, Chennai different, though the fundamentals of both paths— 600 004. 2005. E-mail: srkmath@vsnl. satya, ahimsa, and the like—are the same (24). The com. xxii + 88 pp. Rs 20. Gita teaches us how not to lose our inner freedom. It teaches us how to remain ‘whole’ in the midst of various relationships. The beauty of human life lies in the opportunity to relate to many levels and to D vadasa Stotra is the most popular of the San- skrit works authored by Sri Madhvacharya. The revered acharya, the exponent of Dvaita Vedanta, many fields at the same time, much like in an or- has sung the glory of Bhagavan Hari in these twelve chestra (25). hymns, which are characterized by outstanding po- The author refers to the recent scientific writ- etic charm and exquisite devotional sentiment. ings of Fritjof Capra and David Bohm and states that According to Sri Madhva, the purport of all the truth remains the same, whether the Gita talks about Vedas is to proclaim the glories of Bhagavan Vishnu. it or the physicist do (22). Hence, one should meditate on the ever-blissful form About the exalted state of sthitaprajna, Vimala- of the Lord, which frees one from defilement of mind ji says, ‘To be able to relate to the world through and body. The Lord is the sanctuary of his devotees perception and cognition, to relate to it through re- and fulfiller of their aspirations. sponses if and when necessary and to relate to the In these hymns, Sri Madhva invokes and propiti- unmanifest essence through awareness, all this is so ates Hari, singing the glory of his various forms and greatly fulfilling. Such a person feels wholeness. Ful- incarnations. He also extols the highly auspicious and filment enriches the sense of wholeness within you. infinite excellences of the Lord and concludes with a … A yogi is always fulfilled in being alive. The sense fervent prayer to the Lord to make the devotee wor- of being alive, the vibrations of the vitality, of intel- thy of the knowledge of his greatness. ligence within, confers upon him such an ecstasy, Sri Kowlagi Seshachar, a retired Sanskrit profes- that he does not move towards the outer world with sor, has faithfully rendered these beautiful hymns a begging bowl for seeking pleasure’ (59–60). into simple English. A scholarly introduction by Sri There are certain actions which we cannot aban- S S Raghavachar, the original text in Devanagari, don, as their performance is a bounden duty. ‘If you and an English transliteration add to the value of are married and you are raising a family,’ Vimalaji the book. points out, ‘then functioning as a wife, a husband, a Sri Madhvacharya gives his message in the fol- father, a mother, helping the children to grow, is your lowing: ‘With your mind absorbed in all humility spiritual sadhana. Those actions (vihita karma) are at the feet of Hari, always do your duty, worthy of not a bondage; those actions, which are inevitable, your station, uninterruptedly and enjoy its ordained are the means to your liberation’ (182). fruits according to your capacity. … Hari alone is the The core of the Gita’s message is covered in the father, mother, and refuge of the universe.’ first twelve chapters. The remaining chapters only This book is bound to be an effective medium for 169 PB January 2007 159 Prabuddha Bharata the dissemination of Madhvacharya’s message of de- an spiritual tradition has attracted votaries not only votional service. from India, but also from Western countries. These Swami Vireshananda new votaries are not mere academics, they are spir- Ramakrishna Ashrama, Mysore itual adepts too. Their experiences and attainments have found expression in their writings. The book Mahāmudrā and Atiyoga under review falls in this genre. Giuseppe Baroetto The author has received instructions on Maha- D K Printworld, ‘Sri Kunj’, F-52, Bali mudra and Atiyoga from two realized lamas. His Nagar, New Delhi 110 015. 2005. E-mail: knowledge of the Tibetan language is exceptional.
[email protected]. 186 pp. Rs 350. The book is the outcome of study, research, and ex- perience in the relevant texts. V ajrayana, popularly called Tan- ric Buddhism, is the esoteric as- pect of the Buddhist religion. It is generally believed Mahamudra (Great Seal) and Atiyoga (Extreme Union) are two esoteric teachings of Buddhist spir- ituality which, ‘although differentiated by distinct that Vajrayana is a later or degenerate aspect of the historical lineages, meet in the same radical essenti- great Dharma taught by Bhagavan Gautama Bud- ality where human beings, transcending their divid- dha. Some of the modern scholars, including the ing attitudes, find themselves truly free in the single renowned Rahul Sankirtyayan, hold that the degen- reality that has always unified them all’. eration of the great religion into Tantric rituals and As regards the distinct lineages, the teachings of associated practices brought about the decline and Atiyoga come from Tilopa (928–1009 CE), the cele- and ultimate downfall of Buddhism in India. The fol- brated Indian mystic and preceptor of the great mas- lowers of Vajrayana, however, firmly believe that the ter Naropa (956–1040 CE). The teachings of Atiyoga said esoterism is no new development, rather it is in- come from the great Buddhist guru Padmasambhava, grained in and inherited from the parent Mahayana. who is believed to have hailed from the ancient In- They also hold that Vajrayana does not rest simply dian kingdom of Uddiyana, and who introduced the and exclusively on certain rituals and the worship esoteric Tantric teachings into Tibet. He flourished of numerous Tantric Buddhist deities, but actually in the eighth century. teaches spiritual truths and practices of a very high The book comprises lucid and faithful transla- level. One will be convinced of their views if one tions of three texts—Phyag rgya chen po’i man ngag goes deep into the Mahayana canonical texts, such and Do ha mdzod ces bya ba by Tilopa, and Rig pa ngo as Saddharmapundarika Sutra, Guhyasamaja, and sprod gcer mthong rang grol by Padmasambhava. All Manjusrimulakalpa. these Tibetan texts are translations from no-longer- The misconceptions about Vajrayana have some extant Sanskrit works. The author has appended a practical and historical causes. Vajrayana has been roman transliteration of the texts to help the reader prevalent in the Nepalese and Tibetan traditions check the authenticity of the translations. The texts since the twelfth century (though it probably entered have been reviewed critically, and variant readings there several centuries earlier). While the Nepalese in different sources have been indicated. This makes tradition remained content with the ritualistic as- the work academically valuable. However, the im- pect, the Tibetan tradition, besides developing elab- portance of the book does not lie in the text and orate rituals for beginners and the laity, kept alive the translation alone, but more in the commentary based high spiritual aspect. This esoteric spiritual aspect on the oral instructions the author received from was almost unknown to the outside world due to a the lamas Lhündrup Tenzin in Nepal and Rangdröl double inaccessibility—inaccessibility of the land Naljor in Delhi. These instructions have ensured that of Tibet and inaccessibility of the texts, written in the commentary is traditional, authoritative, and classical Tibetan, which enshrined these teachings. illuminating. Till the fifties of the last century, Tibetan studies Scholars and students interested in the esoteric had been limited to matters of academic and linguis- teachings of the ancient Buddhist masters will find tic interest. But after His Holiness the Dalai Lama, the book interesting as well as useful. along with other learned and spiritually adept lamas, Dr Satkari Mukhopadhyaya migrated from Tibet and settled in India, new vistas Former Coordinator, Kalākośa Division of understanding opened up. The reoriented Tibet- Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi 160 PB January 2007 170 Reviews The Rāma Saga There are many events in Valmiki’s epic which Dr Ramanath Tripathi; trans. seem incredible, says the author. These include Si- Prof. Prabhat Kumar Pandeya ta’s origin from the soil, the Ahalya episode, the death of Vali, Rama’s punishing the ocean, the ten Akshaya Prakashan, 208, M G House, 2 heads of Ravana, the characters flying in the sky, Community Centre, Wazirpur Industrial Area, Delhi 110 052. E-mail: harish@ Sita’s test by fire (agni pariksha), her entry into the busyinfotech.com. 2005. xvi + 274 pp. nether world, and the slaying of Shambuka. He has Rs 450. attempted to present these events in a logically con- vincing manner. T he Rāma Saga is the English translation of a Hindi novel, Ramagatha, based on the story of the great Rama, the hero of Valmiki’s celebrated epic Tripathi also lists four chief inspirations that he has derived from the story of Rama and which he has conveyed to the readers: (i) living a life of sacrifice, Ramayana. Rama, as depicted by the author, is very full of love for family, society, nation, and ultimately much a human being and not a god; ‘if pricked he all of humanity; (ii) leading a virtuous and moral will bleed like us’. Following the advice of the Roman life; (iii) feeling a sense of kinship with the afflicted poet and critic Horace in his Ars Poetica about adap- and neglected; and (iv) fighting fearlessly against tation of characters from ancient classics, Tripathi oppressive forces. has depicted Rama much as he has been depicted by Professor Prabhat Kumar Pandeya has done a Valmiki. He has taken few liberties with the essen- commendable job in providing a readable transla- tial character of the ancient protagonist. There are tion. Some typographical points could however be variations, but these are on minor points; and this is made: Rama and Sita are too well known globally to perhaps how it should be. need diacritical marks (certainly not after the first As the author has rightly pointed out in his pref- mention). Also, when diacritical marks have been ace, ‘The saga of Rāma is enthroned in the heart of used throughout the text, why make an exception in Indians. It finds place everywhere from the mansions the case of ī? Seetā, instead of Sītā, is an eyesore. Sev- to huts, the rich and the poor; none is unfamiliar eral Indian words like ālatā and siddhi have been left with it.’ A large number of works in Indian languages untranslated, and Hindi terms like bhaiyā (brother), have been written throughout the centuries with the devara (brother-in-law), and bhābhee (sister-in-law) story of the national hero Rama as their main theme. have been unnecessarily used. A large number of ital- Though a few writers, including the Bengali epic poet icized words on most pages also has a disconcerting Michael Madhusudan Dutt, openly violated the Ho- effect on the reader. ratian directive, most authors have remained faith- In conclusion, we may do well to recall Brahma’s ful to the original narrative. The most celebrated and prophecy about the story of Rama: ‘As long as the influential of these works is the Hindi Ramcharit- earth lasts, and rivers go on flowing / May the story manas by Tulsidas. Tripathi has taken his courage in of Rama spread far and wide.’ both hands to write a new book on Rama, and his is Dr Visvanath Chatterjee a successful venture. Former Professor, Department of English The author is a Ramayana scholar who is well ac- Jadavpur University, Kolkata quainted with the Rama saga in different Indian as well as foreign languages. So his novel has been right- There is A Beautiful You ly described as a ‘thesis-novel’ or ‘dissertation-novel’. Within You But in no way does this affect the fictional excellence N D Khetarpal of the work, which has a realistic and well-knit plot Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Kulapati and good characterization. Munshi Marg, Mumbai 400 007. E- The story of Rama has not been modernized here mail:
[email protected]. 2004. in any way; nor has any deliberate attempt been xviii + 166 pp. Rs 160. made to discover any modern relevance in the old story. The author has placed Rama in his own time and has looked at him as if he were his contemporary. Folksongs and other devices have been employed to T his book discusses how one can lead a life of happiness and peace in today’s competitive and stressful world. Happiness, to the author, is of two bring out the ‘local colour’. types: superficial and satisfying. Superficial happi- 171 PB January 2007 161 Prabuddha Bharata ness is temporary, based on worldly things, while sat- erotic, often sordid, scarcely defensible psychic aber- isfying happiness is self-elevating and permanent. It ration. In its train come the done-to-death themes of is an inner attitude of looking for good everywhere. mother fixation, adult regression, displacement, and To be happy one has to accept change with grace. what have you! All of them impeccably argued—of Change is inevitable, but most of the time we are course by ignoring alternative, highly sophisticated, afraid of change. We constantly think either of the indigenous frames. On display are the characteristic past or of the future. Thoughts of the past may make Western (specially American) set of psychic compul- us melancholy, while thoughts of the future may cre- sions. Professor Aizaz Ahmed calls them ‘an old set ate fear. Khetarpal suggests that the best way to be of schizophrenias’, an ‘overwhelming fear psychosis happy is to live in the present, liking this moment. He … and the sheer arrogance of power’. discusses in great detail the ways to be happy. Self- In the academic studies on Tantra, if the volume confidence, faith in God, having one goal at a time, is any indication, most of the contributors have exer- imbibing happy behaviour patterns—taking interest cised this power to ‘beat the centre’ of their studies— in others, developing team-spirit, keeping a smile, Kali—only to produce marginal pulp. That Rachel and the like—are all very necessary for a happy life. Fell McDermot—whose earlier volume Singing to the But most of all, one has to find out the secret of inner Goddess: Poems to Kali and Uma from Bengal showed happiness. Love for one’s fellow beings, prayer, and a refreshing (and to me, surprising) sensitivity to its meditation contribute to this inner happiness. subject—should lend herself to be a co-editor here The author also discusses ways to avoid unhappi- reveals the ineradicable compulsions of Western aca- ness, the reasons for which may be either mental or demics. Invariably, scant attention, let alone validity, physical. And finally, he suggests the key to overcom- is granted to the traditions which the studies claim to ing unhappiness: there is something beautiful within examine. Added to this are the organized forums for everybody, and it is everyone’s duty to be aware of diffusing these so-called original studies which can that and bring it out. The simplicity and clarity of hardly be discussed in any comparable way by people Khetarpal’s thought are certainly suggestive of that on the other side. The marketing makes all the dif- inner beauty that shows us the way to happiness. ference. If you do it with all the aggression behind Dr Krishna Verma global distribution, you can say anything you want Former Lecturer, Department of Philosophy and get away with it. Indraprastha College for Women, New Delhi The editors’ claims rest on two sets of essays. Part I focuses on ‘Kali in the Texts and Contexts of South Encountering Kali: In the Asia’. Beginning with David Kinsley’s characteristi- Margins, at The Center, cally balanced essay ‘Kālī’, this part presents ‘Kali the In The West. Terrible and her Tests’ (David Fold), ‘The Domesti- Ed. Rachel Fell McDermott and cation of a Goddess’ (Sanjukta Gupta), ‘Dominating Kali: Hindu Family Values and Tantric Power’ (Usha Jeffrey J Kripal Menon and Robert A Shweder), ‘Kali in a Context of Motilal Banarsidass. 2005. xvii + 320 pp. Terror’ with special focus on Sri Lanka’s Civil War Rs 250. (Patricia Lawrence), and ‘Kali Mayi: Myth and Reali- T he editors say that their book—an anthology of essays—seeks to address some ‘broad cultural issues by focusing on the complexities, promises, ty in a Banaras Ghetto’ (Roxanne Kamayani Gupta). Part II is devoted to ‘Kali in Western Settings, Western Discourses’, and contains six essays. The and problems involved in meeting and interpreting authors explore ‘South Asian and British Construc- a specific Hindu deity, the goddess Kālī, both in her tions’ (Cynthia Ann Holmes), ‘India’s Darkest Heart: indigenous South Asian settings and in her more re- Kali in the Colonial Imagination’ (Hugh B Urban, cent Western reincarnations.’ who seems to have been initiated into if not infected Kripal is an old, somewhat brazen hand at this by Jeffrey Kripal’s quest for sex and secrecy, to judge game of analysing Tantric ethos in general, and Kali by his The Economic Ecstasy), ‘Why the Tantric is a and Sri Ramakrishna in particular. His favourite hob- Hero’ (by—who else—Jeffrey Kripal), ‘Mother in by horse (on which he has spent and continues to ex- Contemporary Trinidad (Keith M McNeal), ‘Mar- pend lots of his, alas, tragically misdirected energy) gins at the Center: Tracing Kali through Time, Space is ‘secret’ in any form. And the secret is invariably and Culture’ (Sarah Caldwell), and ‘Kali’s New Fron- 162 PB January 2007 172 Reviews tiers: a Hindu Goddess on the Internet’ (Rachel F bowed down if not bent by marital woes): ‘Honey, McDermott). I’ve seen it all. Why do you think I never married? Very rich fare indeed; too many things thrown And one more thing I’m no Mother Theresa.’ And in with a nonchalance and abundance difficult to the recipient of this great insight from Ma ‘burst out buckle within the narrow frame of a review. For in- into hysterical laughter’. Naturally, for hysteria is the stance, Hugh Urban’s essay on Kali in the colonial predictable preamble for most seekers in the West to imagination seems to break new ground by claiming think of Kali. No wonder Freud cautioned Western that Mother Kali represents ‘a crystallized fusion of seekers and students of Indic texts and their insights ancient history and contemporary political present: against falling headlong into, in this case, the pit of she lies at the nexus of a complex play of mimesis, im- delusion which, I suppose, Kali Ma specially pre- agining, and counter-imagining between colonizer pares for such seekers. Bluntly, Freud asked: ‘What and colonized in nineteenth and twentieth century do these European would-be mystics know about the India.’ Thus ‘if she could be imagined by her British profundity of the East? They rave on but they know viewers as the darkest, most savage heart of India, nothing. And then they are surprised when they lose she could also be seized upon by her devotees as the their heads and are not infrequently driven mad by most powerful and threatening image of India in re- it—literally driven out of their minds. … The most volt.’ While this is a shrewd juxtaposition, I do not sensible thing to do is to keep on asking questions. see why Urban quotes from Katherine Mayo, Fletch- At the moment you are interested in the Hindu phi- er McMunn, and such other writers to highlight the losophers. They went so far as express their answers facile images of the feminine (that is, ‘effeminate’) in the form of questions. They knew why.’ and the masculine to suggest the colonial imagina- William P Parsons, who cites this in his ground- tion. Not that a scholar does not have the freedom to breaking study The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Re- choose what texts he wants to buttress an argument visioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism (New with. But should he not choose sensitive texts which York: Oxford, 1999, 48–9), identifies the reason be- present a more balanced view? Even when Urban fo- hind aberrant readings of Indic psychological-mysti- cuses on the twentieth century, he cites only Indiana cal frames and suggests: ‘With respect to the utiliza- Jones and the Temple of Dream (which is somewhat tion of psychoanalytic models it is one thing, as has ‘countered’ by passing references to Zimmer, Mircea been attempted in the studies of Meissner, Rubin, Eliade, and Jung.) No wonder Sir John Woodroffe— Engels, Kakar, and Kripal to allow space for patho- whose pioneering studies literally brought Tantra to logical, adaptive, and even transformed elements in centre stage—is hardly taken into account. The rea- mysticism. It is quite another to reduce all mysti- son: ‘his books are difficult waters to chart because cism to pathology. By undercutting the legitimacy of their textual detail, inadequate referencing, and of extraordinary mystical modes of knowing, devalu- total lack of indices. Moreover, his work is marked ing the ethnographic activity and the task of thick by several cultural, moral, and philosophical biases description, classical theorists like [Narsingha] Sil that still color and in many ways restrict academic and Masson find the subjectivity of men like Rama- discourses on the Goddess to this day.’ That is the krishna and the Buddha all too easy to understand crux of the background to this text. If the text does and, once understood, easy to dismiss (op cit., 128). not have a scholarly apparatus such as referencing or The unfortunate thing is: if it is easy to dismiss, has philosophical biases it is not reliable. it is easier to distort. A case in point is Rachel Mc- One cannot object to that. But with the abundant Dermott’s ‘interesting’ piece on ‘Kali on Internet’. availability of all these now, can one not go beyond Kali figures in multiple media and has associations evoking merely impressionistic images of Kali? ‘Im- of ferocity, passion, and danger. She is ‘Kālī the vam- pressionistic’, I say, for want of a better word. Look pire, Kālī the inspiration behind a group of airline at a sample which sounds scholarly and detached, stewardesses who strangle their passengers like the and yet indulges one’s fantasies: Roxanne Kamayani Thugs, and Kālī the patron of lesbian terrorists.’ In Gupta experiences Kali as ‘the perfect opposite, the short, the Internet sites that McDermott presents perfect complement, the perfect white reflection of perceive Kali as an antidote to ‘male violence and Her Royal Blackness, She, My Nemesis, My Mirror, supremacy’. And to top it all is the image of a young My Shadow.’ And what does her Kali Ma say? With woman called Kali holding a skull at her throat! ‘a wicked little smile’ she tells the author (apparently Am I denigrating the impeccable scholarship 173 PB January 2007 163 Prabuddha Bharata and insights in the book? Far from it; and I know dian, no doubt, but he charts his own path into the that every point I raise (if I succeed in raising any, of realm of the infinite. His insightful, direct, and often course) can be controverted. I can only wonder why poetic language lead one to feel that he speaks from such intuitive analysts, at home in their respective more than an intellectual conviction of the spiritual disciplines, approach the field from not too palat- world: he must have been a genuine mystic. Indeed, able points of entry. But this, I suppose, is the current he has said: ‘Every word found in my books is based trend. Tantric studies coming from the West are, by upon objective personal experience.’ Again, he de- and large, seething cauldrons of self-reflexive erotic scribes himself as ‘only a mediator conveying spir- fantasies hoisted upon deities like Kali. After all, itual insights into the eternal home of man’. And he the Freudian libertarian effort has thrown open no- advises seekers: ‘You should not “believe” in theories holds-barred licentious corridors in which aberrant and speculative world views just because some other academics and practitioners can freely roam—with people take such notions for the truth; for never shall insensitivity and impertinence—and find indiscrim- your soul experience lasting peace until you found inately chosen ‘Eastern’ deities and motifs as pegs to yourself again: as the eternal self-expression of what hang their favorite themes on. is absolute Reality.’ Postscript: If I felt a bit disturbed, I took conso- In The Book on Happiness, the author tells us how lation from Sri Ramakrishna. Like Kali speaking to to be happy: ‘All happiness this mortal life affords … Roxanne, I fancied that the Great Master spoke to is joy experienced through creative effort.’ In eight me: ‘Why are you worried, Sivaram! Did I not sing chapters, including ‘Creating Happiness as Moral that song and tell the truth long ago? You seem to Duty’, ‘Love’, ‘Money’, and ‘Optimism’, he offers spe- have forgotten.’ And then I remembered: cific guidance to the reader about how to live one’s Who is there who can understand what Mother life according to spiritual laws and in order to mani- Kali is? /Even the six darshanas are powerless to re- fest happiness. He concludes with this encourage- veal Her. / … / When man aspires to understand Her, ment: ‘Trust … your own good right—indeed, your Ramprasad must smile. / To think of knowing Her, moral duty—to experience lasting happiness and he says, is quite as laughable / As to imagine one can strive, with firm resolve and confident serenity, truly swim across the boundless sea. / But while my mind to create it in your life: so that you, too, may one day has understood, alas! my heart has not; / Though find yourself among this planet’s happy guests.’ but a dwarf, it still would strive to make a captive of The Book on Life Beyond is the product of a more the moon. mature man. Here the inevitability of death, and Dr M Sivaramkrishna the preparation for it, are the main subjects. In five chapters, including ‘The Art of Dying’, ‘The Temple The Book on Happiness and of Eternity and the World of Spirit’, and ‘The Only The Book on Life Beyond Absolute Reality’, he explains, from his unique view- Bô Yin Râ, trans. B A point, the embodied state and the path beyond it. In the course of his pronouncements, he distinguishes Reichenbach between mere physical and genuinely spiritual per- Sterling Publishers, A-59 Okhla Industrial ceptions; clairvoyance falls into the former category. Area, Phase II, New Delhi 110 020. E- He cautions against attempting to contact the dead mail:
[email protected]. 2006. 127 and 160 pp. Rs 90 and 150. through seance; such contact, if genuine, can only be with physical entities, and can be very dangerous. B ô Yin Râ is the spiritual name of Joseph Anton Schneiderfranken, German painter, philosopher, and mystic. He was born in Aschaffenburg, Germany, He concludes: ‘Securely rooted in your present life, you may in confidence look forward to your life “be- yond”—this very day assured of your eternal being in in 1876, and died in Switzerland in 1943. Nearly 200 the Spirit’s everlasting realm of light.’ of his luminous, enigmatic paintings are extant. He Bô Yin Râ is not hampered by the confines of any authored forty books; the two books under review dogma or church. Indeed, though he may have been are part of his 32-work Hortus Conclusis (The Enclosed born in a church (his parents were devout Roman Garden) series, and were completed in 1920 and 1929 Catholics), he surely did not die in one; he encour- respectively. ages us to do the same. Bô Yin Râ’s thought is influenced by things In- PB 164 PB January 2007 174 Reports News from Branch Centres A statue of Swami Vivekananda was installed on Swami Akhandananda Sarani. the bank of Ulsoor Lake, Bangalore, through the The Vedanta Society, Santa Barbara, a sub-cen- initiative of Ramakrishna Math, Ulsoor, and was tre of the Vedanta Society of Southern California, unveiled by Sri Kumaraswamy, Chief Minister of Hollywood, celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of Karnataka, on 4 November 2006. The new Multi-specialty Day Clinic and Diag- nostic Centre at Ramakrishna Mission, Jammu, was dedicated by Srimat Swami Atmasthanandaji Maharaj, Vice President, Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission, on 4 November, and inau- gurated by Janab Ghulam Nabi Azad, Chief Min- ister of Jammu and Kashmir, on 5 November 2006. An X-ray unit, two dental chairs, a pathological laboratory, an eye-clinic, and chambers for medi- cal consultation in general medicine, orthopaedics, Vedanta Temple, Santa Barbara and pediatrics have been completed thus far. Swa- its beautiful and highly acclaimed temple on 30 mi Atmasthanandaji, the Chief Minister, Lt Gen. September 2006, at its annual observance of Dur (Rtd) S K Sinha, Governor, Jammu and Kashmir, ga Puja. Built in 1956, the Santa Barbara Vedanta and other dignitaries spoke at the meetings organ- temple was designed by the renowned architect ized on the occasion. Lutah Maria Riggs. The temple has won a number The new high school building at Ramakrishna of prestigious architectural awards and continues Math and Ramakrishna Mission, Bhubaneswar, to be sought out by both architects and students was inaugurated by Srimat Swami Gahananandaji of architecture, who visit the temple during archi- Maharaj, President, Ramakrishna Math and Rama- tectural tours. Ms Riggs considered the Santa Bar- krishna Mission, on 5 November 2006. bara Vedanta temple her best work and her most The self-employment project at Ramakrishna beautiful building. While occasionally mistaken Math, Cooch Behar, which will provide training in for a Buddhist temple, the temple’s design is, in fact, food processing, mushroom production, and bee- modelled after South Indian temple architecture. keeping, was inaugurated on 19 November 2006. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Belgaum, The foundation stone was laid for Ramakrishna awarded more than 270 scholarships, totalling Mission Vivekananda University’s faculty for In- more than Rs 5 lakh, to poor but meritorious stu- tegrated Rural Development and Management at dents in Karnataka. Swami Swahanandaji, Head, Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Narendrapur, Vedanta Society of Southern California, Hol- by Swami Smarananandaji, General Secretary, Ra- lywood, presided over distribution of the scholar- makrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission, on 29 ships at a function on 22 November 2006. November, 2006. The road from Berhampore to Ramakrishna Relief Mission Ashrama, Sargachhi, has been re-named Flood Relief : In the wake of floods in Andhra PB January 2007 165 176 Prabuddha Bharata Distress Relief : The following centres of Rama- krishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission distributed various items to poor and needy persons of nearby areas: Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Barana- gar (827 saris, 419 dhotis, 50 chaddars, 175 lungis, 50 shirts, 50 pants, 50 frocks, 150 bags); Ramakrishna Math, Cooch Behar (54 saris and 19 dhotis). Free Eye Camps Swami Swahanandaji hands over a scholarship, Belgaum Free eye camps are regularly conducted by many Pradesh last month, Ramakrishna Mission, Vi- centres of the Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna jayawada, distributed 1,000 kg rice, 7,000 kg dal, Mission. A cumulative report is given in the table 1,750 kg tamarind, 645 kg pickles, 350 kg red chillies, below, covering the period from 1 December 2005 875 kg chilli powder, 175 kg turmeric, 875 kg season- to 30 November 2006. A total of 31,485 patients ing items, 1,750 kg salt, 3,500 litres edible oil, 1,442 were treated, and 5,631 free cataract surgeries were kg jaggery, 1,440 packets of biscuits, 500 mats, 500 performed. P blankets, 500 saris, 500 lungis, 1,000 towels, and 500 buckets to 3,600 flood-affected families of 33 Patients Surgeries Centre villages in Krishna and Guntur districts. Treated Performed Winter Relief : 8,826 blankets were distributed Asansol 199 49 to poor people affected by the severity of winter Baranagar 67 42 by the following centres of the Ramakrishna Math Belgaum 530 174 and Ramakrishna Mission: Ramakrishna Mis- Chandigarh 245 40 sion, Along, 700; Ramakrishna Mission Ashra- Chennai 1,036 65 ma, Baranagar, 4,291; Ramakrishna Mission Garbeta 668 72 Ashrama, Belgaum, 200; Ramakrishna Mission Ichapur 13 13 Ashrama, Chapra, 285; Ramakrishna Mission Jamshedpur 170 54 Vidyapith, Deoghar, 1,000; Ramakrishna Mis- Limbdi 711 126 sion Ashrama, Katihar, 350; Ramakrishna Math, Lucknow 13,171 1,544 Puri, 1,000; Ramakrishna Mission Saradapitha, Mayavati 152 42 Belur, 1,000. Medinipur 354 40 Eye patients and hospital staff, Advaita Ashrama, Mayavati Mumbai 1,402 470 Muzaffarpur 1,533 234 Narainpur 332 134 Patna 1,460 54 Porbandar 521 97 Rajahmundry 60 13 Rajkot 665 66 Sargachhi 624 101 Sikra Kulingram 221 63 Silchar 1,509 232 Ulsoor 5,602 1,928 Visakhapatnam 270 75 Total 31,515 5,728 166 PB January 2007